EARTH & LIFE SCIENCE or meteorite impacts.
These waves can travel at
I. Universe & Earth
The terrestrial planets, also known as rocky planets, are
the inner planets of our solar system. These planets are
primarily composed of rock and metal and have solid
surfaces. The terrestrial planets in our solar system
are: Mercury, Venus, Earth, & Mars. These planets are
closer to the Sun compared to the gas giant planets
(Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) and are
characterized by their solid, rocky composition.
The correct sequence of divisions in the geologic time
scale, arranged from the shortest to the longest duration,
is as follows: Epoch, Period, Era and Eon.
Eon: The division in the geologic time scale that
represents approximately 88% of Earth's history is the
Precambrian eon. The Precambrian eon is the longest
eon, covering the vast majority of Earth's history. The
division in the geologic time scale often referred to as the
"Age of the Reptiles" is the Mesozoic Era. The division
in the geologic time scale during which the continents
converged to form the supercontinent Pangaea is the
Late Paleozoic.
The Earth's molten core, particularly the outer liquid
core, plays a crucial role in the generation of this heat,
which then drives geological processes like plate
tectonics and volcanic activity. The majority of the Earth's
internal heat is generated by the decay of radioactive
isotopes such as uranium, thorium, and potassium within
the Earth's mantle and crust. This process, known as
radiogenic heat production, is the primary source of the
planet's internal heat.
Most of these life-forms are found as fossils, which are
the remains or traces of an organism from the geologic
past that has been preserved in sediment or rock.
Scientists typically organize fossils they collect based on
their chronological age. This involves arranging fossils in
a sequence that reflects the order in which they lived or
the time period during which they existed.
The four major subsystems: land, water, living things,
or air. These four subsystems are called "spheres."
Specifically, they are the "lithosphere" (land),
"hydrosphere" (water), "biosphere" (living things),
and "atmosphere" (air).
The biosphere contains all the planet's living things. This
sphere includes all of the microorganisms, plants, and
animals of Earth.
The hydrosphere includes water that is on the surface of
the planet, underground, and in the air.
Faults due to horizontal shearing forces are typically
associated with transform boundaries. At transform
plate boundaries, two tectonic plates slide past each other
horizontally in opposite directions.
II.
A landslide is indeed a mass movement of rock
fragments, soil, and debris that moves downhill under the
influence of gravity.
The process during earthquake shaking where sand and
silt grains in wet soil are rearranged, and the groundwater
in the spaces between the grains is squeezed is known
as liquefaction.
Tsunamis are large ocean waves generated by
underwater earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides,
extremely high speeds across the open ocean and can
reach towering heights as they approach shallow coastal
areas, potentially causing widespread and devastating
inundation when they make landfall.
Climate and weather-related hazards are considered
natural hazards. These hazards are primarily driven by
natural processes and phenomena, such as hurricanes,
tornadoes, floods, droughts, and extreme temperatures.
Hazard maps provide valuable information to help
communities and authorities make informed decisions
about land use planning, disaster preparedness, and
emergency response. Areas "prone to hazards" are those
where hazards are more likely to occur.
Deforestation or the removal of trees and vegetation
from an area, is an example of an anthropogenic (human-
caused) factor that can lead to landslides. When trees are
cut down and vegetation is removed, the root systems
that hold the soil in place are lost.
Building roads and highways is the human activity
most likely to speed up landslides in hilly areas. This
is because road construction often involves cutting into
hillsides, altering the natural terrain, and potentially
destabilizing the soil.
The construction of railways and buildings can be a
possible cause of landslides when slope excavation
is involved. When earth is excavated or cut into during
construction, it can disturb the natural balance of the
slope and weaken its stability, making it more susceptible
to landslides.
The use of explosives underground is commonly
associated with mining. In mining operations, explosives
are often used to break and extract valuable minerals,
ores, or other geological materials from underground
deposits.
Pampanga is known for its flat and low-lying terrain,
which makes it vulnerable to flooding, especially during
the rainy season or in the event of typhoons and heavy
rainfall.
Coastal erosion is primarily driven by wave action
and tidal currents. The energy from waves and the
movement of water associated with tidal currents can lead
to the erosion of coastal landforms.
Coastal erosion is primarily driven by wave and tidal
forces that physically wear down coastlines. Submersion
occurs when sea levels rise, which can lead to the
inundation of low-lying coastal areas. Saltwater
intrusion is a process that occurs when seawater
infiltrates coastal aquifers, leading to the
contamination of freshwater sources.
Rocks & Minerals
During the 1800's, miners needed to be able to tell real
gold from another mineral, pyrite. To tell them apart, the
miners would bite the mineral they found. If they saw a
bite mark in the mineral, they knew it was real gold. The
properties tested in this scenario is hardness.
Mineral identification often relies on physical properties
that can be easily observed and tested. The Mohs
hardness scale helps in determining a mineral's
resistance to scratching, and cleavage describes how a
mineral break along specific planes. These properties are measuring the decay of radioactive isotopes within the
fundamental in narrowing down the possibilities when rocks.
identifying minerals, and they can be universally applied
to a wide range of minerals.

The most relevant and useful feature for an app designed

to help users identify rock-forming minerals based on their
physical and chemical properties would be a virtual
mineral "scratch test." This feature would allow users to
perform a scratch test on a virtual representation of a
mineral using common objects of known hardness.

When rocks are subjected to compressional stress,

they typically respond by folding and being pushed
together. Compression is the most common stress at
convergent plate boundaries. Rocks that are pulled apart
are under tension.

Igneous rocks are classified based on their texture,

mineral composition, and the presence of features like
vesicles or crystals. These characteristics are key to
identifying and classifying igneous rocks.

Sandstone is most likely to undergo regional

metamorphism. Regional metamorphism is associated
with the deep burial and high pressure and temperature
conditions over a large region of the Earth's crust.

When a continental plate collides with an oceanic plate,

the denser oceanic plate tends to be subducted beneath
the less dense continental plate, leading to the continental
crust rising above the oceanic crust.

In the principle of cross-cutting relationships in relative

dating, if one geological feature (igneous rock A) cross-
cuts another feature (sedimentary rock B), the feature that
is being cross-cut (sedimentary rock B) is older, and the
feature that cross-cuts it (igneous rock A) is younger.

The youngest beds will be located at the top of the

sequence.

The most effective method for determining the absolute

age of an igneous rock is radiometric dating, which
involves comparing the amount of decayed and
undecayed radioactive isotopes in the rock. The primary
purpose of correlating rock layers is to establish the
relative ages and relationships between different rock
layers.

Relative dating is the process of determining if one rock

or geologic event is older or younger than another, without
knowing their specific ages.

Radiometric dating is a technique used to determine the

absolute ages of rocks and geological events by