CRITICAL READING, WRITING, AND THINKING
BS PSYCHOLOGY 2-YA-6
WARLINIE A. FRANCO
Week 13: The Nature of Critical Thinking
WHAT IS CRITICAL THINKING?
- The progressive ability to rationalize
matters vividly by connecting logical
reasoning behind ideas.
- One’s capacity to think independently
and reflect on his thoughts objectively, with
or without the opinion of other people.
➔ Thinking critically and logical
reasoning go hand and hand all
the time.
➔ Thus, one needs to be an active
learner who seeks facts and
investigates with all means
possible rather than to be a
passive learner who only waits for
information to present itself.
WHAT MAKES A CRITICAL THINKER?
1. Determines the relevance and
importance of arguments,
questions, and ideas
2. Understands the connection
between ideas
3. Identifies inconsistent reasoning
and consistent errors
4. Recognizes, appraises, and builds
arguments
5. Reflects on the justification of his
own assumptions, beliefs, and
values
6. Approaches problem solving in a
systematic way, favoring
objectivity over subjectivity
SKILLS NEEDED IN CRITICAL THINKIN
● Objectively and critically think
about a topic or subject matter.
● Accurately identify what
arguments are raised in a
particular issue.
● Carefully evaluate the different
points of view presented to
understand how valid and
concrete they are.
● Recognize the weaknesses and
loopholes in the presented
arguments and evidence.
● Understand all implications of
every argument.
● Come up with a structured
reasoning that supports any
argument that you want to raise.
THE CRITICAL THINKING PROCESS
1. Identify the problem or situation,
then define what influenced this
to occur in the first place.
2. Investigate the opinions and
arguments of the individuals
involved in this process. Any time
you have differences of opinions, it
is vital that you research
independently, so as not to be
influenced by a specific bias.
3. Evaluate information factually.
Recognizing predispositions of
those involved is a challenging task
at times. It is your responsibility to
weigh the information from all
sources and come to your own
conclusions.
4. Establish significance. Figure out
what information is most
important for you to consider in
the current situation. Sometimes,
you just have to remove data
points that have no relevance.
5. Be open-minded and consider all
points of view. In an organization,
this is a good time to pull the team
into finding the best solution. This
point will allow you to develop
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the critical-thinking skills of those
you lead.
6. Take time to reflect once you have
gathered all the information. In
order to be decisive and make
decisions quickly, you need to take
time to unwrap all the information
and set a plan of action.
7. Communicate your findings and
results. This is a crucial yet often
overlooked component. In
organizations, failing to do so can
cause much confusion.
Week 14: Characteristics of a Critical Thinker
Critical thinking is more than just the
accumulation of facts and knowledge. It’s a
way of approaching whatever is presently
occupying your mind so that you can come
up with the best possible conclusion. If you
are hoping to reach your full potential and
make your mark on the world, cultivate the
following 16 characteristics of critical thinkers.
1. KEEN OBSERVER.
Observation is considered as one of the
first innate critical thinking skills that people
learn as a child. You observe when you
perceive your environment to be more aware
of the world around us. As you observe, you
also take mental notes of relevant details,
which you can use to develop deeper insight
and a more profound understanding of the
world.
2. CURIOUS
Curiosity forces you to keep an open mind
and propels you to gain deeper knowledge—
all of which are also fundamental to being a
lifelong learner.
3. OBJECTIVE
A critical thinker remains objective
despite the situation being affective and
personal. That person can distinguish facts
from opinions, logic from emotions, and
reality from wishful thinking. Moreover,
judgment is not dictated by other compelling
people. Nevertheless, being objective does
not mean losing all your personal beliefs,
biases, and preferences. It only means being
aware of your weaknesses and knowing how
to separate subjectivity from objectivity. It is
also the first step to becoming an analytical
thinker.
4. INTROSPECTIVE
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Introspection is the state of being aware
of your own manner of thinking and train of
thought. It means knowing when to shift
thoughts or to stop altogether.
