Siliceous ooze

Siliceous ooze is a type of biogenic

pelagic sediment located on the deep
ocean floor. Siliceous oozes are the least
common of the deep sea sediments, and
make up approximately 15% of the ocean
floor.[1] Oozes are defined as sediments
which contain at least 30% skeletal
remains of pelagic microorganisms.[2]
Siliceous oozes are largely composed of
the silica based skeletons of microscopic
marine organisms such as diatoms and
radiolarians. Other components of
siliceous oozes near continental margins
may include terrestrially derived silica
particles and sponge spicules. Siliceous
oozes are composed of skeletons made
from opal silica SiO2·nH2O, as opposed to
calcareous oozes, which are made from
skeletons of calcium carbonate
(CaCO3·nH2O) organisms (i.e.
coccolithophores). Silica (Si) is a
bioessential element and is efficiently
recycled in the marine environment
through the silica cycle.[3] Distance from
land masses, water depth and ocean
fertility are all factors that affect the opal
silica content in seawater and the
presence of siliceous oozes.

A centric diatom, magnified x150

A radiolarian, 160x magnified

Formation

Biological uptake of marine silica

Siliceous marine organisms, such as

diatoms and radiolarians, use silica to
form skeletons through a process known
as biomineralization. Diatoms and
radiolarians have evolved to uptake silica
in the form of silicic acid, Si(OH)4. Once an
organism has sequestered Si(OH)4
molecules in its cytoplasm, the molecules
are transported to silica deposition
vesicles where they are transformed into
opal silica (B-SiO2). Diatoms and
radiolarians have specialized proteins
called silicon transporters that prevent
mineralization during the sequestration
and transportation of silicic acid within the
organism.[4]

The chemical formula for biological uptake

of silicic acid is:
Opal silica saturation state

The opal silica saturation state increases

with depth in the ocean due to dissolution
of sinking opal particles produced in
surface ocean waters, but still remains low
enough that the reaction to form biogenic
opal silica remains thermodynamically
unfavorable. Despite the unfavorable
conditions, organisms can use dissolved
silicic acid to make opal silica shells
through biologically controlled
biomineralization.[4] The amount of opal
silica that makes it to the seafloor is
determined by the rates of sinking,
dissolution, and water column depth.[5]

Export of silica to the deep ocean

The dissolution rate of sinking opal silica

(B-SiO2) in the water column affects the
formation of siliceous ooze on the ocean
floor. The rate of dissolution of silica is
dependent on the saturation state of opal
silica in the water column and the
dependent on re-packaging of opal silica
particles within larger particles from the
surface ocean.[3] Re-packaging is the
formation (and sometimes re-formation)
of solid organic matter (usually fecal
pellets) around opal silica. The organic
matter protects against the immediate
dissolution of opal silica into silicic acid,
which allows for increased sedimentation
of the seafloor. The opal compensation
depth, similar to the carbonate
compensation depth, occurs at
approximately 6000 meters. Below this
depth, there is greater dissolution of opal
silica into silicic acid than formation of
opal silica from silicic acid. Only four
percent of opal silica produced in the
surface ocean will, on average, be
deposited to the seafloor, while the
remaining 96% is recycled in the water
column.[3]
Accumulation rates

Siliceous oozes accumulate over long

timescales. In the open ocean, siliceous
ooze accumulates at a rate of
approximately 0.01 mol Si m−2 yr−1.[6] The
fastest accumulation rates of siliceous
ooze occur in the deep waters of the
Southern Ocean (0.1 mol Si m−2 yr−1)
where biogenic silica production and
export is greatest.[7] The diatom and
radiolarian skeletons that make up
Southern Ocean oozes can take 20 to 50
years to sink to the sea floor.[6] Siliceous
particles may sink faster if they are
encased in the fecal pellets of larger
organisms.[6] Once deposited, silica
continues to dissolve and cycle, delaying
long term burial of particles until a depth
of 10–20 cm in the sediment layer is
reached.[6]

Marine chert formation

When opal silica accumulates faster than

it dissolves, it is buried and can provide a
diagenetic environment for marine chert
formation.[8] The processes leading to
chert formation have been observed in the
Southern Ocean, where siliceous ooze
accumulation is the fastest.[8] Chert
formation however can take tens of
millions of years.[7] Skeleton fragments
from siliceous organisms are subject to
recrystallization and cementation.[8] Chert
is the main fate of buried siliceous ooze
and permanently removes silica from the
oceanic silica cycle.

