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© 2023 The Authors Journal of Hydroinformatics Vol 00 No 0, 1 doi: 10.2166/hydro.2023.281

Water distribution system modelling of GIS–remote sensing and EPANET for the
integrated efficient design

Pranit Dongarea, Kul Vaibhav Sharma a, *, Vijendra Kumara and Aneesh Mathewb
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Dr Vishwanath Karad MIT World Peace University, Pune, Maharashtra 411038, India
b
Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirapalli, Tamilnadu 620015, India
*Corresponding author. E-mail: kulvaibhav.sharma@mitwpu.edu.in

KVS, 0000-0002-8559-3647

ABSTRACT

Urban settlement depends on water distribution networks for clean and safe drinking water. This research incorporates geographic infor-
mation systems (GIS), remote sensing (RS), and hydraulic modelling software EPANET to analyze and construct water distribution systems
in Bota town, India. Satellite images and hydrological data have been utilized for management of the Bota town’s water supply network,
sources to cater the demand for urban centres. EPANET simulates hydraulic behaviour in the water distribution system under different oper-
ating situations. EPANET simulation shows network leaks, low pressure, and substantial head loss. These findings have advised water
distribution system improvements by analyzing network shortcomings. Booster pumps, new pipelines, and repairing of existing leakages
are examples of such improvements. GIS, remote sensing, and EPANET provided a comprehensive water distribution system study and
more accurate and efficient improvement identification. This study emphasizes the necessity of new technologies in water distribution
system analysis and design. The study solves Bota town’s water distribution system problems of low pressure, high head loss, and leaks
utilizing GIS, remote sensing, and EPANET. The findings of this research can help in enhancing the water delivery systems in other towns
with comparable issues.

Key words: water distribution network, water head, water network simulations, water pressure, zonal maps

HIGHLIGHTS

• Novel integration of GIS, remote sensing, and EPANET for water distribution system analysis.
• Focus on water distribution challenges in Bota town.
• Improved system efficiency and equitable water distribution as anticipated outcomes.
• Practical applications for water utilities and policymakers in water resource management.
• Replicable methodology with potential for global applicability.

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Licence (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0), which permits copying and
redistribution for non-commercial purposes with no derivatives, provided the original work is properly cited (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

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GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

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1. INTRODUCTION
Providing potable water has been a significant challenge throughout human history in terms of both quantity and quality, as
most historical civilizations have resided near water sources. Water is an indispensable natural resource that determines
human habitation and the quality of life. Despite its abundance on Earth, the availability and quality of water do not
always meet everyone’s requirements. The equilibrium between water supply and demand is crucial, and the availability of
potable water controls the development level of any region (Gober et al. 2010). If the water supply cannot meet the
demand, further development in a region is not sustainable. In India, water management has been traditionally done by con-
struction of large dams and canal system to increase the availability of pure water to satisfy the expanding demand of
consumers. With the limited water supply and established spread out urban infrastructure of the 21st century, a more effective
demand management is necessary to ensure a sustainable water supply. The evaluation of population growth and the efficacy
of alternative water supply network techniques, management policies, regulations, and conservation activities can benefit
from water-use data (Karadirek et al. 2012).
Water is a nonrenewable resource with limited availability and ever growing utilization. The urban water supply has
become vulnerable due to factors such as high population density, expanding urbanization, economic growth, and climate
change. An efficient infrastructure has been required to provide pure potable water to consumers. Urban water cycle com-
ponents include collection, treatment, and discharge of used water back into the environment (Oviedo-Ocaña et al. 2020).
Water collection, treatment, storage, and distribution to residential, commercial, and industrial consumers comprise the
water supply system (Peng et al. 2020). Sustainable development necessitates adapting and mitigating the effects of climate
change, which can present difficulties in urban and peri-urban water provision, such as modifying water consumption pat-
terns and devising emergency plans (Abdy Sayyed et al. 2015). New strategies and technologies, including digital water
solutions, are required to address these challenges. The European model for a water-wise society entails a paradigm transition
towards sustainable and climate-resilient water management. GIS is a system that collects, stores, incorporates, and analyses
geographically referenced data (Fernández Moniz et al. 2020). GIS-based water network permits the identification of spatial
relationships between map features and different attributes pertaining to related properties of spatial object on Earth surface.
The fundamental ability of GIS has disclosed the relationships between features by superimposing remotely sensed maps of
water entitlements, river networks, and river basins in water availability modelling research (Panagopoulos et al. 2012).
The urban sprawl and rise in populations have increased the difficulty of meeting end user’s water demands. To resolve
these issues, well planned steps should be taken to develop a system that is effective, regular, and well-managed (Mohapatra
et al. 2014). In this paper, an attempt has been made to analyze the administration of Bota town domestic water supply net-
work performance using EPANET and GIS software. Bota is a swiftly expanding metropolis in India’s Maharashtra state. The
town has encountered difficulties in providing secure and pure potable water to its growing population. The city’s existing
water distribution system is outdated and must be modernized to satisfy the rising demand for water. In this study, geo-spatial
features of piped network and EPANET-based simulations have been used to analyze and design water distribution systems.
The purpose of our research is to create a map of Bota town’s water distribution zone and examine the traditional method of
domestic water supply management system using EPANET for a region.
The ground-level collected municipality data has been superimposed on ARC GIS software to produce zonal maps of water
distribution network as a part of the research methodology. The raster image obtained from Google Earth Engine has been
georeferenced with toposheets coordinates produced on the map. The boundaries of each settlement zone, water supply data
and schedules of Elevated Surface Reservoirs (ESR) have been outlined on the geo-spatial map. The vector images of piped
network and digital elevation model (DEM) have been used to create the final thematic map. The distribution system has been
analyzed using EPANET software, which provides pipe and junction information. The authors emphasized the significance of
utilizing hydraulic modelling software, such as EPANET, to simulate the passage of water in the distribution network and
evaluate the efficacy of the network under various circumstances (Venkata Ramana & Sudheer Chekka 2018). The construc-
tion of the GIS-based map has been essential as it enables precise identify each urban settlement zone, water demands,
network issues with plotted the ESR data. The design and analysis of water distribution systems without GIS-based simulated
maps would have been much difficult. The research methodology has been effective in analyzing and designing the water
distribution system of Bota town using GIS and RS tools.
This research paper emphasizes the importance of utilizing hydraulic modelling software such as EPANET; to simulate the
flow of water in the distribution network and evaluate its efficacy under a variety of circumstances. EPANET can assist in