Introspection allows you to stay alert, and
attentive at all times.
It is also a good quality to have when
self-reflecting on your decisions and actions.
5. ANALYTICAL THINKER
Critical thinkers are innate analytical
thinkers, and analytical thinkers are on their
way to becoming critical thinkers. The
ability to analyze information is key when
looking at anything, whether it is a piece of
business document, statistical data or a
pressing situation.
To analyze information, you need to break
information down to its component parts and
evaluate how well those parts function
together and separately. Analysis relies on
observation—on gathering and evaluating
evidence so you can come to a meaningful
conclusion.
6. IDENTIFIES BIASES
Critical thinkers challenge their own
beliefs by verifying the sources of their
information and looking for alternative
sources. Doing this helps you understand
your own biases and question your
preconceived notions.
7. DETERMINES RELEVANCE
When gathering information, you should
not be distracted by the reputation of the
source, the complexity of the data and the
popularity of the information. Only look at its
relevance to the topic and the arguments
that you are planning to raise.
8. MAKES INFERENCES
Information does not always come with a
summary that spells out exactly what it
means. Critical thinkers need to assess the
information and draw conclusions based on
raw data.
Inference is the ability to extrapolate
meaning from data and discover potential
outcomes when assessing a scenario.
9. COMPASSIONATE AND EMPATHETIC
At first, having compassion and empathy
may seem like a negative quality for critical
thinkers. After all, being sentimental and
emotional can skew our perception of a
situation. However, the point of having
compassion is to have concern for others and
to value the welfare of other people.
10. HUMBLE
Humility is the willingness to
acknowledge one’s shortcomings and see
one’s positive attributes in an accurate way. It
makes us aware of our own assets and flaws,
which shows how open minded you are and
willing to learn. When you have intellectual
humility, you are open to other people’s
viewpoints. This is without saying that you
accept all viewpoints presented in front of
you. You only acknowledge their existence,
but not their validity.
You are also able to recognize when you
are wrong, and you are willing to challenge
your own beliefs when beneficial.
11. WILLING TO CHALLENGE STATUS QUO
Critical thinking means questioning
long-established beliefs and practices and
refusing to adhere to traditional methods.
Critical thinkers are looking for smart,
thoughtful answers and methods that take
into account all the current and relevant
information and practices available. Their
willingness to challenge the status quo may
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seem controversial, but it is an essential part
of the innovative and creative mind of a
critical thinker.
12. OPEN-MINDED
Critical thinkers avoid launching into a
frenzied argument or taking sides—they want
to hear all perspectives. Critical thinkers do
not jump to conclusions right away. They
approach a question or situation with an
open mind and embrace other opinions and
views.
13. AWARE OF COMMON THINKING ERRORS
Critical thinkers do not allow their logic
and reasoning to become clouded by illusions
and misconceptions. They are aware of the
common logical fallacies, which are errors in
reasoning that often creep into arguments
and debates. Some common errors in
thinking include:
● Circular reasoning, in which
the premise of an argument or a
conclusion is used as support for the
argument itself.
● Cognitive shortcut bias, in
which you stubbornly stick to a
favored view or argument when other
more effective possibilities or
explanations exist.
● Confusing correlation with
causation. In other words, asserting
that when two things happen
together, one causes the other.
Without direct evidence, this
assumption isn’t justified.
14. EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATOR
It is hard to strictly define effective
communication as a person’s effectiveness
varies depending on the situation and the
people involved. In general, though, a person
is said to be an effective communicator when
the 7C’s of effective communication are
observed both in oral and written forms:
clarity, clarity, conciseness, concreteness,
correctness, coherence, completeness and
courtesy.
15. CREATIVE THINKER
Creative thinkers reject standardized
formats for problem-solving. They think
outside the box and dare to defy standards
when deemed more beneficial. They have a
wide range of interests and adopt multiple
perspectives on a problem. They are also
open to experimenting with different
methods and considering different
viewpoints.
