Seabed - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.

org/wiki/Seabed

Seabed
The seabed (also known as the seafloor, sea floor, ocean floor, and ocean bottom) is the
bottom of the ocean. All floors of the ocean are known as 'seabeds'.

The structure of the seabed of the global ocean is governed by plate tectonics. Most of the ocean is
very deep, where the seabed is known as the abyssal plain. Seafloor spreading creates mid-ocean
ridges along the center line of major ocean basins, where the seabed is slightly shallower than the
surrounding abyssal plain. From the abyssal plain, the seabed slopes upward toward the continents
and becomes, in order from deep to shallow, the continental rise, slope, and shelf. The depth
within the seabed itself, such as the depth down through a sediment core, is known as the “depth
below seafloor.” The ecological environment of the seabed and the deepest waters are collectively
known, as a habitat for creatures, as the “benthos.”

Most of the seabed throughout the world's oceans is covered in layers of marine sediments.
Categorized by where the materials come from or composition, these sediments are classified as
either: from land (terrigenous), from biological organisms (biogenous), from chemical reactions
(hydrogenous), and from space (cosmogenous). Categorized by size, these sediments range from
very small particles called clays and silts, known as mud, to larger particles from sand to boulders.

Features of the seabed are governed by the physics of sediment transport and by the biology of the
creatures living in the seabed and in the ocean waters above. Physically, seabed sediments often
come from the erosion of material on land and from other rarer sources, such as volcanic ash. Sea
currents transport sediments, especially in shallow waters where tidal energy and wave energy
cause resuspension of seabed sediments. Biologically, microorganisms living within the seabed
sediments change seabed chemistry. Marine organisms create sediments, both within the seabed
and in the water above. For example, phytoplankton with silicate or calcium carbonate shells grow
in abundance in the upper ocean, and when they die, their shells sink to the seafloor to become
seabed sediments.

Human impacts on the seabed are diverse. Examples of human effects on the seabed include
exploration, plastic pollution, and exploitation by mining and dredging operations. To map the
seabed, ships use acoustic technology to map water depths throughout the world. Submersible
vehicles help researchers study unique seabed ecosystems such as hydrothermal vents. Plastic
pollution is a global phenomenon, and because the ocean is the ultimate destination for global
waterways, much of the world's plastic ends up in the ocean and some sinks to the seabed.
Exploitation of the seabed involves extracting valuable minerals from sulfide deposits via deep sea
mining, as well as dredging sand from shallow environments for construction and beach
nourishment.

Contents
Structure
Depth below seafloor

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Sediments
Terrigenous and biogenous
Hydrogenous and cosmogenous
Size classification
Benthos
Topography
Features
Human impact
Exploration
Plastic pollution
Exploitation
In art and culture
See also
References
Further reading
External links

Structure
Most of the oceans have a common structure, created by
common physical phenomena, mainly from tectonic
movement, and sediment from various sources. The
structure of the oceans, starting with the continents,
begins usually with a continental shelf, continues to the
continental slope – which is a steep descent into the
ocean, until reaching the abyssal plain – a topographic
plain, the beginning of the seabed, and its main area. The Map showing the underwater topography
border between the continental slope and the abyssal (bathymetry) of the ocean floor. Like land
plain usually has a more gradual descent, and is called the terrain, the ocean floor has mountains
continental rise, which is caused by sediment cascading including volcanoes, ridges, valleys, and
down the continental slope. plains.

The mid-ocean ridge, as its name implies, is a

mountainous rise through the middle of all the oceans, between the continents. Typically a rift runs
along the edge of this ridge. Along tectonic plate edges there are typically oceanic trenches – deep
valleys, created by the mantle circulation movement from the mid-ocean mountain ridge to the
oceanic trench.[1]

Hotspot volcanic island ridges are created by volcanic activity, erupting periodically, as the tectonic
plates pass over a hotspot. In areas with volcanic activity and in the oceanic trenches there are
hydrothermal vents – releasing high pressure and extremely hot water and chemicals into the
typically freezing water around it.

Deep ocean water is divided into layers or zones, each with typical features of salinity, pressure,

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temperature and marine life, according to their depth.