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identifying a variety of issues, including low water pressure, inefficient distribution, and water contamination. EPANET can
assist in identifying strategies to enhance water quality and distribution, increase efficiency, and reduce water loss by analyz-
ing and modelling water distribution systems. This paper examines previous studies that utilized remote sensing (RS), GIS,
and EPANET to optimize water distribution networks, evaluate the influence of network design on water quality, and identify
improvement areas.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Many studies have used geo-spatial images of water distribution network and assessed its performance, and prioritized
improvement opportunities. Pioneer research goals have been the digitization of land use maps at a scale of 1:25,000, avail-
ability of natural resources, and to create an optimum land use plan. RS and GIS have identified environmentally sensitive
regions for land use planning in urban and rural areas (Sharma et al. 2020a, 2023; Singh et al. 2023). Understanding the topo-
graphy and its features is essential for land use planning. The wetland rice ecosystem was underscoring the need of protecting
these catchment regions of mostly thick and open forests for land use planning.
The USEPA’s Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) programme uses GIS and RS techniques to control water quality. RS
and GIS have made water quality monitoring more efficient and cost-effective. Soft computing techniques can help water
resource managers and decision-makers detect and map pollution sources and improve water quality. The SCS-CN model,
RS, and GIS helped in estimating watershed discharge depth without gauge stations. This strategy helps manage and plan
water resources in water-scarce municipalities at low cost (Nagarajan & Poongothai 2012). An improved user interface
can manage input choices including contour-based node elevation calculation. GIS has been used to design water distribution
networks that supply potable water across huge regions at the right volumes and pressures. AVENUE and the Dialogue
Designer Extension in Arcview3.1 have been used to create database-supported mapping interfaces (Qasem & Jamil 2021).
RS and GIS can categorize crops, estimate rainfall and snowfall, analyze soil moisture, and utilize surface and ground-
water, for water resource management. The geographical dataset might improve our understanding of the hydrology of
data-scarce transboundary basins with considerable climate variability (Kumar et al. 2023a, 2023b). Optimization model
of pipe diameter along with other layers like the city’s topographic layer has understand network behaviour and identify criti-
cal zones in urban areas. Multi-criteria decision analysis and GIS techniques have calculated the water needs of Mytilene’s
municipal areas (Lee et al. 2020). Egypt has most of the world’s groundwater. Egypt occupies one million km2 in northern
Africa (Elbeltagi et al. 2020a, 2020b). The 10 most significant characteristics on urban growth and water demand have been
evaluated with potential urban water demand map using GIS and AHP findings. The suggested technique was validated by
spatially correlating the map with water usage and active water connection variation maps.
AutoCAD 2000 has been used for drafting the hypothetical water distribution system’s water CAD design. Water CAD’s
hydraulic analysis, including junction pressure, pipe flow, and reservoir water level, has been exported and translated into
database files using ArcView. This research saves time and cost in the construction of water supply network. This has
been a fast, easy, and flexible method. GIS can easily oversee regular network design difficulties if enough amount of
ground data is available. QGIS and USLE model has estimated the soil erosion for different watershed and water levels.
Soil erosion is a complicated dynamic process in which productive soil surface is separated, transported, and stored else-
where, exposing beneath soil to atmospheric phenomena. This research evaluates Khuldabad watershed average annual
soil erosion using QGIS and USLE. Erosion rates from 0 to 45 ton/year have been classified under Minor, Moderate,
Severe, Very Severe, and Extreme (Muranho et al. 2014b). Predicting future network interventions and budgeting requires
knowledge about fractures and renewals. Satellite data may be utilized to create water reports, restrict upstream water
resource increase, replenish groundwater, and fairly regulate irrigation (Zohaib et al. 2022).
Monitoring, modernization, rehabilitation, development, and automation are the main components of waterworks systems.
This makes delivering water from the source to the customer by taking inputs from range of changing technological advance-
ments. Hydrological models and GIS analytic tools ease the monitoring and database creation that simplifies water system
planning, operation, and maintenance. Water supply network based on GIS-based system increases the region’s technical,
economical, and legal control. Free and open-source geographical data, tools, and methods have been used to create
Flood Hazard Areas and Flood Risk Areas. The findings identified flood-prone areas and social damage victims (Natarajan
et al. 2021; Kumar et al. 2023c). The groundwater capacity has been estimated because of higher uncertainty in nature and
unidentified values in general. Mapping groundwater potential eases the complication of groundwater management planning.