The biggest difference between critical
thinkers and creative thinkers is that
creativity is associated with generating ideas,
while critical thinking is associated with
analyzing and appraising those ideas.
Creativity is important to bringing in novel
ideas; critical thinking can bring those ideas
into clearer focus.
16. ACTIVE LISTENER
Attentive listening is often classified into
two: active listening and passive listening.
Both involve intent listening, which is good as
it shows genuine interest, but between the
two, only active listening shows adequate
feedback.
Attentive listening, as far as
communication is concerned, is great, but
being a passive listener may not always be
the best option. Hence, one has to practice
active listening and make his or her presence
feel in the group. This is known as the
precursor to assertiveness as one has to
participate in the discussion first before
asserting opinions.
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WARLINIE A. FRANCO
Week 15: The Challenges and Barriers to
Critical Thinking in the 21st Century
- The ability to think critically is one skill
separating innovators and leaders from
followers.
● It combats the power of advertisers
and capitalistic media, unmasks
the unscrupulous and pretentious,
and exposes unsupported
arguments.
● Students enjoy learning the skill
because they immediately see how
it gives them more control. They
argue better in school. They
persuade people around them
much easier. They build confidence
to influence others.
● Critical thinking is simple. It is
merely the ability to understand
why things are the way they are
and to understand the potential
consequences of actions.
The Challenges and Barriers to Critical
Thinking in the 21st Century
- Aside from the emergence of fake news,
which is considered as the biggest challenge
after the advent of the internet and social
media in particular, people in this generation
are facing other barriers that affect the critical
thinking process.
1. EGOCENTRIC THINKING
Egocentric thinking is a natural tendency
to view everything in relation to oneself,
sometimes to a point of having narcissistic or
messianic mindsets. This type of thinking
leads to the inability to sympathize with
others or analyze and evaluate various
perspectives. Sadly, since most egocentric
people are not willing or cannot see this
character flaw within them, this increases the
difficulty in overcoming the barrier.
As students explore themselves and their
rightful places where they can feel accepted
and appreciated, egocentric thinking may
become more apparent. After all, they need
experiences, opportunities for debate,
brainstorming sessions, and the chance to
ask meaningful questions in order to
recognize and understand the viewpoints of
others.
Problems arise when initial victory or
compliment gets into their head, making
them think that one opportune moment of
success in the past can define all of their
future actions and decisions.
2. GROUP THINK
Groupthink is described as a mental
phenomenon where people belonging to the
same group adopt the same manner of
thinking and the same principles, regardless
of how irrational or illogical they are, for the
sake of maintaining a harmonious
relationship or reputation. This is how online
trends start, as people start supporting
trending opinions to feel relevant,
acknowledged and given importance, to the
point when they no longer care if what they
say online reflects their true opinions and
values or not.
Groupthink can lead to unhealthy
decision-making patterns. Like egocentric
thinking, it is difficult to overcome. Breaking
the cycle requires individuals to stand apart
from the group and question opinions,
thoughts, and popular ideas. This can be
especially difficult for adolescents, but
teachers can play a key role in encouraging
independent thought and action in students.
3. DRONE MENTALITY
If you have a drone mentality, this means
you do not pay attention to what is going on
around you. You only pay attention to your
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point of view from atop, not minding what
really happens on the ground at face value.
Daily routines often lead to a drone
mentality and can prevent or cause a loss
of critical thinking skills. This is especially
true when your mind automatically ignores
stressors even when they are necessary for
you to understand reality.
This mentality is dangerous in a classroom
because learners forget how to respond to
new circumstances. It also causes them to
shy away from challenges for the sake of ease
and convenience. They prefer to stay cooped
up in their comfort zones, possibly due to fear
of getting rejected, getting embarrassed in
front of other people, or feeling disappointed
in themselves.
Teachers and students should be in
constant connection with each other to
remove whatever barrier there is that makes
learning awkward and frightening at times.