Lying along the top of the abyssal plain is the abyssal
zone, whose lower boundary lies at about 6,000 m
(20,000 ft). The hadal zone – which includes the oceanic
trenches, lies between 6,000 and 11,000 metres
(20,000–36,000 ft) and is the deepest oceanic zone.[2][3]

Depth below seafloor

Depth below seafloor is a vertical coordinate used in

geology, paleontology, oceanography, and petrology (see The major oceanic divisions
ocean drilling). The acronym "mbsf" (meaning "meters
below the seafloor") is a common convention used for
depths below the seafloor.[4][5]

Different seabeds in the world’s oceans

gravel seabed in Italy white sand seabed in Mexico sand seabed in Greece

hydrothermal vents

Sediments
Sediments in the seabed vary in origin, from eroded land materials carried into the ocean by rivers
or wind flow, waste and decompositions of sea creatures, and precipitation of chemicals within the
sea water itself, including some from outer space.[6] There are four basic types of sediment of the
sea floor:

1. Terrigenous (also lithogenous) describes the sediment from continents eroded by rain, rivers,

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and glaciers, as well as sediment blown into

the ocean by the wind, such as dust and
volcanic ash.
2. Biogenous material is the sediment made
up of the hard parts of sea creatures, mainly
phytoplankton, that accumulate on the
bottom of the ocean.
3. Hydrogenous sediment is material that
precipitates in the ocean when oceanic
conditions change, or material created in
hydrothermal vent systems.
4. Cosmogenous sediment comes from
extraterrestrial sources.[7] Total sediment thickness of the world's oceans and
continental margins in meters.

Terrigenous and biogenous

Terrigenous sediment is the most abundant sediment found on

the seafloor. Terrigenous sediments come from the continents.
These materials are eroded from continents and transported by
wind and water to the ocean. Fluvial sediments are transported
from land by rivers and glaciers, such as clay, silt, mud, and
glacial flour. Aeolian sediments are transported by wind, such
as dust and volcanic ash.[8]

Biogenous sediment is the next most abundant material on the Satellite image of wind-blown
seafloor. Biogenous sediments are biologically produced by mineral dust over the Atlantic. Dust
living creatures. Sediments made up of at least 30% biogenous may become terrigenous sediment
material are called "oozes." There are two types of oozes: on the seabed.
Calcareous oozes and Siliceous oozes. Plankton grow in ocean
waters and create the materials that become oozes on the
seabed. Calcareous oozes are predominantly composed of
calcium shells found in phytoplankton such as
coccolithophores and zooplankton like the foraminiferans.
These calcareous oozes are never found deeper than about
4,000 to 5,000 meters because at further depths the calcium
dissolves.[9] Similarly, Siliceous oozes are dominated by the
siliceous shells of phytoplankton like diatoms and zooplankton
such as radiolarians. Depending on the productivity of these
planktonic organisms, the shell material that collects when
Phytoplankton grow shells which
these organisms die may build up at a rate anywhere from
later sink to the seabed to become
1 mm to 1 cm every 1000 years.[9]
biogenous sediments. For example,
diatoms make silicate shells, which
Hydrogenous and cosmogenous become siliceous ooze.

Hydrogenous sediments are uncommon. They only occur with

changes in oceanic conditions such as temperature and pressure. Rarer still are cosmogenous
sediments. Hydrogenous sediments are formed from dissolved chemicals that precipitate from the

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ocean water, or along the mid-ocean ridges, they can form by

metallic elements binding onto rocks that have water of more
than 300 °C circulating around them. When these elements
mix with the cold sea water they precipitate from the cooling
water.[9] Known as manganese nodules, they are composed of
layers of different metals like manganese, iron, nickel, cobalt,
and copper, and they are always found on the surface of the
ocean floor.[9]

Cosmogenous sediments are the remains of space debris such Hydrothermal vent fluids cause
as comets and asteroids, made up of silicates and various chemical reactions that precipitate
metals that have impacted the Earth.[10] out minerals that form sediments on
the surrounding seafloor.

