100 Site Analysis Essentials

© RIBA Publishing, 2024
Published by RIBA Publishing, 66 Portland Place, London, W1B 1AD
ISBN 9781915722058
The rights of Peter Farrall and Iain Jackson to be identified as the

Authors of this Work have been asserted in accordance with the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 sections 77 and 78.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
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prior permission of the copyright owner.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Commissioning Editor: Alex White

Assistant Editor: Flo Armitage-Hookes
Production: Jane Rogers
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Printed and bound by Pureprint Group Ltd
Cover image: Illustration of canal running through central Manchester.
Produced by the Authors with all rights reserved to Peter
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DOI: 10.4324/9781003485988
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements ix
About the authors x
Introduction xi
Chapter 1:
Focus of the study 1
Case study 1
Chapter 2:
Context 9
Tips 1–42
Case study 2
Chapter 3:
Routes 100
Tips 43–52
Case study 3
CONTENTS
Chapter 4:
Environment 124
Tips 53–78
Case study 4
Chapter 5:
Groupings and usage 182
Tips 79–86
Case study 5
Chapter 6:
Interface 202
Tips 87–100
Case study 6
Case study 7
Afterword 238
Appendix 240
Worked example A
Worked example B
100 SITE ANALYSIS ESSENTIALS: AN ARCHITECT’S GUIDE

Glossary 251
Bibliography 254
Index 256
CONTENTS
CONTEXT TIP Key issues to consider
Historical 1 Investigate the layers of history.

2 Consider the stylistic diversity.
3 Explore the historical development with maps.
4 Study the pace of change.
5 Create your own Nolli Map.
Social and cultural 6 Research the social and economic landscape.

7 Investigate the type of people who live and work in the area.
8 Investigate the cultural influences and assets.
9 Use census data to produce your own diagrams.
10 Use census information to understand about local residents and housing
ownership.
11 Identify the local social hubs.
Economic 12 Consider the significance of land values.

13 Review the socio-economic demographics of an area.
14 Consider the influence of ownership and landlords.
Density and development 15 Review the density and plot size.

16 Consider the human density and household composition.
CONTEXT
17 Consider competing future visions and other stakeholders.

18 Consider sustainability when exploring communities.
19 Explore if recent interventions can also provide opportunities.
Materiality and style 20 Consider the availability of locally sourced materials.

21 Research local styles and forms of construction.
22 Consider why the city looks the way it does.
Political 23 Who are the political influencers?

24 Review the Local Authority planning policies.
25 Is your site part of a conservation area?
Physical infrastructure 26 Explore types of places and spaces around the site.
27 Investigate why the city looks the way it does.
28 Identify monuments and nodes.
29 Review the scale of the street.
30 Review the physical infrastructure.
31 Identify neighbourhoods and districts in and around your site.
32 Identify the scale of the district.
33 Consider how historical backstory impacts on the urban grain.
34 Consider the district as part of the overall city.
35 How might the public realm influence your proposal?
36 Think vertically as well as horizontally; consider different programmes
at different levels.
37 Explore underlying city plans and structures.
Invisible city 38 Track movement to provide data on how people interact with the city.
39 Consider the impact of any underground services.
40 Consider traffic data and restrictions.
41 Download or build your own 3D model of the site.
42 Are there any literary references relating to your site?
ROUTES
Vehicular 43 Establish the hierarchy of routes affecting your site.

44 Identify bus and cycle routes.
Pedestrian 45 Experience the city by walking.

46 Explore the alternative routes.
47 Explore pathways based on desire lines.
ROUTES
Transport 48 Consider the bigger picture of transport infrastructure and accessibility.

49 Explore how well your site is served by transport terminals and bus stops.
50 How well is the site connected nationally?
Timeframe 51 Consider how special events impact the city.

52 Review how intensity of use varies over time.
ENVIRONMENT TIP Key issues to consider
Climate 53 Assess sun paths, shading and daylight.

54 Establish the local wind paths and prevailing winds.
55 Consider how the microclimate affects the site.
56 Consider if tidal patterns or rising sea levels have an impact on your site.
Topographical 57 Survey site levels and features.

58 Determine the site boundary – it is not always clearly defined.
59 Investigate the ground conditions.
Natural features 60 Celebrate the natural features.

Consider the roots and crown of all trees within the site.
ENVIRONMENT
61
62 Conduct an environmental assessment of natural habitats.
63 Check flood risk data, especially in low-lying locations.
64 Explore the backstory of any formal landscapes.
Man-made features 65 Consider the existing streetscape.

66 How does street furniture impact on the site?
67 Consider the impact of telecommunications, masts and satellite dishes on
your site.
68 Consider the impact of artificial lighting.
69 Is your site impacted by noise?
Timeframe 70 Investigate how the site use varies over 24 hours.

71 Explore how site use changes over the course of a year.
Street hierarchies 72 Consider the proportion of pavement to road.

73 Consider the street’s height to width ratio.
Sustainability 74 Explore opportunities to utilise the site’s resources.

75 Consider opportunities to deploy local materials.
Phenomenology 76 Explore opportunities to create the sense of a journey

77 Consider the potential for an architectural promenade and mystery.
78 Be aware of historical connotations.
GROUPINGS AND USAGE
Site usage 79 Map out the various functional uses around your site.
How has the function of your site changed over time?
GROUPINGS
80
Around the site 81 Be aware of activities or functions associated with your site or brief.
82 Consider the proximity of key facilities.
83 Investigate the previous uses of the site.
84 Establish current usage categories locally.
Relationship to the wider 85 Investigate emerging types and planned developments.

area 86 Map repeating services, forms and types.
INTERFACE
Site boundary 87 Establish the extent and nature of the site boundary.
88 Assess the permeability of the site boundaries.
89 Undertake an accurate site survey to assess the site’s potential.
90 Consider thresholds where boundaries are poorly defined .
91 Research any legal restrictions impacting the site.
Views into the site Make a sketch looking into the site.
INTERFACE
92
93 How will your proposal impact the townscape?
94 Survey the adjacent properties.
Views out from the site 95 Make a sketch of the skyline.

96 Identify key axes and monuments.
Neighbours 97 Establish interface distances to adjacent properties.

98 How will rights of light impact your proposal?
Access 99 Consider the implications of any legal restrictions.

100 Consider legal restrictions on routes and rights of access.
Iain Jackson: to Jo, Pippa and Dylan
Peter Farrall: to Nora
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We’d like to thank our colleagues and students at the University

of Liverpool School of Architecture, for their help and
encouragement, especially Alex Dusterloh, Lucretia Ray, Anna
Gidman and Nick Wilde. We would also like to acknowledge the
input from the architects who provided the case studies and
gave valuable insight into their design process. Specifically, we
would like to thank Jo Day, Alan Dunlop, Jim Eyre, Ian Ritchie,
Hans van der Heijden, Steven Hodder and Gurmeet Sian.
The overall structure of the book: Context, Routes,
Environment, Groupings and Interface (CREGI) was actually
discovered left on a blackboard at the University of Bristol
School of Architecture in the 1970s, but we have been unable to
find out who gave the lecture! The Head of School and professor
at that time was Ivor Smith and he invited some of the most
talented designers of the day to teach at the school, mostly from
London, and affectionally referred to as ‘Ivor’s flying circus’. This
approach to site analysis has been extremely useful over 40
years of practice and has also been developed over 20 years of
teaching, including the later addition of phenomenology.
Thank you too to our commissioning editor, Alex White, for his
support and encouragement.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ix
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Peter Farrall is Senior Lecturer in Architecture at the

University of Liverpool, teaching in both the MArch and BA
programmes, as well as Professional Studies. Prior to this,
he was partner for 25 years in a multidisciplinary practice in
Chester, specialising in the education sector. He is a former
president of the Liverpool Architectural Society and served on
the National Council and Conduct Committee of the RIBA. Peter
is a lecturer and examiner on the RIBA Part 3 course and has
delivered lectures and webinars for RIBA CPD programmes. He
co-authored the RIBA Good Practice Guide: Fees with Professor
Stephen Brookhouse and is author of Feasibility Studies: An
Architect’s Guide.
Iain Jackson is an architect and professor at University of

Liverpool. Iain worked in practice on educational projects and
completed his PhD on the Rock Garden of Chandigarh in India.
He is the Research Lead for Architecture at the University of
Liverpool and Co-director of the Architecture Heritage and
Urbanism in Western Africa (AHUWA) research group. He is
currently researching the architecture of the United Africa
Company. Iain teaches architectural studio, architectural history
and supervises PhD students. He has co-authored several
biographies including Herbert Rowse and The Architecture of
Edwin Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew.
x 100 SITE ANALYSIS ESSENTIALS: AN ARCHITECT’S GUIDE

INTRODUCTION
Conducting a site analysis is an essential part of the

architectural design process. By carefully examining, recording,
observing and documenting, you can cultivate a deeper
understanding of the place you are designing for. This will result
in a more considered and appropriate solution, crafted and
calibrated for that spot.
Site analysis is sometimes seen as the starting point that
leads to a design solution, but it is also an ongoing and integral
part of the design process. Site analysis can help with initial
feasibility studies, but it can also help refine the design intent
and brief, contribute to the design options and justification and
form part of a post-design review.
Architecture should respond and relate to the place where it
is built. It is a fixture and works best when calibrated to suit local
materials, skills, cultures and communities. Site analysis is an
investigation into these qualities. It must also consider climatic
data – such as sun and shadow paths, temperature and humidity
ranges – as well as society – with its complexity, competing
demands, contradictions and ongoing changes.
Architecture is often expected to (and should) last a long
time. It has a public face and impacts the town, neighbourhood
and street in much more profound ways than most other creative
endeavours and professional activities. Architecture forms part
of our habitat and our environment.
Architects have a duty to design buildings that serve their
clients and communities, and that enrich the lives of future
generations too. By considering the context of the design –
both what has been built in the immediate vicinity as well as
the wider cityscape – you can develop designs that respond
with sensitivity. This should allow you to produce designs of the
appropriate scale and materials, which both optimise the client’s
investment and ensure societal enjoyment of the work.
INTRODUCTION xi
Contextual design does not necessarily mean that everything
‘fits in’ or is deferential to what has gone before. It may be that a
contrast or reaction to what is already there becomes necessary
and appropriate.
Structure of the book