4. SOCIAL CONDITIONING
Unwanted assumptions and stereotyping
lead to social conditioning. Commercialism
and capitalism do not seem to help either as
they dominate the media with information
controlled by profit-based desires. This social
conditioning blinds us from the realization
that we are making assumptions and
stereotyping in the first place. We often
think not the way we should, but how
capitalists want us to think.
The ability to think outside of the
spectrum is a priceless asset because most
students do not realize they are being
conditioned to think a certain way. Thus,
completely owning one’s thoughts is a special
characteristic that not everyone gets to enjoy.
Teachers can help their learners by
presenting objective information and then by
subsequently providing different
interpretations, which may be used by
students as examples to create their own
interpretations later on.
5. BIASED EXPERIENCES
Personal biases can prohibit critical
thinking because they prevent the thinker
from being fair, inquisitive and open-minded.
This kind of thinking can also prevent an
individual from using experience, reasoning
and common sense to make informed
decisions.
6. TIME PRESSURE
It is especially important that teachers do
their best to create a learning schedule that is
not hindered by time constraints. However,
since this is not possible for all activities and
quizzes due to class scheduling concerns,
students should also adhere to set rules and
instructions to avoid experiencing any
problems.
Prioritization, nonetheless, is becoming a
challenge for many learners belonging to the
younger generation due to the advent of the
internet, especially with social media and
online games readily accessible for everyone.
Hence, it is of utmost importance for all
learners to clearly identify and understand
their goals in life, which should comprise their
priority list.
7. INTOLERANCE AND ARROGANCE
Intolerance and arrogance are never
characteristics that will match the
descriptions of genuine critical thinkers.
Furthermore, finding solutions is almost
impossible while having close-mindedness.
Without critical thinking skills, people
usually react thoughtlessly and recklessly to
situations. Nonetheless, they should assess
and take responsibility for their decisions and
actions while accepting the rewards or
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consequences that follow those decisions and
actions.
Intolerance and arrogance undermine
creativity, which leaves no room for other
suggestions for problem-solving. If learners
believe no better solution to a problem exists,
a teacher must have students question their
logic.
● What do I think about this topic?
● What could be the reason behind
this thought?
● Where and how did I know about
this information?
● What does the information imply?
● Would it be more beneficial if I
change my view?
REMEMBER:
Critical thinkers do not accept
information presented in front of them right
away. They sort out and filter what needs to
be accepted and what needs to be rejected.
That is only possible if you keep asking
questions and challenging the veracity of
information presented to you.
Week 16: CRITICAL THINKING AND CRITICAL
READING
How are critical reading and critical
thinking different but still closely related to
each other?
Critical reading is definitely a technique
for discovering information and ideas
within a text, it refers to careful, active,
reflective, analytic reading. while critical
thinking is a technique for evaluating
information and ideas, and for deciding
what to accept and believe. It involves
reflecting on the validity of what you have
read in light of your prior knowledge and
understanding of the world.
THE TWO TOGETHER IN HARMONY
In reality, critical reading and critical
thinking work together. Both are crucial
parts—usually standing on different ends—of
the same intricate yet worthwhile cycle of
progressive analysis and evaluation. Critical
thinking allows us to monitor our
comprehension as we read.
Critical thinking depends on critical
reading. You can think critically about a text
(critical thinking) only if you have understood
it (critical reading). We raise objective
arguments based on facts and evidence,
which we critically think about only after
painstakingly researching them through
critical reading.
THE USEFULNESS OF THE DISTINCTION
Students might wonder why there is still a
useful distinction between critical reading
and critical thinking when they belong to the
same process and are closely linked with each
other.
The usefulness of the distinction lies in its
reminder that we must read each text on its
own merits, not imposing our prior
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knowledge or views on it. While we must
evaluate ideas as we read, we must not
distort the meaning within a text just
because we have dissenting prior knowledge.
Remember that to think critically is to learn
and re-learn actively; that is only possible if
we keep our minds open for new information.