Geographic locations

World map showing the distribution of pelagic sediments. Green: siliceous sediments. White: Sediments of the continental
margin. Blue: glacial sediments. Orange: land-formed sediments. Brown: pelagic clay. Yellow: calcareous sediments.
Siliceous oozes form in upwelling areas
that provide valuable nutrients for the
growth of siliceous organisms living in
oceanic surface waters.[9] A notable
example is in the Southern ocean where
consistent upwelling of Indian, Pacific, and
Antarctic circumpolar deep water have
resulted in a contiguous siliceous ooze
that stretches around the globe.[7] There is
a band of siliceous ooze that is the result
of enhanced equatorial upwelling in
Pacific Ocean sediments below the North
Equatorial Current. In the subpolar North
Pacific, upwelling occurs along the eastern
and western sides of the basin from the
Alaska current and the Oyashio Current.
Siliceous ooze is present along the
seafloor in these subpolar regions. Ocean
basin boundary currents, such as the
Humboldt Current and the Somali Current
are examples of other upwelling currents
that favor the formation of siliceous
ooze.[8]

Siliceous ooze is often categorized based

upon its composition. Diatomaceous
oozes are predominantly formed of diatom
skeletons and are typically found along
continental margins in higher latitudes.[9]
Diatomaceous oozes are present in the
Southern Ocean and the North Pacific
Ocean.[9][10] Radiolarian oozes are made
mostly of radiolarian skeletons and are
located mainly in tropical equatorial and
subtropical regions.[10] Examples of
radiolarian ooze are the oozes of the
equatorial region, subtropical Pacific
region and the subtropical basin of the
Indian Ocean. A small surface area of
deep sea sediment is covered by
radiolarian ooze in the equatorial East
Atlantic basin.[10]
Role in the oceanic silica
cycle

Diatom bloom in the South Atlantic Ocean, off the coast of Argentina

Deep seafloor deposition in the form of

ooze is the largest long-term sink of the
oceanic silica cycle (6.3 ± 3.6 Tmol Si
year−1).[11] As noted above, this ooze is
diagenetically transformed into
lithospheric marine chert. This sink is
roughly balanced by silicate weathering
and river inputs of silicic acid into the
ocean.[11] Biogenic silica production in the
photic zone is estimated to be 240 ± 40
Tmol si year −1.[10] Rapid dissolution in the
surface removes roughly 135 Tmol opal Si
year−1, converting it back to soluble silicic
acid that can be used again for
biomineralization.[11] The remaining opal
silica is exported to the deep ocean in
sinking particles.[11] In the deep ocean,
another 26.2 Tmol Si Year−1 is dissolved
before being deposited to the sediments
as opal silica.[11] At the sediment water
interface, over 90% of the silica is recycled
and upwelled for use again in the photic
zone.[11] The residence time on a
biological timescale is estimated to be
about 400 years, with each molecule of
silica recycled 25 times before sediment
burial.[11]

Siliceous oozes and carbon

sequestration
Diatoms are primary producers that
convert carbon dioxide into organic carbon
via photosynthesis, and export organic
carbon from the surface ocean to the deep
sea via the biological pump.[12] Diatoms
can therefore be a significant sink for
carbon dioxide in surface waters. Due to
the relatively large size of diatoms (when
compared to other phytoplankton), they
are able to take up more total carbon
dioxide. Additionally, diatoms do not
release carbon dioxide into the
environment during formation of their opal
silicate shells.[12] Phytoplankton that build
calcium-carbonate shells (i.e.
coccolithophores) release carbon dioxide
as a byproduct during shell formation,
making them a less efficient sink for
carbon dioxide.[13] The opal silicate
skeletons enhance the sinking velocity of
diatomaceous particles (i.e. carbon) from
the surface ocean to the seafloor.[14]
Iron fertilization experiments

Atmospheric carbon dioxide levels have

been increasing exponentially since the
Industrial Revolution[13] and researchers
are exploring ways to mitigate
atmospheric carbon dioxide levels by
increasing the uptake of carbon dioxide in
the surface ocean via photosynthesis.[14]
An increase in the uptake of carbon
dioxide in the surface waters may lead to
more carbon sequestration in the deep sea
through the biological pump. The bloom
dynamics of diatoms, their ballasting by
opal silica, and various nutrient
requirements have made diatoms a focus
for carbon sequestration experiments.

Iron fertilization projects like the SERIES

iron-enrichment experiments have
introduced iron into ocean basins to test if
this increases the rate of carbon dioxide
uptake by diatoms and ultimately sinking it
to the deep ocean.[13] Iron is a limiting
nutrient for diatom photosynthesis in high-
nutrient, low-chlorophyll areas of the
ocean, thus Increasing the amount of
available iron can lead to a subsequent
increase in photosynthesis, sometimes
resulting in a diatom bloom. This increase
removes more carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere. Although more carbon
dioxide is being taken up, the carbon
sequestration rate in deep sea sediments
is generally low. Most of the carbon
dioxide taken up during the process of
photosynthesis is recycled within the
surface layer several times before making
it to the deep ocean to be sequestered.[13]

Paleo-oozes

Sediment cores, like these from the South Atlantic, allow paleoceanographers to handle and study paleo-oozes
Before siliceous organisms

During the Precambrian, oceanic silica

concentrations were an order of
magnitude higher than in modern oceans.
The evolution of biosilicification is thought
to have emerged during this time
period.[15] Siliceous oozes formed once
silica-sequestering organisms such as
radiolarians and diatoms began to flourish
in the surface waters.[15]
Evolution of siliceous organisms

Radiolaria

Fossil evidence suggests that radiolarians

first emerged during the late Cambrian as
free-floating shallow water organisms.[16]
They did not become prominent in the
fossil record until the Ordovician.[16]
Radiolarites evolved in upwelling regions
in areas of high primary productivity and
are the oldest known organisms capable
of shell secretion.[17] The remains of
radiolarians are preserved in chert; a
byproduct of siliceous ooze
transformation.[18] Major speciation events
of radiolarians occurred during the
Mesozoic.[19] Many of those species are
now extinct in the modern ocean.[16]
Scientists hypothesize that competition
with diatoms for dissolved silica during
the Cenozoic is the likely cause for the
mass extinction of most radiolarian
species.

