The Digestive System

The digestive system is used for breaking down

food into nutrients which then pass into the
circulatory system and are taken to where they
are needed in the body.
 There are four stages to food processing:

1. Ingestion: taking in food

2. Digestion: breaking down food into nutrients
3. Absorption: taking in nutrients by cells
4. Egestion: removing any leftover wastes
 The Gastrointestinal tract (GIT)
The muscular alimentary canal
 Mouth
 Pharynx
 Esophagus
 Stomach
 Small intestine
 Large intestine
 Anus

 The accessory digestive organs

Supply secretions contributing to the
breakdown of food
 Teeth & tongue
 Salivary glands
 Gallbladder
 Liver
 Pancreas

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 The Digestive Process
 Ingestion
 Taking in food through the mouth
 Propulsion (movement of food)
 Swallowing
 Peristalsis – propulsion by alternate
contraction &relaxation
 Mechanical digestion
 Chewing
 Churning in stomach
 Mixing by segmentation
 Chemical digestion
 By secreted enzymes
 Absorption
 Transport of digested end products into
blood and lymph in wall of canal
 Defecation
 Elimination of indigestible substances from
body as feces
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 Chemical digestion

 Complex food molecules (carbohydrates,

proteins and lipids) broken down into
chemical building blocks (simple sugars,
amino acids, and fatty acids and glycerol).

 Carried out by enzymes secreted by

digestive glands into lumen of the
alimentary canal

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 Histology of alimentary canal wall
Same four layers from esophagus to anal canal

1. Mucosa
2. Submucosa
3. Muscularis
external
4. Serosa

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 Movement of food
 Peristalsis:
The rhythmic wave of smooth muscle contraction that results in
the propulsion (movement) of materials through the GI tract
Occurs in the esophagus, stomach small intestine, and large
intestine
 Segmentation:
The pinching of the intestine into compartments and subsequent
mixing of undigested materials with intestinal secretions.
Ensures chemical digestion and absorption are both completed
There is no net movement as in peristalsis
Occurs in the small intestine and large intestine
Peristalsis

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 Nervous control of GIT
The GIT is regulated by the Enteric Nervous System, that
are part of the autonomic nervous system.

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Several hormones for controlling gastrointestinal:
Gastrin:
Secreted by the “G” cells of the antrum

The primary actions of gastrin are

(1) stimulation of gastric acid secretion

(2) stimulation of growth of the gastric mucosa.

Secretin:
Secreted by the “S” cells in the mucosa of the
duodenum, it has mild effect in decreasing motor
activity of the stomach.
Motilin:
Secreted by the upper duodenum during fasting.

This hormone is to increase gastrointestinal motility.

 The Mouth
Oral Cavity Functions:
 Analysis of material before swallowing by touch,
temperature, and taste receptors
 Mechanical processing by the teeth, tongue, and
palatal surfaces
 Lubricating food by mixing it with mucus and
saliva
 Begins the digestion of carbohydrates with
salivary enzymes
 Assists in swallowing
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 Salivary glands
 3 pairs of salivary
glands:parotid, sublingual
and submandibular Secreted
saliva (watery solution includes
electrolytes, buffers,
glycoproteins, antibodies,
enzymes) all the time to keep
mouth moist.
Functions include:
Lubrication-Dissolving-Initiation
of digestion of complex
carbohydrates
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Stages of salivary secretion: 2 stages
1st stage: Primary secretion in the acini:
Similar in composition to the extracellular fluid & contains ptyalin
&r mucin.
2nd stage: modification of the primary secretion in the
ducts:
1 – Na+ is actively reabsorbed from ducts to the blood.
2- K+ is actively secreted from blood to the ducts at a
slower rate.
3 - Excess reabsorption Na+=>-ve potential in the ducts.
4 -cl- is passively reabsorbed( (following Na+)
5- HCO3 is actively secreted into the ducts.
6- The ducts are relatively impermeable to water
 Pharynx
___oropharynx  Oropharynx and
laryngopharynx
___laryngopharynx  Stratified squamous
epithelium

 Three constrictor
muscles*
 Sequentially squeeze
* bolus of food into
esophagus
*  Are skeletal muscles

*
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 Esophagus
 Continuation of pharynx in
mid neck
 Muscular tube collapsed
when lumen empty Esophagus___________
 Descends through thorax
 On anterior surface of
vertebral column
 Behind (posterior to) trachea

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 Stomach
 “J”shaped; widest part of alimentary canal
 Temporary storage and mixing – 4 hours
 Into “chyme”
 Starts food breakdown
 Pepsin (protein-digesting enzyme needing acid
environment)
 HCl (hydrochloric acid) helps kill bacteria
 Stomach tolerates high acid content but esophagus
doesn’t – why it hurts so much when stomach
contents refluxes into esophagus (heartburn)
 Most nutrients wait until get to small intestine to
be absorbed; exceptions are:
 Water, electrolytes, some drugs like aspirin and
alcohol (absorbed through stomach)
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 Stomach Regions
 Cardiac region

 Fundus (dome shaped)

 Body

 Pyloric region

dome

junction with
esophagus

contains pyloric
sphincter

funnel shaped
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 Functions of HCL
1-Dissolves food particles changing them into chime

2 - Maintains relative sterility of the stomach.

3 - Activation of pepsinogen to pepsin(at pH 2)

4 - Provides an optimum pH for pepsin.

5 -Helps iron & calcium absorption.

6 - Stimulates the flow of bile

Parietal cells secrete isotonic solution of HCI
by an active process:
(1) CI- is actively transported from the cell to
the lumen potential inside lumen
(2) K+ is passively diffused from the cell to
lumen.
Inside parietal cells:
(3) H2O→H+ + OH-
(4) H+ is actively secreted to lumen in
exchange for K+ that enters the cell by H+ K+
ATPase
Three phases (regulation) of acid secretion:
(1) The cephalic stimulatory
(Nervous)
(2) The gastric stimulatory
(nervous &hormonal)

3) The intestinal inhibitory

(nervous & hormonal)
 Mucosal Barrier
In normal individuals the gastric mucosa does not
become digested because:

1- The gastric juice contains mucus that forms a

flexible gel coating the mucosa

2- The surface mucosa cells also secrete HCO3 "trapped

in the mucus gel" so that the pH

3- The tight junctions between the surface membranes

of the mucosal cells
Two mechanisms inhibit gastric secretion and duodenal
filling:
1. Neural enterogastric reflex
2. Hormonal (enterogastrone) mechanisms:
Carbohydrate rich
chyme quickly moves through the duodenum
 Fat laden
 chyme is digested more slowly causing food to
remain in the stomach longer
 Small intestine
 Longest part of alimentary canal (2.7-5 m)
 Most enzymatic digestion occurs here
 Most enzymes secreted by pancreas, not
small intestine
 Almost all absorption of nutrients
 3-6 hour process
 Runs from pyloric region

Small intestine___________

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 Large intestine
Digested residue reaches it
Main function: to absorb water
and electrolytes
Subdivisions
Cecum
Appendix
Colon
Rectum
Anal canal

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