Size classification

Another way that sediments are described is through their

descriptive classification. These sediments vary in size,
anywhere from 1/4096 of a mm to greater than 256 mm. The
different types are: boulder, cobble, pebble, granule, sand, silt,
and clay, each type becoming finer in grain. The grain size
indicates the type of sediment and the environment in which it
was created. Larger grains sink faster and can only be pushed
by rapid flowing water (high energy environment) whereas
small grains sink very slowly and can be suspended by slight Sediment types from the Southern
water movement, accumulating in conditions where water is Ocean showing many different grain
not moving so quickly.[12] This means that larger grains of sizes: A) gravel and sand, B) gravel,
sediment may come together in higher energy conditions and C) bioturbated mud and sand, and
smaller grains in lower energy conditions. D) laminated clays and silts.[11]

Benthos
Benthos (from Ancient Greek βένθος (bénthos) 'the
depths (of the sea)'), also known as benthon, is the
community of organisms that live on, in, or near the
bottom of a sea, river, lake, or stream, also known as the
benthic zone.[13] This community lives in or near marine
or freshwater sedimentary environments, from tidal pools
along the foreshore, out to the continental shelf, and then
down to the abyssal depths.

Many organisms adapted to deep-water pressure cannot

survive in the upper parts of the water column. The
pressure difference can be very significant (approximately Seaweed and two chitons in a tide pool
one atmosphere for every 10 metres of water depth).[14]

Because light is absorbed before it can reach deep ocean water, the energy source for deep benthic
ecosystems is often organic matter from higher up in the water column that drifts down to the
depths. This dead and decaying matter sustains the benthic food chain; most organisms in the

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benthic zone are scavengers or detritivores.

The term benthos, coined by Haeckel in 1891,[15] comes from the Greek noun βένθος 'depth of the
sea'.[13][16] Benthos is used in freshwater biology to refer to organisms at the bottom of freshwater
bodies of water, such as lakes, rivers, and streams.[17] There is also a redundant synonym,
Benton.[18]

Topography
Seabed topography (ocean topography or
marine topography) refers to the shape of the
land (topography) when it interfaces with the ocean.
These shapes are obvious along coastlines, but they
occur also in significant ways underwater. The
effectiveness of marine habitats is partially defined
by these shapes, including the way they interact
with and shape ocean currents, and the way sunlight
diminishes when these landforms occupy increasing
depths. Tidal networks depend on the balance Map of underwater topography (1995 NOAA)
between sedimentary processes and hydrodynamics
however, anthropogenic influences can impact the
natural system more than any physical driver.[19]

Marine topographies include coastal and oceanic landforms ranging from coastal estuaries and
shorelines to continental shelves and coral reefs. Further out in the open ocean, they include
underwater and deep sea features such as ocean rises and seamounts. The submerged surface has
mountainous features, including a globe-spanning mid-ocean ridge system, as well as undersea
volcanoes,[20] oceanic trenches, submarine canyons, oceanic plateaus and abyssal plains.

The mass of the oceans is approximately 1.35 × 1018 metric tons, or about 1/4400 of the total mass
of the Earth. The oceans cover an area of 3.618 × 108 km2 with a mean depth of 3,682 m, resulting
in an estimated volume of 1.332 × 109 km3.[21]

Features
Each region of the seabed has typical features such as common sediment composition, typical
topography, salinity of water layers above it, marine life, magnetic direction of rocks, and
sedimentation. Some features of the seabed include flat abyssal plains, mid-ocean ridges, deep
trenches, and hydrothermal vents.

Seabed topography is flat where layers of sediments cover the tectonic features. For example, the
abyssal plain regions of the ocean are relatively flat and covered in many layers of sediments.[22]
Sediments in these flat areas come from various sources, including but not limited to: land erosion
sediments from rivers, chemically precipitated sediments from hydrothermal vents,
Microorganism activity, sea currents eroding the seabed and transporting sediments to the deeper
ocean, and phytoplankton shell materials.

Where the seafloor is actively spreading and sedimentation is relatively light, such as in the
northern and eastern Atlantic Ocean, the original tectonic activity can be clearly seen as straight

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line "cracks" or "vents" thousands of kilometers long. These

underwater mountain ranges are known as mid-ocean ridges.[7]

Other seabed environments include hydrothermal vents, cold

seeps, and shallow areas. Marine life is abundant in the deep sea
around hydrothermal vents.[23] Large deep sea communities of
marine life have been discovered around black and white smokers
— vents emitting chemicals toxic to humans and most vertebrates.
This marine life receives its energy both from the extreme
temperature difference (typically a drop of 150 degrees) and from
chemosynthesis by bacteria. Brine pools are another seabed
feature,[24] usually connected to cold seeps. In shallow areas, the
seabed can host sediments created by marine life such as corals,
fish, algae, crabs, marine plants and other organisms.