Diatoms

The oldest well-preserved diatom fossils

have been dated to the beginning of the
Jurassic period. However, the molecular
record suggests diatoms evolved at least
250 million years ago during the
Triassic.[20] As new species of diatoms
evolved and spread, oceanic silica levels
began to decrease.[19] Today, there are an
estimated 100,000 species of diatoms,
most of which are microscopic (2-
200 μm).[19] Some early diatoms were
larger, and could be between 0.2 and
22mm in diameter.[17]

The earliest diatoms were radial centrics,

and lived in shallow water close to
shore.[19] These early diatoms were
adapted to live on the benthos, as their
outer shells were heavy and prevented
them from free-floating.[19] Free-floating
diatoms, known as bipolar and multipolar
centrics, began evolving approximately
100 million years ago during the
Cretaceous.[19] Fossil diatoms are
preserved in diatomite (also known as
diatomaceous earth), which is one of the
by-products of the transformation from
ooze to rock formation.[19] As
diatomaceous particles began to sink to
the ocean floor, carbon and silica were
sequestered along continental margins.
The carbon sequestered along continental
margins has become the major petroleum
reserves of today.[12] Diatom evolution
marks a time in Earth's geologic history of
significant removal of carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere while simultaneously
increasing atmospheric oxygen levels.[12]

How scientists use paleo-ooze

Paleoceanographers study prehistoric

oozes to learn about changes in the
oceans over time.[9] The sediment
distribution and deposition patterns of
oozes inform scientists about prehistoric
areas of the oceans that exhibited prime
conditions for the growth of siliceous
organisms.[9]

Scientists examine paleo-ooze by taking

cores of deep sea sediments.[9] Sediment
layers in these cores reveal the deposition
patterns of the ocean over time. Scientists
use paleo-oozes as tools so that they can
better infer the conditions of the paleo
oceans.[9] Paleo-ooze accretion rates can
be used to determine deep sea circulation,
tectonic activity, and climate at a specific
point in time. Oozes are also useful in
determining the historical abundances of
siliceous organisms.[21]

Burubaital Formation

The Burubatial Formation, located in the

West Balkhash region of Kazakhstan, is
the oldest known abyssal biogenic
deposit.[20] The Burubaital Formation is
primarily composed of chert which was
formed over a period of 15 million years
(late Cambrian-middle Ordovician).[20] It is
likely that these deposits were formed in
an upwelling region in subequatorial
latitudes.[20] The Burubaital Formation is
largely composed of radiolarites, as
diatoms had yet to evolve at the time of its
formation. The Burubaital deposits have
led researchers to believe that radiolaria
played a significant role in the late
Cambrian silica cycle.[20] The late
Cambrian (497-485.4 mya) marks a time
of transition for marine biodiversity and is
the beginning of ooze accumulation on the
seafloor.[20]

Distribution shifts during the Miocene

A shift in the geographical distribution of

siliceous oozes occurred during the
Miocene.[9] Sixteen million years ago there
was a gradual decline in siliceous ooze
deposits in the North Atlantic and a
concurrent rise in siliceous ooze deposits
in the North Pacific.[9] Scientists speculate
that this regime shift may have been
caused by the introduction of Nordic Sea
Overflow Water, which contributed to the
formation of North Atlantic Deep Water
(NADW). The formation of Antarctic
Bottom Water (AABW) occurred at
approximately the same time as the
formation of NADW.[9] The formation of
NADW and AABW dramatically
transformed the ocean, and resulted in a
spatial population shift of siliceous
organisms.[9]

Paleocene plankton blooms

The Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary was a

time of global mass extinction, commonly
referred to as the K-T mass extinction.
While most organisms were disappearing,
marine siliceous organisms were thriving
in the early Paleocene seas. One such
example occurred in the waters near
Marlborough, New Zealand.[22] Paleo-ooze
deposits indicate that there was a rapid
growth of both diatoms and radiolarians at
this time. Scientists believe that this
period of high biosiliceous productivity is
linked to global climatic changes. This
boom in siliceous plankton was greatest
during the first one million years of the
Tertiary period and is thought to have been
fueled by enhanced upwelling in response
to a cooling climate and increased nutrient
cycling due to a change in sea level.[22]
See also
Diatomaceous earth
Calcareous ooze

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