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These findings aid comprehensive groundwater exploration and management. Open-Source software allows users to modify
and share its source code. The work may be replicated in different groundwater-refilling sites (Gong et al. 2014). RS and GIS
have detected agricultural drought in real time using repeatable, dependable, and free data sources. The research approach
may enhance the canals’ cycle design by shifting water from low water to high-water areas. The technique requires open-
source satellite images of MODIS/Landsat 8 and weather data at the different time intervals (Sharma et al. 2020b, 2021).
A GIS-hydraulic model management system has been used to assess water and sewage networks of city’s water and waste-
water management system. Researchers examined the integrated system for hydraulic condition of the water supply network
to modify the water level as per required conditions. The GIS model visualized Karrada’s water supply and found no defects
(Bera et al. 2021). Several tools have been implemented to manage water distribution networks, learn more about their assets,
and explain why it is critical to use these tools to investigate network malfunctions and assist maintenance professionals in
taking immediate action when problems are discovered, such as a pipe break. Water, waste, and sewers are piped under-
ground. For maintenance and repair, underground pipe networks require financial modelling. These networks perform a
variety of functions, including the transportation of water, garbage, and sewage. Researcher stated that maintenance
works that require excavation, such as road or footpath elimination, may present chances for treating numerous facilities
within the same trench (Comair et al. 2014).
Water transportation efficiency has a substantial impact on water supply system management. The water distribution
system of Tulu Bolo has been evaluated using a hydraulic model of the water distribution network built by combining GIS
and WaterGEMS. The water distribution line failures were simulated to emphasize the importance of water adapting its
flow and speed (Muranho et al. 2014a). They compared pressure distribution in this network in both fault-free and fault-
prone conditions. Thus, the consequences of each broken pipe may be established by examining the area where the pressure
dropped below the acceptable level, how long it lasted, and how many people were affected by the reduced water supply
(Sujatha & Sridhar 2018).
A GIS-integrated DRastic model was used to undertake a complete assessment of groundwater vulnerability in the Nanga-
sai basin. The assessment took seven hydrogeological parameters into account and revealed five susceptibility groups, with
DRastic risk scores ranging from 74 to 198. Notably, 16.80 and 21.38% of the study region had extremely high and highly
vulnerable circumstances, respectively, whereas 18.21 and 27.49% had extremely low and low vulnerability levels (Keyantash
& Dracup 2004; Bera et al. 2021). The study looked at the impact of groundwater quality on the water supply network in the
southeast of Illizi, Algeria. The pH, TDS (Total Dissolved Solids), TH (Total Hardness), TAC (Total Alkalinity), and tempera-
ture of 10 existing wells, all of which delivered drinkable lower Devonian water, were measured. The impact of groundwater
was also analyzed using indicators such as the Langelier Stability Index (LSI), Ryznar Stability Index (RSI), and Aggressivity
Index (AI). Lower Devonian groundwater has low LSI, RSI, and AI values in all 10 samples, indicating under-concentration.
Despite mild activity estimates, the spatial distribution of the Ryznar index was mapped using standard kriging, revealing an
increase in groundwater saturation levels at wells (Figueiredo et al. 2021).
The findings of this study on Goma Township’s water supply have the potential to be applied to other African communities.
The graphical representation of the network’s status provides vital information to managers and decision-makers, allowing them
to make more educated investment and repair decisions. This testing strategy has the potential to drastically lower the costs of
improving water supply networks in Sub-Saharan Africa while improving overall efficiency. Furthermore, if aspects such as
water quality and energy concerns are incorporated in multi-dimensional evaluations, the research could serve as a foundation
for comparative assessments of water supply networks in African cities (Boryczko et al. 2021; Ciraane et al. 2022).
Rapid development, population growth, water scarcity, climate change, and economic growth are all driving factors in
water recovery. This study investigates prior research on developing a water transport system to give recycled water to indus-
try to reduce water consumption. As a result, wastewater reuse is critical for urban and industrial infrastructure as well as
water recovery. It must also create low-cost ways to filter water for commercial reuse. A stable water supply network is
required for recycled water. Using the hydraulic model, GIS was utilized to build and display the network of the water dis-
tribution system. To fully utilize recycled water and supply it to people via a water distribution system, a few extra factors must
be considered, including public opinion, cost, technical feasibility, and health concerns.
The review of literature has given insights at water distribution system modelling studies and emphasizes the importance of
GIS, RS, and EPANET in evaluating and enhancing such systems. The review assists the writers in examining Bota Town’s
water distribution system and making recommendations for improvements. According to the research study, GIS and RS can
be used to manage home water supplies by EPANET, ArcGIS, Global Mapper, Google Earth, ArcView, and QSWATMOD.

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3. METHODOLOGY
The research methodology for this investigation can be divided into four stages. First, data collection and mapping of geo-
spatial data from a variety of sources, including satellite imagery, digital elevation models (DEMs), hydrologic data and
the extant water supply network. Second, the mapped hydrologic data consists of water sources and demand centres in
the town. Third, the water distribution system has been modelled in EPANET to simulate the network’s hydraulic behaviour
under various operating conditions. The simulation results have been analyzed to identify areas of low pressure, excessive
head loss, and network leaks. Four, design alterations and modifications have been proposed to enhance the efficacy of
the water distribution system based on the simulation results analysis. Figure 1 shows the geographical location of study area.
The methods used in computations to establish the required water demand and flow rates for the purpose of developing and
analyzing water distribution systems are depicted in Figure 2.
The study calculation determines the required water demand in liters per capita per day (LPCD) for the Bota Town popu-
lation. The computation considers factors such as population size (P), Per Capita Requirement (PCR), and peak factor (f),
which is a multiplier used to account for spikes in water demand during specific times of day, such as the morning and eve-
ning hours. The research calculation equations allow for the computation and approximation of water demand and flow rates,

Figure 1 | Study area location.