This book provides a series of lenses, strategies and ideas that
you can deploy to increase your understanding and knowledge
of a place. There are many other approaches, but in following
this method and producing your own ‘library’ of findings, you will
pick up the right tools to explore, rationalise and convince others
that your solution is valid, considered and appropriate.
At the end of each chapter is a series of case studies using
projects undertaken by prominent architects to demonstrate
their approach to site analysis and its impact on their design
proposals. These are followed by two examples that show
an incremental approach to site analysis leading to a set of
strategic design proposals.
Site analysis can be broken down into five main headings and
there is a chapter devoted to each of these. You can consider
these as a checklist to work through when conducting your
own site analysis but note that not every item will be relevant to
every project.
Context
This is concerned with the wider area around the site in
question. Consider the density of the neighbourhood, the size
of the city blocks and the historical development of the site.
This should take in a wide geographical range where possible.
Identifying key landmarks, cultural references and other
significant buildings in the area (such as schools, hospitals,
transport hubs, etc.) should also be done at this stage.
Beyond the physical context, this part of the analysis should
also consider the wider sociological and economic conditions
of the site. This data should be represented graphically to help
build a comprehensive picture of the site and any opportunities
for development.
xii 100 SITE ANALYSIS ESSENTIALS: AN ARCHITECT’S GUIDE

Routes
How is the site connected to other places? What is the scale
and nature of these routes? What transport infrastructure
and facilities are available? Proximity to rail and mass-transit
infrastructure may have a major impact on the land value,
usage patterns and desirability of a site. Pedestrian links, the
streetscape and a well-connected urban form can all affect your
design solutions and the nature of the architectural proposal.
Environment
Responding to the climatic conditions of a site can enhance
most design proposals and have a significant impact on
the ongoing energy costs and interior comfort of a building.
A well-sited and properly orientated design can capture
sunlight whilst minimising solar gain, and create spaces that
are pleasurable to be in. Temperature, humidity and seasonal
change should also be considered. Wind, particularly around
tall structures and in coastal settings, needs special analysis.
Noise pollution can be problematic, but it can be mitigated with
a sensitive design proposal. Beyond climate conditions, consider
topography and natural features, such as animal habitats, trees,
rivers and sea levels.
Consider how the site ‘feels’ and the responses it may
provoke in the visitor. Perhaps the site holds a particular history,
myth or association that resonates with the population. Places
can become infamous or gain associations linked to a particular
event or memory. A plot that was once a religious site will have
a different feel and meaning to a place next to a famous sports
stadium, for example.
Not everything important can be measured and a
phenomenological approach can help to reconcile contradictory
or less tangible site attributes. Consider moving beyond what
you can see and begin to notice the noises, smells, textures
and feelings you can detect around the site. Do they have any
implications for your design choices?
INTRODUCTION xiii
Groupings and usage
What takes place in the vicinity of and within the site? Is it
devoted to a particular activity, for example, is it a residential site
or mixed-use office, a restaurant or apartments? Try to find out
how the wider district or neighbourhood is currently used and
how your site fits in with a wider planning agenda.
Interface
This is all about the immediate context and how the site abuts
its neighbours. As well as the physical boundaries around the
perimeter of the site, you need to consider the views in and
out. Consider how the site is accessed and how much of the
site will be built on. What affect will your proposal have on the
surrounding buildings and their occupants?
xiv 100 SITE ANALYSIS ESSENTIALS: AN ARCHITECT’S GUIDE

focus
appropriate to the task. It is therefore important to focus on the
key issues affecting the project and ensure that the analysis is
communicated in a clear way.
Students sometimes carry out excellent analysis, but the
impact and findings of these studies are not evident in the
design proposition. Alternatively, the analysis goes into too much
detail and fails to focus on the key issues unique to the site.
Level of detail
After considering the brief it is important to decide how far to
progress with the site analysis. For example, a brief for a new
museum with national significance will require an understanding
of how the proposed site relates to other similar facilities around
the country and how accessible the site is by car and public
transport. Being able to respond to large visitor groups will also
be important. If the proposal is for a new village hall within a
conservation area, then understanding the needs of the local
community, the impact of the proposal on the local townscape
and how the hall might relate to other community facilities
nearby will be valuable.
You need to consider what is special or unique about the site.
If it’s in an exposed coastal location, then details of extreme
weather will be important, whereas a new visitor centre set in the
grounds of a heritage site will require an in-depth understanding
of the history, landscape and architecture of the site. The point is
to recognise and respond to the unique and specific attributes,
rather than attempting to cover everything in your site analysis.
Analysis and synthesis

Having gathered the data and recorded information about the
site, it is then necessary to analyse and consider which aspects
will impact the design. For example, you may have gathered
information about levels of employment, but what does this say
about an area and how does it compare with national averages?
Setting down the key findings of your investigations, and what
they mean to the project, provides a stepping stone towards
your design proposal.
2 100 SITE ANALYSIS ESSENTIALS: AN ARCHITECT’S GUIDE

focus
in which case it may be necessary to revisit aspects of the site
analysis or modify the design proposals.
Importance of on-site recording

Throughout this book, we stress the importance of visiting
the site to gain a first-hand impression and feeling about the
area. The act of on-site sketching tends to achieve this in a
natural way. Whist sitting or standing to record a scene you
are inevitably absorbed; passers-by may chat to you and you
will take in the sounds and smells over a longer period. These
sketches may also trigger memories in a more significant way
than by simply taking a photograph on your phone. Often, these
recollections can be vivid, months or even years later. Even if you
do not consider yourself to be a great artist, the sketches you
produce tend to communicate something very personal about
the site and this can help when presenting proposals to a client
or in a design review.
Key takeaway
In summary, it is important to identify what is significant about
the site and how this complements the design brief.
Do not try to incorporate everything into your analysis.
Be prepared to revisit the site to test your observations and
findings. This may require you to return several times, even after
you have begun to develop the design proposals.
Draw and map your analysis so that you can communicate
your findings and ideas in a way that explains to others what
is important about the site. You also need to explain how your
site analysis informs your design proposal and ensure this is
communicated in an effective way using appropriate media.
The ‘Quick Start Chart’ breaks down site analysis into five
parts: context, routes, environment, groupings and usage and
interface. These are the key things to consider when analysing
a site and the subheadings help you to explore what might be
relevant to your specific project. The tips that follow give some
examples from actual sites and how they might influence design
proposals. It is unlikely that all of these subheadings will be

focus
Cullen focuses on four ideas: serial vision, place, content
and functional tradition, and these ideas are explored using
sequential illustrations along a route.
Kevin Lynch’s The Image of the City (1960) analyses a city that
allows the viewer to orientate themselves using five elements:
• paths, such as streets, trails, canals and railways

• edges, such as boundaries, walls and the edge of a district
• districts, medium or large, identifiable by common
characteristics
• nodes, which are focal points in a city, junctions, crossing
or convergences in paths, breaks in transport routes, or key
areas people recognise
• landmarks, such as churches, public buildings, monuments or
unique and memorable features.
These are certainly great starting points, but also consider the
site beyond the physical characteristics – make sure you weave
in culture, history, politics and social conditions.
All the maps and other images in this book were hand drawn,
requiring the authors to interpret information to communicate
key messages. A variety of styles and techniques have been
used. We encourage you to do the same. Experiment with
different ways of drawing, use colours, diagrams and urban
sketching to document and enhance your thinking. Photographs
are wonderful, but a sketch can convey far more often with
a lot less. Find your own style to communicate and get your
message across.

focus
the north side with gardens to the south. Areas where noise is
less of a problem, such as the swimming pool and activity areas,
are also located on the south side. Apartments located on an
adjacent site look directly onto the site from an elevated position
and so the roof was important and becomes the fifth elevation.
The analysis, briefing and design process took over a year,
including extensive liaison with stakeholders.

CHAPTER 2
CONTEXT
‘Context’ is the term given to the immediate area around

and abutting your site. It is the materials, styles and physical
infrastructure of our streets. But more than just the neighbouring
buildings, context is also about the wider area, the historical
background and the intangible aspects, such as the social and
economic influences on the area.
Ideally you should first view your site in person to absorb its
qualities. Then search for information online in the form of data,
maps, historical photographs and policies. The ‘invisible city’
and virtual environments are also becoming more important and
relevant as we enter the age of smart cities, data-driven design
and ever-increasing digital realms.
Your site has a collective memory. Traces of the past bleed
through to inform the future. Our buildings and places serve as
a kind of archive, or repository, for and of the community and
its heritage.
CONTExT DOI: 10.4324/9781003485988-2 9

Historical
When considering a proposal, it is often the historical context
that is the most important influence on how the site looks today.
What is the background of the site and the surrounding area,
and what is known about the layers of its history?
Social and cultural

The social and cultural make up of an area can determine what
is architecturally viable and appropriate. Who lives and works
in the surrounding area of your site? What is the social mix
and ethnicity? Where has the population come from? Is it a
harmonious neighbourhood?
There may be traditions, social norms or folk laws that impact
on the cultural identity and provide clues for future propositions.
A qualitative and quantitative review might involve interviewing
local people. An individual’s story can offer unique insights to
the broader perspective and offer a sounding board for future
interventions. Be wide-ranging in your community engagement.
Communicating effectively and sharing your ideas is essential.
Census data can also be useful in giving an objective ‘big
data’ framework within which to work. Just as your design will
be drawn at different scales, consider the ‘contextual scales’
moving from the wider district to the community and down to the
individual level.
When exploring a particular community, it is sometimes
helpful to establish who are the key stakeholders and primary
users of the facilities. Landlords, politicians and community
leaders can all bring a unique perspective too and will have
different concerns to residents and participants. Identifying key
community organisations and pressure groups can be important,
and it is often wise to seek consultation when developing a
proposal to ensure voices and concerns are heard.
Economic
Economics will often drive the viability and appropriateness of a
design within a particular area. Although the client may be able
to fund a project, the extent to which the proposal is appropriate

will be affected by the demographics and the economic
buoyancy of an area.
What are typical land values? Are they increasing? What
rental levels can be realised and what are the council tax rates?
Levels of unemployment will affect the prosperity of an
area, as will typical income levels and the spread from richest
and poorest. These issues are very different from the physical
context, but they still play a major role in what gets built
and where.
Density and development