Human impact

Exploration

The seabed has been explored by submersibles such as Alvin and,

to some extent, scuba divers with special equipment.
Hydrothermal vents were discovered by an underwater camera
platform by researchers in 1977.[23] In recent years satellite
measurements of ocean surface topography show very clear maps
of the seabed,[25] and these satellite-derived maps are used
extensively in the study and exploration of the ocean floor.

Plastic pollution
Layers of the pelagic zone
In 2020 scientists created what may be the first scientific estimate
of how much microplastic currently resides in Earth's
seafloor, after investigating six areas of ~3 km depth
~300 km off the Australian coast. They found the highly
variable microplastic counts to be proportionate to plastic on
the surface and the angle of the seafloor slope. By averaging
the microplastic mass per cm3, they estimated that Earth's
seafloor contains ~14 million tons of microplastic – about
double the amount they estimated based on data from
earlier studies – despite calling both estimates
3:58
"conservative" as coastal areas are known to contain much
more microplastic pollution. These estimates are about one
A video describing the operation and
to two times the amount of plastic thought – per Jambeck et
use of an autonomous lander in deep
al., 2015 – to currently enter the oceans annually.[26][27][28]
sea research.

Exploitation

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Deep sea mining is a growing subfield of experimental seabed

mining that involves the retrieval of minerals and deposits from
the ocean floor found at depths of 200 metres (660 ft) or
greater.[29][30] As of 2021, the majority of marine mining
efforts are limited to shallow coastal waters only, where sand,
tin and diamonds are more readily accessible.[31] There are
three types of deep sea mining that have generated great
interest: polymetallic nodule mining, polymetallic sulphide
mining, and the mining of cobalt-rich ferromanganese
crusts.[32] The majority of proposed deep sea mining sites are
near of polymetallic nodules or active and extinct hydrothermal
vents at 1,400 to 3,700 metres (4,600 to 12,100 ft) below the
ocean’s surface.[33] The vents create globular or massive sulfide Schematic of a polymetallic nodule
deposits, which contain valuable metals such as silver, gold, mining operation. From top to
copper, manganese, cobalt, and zinc.[34][35] The deposits are bottom, the three zoom-in panels
mined using either hydraulic pumps or bucket systems that illustrate the surface operation
take ore to the surface to be processed. vessel, the midwater sediment
plume, and the nodule collector
Marine minerals include sea-dredged and seabed minerals. operating on the seabed. The
Sea-dredged minerals are normally extracted by dredging midwater plume comprises two
operations within coastal zones, to maximum sea depths of stages: (i) the dynamic plume, in
about 200 m. Minerals normally extracted from these depths which the sediment-laden discharge
include sand, silt and mud for construction purposes, mineral water rapidly descends and dilutes
rich sands such as ilmenite and diamonds.[36] to a neutral buoyancy depth, and (ii)
the subsequent ambient plume that
As with all mining operations, deep sea mining raises questions is advected by the ocean current
about its potential environmental impact. There is a growing and subject to background
debate about whether deep sea mining should be allowed or turbulence and settling. (MIT/2021)
not.[37] Environmental advocacy groups such as Greenpeace
and the Deep Sea Mining Campaign[38] have argued that
seabed mining should not be permitted in most of the world's oceans because of the potential for
damage to deep sea ecosystems and pollution by heavy metal-laden plumes.[34] Prominent
environmental activists and state leaders have also called for moratoriums or total bans due to the
potential of devastating environmental impacts.[39][40] Some argue that there should be a total ban
on seabed mining.[41] Some anti-seabed mining campaigns have won the support of large industry
such as some of the technology giants, and large car companies. However, these same companies
will be increasingly reliant on the metals seabed minerals can provide. Some scientists argue that
seabed mining should not go ahead, as we know such a relatively small amount about the
biodiversity of the deep ocean environment.[42] Individual countries with significant deposits of
seabed minerals within their large EEZ’s are making their own decisions pertaining to seabed
mining, exploring ways of undertaking seabed mining without causing too much damage to the
deep ocean environment,[43] or deciding not to develop seabed mines.[44] Some companies are
attempting to build polymetallic deep sea mining equipment which does no serious harm and
preservers the marine habitat.[45]