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Figure 2 | Flow chart of research methodology.

which are critical in the creation and evaluation of Bota Town’s water distribution systems using GIS, RS, and EPANET. This
work makes sure that the infrastructure is structured in such a way that the necessary water needs are met in the most efficient
and effective way possible. EPANET does long-term simulations of water and water quality travel through pressure pipe net-
works. The modelling procedure includes data points such as pipe flow, junction pressure, pollutant dispersion, chlorine
concentration, water retention duration, and scenario exploration. This simplifies the calculation of pumping energy and
expenses, allowing for the modelling of various valve types such as shutoffs, check pressure regulators, and flow controllers.
The application can be found at www.epa.gov/water-research/epanet. Figure 3 depicts the modelled input integrated images
of GIS-based water supply network.
The Boatwoman’s Nashik Road zone has been chosen for analysis, specifically in terms of identifying suitable locations for
ESR based on tank analysis, determining distributaries based on junction or node analysis, locating or laying pipes based on
pipe analysis, and running a final network analysis to obtain various water distribution system outputs. The study and evalu-
ation of the distribution system requires considering a variety of elements, including node and link characteristics, as well as
pipe details. This includes calculating discharge in the pipe, flow velocity, and distribution system unit head loss. The graphs

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Figure 3 | Modelled input data.

illustrating base demand and velocity distribution show the former’s temporal fluctuation. The data used in this investigation
came from Google Earth Engine satellite images and RS data. A new map has been created for each ESR, including infor-
mation on the pipeline network, pipe sizes, number of valves and their dimensions, and other characteristics. The goal of
our research is to get data from the Bota municipality residents to various zones inside the town of Bota, followed using
RS software to georeferenced the acquired information. Boatowners’ cartographic representation has been obtained by
reports made by Bota Municipal Corporation.
The proposed methodology entails gathering demographic data from the Bota Town Planning Department for each zone,
followed by digitalization of the data as zonal maps with QGIS. The goal is to analyze the current residential water supply
system and identify any potential problems that may have occurred because of the previous governing body’s actions. The
spatial coordinates and graphical data from the satellite images have been merged with other pertinent information like
base demand, velocity distribution, and pipe properties. The coordinates of sites within Bota town have been extracted
and used as Ground Control Points (GCPs). With the addition of GCP, the transformation settings have modified to use
EPSG:4326-WGS 84/UTM zone 43N as the reference system for the RS image of Bota town.
Bota is situated on the banks of the Kach River, precisely at Latitude 19°330 48.34″ N and Longitude 74°120 31.04″ E. The
town has a population of 7,685 people and a land area of 4.8 square kilometers, according to the 2021 census statistics. The
town’s water distribution is facilitated by one ESRs, for which the major source of water is from Kotmara dam. Each shapefile
layer shows the area covered by one ESR to delineate the various regions on the urban cartography. The determination of the
ESR’s properties and utilization of different features enables a straightforward determination of the spatial position of ESR
within a given map of water supply network, as shown in Table 1.
Table 1 illustrates the settings for a hydraulic modelling software application used in water distribution system study. It spe-
cifies labels and abbreviations for various components such as junctions (JU), reservoirs (RE), tanks (TA), pipelines (PI),
pumps (PU), valves (VA), patterns, and curves. Flow units (LPS – Litres Per Second), head loss formula (H-W, most likely
indicating Hazen-Williams), and default values for node elevation, tank diameter, tank height, pipe length, pipe diameter,
roughness coefficient, accuracy, maximum trials, and relative viscosity are all specified. These options define the framework
for modelling and simulating the behaviour of water distribution networks, assuring reliable and standardized calculations
while allowing for customization based on individual network needs. Table 2 illustrates the various tools utilized for incor-
porating the Junction (Node), Reservoir, Tank, Pipe, Pump, Valve, and Add Label.

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Table 1 | Default ID labels, hydraulics, properties

Labels Hydraulics Properties

Object ID Prefix Object Defaults Property Defaults

Junctions JU Flow Units LPS Node Elevation 0

Reservoirs RE Head loss Formula H-W Tank Diameter 50
Tanks TA Specific Gravity 1 Tank Height 20
Pipes PI Relative Viscosity 1 Pipe Length 50
Pumps PU Maximum Trials 100 Auto Length Off
Valves VA Accuracy 0.001 Pipe Diameter 12
Patterns 1 Balanced Continue Pipe Roughness 100
Curves CU Default Pattern 1

Table 2 | Junction, pipe, tank properties

Junction ID Longitude Latitude Elevation Base demand Demand categories Actual demand
JU1 1,487.83 7,458.3 569 15.7219 1 15.72
JU2 1,602.27 7,387.65 568 20.0656 1 20.07
Tank Longitude Latitude Elevation Initial level Minimum level Maximum level
TA1 1,768.02 7,252.64 568 20 17 20
TA2 1,792.04 7,155.24 567 22 19 25
Pipe Start node End node Length Diameter Roughness Loss coeff.
P12 JU1 JU2 262 100 100 0
P23 JU2 JU3 285 150 100 0