The existing density – that is, the dwellings/buildings per hectare
and occupancy levels per dwelling – will provide important clues
as to what may be appropriate with a new development and will
also influence the ratio of open space to buildings. A high land
value tends to drive an increased density level to capitalise on
the value and to recoup the expense of building on that land. Of
course, the human density may change at different times of the
day/week/year depending on the type of population and activity
within the area, so it’s worth thinking about how this impacts
your design solution.
Materiality and style

As architects we are aware of the materials and styles used in
the buildings around the site, and it is often this aspect of the
urban grain that makes a place so distinctive. Analysing these
characteristics and what makes the area different to other
places will provide an important clue for your own proposal.
The aim is not to replicate or mimic; a contrast can be more
convincing than an attempt to fit in.
Don’t just think in terms of two dimensional plans; consider
the impact of volumetric scale and different massing in various
parts of the site.
Looking at street elevations, consider the scale and rhythm of
the architecture and what this might mean for your proposal. The
rhythm of the architecture might be expressed through window
patterns, material changes or through decorative patterns.
CONTExT 11
Political
Considering the political context at both a local and national
level provides an insight into the area and may have a big impact
on what can be achieved. Local authority planning restrictions
and national guidelines often dictate what level of development
is possible and what is not. When dealing with projects in a
professional context, these can be critical considerations.
Physical infrastructure
Considering the spaces between the buildings allows the scale
of the street to be assessed, and it is important to think vertically
as well as horizontally. When exploring the qualities of the ‘public’
or outside spaces, consider how successful they are used
along with any space left over after planning (SLOAP). When
investigating the physical infrastructure, consider the ‘solids’ and
‘voids’, the built-up and the spaces, the public and private. Finally,
how does the site fit within the existing street patterns? Is there
a rhythm or over-riding city layout, and how will this shape
your intervention?
Invisible city
The boundaries between the virtual and the real world are
increasingly blurred as online information becomes more
accessible and the virtual world more immersive. Street views,
models of entire cities and virtual reality are all changing how we
interact with, and think about, the built environment. We can use
these tools to test and share our ideas with a global audience.
Our built environment is becoming ‘smart’ – it can respond
to changing conditions and events in real time. Cyber cities,
virtual environments and Google maps can all relay retail and
commercial data informing how we design and can test the
impact of our ideas on the existing cityscape.

Assessment of a site within Clifton conservation area
TIP 1
CONTEXT
HISTORICAL
INVESTIGATE THE LAYERS OF HISTORY.
What you can see

The ‘cross’ or central crossroads at Chester is offset so that the
church forms the end of the vista from Bridge Street leading
south to the river.
What does this mean?

The reason for this is that the original Roman plan had a
principia at this location and the later Christian church was built
in the same place.
How might it affect your proposal?

Understanding the history of the city and the reasons behind
the planning allows you to work with what is already there and
to be sensitive to the underlying story. Unwrapping the layers of
history can sometimes give clues as to how to move forward.
Tip links with 2, 3, 20, 21, 22, 27, 78, 83 and 90.

ad 2000
ad 100
CONTExT 15
TIP 2
CONTEXT
HISTORICAL
CONSIDER THE STYLISTIC DIVERSITY.
What you can see

This street in Chester contains buildings constructed in many
different architectural styles and materials, built at different times
over a span of 500 years. Even so, the overall arrangement of
medieval ‘Rows’, or two-storey shops, is maintained.

Each building says something about the period from which it
dates. They use materials and architectural styles considered
most appropriate at the time they were constructed.

Cities are living things, not museums. In the case of Chester,
the variety of styles and eras of building might also give a clue
to what a modern intervention might consist of. Your design can
also be contemporary, using materials that are appropriate for
our times where sustainability is an important consideration.
Cities can be an amalgamation of many different eras
of development.
Tip links with 1, 3, 18, 19, 20, 21 22, 25 and 73.

CONTExT 17
TIP 3
CONTEXT
HISTORICAL
EXPLORE THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT WITH

MAPS.
What you can see

The top map from the mid-nineteenth century shows the location
of a new park with surrounding cottages, agricultural land and
new brickyards in advance of the planned development that was
to follow. The second map shows the same park 50 years later,
now surrounded by housing development and urbanisation.

The park was set out to aid the development and increase
land value. The housing plots around the park’s perimeter were
auctioned off for large housing development with the prices
elevated due to the close proximity and amenity of the park.

Looking at historical maps of your site can help you to
understand how, why and when development took place. We can
gain a better understanding of a place when we can see how it
was made and how it has changed over time. The old roads from
the nineteenth century, field boundaries and so on continue to
influence and determine how the land is used today.
Tip links with 1, 24 and 29.

CONTExT 19
TIP 4
CONTEXT
HISTORICAL
STUDY THE PACE OF CHANGE.
What you can see

The older map shows a crossroads at a small settlement in
1910. The new map from the 1990s shows the development of
housing estates.
Note how some things remain, whilst others change. Our built
environment may seem static, but it is in a constant state of
flux and renewal. Equally, some older features persist and bleed
through into the present. For example, on these plans note how
the small triangular woodland has remained.

The places in which we design are not tabula rasa (clean slate).
There are always traces of past human activity that shape our
design options.

The built environment is not fixed; it is constantly changing,
renewing and evolving. We may not notice these changes,
but over time they may radically alter a place. How has your
site changed during the last year, decade and century? What
features (such as trees, public footpaths and boundaries) have
been preserved or changed during this time?
Tip links with 1, 3, 24 and 29.

CONTExT 21
TIP 5
CONTEXT
HISTORICAL
CREATE YOUR OWN NOLLI MAP.
What you can see

A figure-ground plan of central Liverpool, also known as a Nolli
Map, after Giambattista Nolli’s drawing of Rome from 1748.
The aim here is to omit everything from the plan apart from
the buildings.

The plan reveals the spatial configurations and relationships of
the built and unbuilt spaces. It reveals patterns, development
formations, typology and scale. By erasing everything and
removing data we are able to see certain aspects of the city
more clearly. You can also ‘invert’ the drawing and show the
buildings in white and the spaces in black.

The Nolli Map reveals how your site fits into the wider city plan
– it shows the relationships between public spaces, transport
routes and the built environment. The density of the site can be
examined and the connectivity and permeability of the cityscape
explored. It is a simple technique, but surprisingly revealing, and
often brings about clarity as a result.

CONTExT 23
TIP 6
CONTEXT
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL
RESEARCH THE SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC

LANDSCAPE.
What you can see

The city of Chester comprises of several distinct districts each
with their own special character.

Each district has its own character and a different social and
economic status.

The economic backdrop can have a big influence on land
values and therefore the viability of what interventions and
developments might be feasible. The social and cultural
landscape can make a difference to the sorts of proposals that
would be attractive and that are likely to thrive in the area.
Tip links with 9, 10, 12, 13, 15, 24, 33 and 79.

CONTExT 25
TIP 7
CONTEXT
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL
INVESTIGATE THE TYPE OF PEOPLE WHO LIVE AND

WORK IN THE AREA.
What you can see

This is Barry ‘The Beekeeper’ Chang. He tends over 30 beehives
in Liverpool and collects the honey to sell. He is also a champion
for the UK’s oldest Caribbean Centre and campaigns to keep it
running for the good of the community.

It’s a good idea to seek out people, like Barry, who can give you
valuable insights into the community. Talk to them and listen to
their stories.

Local residents, shopkeepers and personalities can become
advocates for your ideas and proposals, or else provide crucial
feedback on how the proposal might be improved to resonate
more with the community.

CONTExT 27
TIP 8
CONTEXT
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL
INVESTIGATE THE CULTURAL INFLUENCES AND

ASSETS.
What you can see

This is the Cathedral Quarter of Chester, which incorporates
a Georgian square with offices and living accommodation.
For most of the time it provides tranquil space away from the
main bustle of the city. Every four years the city hosts the
medieval mystery plays and the area is transformed into a
performance space.

Many areas of the country have traditions and festivals that form
an important part of their heritage and calendar.

Being aware of festivals and traditions may influence your design
proposals. There can be practical issues, such as occasional
access and legal rights, as is the case with open markets.
Sometimes, long-standing traditions and folk law can provide a
clue as to how to approach a design proposal, giving it additional
depth and meaning.
Tip links with 1, 4, 19, 28, 52, 65 and 78.

CONTExT 29
TIP 9
CONTEXT
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL
USE CENSUS DATA TO PRODUCE YOUR OWN

DIAGRAMS.
What you can see

This is a map of Litchfield showing the various parts of the
city categorised according to their features and attributes. It is
called Classification of Multidimension Open Data Morphology
(MODUM). Here you can see the city arranged according
to eight broad categories: ‘Suburban’, ‘Railway’, ‘Old Town’,
‘Victorian Terraces’, ‘Waterside’, ‘Countryside’, ‘High Street’ and
‘Central Business District’.

To understand a place, try describing its dominant features and
categorising its different parts. This will allow for broad analysis
and it will help you to understand the constituent parts. It can
also help to inform the identity of particular districts.

These tools can help build up a picture of how a neighbourhood
is organised and fits into a larger settlement pattern. Using
eight categories is a crude, but surprisingly useful, mode of
beginning to describe a place. It will help you to communicate
quickly with others and provide a system for comparison and
further investigation.
Tip links with 5, 16, 17, 25 and 34.

Suburban
Railway
Old Town
Victorian Terraces
Waterside
Countryside
High Street
Central Business District
CONTExT 31
TIP 10
CONTEXT
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL
USE CENSUS INFORMATION TO UNDERSTAND

MORE ABOUT LOCAL RESIDENTS AND HOUSING
OWNERSHIP.
What you can see

This is a map of Litchfield showing the percentage of social
rented properties in each area. The higher percentages of social
housing are located in the northern parts of the city and within
the old town area. South of the railway track there is only a very
small amount of social housing.