As of 2022 there was no commercial mining of seabed minerals. However, the International
Seabed Authority has granted 19 exploration licenses for polymetallic nodules, within the Clarion
Clipperton Zone.[46] The Cook Islands seabed minerals authority (SBMA) has granted 3
exploration licenses for polymetallic nodules within their EEZ.[47]

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There is the potential for mining at a range of scales within the oceans from small to very large.
Technologies involved in the mining of seabed minerals would be highly technological, and involve
a range of robotic mining machines, as well as surface ships, and metal refineries at onshore
locations. One vision for the post-fossil fuel world will rely on wind farms, solar energy, electric
cars, and improved battery technologies: these use a high volume and wide range of metallic
commodities including ‘green’ or ‘critical’ metals many of which are in relatively short supply.
Seabed mining could provide a near-term solution to the provision of many of these metals, though
only serves to worsen the fundamental problems posed by extraction.[48][49]

In art and culture

Some children's play songs include elements such as "There's a hole at the bottom of the sea", or "A
sailor went to sea... but all that he could see was the bottom of the deep blue sea".

On and under the seabed are archaeological sites of historic interest, such as shipwrecks and
sunken towns. This underwater cultural heritage is protected by the UNESCO Convention on the
Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. The convention aims at preventing looting and the
destruction or loss of historic and cultural information by providing an international legal
framework.[50]

See also
Bottom trawling – Fishing method for fishing trawlers
Demersal fish – Fish that live and feed on or near the bottom of seas or lakes
Human outpost – Human habitats located in environments inhospitable for humans
International waters – Water outside of national jurisdiction
Manganese nodule – Mineral concretion on the sea bottom made of concentric layers of
iron/manganese hydroxides
Methane clathrate – Methane-water lattice compound
Nepheloid layer
New Zealand foreshore and seabed controversy – Indigenous rights controversy
Offshore geotechnical engineering – Sub-field of engineering concerned with human-made
structures in the sea
Petrological Database of the Ocean Floor (PetBD)
Plate tectonics – Movement of Earth's lithosphere
Research vessel – Ship or boat designed, modified, or equipped to carry out research at sea
Seabed characterization
Seafloor mapping – Measurement and presentation of water depth of a given body of water
Seafloor massive sulfide deposits – Mineral deposits from seafloor hydrothermal vents
Sediment Profile Imagery (SPI) – Technique for photographing the interface between the
seabed and the overlying water

References

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0-million-tonnes-microplastics-sea-floor.html). phys.org. Retrieved 9 November 2020.
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Further reading
Roger Hekinian: Sea Floor Exploration: Scientific Adventures Diving into the Abyss. Springer,
2014. ISBN 978-3-319-03202-3 (print); ISBN 978-3-319-03203-0 (eBook)
Stéphane Sainson: Electromagnetic Seabed Logging. A new tool for geoscientists. Springer,
2016. ISBN 978-3-319-45353-8 (print); ISBN 978-3-319-45355-2 (eBook)

External links
Understanding the Seafloor (http://cosee-central-gom.org/online_presentations/2003/presentati
on4/slides.pdf) presentation from Cosee (http://cosee-central-gom.org/) – the Center for Ocean
Sciences Educational Excellence.
Ocean Explorer (www.oceanexplorer.noaa.gov) (http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/) – Public
outreach site for explorations sponsored by the Office of Ocean Exploration.
NOAA, Ocean Explorer Gallery (http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/gallery/gallery.html), Submarine
Ring of Fire 2006 Gallery (http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/06fire/logs/photolog/phot
olog.html), Submarine Ring of Fire 2004 Gallery (http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/04
fire/logs/photolog/photolog.html) – A rich collection of images, video, audio and podcast (http://
oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/podcast/oceanexplorer_podcast.xml).
NOAA, Ocean Explorer YouTube Channel (https://www.youtube.com/oceanexplorergov)
Submarine Ring of Fire, Mariana Arc (http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/06fire/backgr
ound/marianaarc/marianaarc.html) – Explore the volcanoes of the Mariana Arc, Submarine
Ring of Fire.
Age of the Ocean Floor (https://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo45167) National Geophysical Data
Center
Astonishing deep sea life (http://www.ted.com/talks/mike_degruy_hooked_by_octopus.html) on
TED (conference)

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