READING CRITICALLY: VERIFYING AND
VALIDATING THE TEXT
Certain tasks must be done when
performing critical reading, regardless of the
nature of the text and the type of topic
involved. A writer must:
● address a specific topic
● define terms clearly
● present logical and objective
evidence
● account for the common
knowledge
● explain the exceptions, if there are
any
● show that the causes can precede
effects
● show conclusions based on logic
through arguments supported by
evidence
THINKING CRITICALLY: EVALUATING THE
EVIDENCE
We often read to gather information that
we can apply and perform. While correcting
inaccurate information is easier when we
simply read to learn new information, the
same might not be the case when we read for
practical application. That is, correcting
something in your head is faster and easier
than correcting your wrong action that arose
from reading wrong information. There will
be consequences involved at this point.
Hence, we must decide what to accept as
true and useful before applying them to any
task.
As readers, we want to accept as fact only
that which is true. To evaluate a conclusion,
we must evaluate the evidence upon which
that conclusion is based. We do not want just
any information; we want reliable information
culled from reliable sources.
CRITICAL THINKING BY A CRITICAL READER
No one always acts purely objectively and
rationally. It is human nature to be
subjective and irrational at times.
Critical thinking includes a complex
combination of skills. The following skills are
the ones that you should adopt and inculcate
in your system.
RATIONALITY
We are rational critical thinkers if we:
● Rely on reason rather than
emotion
● Require evidence, ignore
arguments without any valid
evidence, and follow evidence
where it leads
● Are concerned more with finding
the best explanation than being
right in analyzing
● Apparent confusion and asking
questions
● Prioritize truths and facts over
emotional satisfaction and
ego-feeding
SELF-AWARENESS
We are self-aware critical thinkers if we:
● Weigh the influences of motives
and bias
● Recognize our own assumptions,
prejudices, biases, or points of
view
● Accept both our mistakes and
achievements as far as
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argumentation and reasoning are ● Recognize the relevance and/or

concerned merit of alternative assumptions
and perspectives
HONESTY ● Recognize the extent and weight
We are honest critical thinkers if we: of evidence
● Recognize emotional impulses,
selfish motives, nefarious purposes,
or other modes of self-deception
● Recognize what we feel for what
they are and not for what we
want them to be

OPEN-MINDEDNESS
We are open-minded critical thinkers if we:
● Evaluate all reasonable inferences
Set aside biases when analyzing
and evaluating information
● Consider a variety of possible
viewpoints or perspectives
● Remain open to alternative
interpretations
● Accept a new explanation, model,
or paradigm because it explains
the evidence better, is simpler,
has fewer inconsistencies, or
covers more data
● Accept new priorities in response
to a reevaluation of the evidence or
reassessment of our real interests
● Do not reject unpopular views out
of hand

DISCIPLINE
We are disciplined critical thinkers if we:
● Are precise, meticulous,
comprehensive, and exhaustive
● Resist manipulation and irrational
appeals
● Avoid snap judgments

SOUND JUDGMENT
We are critical thinkers with good and sound
judgment if we:
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Week 17: CRITICAL THINKING AND LOGIC
Logic is the study of the criteria used in
evaluating inferences or arguments.
An inference is a process of reasoning in
which a new belief is formed based on
evidence or proof supposedly provided by
other beliefs.
An argument is a collection of
statements or propositions, some of which
are intended to provide support or evidence
in favor of one of the others.
The premises of an argument are those
statements or propositions in it that are
intended to provide support or evidence.
The conclusion of an argument is that
statement or proposition for which the
premises are intended to provide support (in
short, it is the point the argument is trying
to make).
DEDUCTIVE LOGIC AND INDUCTIVE LOGIC
DEDUCTIVE LOGIC
● An argument is deductive if the
author intends it to be so strong
that it is impossible for the
premises to be true and the
conclusion to be false, or in other
words, that the conclusion follows
necessarily from the premises. A
deductive argument attempts
(successfully or unsuccessfully) to
provide full proof of the conclusion.