This may impact how a place is perceived, the land valuations
and the scale and scope of ongoing development. Affordable
housing is a major issue for many today.

Who are the stakeholders and people with an interest/concern
with your site? How are the communities formed and arranged?
What kinds of needs and services might they require? How
is social provision arranged and distributed? How might
this impact on perceptions of your site? Make use of freely
available information and census data to form new maps and
interpretations of your site.
Tip links with 9, 11, 13, 16, 24 and 32.

90% or more social rented housing
60%–90% social rented housing
20–30% social rented housing
0–10% social rented housing
CONTExT 33
TIP 11
CONTEXT
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL
IDENTIFY THE LOCAL SOCIAL HUBS.
What you can see

This city map shows the location of primary schools in the city
of York.

Primary schools tend to serve a very local population. They often
form the hub of the community, not only for the families of the
children who attend the school, but also for other people who
use the facilities for after-school clubs and activities.

Where major developments create more dwellings, it can
sometimes mean that local schools have insufficient capacity to
accommodate the new children coming into the area. Sometimes
local authorities require a financial contribution to help with the
provision of new or extended schools. Where populations are
reducing, the opposite is the case and difficult decisions must be
made regarding which schools might close. Understanding the
location of the schools and their proximity to populations and
influence is important.

CONTExT 35
TIP 12
CONTEXT
ECONOMIC
CONSIDER THE SIGNIFICANCE OF LAND VALUES.
What you can see

This map of Liverpool shows property values across the city,
which also give a good indication of land values.

Land and property prices affect what might be economically
viable in an area. In the case of Liverpool, some previously
predominantly industrial zones are becoming used for offices,
entertainment and gallery spaces. This change of use pattern
can be beneficial for investors as it increases the value.
However, it may present a problem for established businesses
and community users as they may no longer be able to afford
increased rents.

Being aware of land and property values gives an indication of
what types of proposal might be economically viable. Looking
at future trends can sometimes provide an opportunity for
innovation. Taking risks tends to be what developers do, but of
course, these ventures do not always pay off. Predicting the
future can be tricky.
Tip links with 12 and 24.

£100,000
£150,000
£250,000
£400,000
CONTExT 37
TIP 13
CONTEXT
ECONOMIC
REVIEW THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEMOGRAPHICS

OF AN AREA.
What you can see

This map of Liverpool shows areas of deprivation using multiple
deprivation ratings provided by the City Council in 2013.

The map shows that a significant part of Liverpool’s population
experiences multiple deprivation and social exclusion. In terms
of social disadvantage, around 50% of Liverpool’s lower-level
output areas are classified as being in the bottom 10% nationally
for multiple deprivation.

Depending upon your brief, these statistics can either
demonstrate a need to add a specific type of facility to support
the community, or they might be an indication that a particular
type of development or outlet would be inappropriate within the
local area because the local population might not be able to
afford to use it.

1% most deprived
2–5% most deprived
6–10% most deprived
CONTExT 39
TIP 14
CONTEXT
ECONOMIC
CONSIDER THE INFLUENCE OF OWNERSHIP AND

LANDLORDS.
What you can see

This map shows a large portion of the city under the ownership
of a single landlord (highlighted in blue).

This major landowner will have a significant affect on how the
shops and other types of accommodation are let and may
restrict the types of businesses that can operate within the city.

Being aware of restrictions on ownership and control allows
you to understand the potential viability of different uses.
Opportunities for independent traders may be restricted, either
because rental levels are too high, or because the landlords
want to restrict the types of shops and businesses operating
in the town. In some instances, whole streets may be in private
ownership and what appears to be in the public realm is within
the control of the landowner.

CONTExT 41
TIP 15
CONTEXT
DENSITY AND DEVELOPMENT
REVIEW THE DENSITY AND PLOT SIZE.
What you can see

A map of Manchester showing different scales of plot size and
street patterns. On the left is the Cathedral (in red), alongside
large-scale museums and shopping centres, which occupy vast
plots. On the right-hand side is the Northern Quarter containing
a series of former smaller warehouses and showrooms.

Density can be measured in many different ways (e.g. population
per hectare; building height to street width ratio; ratio of building
area to street area). The height of construction is often the
greatest determinant of density, but the scale of the building’s
footprint relative to the site area and surrounding open space is
equally important.

Consider how your site fits within the wider urban context and
examine how the scale of the plot aligns with the surrounding
streets, neighbouring sites and wider district. A large building
set within a vast site and surrounded by large roads will have a
completely different feel (and lower density) compared to a small
plot with a narrow street.

The medieval cathedral
New large-scale shopping centres, museums and galleries
Victorian commercial retail district
Showrooms, warehouses and workshops
CONTExT 43
TIP 16
CONTEXT
CONSIDER THE HUMAN DENSITY AND HOUSEHOLD

COMPOSITION.
What you can see

A map of Birkenhead showing the average quantities of single-
person households. More people are living alone, resulting
in a major impact on housing provision, development and
associated services.

In which areas are people likely to be living in single-
occupancy households and why? As demographic trends move
towards smaller household sizes there is an impact on our
housing provision.

Changing demographics might mean a different design
approach, especially in terms of housing layouts and design.
What kind of homes should we be making to adequately serve
the next generation and society’s changing requirements?
It is also useful to overlay this with other maps to look for
correlations with healthcare, schools, social housing and access
to transportation. There isn’t one map that can ever give a
full picture.

Average of 60% single occupancy households
CONTExT 45
TIP 17
CONTEXT
CONSIDER COMPETING FUTURE VISIONS AND

OTHER STAKEHOLDERS.
What you can see

A map of old docklands and a former industrial area. The
site sits between major road and rail links and forms a key
regeneration site. The entire site is owned by a single developer
– Peel Holdings.

The developer will have a strategy and vision for its future use.
Any proposals adjacent to the site, and even in the wider region,
will need to be mindful of what is taking place here. Often large
projects like this will have multiple architectural and design
teams working on distinct portions of the site, requiring careful
communication and coordination between the various projects.

The site you’re allocated to work on might be part of a much
larger project and vision funded by a major developer over many
years. The context in which your building sits may not exist yet.
Effective communication and clear masterplanning objectives
are essential for larger scale development and working on this
urban scale.

Parkland
Former industrial site owned by one developer
Sites impacted by the regeneration
River and docklands
Railway and stations
Ferry
CONTExT 47
TIP 18
CONTEXT
CONSIDER SUSTAINABILITY WHEN EXPLORING

COMMUNITIES.
What you can see

This map of the village of Willaston in Cheshire West shows
potential areas of the greenbelt that could be released
for housing.

Local authorities must consider how to meet the housing need.
Often this is done by using ‘brown field’ sites within a city. In
some instances, land previously designated as ‘greenbelt’ is
released for housing developments. In this way it is sometimes
argued that an increase in population, particularly if it is for
affordable housing, will help the sustainability of a village in terms
of schools and shops.

Being aware of the local plan and any changes that are being
considered is important because they might affect your
proposals. These can provide an opportunity where previously
development would not have been possible. However, it can
also be a threat to the existing properties values if the houses
previously enjoyed the amenity of the countryside with views
across open fields.

CONTExT 49
TIP 19
CONTEXT
EXPLORE IF RECENT INTERVENTIONS CAN ALSO

PROVIDE OPPORTUNITIES.
What you can see

This is the Shakespeare North Playhouse in Prescot. The
oak-framed traditional performance space is contained within a
building of contemporary design, which provides hospitality and
technical support facilities.

The town of Prescot planned the new theatre to attract visitors
and provide a catalyst for the regeneration of the area. The
masterplan includes infrastructure improvements to ensure that
visitors can have easy access and good transport links to other
parts of the UK.

Being aware of developments may allow your proposals to
benefit from the potential economic uplift of an area and take
advantage of any associated environmental improvements.

CONTExT 51
TIP 20
CONTEXT
MATERIALITY AND STYLE
CONSIDER THE AVAILABILITY OF LOCALLY

SOURCED MATERIALS.
What you can see

Nantwich is a small market town in Cheshire East. This street
has a variety of houses from different eras, but there is a
consistency in the use of materials, which gives the street a
sense of harmony.

In many areas of the country there is a predominant use of
certain materials because they are available locally and it makes
economic sense to use them. Sometimes this means that
specialist skills are developed to use these materials.

Being aware of what materials are commonly used can inform
what your building might be constructed of. Considering what
type of brick or stone is available locally will allow you to
create something that not only fits into its context, but is also
sustainable, because the materials do not have to be transported
over long distances.

CONTExT 53
TIP 21
CONTEXT
RESEARCH LOCAL STYLES AND FORMS OF

CONSTRUCTION.
What you can see

These buildings in Chipping Campden are constructed in
local Cotswold stone with stone slabs forming the roof finish.
Although there are differences in the scale and form of the
buildings, there is a constancy of traditional details to the gables,
chimneys and around the windows.

There can often be a particular style of architectural detailing
in an area, either because there is the traditional way of doing
things, or because the buildings forms part of a larger estate
where the architect chose a specific style and pallet of materials.

The example shown here is from a rather special Cotswold
village. It is often the case, with less iconic examples, that there
is a particular architectural style in an area or estate, and this
can sometimes provide a clue as to how to approach your
design. It is best to avoid a simple copy or pastiche, but perhaps
reinterpret what is already there in some way as part of your
own contemporary design.

CONTExT 55
TIP 22
CONTEXT
CONSIDER WHY THE CITY LOOKS THE WAY IT DOES.
What you can see

These buildings on Bold Street in Liverpool have a variety of
styles, heights and materials. The street currently has many
independent shops, as well as bars and restaurants. The lively
nature of the architecture suits the different types of users.

The buildings on the street were built in the Victorian era and all
at roughly the same time. The development of the individual plots
allowed the designs to reflect the aspirations of their owners. It
is an animated ensemble, revealing that variety and contrast is
an effective design approach.

If an opportunity came up to develop one of these sites, the
varied nature of the frontages allows considerable latitude in
terms of architectural handling, materials and scale. Picking up
on the lively nature of the street would also be important, as
would perhaps instilling a sense of fun.