Figure 4 shows the existing water supply network layout, illustrating the interconnection of pipes, nodes, and water sources.
Figure 4 provides the water network head at various junctions, providing insights into pressure variations throughout the
system. The head values at different junctions aid in identifying areas of potential low pressure or excessive pressure, helping
to optimize the network’s hydraulic performance. Figure 5 displays the water network flow at various junctions, revealing the
distribution of flow rates within the system. By analyzing flow patterns and magnitudes, areas of high or low flow can be ident-
ified, informing decisions regarding pipe sizing, capacity, and distribution strategies. These figures serve as valuable tools in
the evaluation and improvement of the water distribution system in Bota Town.
Low velocity in a pipe can be caused by many circumstances. First, blockage or clogging can lower velocity and hinder fluid
flow. This is frequently brought on by foreign elements such as trash, silt, or sludge. Second, pipe diameter matters a lot. An
overly large pipe diameter might make it difficult for the fluid to sustain the necessary velocity. Furthermore, alterations in the
direction of the pipe may cause the fluid to turbulence, which will lower the fluid’s velocity. Pipe pressure decrease, which can
occur from a number of different causes, might potentially be the cause. Low velocity also results from energy losses caused
by frictional losses in fluid flow, which are caused by the fluid’s contact with the pipe walls. The fluid’s viscosity also affects
velocity; fluids with greater viscosities need more pressure to maintain the same flow rate as their less viscous equivalents.

3.1. Blockages or clogs

The velocity of fluid flow in a pipe gets impacted by blockages or obstructions. The cross-sectional area of the pipe through
which fluid may flow is reduced when there is a barrier or restriction. The continuity principle (mass conservation) states that
this decrease in area causes the fluid’s velocity to rise to maintain a constant flow rate. The change in the volumetric flow due

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Figure 4 | Water network head at various junctions.

to blockages has been explained by Equation (i).

B ¼ Q:V (i)

where B is the volumetric flow rate, Q is the cross-sectional area, and V is the velocity of the fluid.

3.2. Pipe diameter

The flow velocity is directly impacted by a pipe’s diameter. If the pipe diameter reduces in a situation where the flow rate is
constant, the fluid’s velocity rises. On the other hand, the velocity falls as the diameter rises. The concept of continuity, which
asserts that for an incompressible fluid in steady flow, the product of cross-sectional area and velocity remains constant,
describes this connection, as shown in Equation (ii). Therefore, to maintain a constant flow rate, the velocity varies inversely
as the cross-sectional area changes as a result of diameter alterations.

Q1 :V1 ¼ Q2 :V2 (ii)

where Q1 and Q2 are the cross-sectional areas of the pipe at two different points, V1 and V2 are the corresponding velocities of
the fluid at those points.

3.3. Pipe pressure

The decrease in pressure occurs as fluid passes through a conduit is referred to as pressure drop. The water’s flow rate through
the pipe may be impacted by this pressure reduction. The fluid’s kinetic energy may rise in response to variables like as fric-
tion, obstructions, or changes in pipe diameter, which lower pressure along the pipe and need an increase in velocity to

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Figure 5 | Water network flow at various junctions.

maintain the flow rate, as shown in Equation (iii). On the other hand, turbulence and system inefficiencies may arise from
abnormally high-pressure reductions. For fluid to move efficiently and effectively, the required flow velocity and pressure
drop must be balanced.

L m2 :W
DR ¼ g: : (iii)
Q 2

where DR is the pressure drop, g is the friction factor, L is the length of the pipe, Q is the diameter of the pipe, m is the density
of the fluid, and W is the velocity of the fluid.

3.4. Frictional loss

Water flowing through a pipe moves through it at a lower velocity due to frictional losses. Friction is created when water flows
through a pipe and runs against the pipe walls. A portion of the kinetic energy of the moving water is lost due to friction,
which results in heat. As a result of the energy being lost as frictional heat, the water’s velocity falls as it moves through
the pipe, as shown in Equation (iv).

Fc:L:S2
FL ¼ (iv)
2:Q

where FL is the head loss due to friction, Fc is the friction factor, L is the length of pipe, S is the velocity, and Q is the
diameter.

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3.5. Viscosity of the fluid

Viscosity influences a fluid’s resistance to flow, which in turn influences the water’s velocity in a pipe. Higher internal friction
makes more viscous fluids like honey flow more slowly for a given pressure differential. Water velocity in a pipe tends to drop
as viscosity increases and vice versa, as shown in Equation (v).

DP:B2
V¼ (v)
4:D:Q

where D is the hydraulic radius, DP is the pressure difference, Q is the dynamic viscosity, and B represents the length.

3.6. Water base demand (LPCD)

The amount of water needed by families for varied everyday requirements and activities is referred to as water demand in the
context of residential water supplies. It includes necessities like drinking, cooking, taking a bath, cleaning, and sanitation.
Planning and designing water supply systems to provide a dependable and sustainable supply of clean and safe drinking
water to communities requires an accurate evaluation of home water demand. The following Equations (vi)–(viii) has been
used to compute and validate corrected model demand.

RD ¼ P:CR:PF (vi)
RD
RFls ¼ (vii)
(246060)
RFls
RFms ¼ (viii)
(1, 000)

where RD indicates required water demand (LPCD), P is the population to be served, CR is the per capita requirement and PF
is the peak factor. Consider PF as 3 for population to be served is less than 50,000. RFI is the required flow in L/s, RD is the
required water demand (LPCD), RFM is the required flow in m3/s.