● Involves using general premises to
form a specific conclusion
EXAMPLES OF DEDUCTIVE LOGIC
Premises:
All plants with rainbow berries are poisonous.
This plant has rainbow berries.
Conclusion:
This plant is poisonous.
Premises:
I am lactose intolerant. Lactose-intolerant
people get sick when they consume dairy.
This milkshake contains dairy.
Conclusion:
I will get sick if I drink this milkshake.
INDUCTIVE LOGIC
● An argument is inductive if the
author intends it only to be so
strong that it is improbable that
the premises could be true and the
conclusion false, or in other words,
that the conclusion is likely if the
premises are true. An inductive
argument only attempts
(successfully or unsuccessfully) to
provide evidence for the likely
truth of the conclusion, rather than
outright proof.
● Involves starting from specific
premises and forming a general
conclusion
EXAMPLES OF INDUCTIVE LOGIC
Premise:
All known fish species in this genus have
yellow fins.
Conclusion:
Any newly discovered species in the genus is
likely to have yellow fins.
Premises:
This volcano has erupted about every 500
years for the last 1 million years. It last erupted
499 years ago.
Conclusion:
It will erupt again soon.
VALIDITY AND SOUNDNESS
- A deductive argument is VALID if it has a
form that would make it impossible for the
premises to be true and the conclusion
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false, or if the conclusion follows necessarily
from the premises.
- To test whether an argument is valid, you
should first imagine that the premises are
true and then ask yourself, without appealing
to any other knowledge you have, could you
still imagine the conclusion being false? If you
can, the argument is invalid. If you cannot,
then the argument is valid.
- Validity does not have to do with the
actual truth or falsity of the premises. It only
has to do with what would follow from them
if they were true. A valid argument can have
false premises. For example:
1. All toasters are items made
of gold.
2. All items made of gold are
time-travel devices.
3. Therefore, all toasters are
time-travel devices.
- It may be hard to imagine these
premises as true, but it is not hard to
recognize that if they were true, the
conclusion would also be true.
- To be a good argument, an argument
must also have true premises. An argument
with true premises is called factually
correct. A sound argument is an argument
that is both valid and factually correct.
- An invalid argument may have true or
false premises and a true or false
conclusion.
- A valid argument may have false
premises with either a true or a false
conclusion. The only combination that is
ruled out is a valid argument with true
premises and a false conclusion. Sound
arguments always have true conclusions.
ARGUMENT FORM
- The validity of a deductive argument is
determined entirely by its form. Consider
these arguments.
1. All tigers are mammals.
2. No mammals are creatures
with scales.
3. Therefore, no tigers are
creatures with scales.
1.
All spider monkeys are
elephants.
2. No elephants are animals.
3. Therefore, no spider
monkeys are animals.
- These arguments share the same form:
All A are B, and No B is C. Therefore, No A is
C. All arguments with this form are valid.
Thus, the examples given earlier are valid.
Now consider:
1. All basketballs are round.
2. The Earth is round.
3. Therefore, the Earth is a
basketball.
1. All Jedis are one with the
force.
2. Yoda is one with the force.
3. Therefore, Yoda is a Jedi.
- These arguments also have the same
form. All A are F. X is F. Therefore, X is an A.
All arguments with this form are invalid. It
may seem like a good argument because all
the premises and the conclusion are true (at
least in fiction) but note that the conclusion
isn't made true by the premises. It could be
possible for the premises to be true and the
conclusion false. It is invalid, and all invalid
arguments are unsound. It is not a good
argument.
SOME LOGICAL PITFALLS
1. Begging the Question
❖ Begging the question is a type of
logical fallacy that is based on
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assumptions rather than on
concrete evidence. It is often
unpersuasive and can be easy to
spot in its simple forms; it uses the
claim it is trying to prove as a
premise for the argument in order
to prove the very same claim.