CONTExT 57
TIP 23
CONTEXT
POLITICAL
WHO ARE THE POLITICAL INFLUENCERS?
What you can see

This map shows the location of the combined and regional
authorities across England. These are attempts to devolve
power to the larger urban centres under the leadership of a local
mayor representing several local authorities.

The political landscape may not seem important to an individual
project, but the administration of a region – and particularly
that of a larger urban area – can have a significant impact on
investment, development and ambition. Being aware of this (and
where the boundaries of administration and responsibility lie) is
part of our wider understanding of place, site and the context in
which we design.

Large projects and regeneration schemes benefit from political
endorsement and support. Regional mayors and city regions
will have a future vision for their city and its environs. How does
this align with your project and site? What can your project
contribute to the ambition for the city region and its future?

Devolved administrations and metro regions in England
CONTExT 59
TIP 24
CONTEXT
POLITICAL
REVIEW THE LOCAL AUTHORITY PLANNING

POLICIES.
What you can see

This map shows central Manchester and surrounding districts.
The City Council wrote a planning policy document to set out
its 10-year strategy for the city. This included specific policy
targeting dwelling construction at certain ‘large sites and
development opportunity areas’. Other areas were highlighted in
the policy for smaller and medium dwelling sites.

The political vision for the city shaped the planning policies and
approaches to regeneration. The council identified strategic
areas that it wanted to develop in particular ways. It shaped
policy and sought out partnerships and commercial allegiances
to deliver these goals.

Planning policy and regional planning strategy documents can
have dramatic impacts on the built environment. Whether it is
through permitted developments, relaxations of planning rules
or the release of land and compulsory purchases, the political
vision for a place is always worth examining. How does your
proposal align or country wide policy and development goals?

Harperhey
Wythenshawe
City Centre
Large sites and development opportunities
Range of medium sites
Areas in Manchester identified for large sites and
development opportunities.
CONTExT 61
TIP 25
CONTEXT
POLITICAL
IS YOUR SITE PART OF A CONSERVATION AREA?
What you can see

This is a map of Liverpool’s conservation areas. Each zone has
been identified as having an important and unique character
worthy of preserving. Whilst individual buildings may receive
statutory protection through ‘listing’, conservation areas are
concerned with wider characteristics and values that extend to
streetscapes, landscapes and collections of structures.

Proposals within conservation areas receive additional scrutiny
and are expected to respect and respond to the unique values
and characteristics of that area. Planners, local pressure groups,
residents and other concerned parties will pay particular
attention to any new proposals that might be seen to damage or
dilute these important qualities.

If your site sits within a conservation area (or even abuts one),
then special care and design justification will be required. It is
not necessary to ‘fit in’ or produce an historical pastiche, but it is
important to provide clear justification for your design proposals,
and to explain how your design will enhance and contribute to
the conservation area.

CONTExT 63
TIP 26
CONTEXT
PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE
EXPLORE TYPES OF PLACES AND SPACES AROUND

THE SITE.
What you can see

This journey through the old part of Amsterdam moves through a
sequence of spaces, which include some narrow, dark alleyways
and wide, open canals.

Cities are experienced by moving through them, normally on
foot. The variety of space and light, as well as the unexpected,
creates a dynamic journey. In this example, the visitor leaves the
wide tree-lined Geldersekade and enters the narrow alleyways
before coming across the unexpected wide canal basin and onto
a quiet backwater with warehouses.

Being aware of the theatrical nature of a city and how people
move through it allows you to develop a masterplan and place
your proposal in context. This means that you can either build on
what is already there or grasp a new opportunity by exploiting
the unique aspects of a particular site to create incident
and interest.

CONTExT 65
TIP 27
CONTEXT
INVESTIGATE WHY THE CITY LOOKS THE WAY IT

DOES.
What you can see

These two maps of Ipswich show how the settlement has
developed from a medieval market town to its current layout. The
river crossing and civic square are still in the same location.

Understanding the history of a city allows you to make sense of
the urban grain, its roads and squares. At Ipswich, the original
layout of roads is still visible, but the inner ring road for vehicular
traffic tends to create a barrier and makes the medieval street
pattern less obvious when moving around the town. The
connection between the river crossing and the civic square
is lost.

Try to understand how and why a city has developed into its
current form. Aim to be sensitive to earlier layouts whilst also
trying to help unify the city, improve connectivity and reinforce
the urban grain.

1780
2020
CONTExT 67
TIP 28
CONTEXT
IDENTIFY MONUMENTS AND NODES.
What you can see

The city of Edinburgh has many important monuments. The
Royal Mile has the castle at one end and the parliament
building at the other with several other structures of cultural
and historical significance between. Here it shows St Mary’s
Cathedral, Usher Hall, Edinburgh Castle, the Scottish National
Gallery, the Scott Monument, Edinburgh Waverley station, the
National Gallery of Scotland and the Scottish Parliament building.

Understanding the history of a city allows you to make sense
of the urban grain. The roads, monuments and nodes are all
important elements to a city and they allow you to orientate
yourself and find your way.

When working within a city, it is important to respect the existing
infrastructure, history and culture. Views to monuments and
other structures may become design drivers and it is likely that
there will be rules associated with the scale of the development
when your site is close to an important building.

Section through the Royal Mile
CONTEXT 69
TIP 29
CONTEXT
REVIEW THE SCALE OF THE STREET.
What you can see

This is a view of a narrow medieval street in York with buildings
overhanging the narrow passageway.

Streets are places of encounter, exchange and possibility.
They are the shared spaces where the life of a town or city is
encountered or, in a smaller settlement, where the community
can gather.

Think about how your design might contribute to the
streetscape. Consider how wide the street is in relation to the
height of the buildings. What is the relationship between the road
width and the pavement? How is the pavement (or wider public
realm) going to be used and how does the street façade interact
with this domain?

CONTExT 71
TIP 30
CONTEXT
REVIEW THE PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE.
What you can see

This map shows a historic walled city with later developments
outside the wall.

Structures such as old city walls and similar boundaries still
feature in layouts of towns and cities today (even if the wall
has been demolished or dramatically altered). The density and
street pattern will have been determined by these features, and
different districts and parts of the city will have been determined
by their presence.

Density, building plot sizes, access and heritage considerations
need to be considered in your proposal, and these may be
impacted by the historic layout of the town including features
such as city walls and significant historic structures. Look for
shifts in planning density within and outside these structures.
Consider how your proposal might respond to its location within
the older and more tightly arranged districts or the more formal
grid patterns of later expansions.

CONTExT 73
TIP 31
CONTEXT
IDENTIFY NEIGHBOURHOODS AND DISTRICTS IN

AND AROUND YOUR SITE.
What you can see

This map shows central Manchester with the large university
buildings and facilities flanking Oxford Road. On the right is the
residential neighbourhood of Brunswick.

There are often sharp divisions and distinct boundaries between
certain districts reflected in the different scale of the buildings
and how these places are used. Some districts become more
prominent because of their public function and scale, whilst
others may seem to nestle almost invisibly within the city fabric.
As the university continues to expand, what will the impact be on
the surrounding houses and the communities who live there?

Make sure you venture beyond the site boundaries of your
project and explore the neighbouring areas. You may begin to
notice different communities, usage patterns and architectural
approaches. How might your proposal impact these places and
the current communities?

The university along Oxford Road
Inner-city housing of Brunswick
CONTExT 75
TIP 32
CONTEXT
IDENTIFY THE SCALE OF THE DISTRICT.
What you can see

This map of the north-west of England indicates the relative
scale of the cities of Chester, Liverpool and Manchester. It also
shows the motorway links connecting these cities.

A city the size of Chester can only support certain types of
facilities and residents tend to go to Manchester or Liverpool for
major sporting events, cultural activities or specialist services.

Depending on your brief, some types of facility require a
minimum critical mass of population in order to sustain them.
Understanding the scale of the proposal relative to the local
district allows you to understand how sustainable it might be.

Manchester
Liverpool
Chester
CONTExT 77
TIP 33
CONTEXT
CONSIDER HOW HISTORICAL BACKSTORY IMPACTS

ON THE URBAN GRAIN.
What you can see

This view of the Georgian Quarter of Bath shows The Circus and
Royal Crescent forming the most impressive residences.

The development of Bath in the eighteenth century as a spa
town created the most exclusive and desirable residences with
the Bath Assembly Rooms providing the focus for gatherings
and events. The layout of the roads and squares were designed
to impress and provide a clear hierarchy. This was a set piece
design, imposed without any regard to the context at that time.

This part of Bath is an extreme example of a legacy from one
particular era. This area is now designated as a conservation
area and any future development and alterations are governed
by strict rules. You need a strong argument to support any
changes or departure from the existing townscape. Even
when working in more everyday settings, it is important to be
aware of the historical grain as well as any legislation affecting
development and to acknowledge it in your design proposals.

CONTExT 79
TIP 34
CONTEXT
CONSIDER THE DISTRICT AS PART OF THE OVERALL

CITY.
What you can see

The conurbation around Birmingham is a collection of smaller
districts, each with its own distinct character and history.

The history of each area, why it developed and how each relates
to the other is important in understanding why they are as they
are. The social and economic story of the Midlands is quite
different to other parts of the UK and has strong traditions and a
unique industrial heritage.

Considering the wider context for your site allows you to see the
big picture, how your site fits into its district and how that area
relates to the wider geographical area. Identifying the distinct
character of your district can provide important clues as to the
appropriateness and direction of your own proposal.
Tip links with 1, 3, 5, 6, 12, 13, 23, 25, 27 and 85.

Selly Oak
Mosely
Perry Barr
Edrington
Handsworth
Ashton
Rotten Park Washwood
Market Hall
Edbaston Yardley
Harbourn
Acock’ Green
Selly Oak Mosely
Sparkhill
Northfeild
Kings Northon
1731 1838 1863 1913
CONTExT 81
TIP 35
CONTEXT
HOW MIGHT THE PUBLIC REALM INFLUENCE YOUR

PROPOSAL?
What you can see

This is a drawing of a market space and cathedral square in
Ghent, Belgium. The historic square is now home to a new
market hall suitable for a variety of gatherings and events
throughout the year.