4. RESULT ANALYSIS
The objective of this paper is to analyze the domestic water distribution system of Bota town using GIS, RS, and EPANET to
deliver potable water to all the areas in the required quantities and under satisfactory hydraulic parameters. The preparation
of the water distribution zone map of Bota town water distribution zone map with a morning and evening water distribution
schedule with ESR location have been generated using the information listed on them. Various results and graphs indicating
flow (LPS), velocity (m/s), unit head loss (m/km), and friction factor in pipes have identified in the run analysis by running the
network in EPANET. The running network in EPANET has additionally showed Head (m) and Pressure (m) at each junction.
The final thematic map of all zones serves as a point of reference for the water distribution zone map of Bota town has been
shown in Figure 6. The morning and evening water distribution timetables of Bota town distribution network for each zone’s
ESR and colours represent two different periods of water distribution in zones. Table 3 depicts a zone map of the morning
and evening water distribution schedules. In the layout, the final thematic map of all zones, ESR, and relevant information is
prepared.
The cartographic representation offers a comprehensive depiction of the diverse hydrological distribution regions within
the urban centre, demonstrating the partitioning of the locality into discrete zones to facilitate efficient administration and
provision of water resources. The implementation of zones aids in the oversight and regulation of water allocation, thereby
promoting fair and effective water governance for comprehending the geographical arrangement of water supply infrastruc-
ture. It facilitates the decision-making procedures concerning the allocation of water resources and the development of
infrastructure in the study area. The bulk coefficient, flow in LPS, velocity in m/s, unit head loss, and friction factor have
obtained from pipe of existing and modified water network shown in the Table 4. Table 4 shows the pipe details or link
details, such as flow in LPS and velocity in m/s, of the existing network and the improved network, from which it has
been discovered that the existing system had some issues because the velocity in some pipes was less than 0.10 m/s.
The velocities in pipes numbered PI20, PI21, PI22, PI26, and PI33 have less than 0.10 m/s. The values for PI20, PI21, PI22,
PI26, and PI33 have all less than 0.10 m/s. The pipes with a violet colour indicate that the velocity is less than 0.10 m/s, as

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Figure 6 | Water distribution zone map.

Table 3 | Zonal data

Zone Zone area (Sq. Km) House count Tap connections Operation schedule Operation time

A 0.059 123 147 Morning 6:00–8:00 Am

B 0.072 200 240 Morning 6:00–8:00 Am
C 0.06 328 360 Morning 6:00–8:00 Am
D 0.065 31 37 Morning 6:00–8:00 Am
E 0.062 94 113 Morning 6:00–8:00 Am

shown in Figure 7. The flow velocity of the network is insufficient. Modifications made to the current network design by alter-
ing the diameter of certain pipes, namely PI13, PI14, PI16, PI17, PI18, PI19, PI20, PI21, PI28, PI30, PI43, PI44, PI47, PI49,
PI50, PI51 and PI55, as shown in Table 5. These adjustments resulted in an increase in the velocity of the pipes, specifically
PI20, PI21, PI22, PI26, and PI33, surpassing the threshold of 0.10 m/s, as shown in Figure 8. The prevention of sediment
accumulation in the pipe was aided by maintaining a minimum flow velocity of 0.10 m/s. The findings of the flow and velocity
are compared between the present network and the revised network architecture in Figure 9 of the research.
The findings unequivocally show that the basic demand cannot be satisfied by the existing network. The ‘Base Demand LPS
as Per Improved Network’ is noticeably higher than the demand ascertained by the municipal body and the existing network,
indicating that the enhanced network is more capable of providing the necessary water. When the network is improved,

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Table 4 | Results of existing and improved network hydraulic parameter

Existing network Improved network

Link ID Length m Diameter mm Roughness Flow LPS Velocity m/s Flow LPS Velocity m/s

Pipe PI1 81 500 100 231.64 1.18 277.97 1.42

Pipe PI2 25 200 26.17 0.83 31.40 1.00
Pipe PI3 21 23.07 0.73 27.68 0.88
Pipe PI4 18 19.14 0.61 22.97 0.73
Pipe PI5 41 3.09 0.1 3.71 0.12
Pipe PI6 41 3.94 0.13 4.93 0.16
Pipe PI7 41 4.84 0.15 6.05 0.18
Pipe PI8 51 14.3 0.46 17.88 0.58
Pipe PI9 78 9.76 0.33 12.20 0.42
Pipe PI10 24 23.83 0.96 29.79 1.22
Pipe PI11 169 500 153.97 0.78 192.46 0.99
Pipe PI12 60 200 7.22 0.39 11.55 0.50
Pipe PI13 27 100 5.21 0.36 8.34 0.46
Pipe PI14 100 1.2 0.06 1.92 0.08
Pipe PI15 141 250 12.44 0.28 19.90 0.36
Pipe PI16 51 100 3.49 0.07 5.58 0.11
Pipe PI17 117 0.41 0.01 0.66 0.11
Pipe PI18 119 3.78 0.08 6.05 0.24
Pipe PI19 74 0.27 0.01 0.41 0.27
Pipe PI20 111 250 14.84 0.08 22.71 0.34
Pipe PI21 155 100 1.29 0.01 1.97 0.16
Pipe PI22 155 250 13.67 0.28 20.92 0.36
Pipe PI23 33 500 122.51 0.62 187.44 0.80
Pipe PI24 42 250 48.48 0.99 74.17 1.28
Pipe PI25 54 23 0.47 35.19 0.61
Pipe PI26 24 250 19.91 0.41 28.27 0.53
Pipe PI27 41 12.77 0.26 18.13 0.34
Pipe PI28 86 150 3.49 0.07 4.96 0.20
Pipe PI29 239 250 7.65 0.16 10.86 0.21
Pipe PI30 156 150 4.39 0.09 6.23 0.25
Pipe PI31 160 250 15.75 0.32 22.37 0.45
Pipe PI32 148 11.03 0.22 15.66 0.31
Pipe PI33 56 500 70.21 0.36 91.27 0.50
Pipe PI34 82 69.31 0.35 90.10 0.49
Pipe PI35 79 250 26 0.53 33.80 0.74
Pipe PI36 75 24.65 0.5 32.05 0.70
Pipe PI37 266 500 28.18 0.14 36.63 0.20
Pipe PI38 24 250 6.69 0.14 8.70 0.20
Pipe PI39 80 5.74 0.12 7.46 0.17
Pipe PI40 151 14.06 0.29 18.28 0.42
Pipe PI41 22 7.43 0.15 9.66 0.22