❖ It’s also known as petitio principii
(Latin for “assuming the initial
point”) and “chicken and the egg
argument”, and it is seen as a form
of circular reasoning.
❖ This occurs when the conclusion
of an argument is assumed in one
of its premises. The validity of this
type of argument requires its own
conclusion to be true.
As such, the logical form for this is:
Claim Y assumes X is true.
Therefore, X is true.
Or simply:
X is true because X is true.
Example #1:
Murder is always lawfully and morally wrong.
Therefore, abortion is morally wrong.
( Y assumes X is true. Therefore, X is true.)
God exists because it says that God exists in
the Bible, and everything in the Bible is the
true word of God.
(X is true because X is true.)
Example #2:
Same-sex marriage is unnatural since human
beings are naturally attracted to the opposite
sex. ( Y assumes X is true. Therefore, X is true.)
Love is the most important emotion since all
the other emotions are inferior to it.
(X is true because X is true.)
Example #3:
The Beatles are the greatest band of all time
because they’ve sold more records than any
other band. ( Y assumes X is true. Therefore, X
is true.)
The Apple iPhone is the best smartphone on
the planet because no one makes a better
smartphone than Apple does. (X is true
because X is true.)
2. Appeal to Ignorance Fallacy
❖ In this fallacy, a statement must be
true if it cannot be proven false —
or false if it cannot be proven true.
Reasoning in such a way is invalid.
Something can be true even if no
one has succeeded in showing it to
be true.
❖ Appeal to ignorance fallacy
examples can include abstractions,
the physically impossible to prove,
and the supernatural.
Example #1:
No one has even proven that there is life after
death. Therefore, there is no life after death.
Example #2:
There are no ghosts because I have never
experienced encountering one.
UFOs do not exist because nobody has seen
them before.
3. The Wishful Thinking Fallacy
❖ This fallacy is committed when
someone makes conclusions based
on what he/ she wants to happen,
and not on what actually
happened.
 CRITICAL READING, WRITING, AND THINKING
BS PSYCHOLOGY 2-YA-6
WARLINIE A. FRANCO

❖ It is an example of cognitive bias
that occurs when people want
something to be true so badly
that they believe it to be true,
even if there is no evidence
supporting the idea.
Example #1:
The idea of living in a universe without God
would be frightening and depressing, and
very difficult to accept. Therefore, God must
exist.
Example #2:
Aldub loveteam exists in real life, too, just
because the Aldub fans wanted them so
badly to live a happy ending.
4. The "Ad Hominem" Fallacy
❖ Ad hominem is a logical fallacy
that involves a personal attack: an
argument based on the perceived
failings of an adversary rather
than on the merits of the case.
❖ When your rebuttal to an
opponent's position is an
irrelevant attack on the opponent
personally rather than the subject
at hand, to discredit the position
by discrediting its supporter.
❖ It translates as "against the man“
and not on the idea/ argument
itself.
wrong because recent data show that the
issue is multifaceted and thus cannot be
solved through a simple budget increase.
You’re dumb for using simplistic thinking.”
Example #2:
“You have no idea what you’re talking
about; you’ve only lived here for six months.”
“It’s hard to take your claims seriously
because you spend your days playing video
games.”
“Steve thinks Earth is flat, so who knows
what other crazy stuff he believes?”
FACT AND OPINION
★ A fact is something that is true.
★ An opinion is something that
someone believes to be true.
★ Sometimes people disagree about
what the fact of the matter is
regarding a certain question. In
those cases, there are many
opinions, but only one fact.
★ Those people whose opinion
agrees with the facts are correct;
those who have other opinions
are incorrect.

Example #1:
Former President Clinton has argued in
favor of increasing restrictions on the sale of
guns. But President Clinton is a lecherous,
adulterous, untrustworthy, draft-dodging old
pervert, so his views must surely be
misguided.
“You’re wrong because you’re too dumb
to understand the issue.” instead of “You’re