Historical and sensitive sites are capable of new and innovative
uses that can enhance the spaces and quality of the public
realm. The new market hall helps to reinforce the boundaries
of the public square whilst also serving as a sheltered arcade
for gatherings.

Consider the spaces around your site: how can your proposal
enhance the public realm? Landscaping, shade, places to
sit, habitats for wildlife, colour from planting, protection from
the weather and spaces for people to come together and
meet with friends, are all part of creating a successful and
welcoming cityscape.

CONTExT 83
TIP 36
CONTEXT
THINK VERTICALLY AS WELL AS HORIZONTALLY;

CONSIDER DIFFERENT PROGRAMMES AT DIFFERENT
LEVELS.
What you can see

A sectional drawing through a medieval street showing how
buildings have different functions at different levels, including
high-level walkways as shown highlighted here.

Cities and streets must be considered vertically as well as
through the simple plan drawing. By cutting sectional drawings
through a street you can explore a much richer set of uses and
demands on the site and the surrounding area.

Do not rely on plan drawings alone to show how a place works
and is used. Cut a section to show how the programmes might
change when regarded vertically. Housing, retail, offices, leisure
and food outlets all need to be carefully mapped through the
section drawing to understand how the streetscape is used and
by whom.

CONTExT 85
TIP 37
CONTEXT
EXPLORE UNDERLYING CITY PLANS AND

STRUCTURES.
What you can see

This is a plan of Glasgow showing the grid pattern of streets and
city blocks.

There is often an urban grain that can be observed in our cities.
This relates to the size of the city block in relation to the street
size and pattern. Certain projects may break or flex this pattern
but most projects will align with the plots available. Be aware
that the plan does not reveal gradients, and what may appear as
a grid layout in plan will have a very different feel when visited in
person – as is the case in Glasgow.

How does your site align with the rhythm and structure of
the cityscape? Is there a city pattern, grid or underlying
planning device that is dictating the urban form? If not, can you
discern any typical plot sizes or other arrangements that have
determined the urban grain and plot structure of your site?

Typical city block
Park at the city block scale
CONTExT 87
TIP 38
CONTEXT
INVISIBLE CITY
TRACK MOVEMENT TO PROVIDE DATA ON HOW

PEOPLE INTERACT WITH THE CITY.
What you can see

This map of part of the Liverpool University campus shows the
movement of people using phone tracking data.

This exercise was carried out by a group of architectural
students to understand how people move around the campus,
the natural gathering areas and pinch points. The large number
of students crossing Brownlow Hill, the road at the top of the
drawing, is particularly noticeable.

Understanding how people move around the site can provide
clues for the location of key interventions and the impact of
any new developments on the masterplan. In the case of this
exercise, the team proposed the pedestrianisation of Brownlow
Hill, an idea that is actually viable and is now being considered
by the local authority.

CONTExT 89
TIP 39
CONTEXT
INVISIBLE CITY
CONSIDER THE IMPACT OF ANY UNDERGROUND

SERVICES.
What you can see

This university campus in Liverpool has a strip of undeveloped
land running diagonally through its centre.

The main railway line linking Liverpool to London runs through a
tunnel beneath the campus, making development very restrictive.

Being aware of substructure services in the vicinity of your
site, including sewers, gas and electricity supplies, is important
because there may be rules about how the site can be
developed. Restrictions associated with building close to train
lines can be particularly onerous, whether they are beneath or
adjacent to your site.

CONTExT 91
TIP 40
CONTEXT
INVISIBLE CITY
CONSIDER TRAFFIC DATA AND RESTRICTIONS.
What you can see

To control the volume of traffic entering the city, York has a
park-and-ride scheme, with car parks around the perimeter
located on the major routes into the city.

The City Council’s strategy for managing its visitors means that
traffic and buses are directed along designated routes with key
set-down points within the city. This may also affect visitors’
shopping habits.

Being aware of the key transport nodes and routes might
impact on your proposal, since it may provide an opportunity
for your site to benefit from the increased volume of pedestrian
traffic. The route between bus set-down points and other major
attractions may also mean that those outlets and services are at
a premium.

CONTExT 93
TIP 41
CONTEXT
INVISIBLE CITY
DOWNLOAD OR BUILD YOUR OWN 3D MODEL OF

THE SITE.
What you can see

A computer model of part of London.

Whilst maps are useful diagrams, increasingly we have access
to virtual models of our major towns and cities. We can use
these to explore and view our cities. These models can
contain information about transport, services and planning
applications, as well as providing useful details about our site
and its neighbourhood.

You can use virtual city models to test your ideas and insert
your own computer models. This will help you to visualise the
proposal and to see how it fits into the wider area. The virtual
city models can also enable you to ‘explore’ the district and to
generate a greater understanding of how it works. The virtual
model should not be seen as a replacement for your own
physical models but rather as an enhancement and additional
insight into the city.
Tip links with 42.

CONTExT 95
TIP 42
CONTEXT
INVISIBLE CITY
ARE THERE ANY LITERARY REFERENCES RELATING

TO YOUR SITE?
What you can see

Nicholas Hawksmoor’s churches in London provided the
inspiration for Peter Ackroyd’s novel Hawksmoor.

Have you ever walked down an unfamiliar street yet felt you
had been there before? Perhaps it was the setting for a TV
programme or film? The imaginary and fictional can shape how
we perceive and experience a place.

Perhaps the site you are researching featured in a particular
documentary, sit-com or film set? If so, how does that
association shape how you, and others, view that place and how
does it impact your design response? Does the site sit within
our cultural memory? This might impact tourism, future filming
schedules and even listing protection and heritage policy.

CONTExT 97
CASE STUDY 2
NEW BODLEIAN,
WESTON LIBRARY
WILKINSON EYRE
What you can see

The Weston Library (outlined in red) is one of Oxford’s most
important institutions. The original Giles Gilbert Scott design was
remodelled in 2015 by Wilkinson Eyre to create better storage
and research facilities with an improved entrance to the south.

By changing the way in which the south elevation works, the
building relates much better to the public realm, providing an
active frontage and welcoming visitors. The original plinth has
been removed and replaced with steps and ramped access.
What the architect says

The project offered an opportunity to boost the library’s
relationship with its urban setting by addressing Broad Street
and the main Bodleian Library building opposite. The design knits
the library more closely into its context by extending the axis
created by the Radcliffe Camera, the ‘Old Schools Quadrangle’
and the Clarendon Building, a logical move to encourage the
public inside. The design works with, rather than against, Scott’s
robust design.

Weston Library
Broad Street
Clarendon Building
Bodleian Library/
Old Schools Quadrangle
Radcli-e Camera
University Church of
St Mary the Virgin
CONTExT 99
CHAPTER 3
ROUTES
The way in which the site is connected to the surrounding area

can have an important influence on the viability and form of
the proposal. How the site is accessed and where visitors are
coming from can affect how the scheme is laid out and who is
permitted to access. The organisation of primary and secondary
routes allows you to understand the significance of design
decisions and can help to develop an appropriate strategy.
For many places, the main arterial routes define the city and
its districts with the secondary routes determining the urban
grain within these zones. In rural areas, the roads and paths
sometimes have a history going back many centuries. Working
within this framework is important if you are to preserve what is
special about a place.
Vehicular
Vehicular routes include those for cars, buses, trucks and
bicycles. Depending on the proposed function, knowing how
accessible the site is to major roads and motorways can be
important. At a more local level, understanding restrictions on
vehicle access will allow you to plan accordingly.
Cycle routes are becoming increasingly important and in
some parts of Europe it is possible for an inexperienced cyclist
or child to access the centre of a city in complete safety,
100 100 SITE ANALYSIS ESSENTIALS: AN ARCHITECT’S

GUIDE
DOI: 10.4324/9781003485988-3
segregated from the main vehicular traffic routes. Understanding
existing and proposed routes allows you to consider how
accessible your site is.
Pedestrian
Exploring a city on foot provides a different perspective and
pace. Looking at the routes around or through the site allows
you to consider the human scale. Where are people coming from
and how might your proposal benefit from what is happening
around the site? Pedestrian access to the site can be a
determining factor in your design strategy and feasibility. In some
cases, there may be a public right of way across the site or an
opportunity to create a new link.
Transport
How well the site is served by public transport and what form
this takes can be important. Depending on the function of the
proposal, the use of public transport may be important to allow
stakeholders to use the facility. Bus stops and metro or train
stations can make the site more accessible and therefore more
sustainable. For certain projects, the proximity of airports or
other major transport hubs can be critical. Different areas will
have different transport services and sometimes it is important
to pick up on the availability and frequency of these services.
Timeframe
When assessing how the existing routes work, it is important to
consider how busy they are at different times of the day, month
or year. Certain roads are very busy at rush hour and some
pedestrian routes linking, say, a university campus to the city
centre, may become very quiet during the holidays.
Movement
Exploring the intensity of use allows you to establish the
significance of certain routes, and this may be important in some
commercial situations where the footfall can be a major factor in
establishing viability.
ROUTES 101
TIP 43
ROUTES
VEHICULAR
ESTABLISH THE HIERARCHY OF ROUTES AFFECTING

YOUR SITE.
What you can see

The city of Ipswich has a perimeter ring road. Within the town
there are then principal routes and minor roads serving the
local areas.

Within every city there is a hierarchy of roads from busy urban
expressways to quiet backstreets. The urban grain is often
affected by serving the needs of vehicular traffic and this
can sometimes be to the detriment of the city. Nevertheless,
how an area is served is important in order to establish its
development potential.

Understanding the way in which the roads work allows you to
put your site in context. If it is on a major route it will be well
served and accessible. Smaller streets can be difficult for large
vehicles to negotiate and also less easy to find if your customers
are coming by car.

Primary roads
Secondary roads
Minor roads
ROUTES 103
TIP 44
ROUTES
VEHICULAR
IDENTIFY BUS AND CYCLE ROUTES.
What you can see

Chester has a network of cycle routes using old railway lines
and canal towpaths. Buses are excluded from the main four
pedestrianised streets of the historic centre.

Discouraging car use has required designated bus lanes and
cycle ways that provide safe routes right into the centre of the
city as well as a sustainable transport network.