(Continued.)

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Table 4 | Continued

Existing network Improved network

Link ID Length m Diameter mm Roughness Flow LPS Velocity m/s Flow LPS Velocity m/s

Pipe PI42 77 5.4 0.11 7.29 0.16

Pipe PI43 61 100 2.98 0.06 4.02 0.38
Pipe PI44 596 250 13.67 0.07 18.45 0.28
Pipe PI45 85 500 177.4 0.9 239.49 1.26
Pipe PI46 34 21.94 0.11 29.62 0.15
Pipe PI47 111 250 12.83 0.07 17.32 0.26
Pipe PI48 28 6.3 0.13 8.51 0.18
Pipe PI49 110 100 3.38 0.07 4.56 0.43
Pipe PI50 184 100 3.38 0.07 4.87 0.43
Pipe PI51 173 1.52 0.03 2.19 0.19
Pipe PI52 153 250 6.53 0.13 9.40 0.20
Pipe PI53 92 500 205.47 1.05 246.56 1.47
Pipe PI54 93 250 5.96 0.12 8.58 0.17
Pipe PI55 169 100 3.99 0.08 5.75 0.51

Figure 7 | Water network velocity in the existing system.

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Table 5 | Modified diameter of the hydraulic model

Link ID Diameter of existing network (mm) Diameter of improved network (mm)

Pipe PI13 200 100

Pipe PI14 250
Pipe PI16
Pipe PI17
Pipe PI18
Pipe PI19
Pipe PI20 500 250
Pipe PI21 100
Pipe PI28 250 150
Pipe PI30
Pipe PI43 100
Pipe PI44 500 250
Pipe PI47
Pipe PI49 250 100
Pipe PI50
Pipe PI51
Pipe PI55 250 100

Figure 8 | Water network velocity in the improved system.

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Figure 9 | Comparison of (a) flow, (b) velocity and (c) pressure in existing network and improved network.

demand at several junctions rises significantly, notably Junctions 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 15, 17, 18, 21, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34, 39, 41,
42, 43, 45, and 46. Table 6 shows that certain regions have benefitted from the improved network. With a demand of 15.96
LPS in the better network scenario, Junction 30 stands out as the most important intersection, highlighting the advantages of
the improved network at this junction. Additionally, compared to the municipal body’s estimations, the improved network
shows more constant and uniform demand levels across different junctions. It is discovered that the existing network is
inadequate in comparison to the estimations made by the municipal authority. All things considered; the results point to
an improved network’s greater ability to deliver water when needed.
According to the findings of the simulation, the water distribution system had low pressure in certain parts of the network
and excessive head loss in other parts of the network. The investigation also uncovered the presence of several water leaks
inside the network, which is one of the contributing factors to the loss of water. Based on the findings, many alterations have
been suggested as potential ways to enhance the performance of the water distribution system. The suggested changes
included the installation of booster pumps to enhance the pressure in regions with low pressure, the replacement of old
pipes with new pipes to decrease head loss, and the repair of leakages to reduce the amount of water that was lost.
Researchers working in water distribution systems have performed work that is analogous to this work. GIS technology has
been implemented for conducting spatial analysis and EPANET software for conducting hydraulic modelling and optimiz-
ation (Sivakumar et al. 2016; Seyoum & Tanyimboh 2017). The researchers wanted to enhance the design of the water
supply network by optimizing the pipe sizes, flow rates, and pressures while considering a variety of restrictions and

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Table 6 | Results of existing and improved network-based demand with municipal record

Junction Base demand LPS as per municipal body Base demand LPS as per existing network Base Demand LPS as Per improved network

1 0.00 0.00 0.00

2
3
4
5 3.09 2.57 5.82
6 3.94 3.28 4.12
7 4.84 4.03 5.02
8 4.05 3.37 4.23
9 3.66 3.04 3.84
10 6.13 5.10 6.31
11 3.15 2.62 3.33
12 0.00 0.00 0.00
13 1.41 1.17 1.57
14 0.00 0.00 0.00
15 3.38 2.81 3.56
16 1.52 1.26 1.68
17 4.16 3.46 4.34
18 9.84 8.20 10.02
19 3.49 2.90 3.67
20 4.05 3.37 4.21
21 13.28 11.06 13.46
22 1.13 0.93 1.29
23 4.50 3.75 4.68
24 6.08 5.06 6.26
25 3.83 2.39 3.99
26 13.67 12.18 13.83
27 14.46 12.04 14.64
28 11.03 9.18 11.21
29 11.98 9.93 12.14
30 15.75 13.12 15.96
31 2.76 2.29 2.92
32 4.39 3.65 4.55
33 1.63 1.35 1.81
34 7.65 6.37 7.83
35 3.49 2.90 3.65
36 0.90 0.70 1.08
37 1.46 1.21 1.64
38 1.35 1.12 1.53
39 7.43 6.18 7.61
40 0.96 0.79 1.14
41 5.74 4.78 5.90
42 6.64 5.53 6.82

(Continued.)