Pedestrianised areas can place restrictions on the operation
and service of sites within the city. Carrying out construction
activities can be especially difficult with deliveries only possible
at certain times. Being aware of the transport infrastructure will
allow you to grasp the opportunities. If cycling is a major thing,
then providing space for bikes to be parked can be important.
In certain circumstances, what appears to be a backwater can
actually have great commercial potential due to the volume of
cyclists and pedestrians.

Cycle routes
Shared routes
Bus routes
Bus terminal
ROUTES 105
TIP 45
ROUTES
PEDESTRIAN
EXPERIENCE THE CITY BY WALKING.
What you can see

A schematic plan of Rome showing the main tourist sites,
walking routes and metro stations.

You can draw and represent cities in a variety of ways to show
different situations or events. It is useful to know how a city is
traversed and experienced – especially along the main roads and
routes. You can add additional layers, such as public transport
hubs and connections, to begin to understand how the city is
used and experienced.

Think about how you can represent your site and the
surroundings in a diagrammatic way. You can create alternative
maps that are not figurative or to scale. Through the diagram,
you can depict complex ideas through simple means and remove
all unnecessary information to stress a single idea with clarity.

Vatican Borghese
Gallery
Trastevere
Skyline
Pantheon
Trevi Spanish Steps

Fountain
Campo
Di Fiori
Colosseum
ROUTES 107
TIP 46
ROUTES
PEDESTRIAN
EXPLORE THE ALTERNATIVE ROUTES.
What you can see

A canal and towpath that cuts through central Manchester, it is
flanked with trees and industrial heritage buildings and leads to
an old wharf.

City maps are often produced with road and rail transportation
in mind; it is these things that have often determined the layout
of our cities. However, there may be other lesser-known routes
and pathways through the city. Here are some paths from the
city’s industrial heritage that now form a walking and cycle route
through the city.

Look out for these often hidden paths through the city, as
they can provide rare spaces of tranquility as well as effective
connections and spaces for walking, leisure and wildlife. How
might you integrate such spaces within your own work and how
can we ensure all parts of the city contribute to better urban
realms with accessible transport options?

ROUTES 109
TIP 47
ROUTES
PEDESTRIAN
EXPLORE PATHWAYS BASED ON DESIRE LINES.
What you can see

On the left is a prescribed footpath with hard surfacing and on
the right is a track made by people taking the shortest, or more
desirable, route instead.

Despite the best intentions of designers and planners, people
will not always follow the paths and routes that are set out for
them. If there is a ‘better’ or more useful route then people will
tend to carve out a new pathway. Once that route becomes
established and forms a new path it will always be used. The
illustration shows that even a relatively small saving in time will
still be preferred.

When laying out a large campus, parkway or landscape, try
to predict the most direct, shortest routes between the key
destinations and lay a path along that route. Alternatively (and
this is not always possible) wait for the ‘desire lines’ to become
established and then install the hard paving and landscaping
to suit.

ROUTES 111
TIP 48
ROUTES
TRANSPORT
CONSIDER THE BIGGER PICTURE OF TRANSPORT

INFRASTRUCTURE AND ACCESSIBILITY.
What you can see

The city of Liverpool has canal, train, bus and ferry links, as well
as an airport.

The radial pattern of roads is particularly pronounced and
provides good links for buses and cars across the city. The train
lines tend to follow the estuary as well as providing links inland.
The airport is not actually connected to the train infrastructure
and requires a bus link.

How well your site is connected to other parts of the city, and
also to the wider geographical area, will make a difference to
how accessible it is to different groups of people. The viability of
your proposal may be affected by how easily it is serviced or, if
it is a major attraction or sports venue, how many thousands of
people can visit it within 30 minutes of their home.

Road
Rail
Ferry
Canal
ROUTES 113
TIP 49
ROUTES
TRANSPORT
EXPLORE HOW WELL YOUR SITE IS SERVED BY

TRANSPORT TERMINALS AND BUS STOPS.
What you can see

This map of York shows the location of bus stops, the bus
terminal and rail stations. The location of the main hospital and
medical centre are shown in yellow.

Accessing healthcare facilities using public transport is
important for patients, staff and visitors. In York they are well
served with rail stations and bus stops nearby.

When considering the viability of a proposal, proximity of public
transport is important, not only from a viability point of view
but also in terms of sustainability. Facilities, such as sports and
leisure arenas, as well as workplaces, need to be accessible
without requiring a car. Very occasionally a new station is
provided to support a new development, but this is expensive
and only a major initiative would warrant this sort of investment.

Healthcare facility
Bus stop
Bus terminal
Rail station
ROUTES 115
TIP 50
ROUTES
TRANSPORT
HOW WELL IS THE SITE CONNECTED NATIONALLY?
What you can see

A map showing the motorway networks and major airports
within England.

Different parts of the country are connected through a variety
of infrastructure and transportation networks that impact
commercial decisions, distribution systems and regional
economic patterns.

Whilst most analysis is undertaken at a local level, it can be
useful to switch scales and consider a regional, or even national,
position. Consider how your site is connected to a much larger
system of infrastructure. How do these networks of rail, road,
flight paths and docks impact the place you are designing for,
and how might this connectivity shape your clients’ decision to
invest and build in that area?

ROUTES 117
TIP 51
ROUTES
TIMEFRAME
CONSIDER HOW SPECIAL EVENTS IMPACT THE CITY.
What you can see

The Chester races are a popular event and many of the
attendees arrive at the rail station and then walk across the city.
In the evening the reverse journey takes place, with more of a
party atmosphere.

Chester is a very different place on race days, much busier with
all the shops, bars and restaurants full to capacity. Other cities
may have other facilities generating large crowds, such as sports
stadiums or event arenas.

Special events, festivals and major performances can be a
challenge for a city but also a great opportunity. If your site
is close to the main route leading to the venue there will be
potential to develop the design in such a way to be able to
cope with both quiet days and busy times. Allowing flexibility of
function can avoid facilities being underused for large parts of
the year. In some circumstances the risks associated with large
numbers of people has to be managed and this can impact on
infrastructure and the design of the townscape.

ROUTES 119
TIP 52
ROUTES
TIMEFRAME
REVIEW HOW INTENSITY OF USE VARIES OVER

TIME.
What you can see

The Knowledge Quarter of Liverpool is linked to the city centre
via two roads: Mount Pleasant and Brownlow Hill. The main rail
station is also shown in red.

During termtime these routes are busy with students and the
shops and cafes do good business. During the summer break
things quieten down considerably.

Seasonal differences can make a big difference to the viability
of businesses and other facilities. The Christmas period can be
brilliant for pop-up markets and bars that are not sustainable at
other times. Some towns rely on holiday trade but are quiet at
other times. Considering the broader picture over a 12-month
period can sometimes be useful.

ROUTES 121
CASE STUDY 3
MERCER WALK
RITCHIE STUDIO
What you can see

This mixed-use development is in the heart of London’s Covent
Garden, a sensitive conservation area. The client was interested
in long-term sustainability and economic viability, so quality
was important.

The scheme transformed a group of old warehouse buildings
and cluttered service yards to create a completely new public
realm space. A new pedestrian route links Mercer Street and
Langley Street to form a new piazza at the heart of this formally
inaccessible site. Mercer Walk uses a new architectural language
that picks up on the existing, creating new spaces with similar
proportions and human scale to that of the surrounding area.

You need to understand the adjoining streets and the historical
fabric; take a snapshot from above and consider what the public
room is like. Look at massing and how openings are articulated
in the elevations. Consider the building’s orientation in relation
to the rising and falling of the sun. What space can be created?
What are the benefits of the routes created? It’s important to
make them work and to communicate the ideas in a way that
can be understood by both the client and the public.

Before
After
ROUTES 123
CHAPTER 4
ENVIRONMENT
The term ‘Environment’ covers climate as well as topographical

features and townscape. The microclimate of your site may be
the starting point for a sustainable proposal and being aware of
the localised effects of sun, wind and rain should allow you to
work with the elements, rather than against them. When dealing
with live projects, a topographical or building survey is often the
starting point. Even when carrying out initial option appraisals,
some sort of accurate site plan with approximate levels is
required. Whether the site is in the city or a more rural location,
the physical environment within which it is located will have a
bearing on the proposals. Gathering the information, so that it is
readily available during the design process, will allow you to be
reminded of the key design influences.
Climate
Climate data and the ‘yellow banana diagram’, indicating the
sun’s movement across the site, is often used. Wind rose charts
are also popular, showing the direction and frequency of the
wind distribution for an area. However, the data gathered is only
useful if it provides information that is relevant to the specific
site location and will make a difference to the design proposal.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003485988-4
It is now relatively easy to set up a ‘Sketch Up’ model and show
how shadows are cast across a site at different times of the day
or year. Alternatively, a physical site model can be tested using a
heliodon – or simply replicating altitude and azimuth with a torch.
Wind direction is affected by local features, so that winds tend
to flow along valleys or estuaries rather than across them. Being
aware of extreme weather in exposed locations is important as it
will affect the design proposals.
Data on rainfall, temperature range and humidity are readily
accessible, but the way these events occur at extreme times
needs to be considered, since one of the issues associated with
climate change is an increase in extremes.
Topographical
Having information about the size of the site, the levels and
any important features is an essential starting point for any
design proposal. The accuracy of the information should tally
with the level of design detail being considered. Even relatively
flat sites can have falls across them, and these can make a big
difference to access and floor levels. Also take note of gradients,
ramps or steps. Ground conditions, substructure services and
contamination are all important considerations with a live project
but may be less so with theoretical college projects. When
dealing with existing buildings, an accurate and detailed survey is
essential, especially when proposals become more detailed.
Natural features
Whether the site is located in the city or a more rural location,
the existing landscape and natural features may influence your
design proposals. Existing trees can have an impact on what
might be possible in terms of siting your project and wildlife
habitats can also be a major constraint. For a live project,
surveys of newts, bats and other mammals can be necessary.
A site near a river may be affected by flooding and issues
associated with water run-off and erosion can be important
considerations. The biodiversity of a site can sometimes be a
major factor to be considered.
ENvIRONMENT 125
Man-made features
The environment may be affected by man-made features and
the townscape might include unusual ground surface materials,
bollards, railings and other street furniture. The modern era has
introduced less attractive equipment into towns and features
such as power lines, telephone masts, satellite disks and solar
panels, which can be intrusive features.
The quality of artificial light can influence the character of a
space at night and be a barrier to ‘dark skies’ in rural areas. The
same is true of sound pollution and an awareness of nearby
transport routes or manufacturing facilities may be significant
depending on the proposal. Air quality is also important, as well
as an awareness of unpleasant odours as a result of natural or
man-made processes.
Timeframe
When considering the climate, as well as sound, light and
air pollution, it is necessary to note how things vary over
the seasons or over a typical day. For example, the noise
associated with clubs and music venues may only be evident
later in the evening and poor air quality may coincide with
particular climatic conditions or rush hours. Considering the
environmental conditions over a 24-hour period can be useful
and an awareness of the climate at different times of the year
is essential.
Street hierarchies
The quality of the urban environment is often determined by the
streets and the height of the buildings. This is perhaps most
pronounced in a medieval city, with narrow alleyways and high
buildings, but more modern cities like New York can also provide
an extraordinary experience. The extent to which these patterns
dictate the future proposals will depend upon the function,
and also the current regulations on space standards and
interface distances.