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Table 6 | Continued

Junction Base demand LPS as per municipal body Base demand LPS as per existing network Base Demand LPS as Per improved network

43 2.03 1.68 2.21

44 2.42 2.01 2.60
45 2.98 2.48 3.16
46 13.67 11.39 13.85
47 1.29 1.07 1.45
48 1.97 1.64 2.15
49 3.99 3.32 4.17
50 6.53 5.43 6.69

design goals. These studies highlight how important it is to use GIS, RS, and EPANET in the process of analyzing and design-
ing water distribution systems. Researchers can increase the efficacy, sustainability, and dependability of water supply
networks by making use of the technology and software tools, which in turn leads to improvements in water management
procedures (Farina et al. 2014; Georgescu et al. 2014; Venkata Ramana et al. 2015).
This method of utilizing GIS, RS, and EPANET offers time-saving advantages, but it also has some limitations. One of the
most significant limitations is the need for in-depth software knowledge. Implementation and interpretation of the results are
highly dependent on the researchers’ skill with software applications. A lack of knowledge or familiarity with the software
may compromise the precision and efficacy of the analysis. In addition, the efficacy of the procedure affected by the used
computer system. Certain tasks may not support or respond to efficiently by the computer system, which could influence
the outcome and overall analysis procedure. In terms of anticipated outcomes, the study intends to produce a map of
water distribution zones and conduct an inspection and analysis of the distribution system to ensure the equitable distribution
of the requisite water quantity to each location. The authors propose combining GIS, RS, and EPANET to gain a more com-
prehensive comprehension of the water distribution network. These technologies can facilitate the design of an effective and
sustainable water distribution system by providing valuable insights into the system’s dynamics.

5. CONCLUSION
The current study used GIS, RS, and EPANET with ground data to analyze and develop Bota town’s water distribution infra-
structure. According to the simulation results, the town’s water distribution system has various issues, including low pressure,
high head loss, and leakages. The performance of the water distribution system is expected to improve as a result of planned
network enhancements, allowing for the continuous provision of safe and clean drinking water to Bota’s growing population.
The research approach has the potential to be utilized by other urban regions suffering identical water distribution challenges
to improve their water delivery systems. While this research provides significant insights, there are several limits that must be
acknowledged. First, the accuracy of the hydraulic modelling process is dependent on the quality and availability of data.
Incomplete or erroneous water distribution network data, including pipe parameters, demand patterns, and operational vari-
ables, might inject uncertainties and potential mistakes into the results. This emphasises the need of investing in data
gathering and quality assurance processes to ensure the integrity of the dataset. The simplifications and assumptions used
in hydraulic modelling must be viewed as a constraint. These simplifications are frequently required to make calculations
more manageable, but they may not fully capture the complexities of real-world systems. Assuming steady-state settings
and ignoring transient effects, for example, may limit the model’s ability to capture the network’s dynamic behaviour. Further-
more, the success of hydraulic modelling is dependent on the software capabilities and processing resources available.
Limited processing capacity or access to advanced modelling tools may limit the analysis’s complexity and scale. Researchers
should attempt to incorporate transitory behaviours, pressure surges, and dynamic demand patterns into their assessments to
create more realistic modelling. This method will provide for a more in-depth and accurate assessment of the system’s per-
formance under varied operational settings. Furthermore, it is necessary to widen the scope of the research to include
water quality issues, addressing the influence of water quality metrics and contamination threats inside the distribution
system.

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The approach for applying GIS in water distribution networks cuts down on the amount of time needed to collect and store
data in such networks, hence reducing the amount of time necessary for those tasks. The interchange of data between the
hydraulic analysis models hosted on EPANET and the GIS system contributes to the improvement of engineering design
and analysis. In future, study in the topic should go beyond hydraulic analysis to include factors of sustainability and resili-
ence, such as how the network can adjust to environmental changes caused by climate change. Finally, multidisciplinary
collaboration among water engineers, environmental scientists, and data analysts can contribute a variety of viewpoints to
the research, fostering novel solutions and addressing the complex difficulties in water distribution network management.
These proposals will serve as a guideline for future study aimed at improving the robustness, sustainability, and resilience
of water supply networks.

ETHICAL APPROVAL
The corresponding author takes responsibility on behalf of all authors for ethical approval and permissions related to this
research work.

CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE
The corresponding author takes responsibility on behalf of all authors for consent to participate related.

CONSENT TO PUBLISH
All the parties gave their written permission for the article to be published. The corresponding author takes responsibility on
behalf of all authors for consent to consent to publish.

AUTHORS CONTRIBUTIONS
All authors added to the idea and planning of the study. P.N.D. collected materials, helped with making graphs and super-
vised the whole project and gathered the data. The work on GIS and EPANET was done by K.V.S. and P.N.D. The text
was written by V.K. The work of analyzing was done by A.M. All authors have read the final draught and agreed with it.

FUNDING
The corresponding author on behalf of all authors declares that no funds or any other grant not received during the prep-
aration of this manuscript.

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

All relevant data are included in the paper or its Supplementary Information.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors declare there is no conflict.

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First received 29 July 2023; accepted in revised form 29 November 2023. Available online 13 December 2023

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