Sustainability
Sustainability can be assessed from many standpoints and each
site will have different requirements and opportunities. Social
and economic sustainability may be a big factor in assessing
the viability of the proposals in the context of the surrounding
area. The availability of natural resources locally may also affect
choices on construction materials.
phenomenology
Architecture is a spatial medium but it also has tangible
qualities – surfaces and textures – that the architect can use,
sculpt and curate. These qualities also change appearance in
different lighting conditions, at different times of the day and in
different seasons. These qualities in and around the site can be
observed, recorded and might inform your response as part of
the design proposal.
Buildings also have acoustic qualities. The reverberation,
echoes and the relationship between volume and surface
materials can have a profound impact on how the space is used
and experienced.
As designers we can both respond to these qualities and
seek to create them. We can also think beyond the five senses
and attempt to invoke memories, recall associations and
stir emotions.
This approach to design requires the inclusion of stakeholders
who are involved with the project but perceive things in a
different way. Inclusivity and accessibility must be at the core of
what we produce.
Whist statistics, maps and graphs can provide objective data,
visiting the site and reflecting upon how it makes you feel can be
important. Consider how ‘safe’ you feel on the site or when moving
through the surrounding areas. You might develop a creative
response to the site through a photographic montage, or perhaps
there is a particular photograph or artwork that encapsulates
the site in some way. Site analysis does not have to remain a
fact-based extraction of data; even your own maps and sketches
of the site can be fundamental in developing design ideas.
ENvIRONMENT 127
TIP 53
ENVIRONMENT
CLIMATE
ASSESS SUN PATHS, SHADING AND DAYLIGHT.
What you can see

A sketch of Boston, Massachusetts and the shadows cast onto
Boston Commons.

In Boston there is legislation to protect the Commons from
being overshadowed by the tall developments at the periphery
of the park. New construction, particularly large and tall
developments, can have a major impact on the sunlight/shading
on neighbouring structures and amenities.

Consider the orientation of your design to benefit from direct
sunlight or to reduce the impact of solar gain and glare.
Shadow paths can also be plotted to analyse whether parts of
your site are in shade at certain times of the year. These can
equally demonstrate the impact your proposal might have on
neighbouring plots. Work with the solar and shadow paths to
enhance your design and to create comfortable, energy-efficient
solutions that respond to the light and shade.

ENvIRONMENT 129
TIP 54
ENVIRONMENT
CLIMATE
ESTABLISH THE LOCAL WIND PATHS AND

PREVAILING WINDS.
What you can see

A dominant wind direction flowing across the site.

The wind direction can impact on the use and enjoyment of a
site – especially in cities with large buildings, coastal areas and
exposed sites.

Identify the dominant wind direction and whether there is
potential to provide windbreaks through planting, hedges,
trees and landscaping to improve the comfort for building
users. An exposed site may also require different construction
specifications to mitigate storm damage and extreme winds. In
city contexts, tall buildings may generate strong wind tunnels
with intense gusts of wind. Mitigate against these with your
design, especially at the entrances and any exposed outside
areas such as roof terraces and balconies.
Tip links with 55.

ENvIRONMENT 131
TIP 55
ENVIRONMENT
CLIMATE
CONSIDER HOW THE MICROCLIMATE AFFECTS THE

SITE.
What you can see

Sun, wind and rain contribute to create a particular microclimate
for a site dependent upon its location, orientation and section.

All buildings must be designed for their local climate to keep
the building occupants comfortable. Whilst broad climatic
data is readily available, each site will have its own particular
microclimate that must be considered.

A microclimate may not conform to the broader averages
and typical climate statistics. Mountainous and hillside sites,
coastal peninsulas, valleys and plains all express very particular
conditions – these are opportunities for your design to exploit
the specific site attributes and to ensure your design is carefully
adapted to its plot.
Tip links with 56.

Wind Speeds
1.8 m/s sitting for long periods
3.6 m/s sitting for short periods
5.3 m/s leisurely walking
7.5 m/s walking fast
7.6 m/s uncomfortable
ENvIRONMENT 133
TIP 56
ENVIRONMENT
CLIMATE
CONSIDER IF TIDAL PATTERNS OR RISING SEA

LEVELS HAVE AN IMPACT ON YOUR SITE.
What you can see

The island of Lindisfarne, off the Northumbrian coast, is a
popular destination for pilgrims and tourists. There is a small
village on the island with a public house. The island is cut off
from the mainland by the tide twice a day.

The people who live and work on the island need to consider the
tidal patterns if they want to journey to the mainland and there
tend to be fewer tourists on the island when the tide is in.

This is a rather extreme example of the influence of the tides
on people’s everyday lives. However, there are many coastal
areas, including estuaries, where the tidal patterns make a
big difference to the appearance and functionality of the site.
Issues such as rising sea levels and coastal erosion can also be
important considerations when assessing longer term strategies.

Lindisfarne Castle
High tide
Low tide
ENvIRONMENT 135
TIP 57
ENVIRONMENT
TOPOGRAPHICAL
SURVEY SITE LEVELS AND FEATURES.
What you can see

This area has four different interconnecting transport
infrastructures vertically adjacent to each other just outside the
medieval city walls but within the conservation area.

These various structures place considerable constraints on the
development potential of the adjoining sites. Any proposal would
require not only accurate physical surveys, but also checks on
any legal and legislative constraints placed on proposals, as
well as an assessment of the structural implications. Careful
coordination and phasing of construction would also be required.

This site provides an exciting opportunity for the designer
and the possibility to link the various levels in some way.
Connections to infrastructure and circulation networks do not
just exist at ground-floor level. Consider sectional studies to
investigate below and above the site level in order to fully exploit
the opportunities.

View across railway, canal and elevated road
25.00m
19.50m
14.00m
8.50m
Sectional elevation along the railway line
ENvIRONMENT 137
TIP 58
ENVIRONMENT
TOPOGRAPHICAL
DETERMINE THE SITE BOUNDARY – IT IS NOT

ALWAYS CLEARLY DEFINED.
What you can see

These fields on the outskirts of Willaston in Cheshire West
have potential to be developed for housing. However, the actual
boundaries are formed of shrubs and trees and are difficult
to define.

The fields are in multiple ownerships, as is the land around
the development area. Each landowner is likely to want a
fair remuneration for use of their land and this tends to be
proportional to the site area.

Defining the site boundary can be critical to whether a
proposition will work or not. It may affect the number of
dwellings that can be accommodated, for example. Moving
forward on a false premise is likely to cause problems later
on. Sometimes boundaries are recorded in the deeds of the
property but often the ‘red line’ indicated on the legal document
or land registry is difficult to determine on site and this can lead
to disputes.

ENvIRONMENT 139
TIP 59
ENVIRONMENT
TOPOGRAPHICAL
INVESTIGATE THE GROUND CONDITIONS.
What you can see

The top site plan shows a petrol filling station. The site has
subsequently been redeveloped as a three-storey apartment
building as shown in the lower drawing.

Sometimes it is difficult to tell how a site was previously
used without careful research. After the filling station closed
the buildings were demolished and the site lay dormant for
many years, possibly due to the high cost of dealing with
the contamination of the fuel tanks. These sites are known
as brownfield sites and may contain a variety of polluting
contaminants in the ground. Making a site suitable for housing
can be prohibitively expensive due to the excavation required
and ensuring any polluting material and gases do not enter the
new buildings.

The development potential of a site can be finely balanced
financially. It is sometimes said that ‘all the risks are in the
ground’; contamination, poor ground conditions or hidden
basements can all have high associated cost. When dealing with
a live project a ground investigation is essential.

2020
1990
ENvIRONMENT 141
TIP 60
ENVIRONMENT
NATURAL FEATURES
CELEBRATE THE NATURAL FEATURES.
What you can see

A sketch of Snowdonia in Wales with a valley and small
settlement below the mountains in the distance.

The materials, climate, altitudes and features all have an impact
on how we approach design and respond to the place in which
we are working. Dramatic landscapes and vast terrains can
provide wonderful settings for our designs – but proposals must
be located with utmost care to both acknowledge the natural
landscape and defer to its far grander scale.

Architects have a duty to respect the natural landscape and,
wherever possible, to leave it in a better state than how it was
found. Working with the landscape and topography, rather
than imposing a plan, is the bare minimum. By considering the
inclines, water flow, vistas, micro-climates, trees and wildlife you
can aim to complement the sites you work in and around.

ENvIRONMENT 143
TIP 61
ENVIRONMENT
NATURAL FEATURES
CONSIDER THE ROOTS AND CROWN OF ALL TREES

WITHIN THE SITE.
What you can see

A sketch of a tree showing the extensive root network and
recommendation that properties are at least the equivalent
distance to the tree’s height away from the tree.

Large trees can cause shrinkage and swelling in clay soil
conditions, and this may damage a building’s foundations.
Chopping through a tree’s roots will also weaken the tree and
make it less stable in storms. Falling trees can be a danger to
life and property. Certain trees have Tree Preservation Orders,
which mean they must not be damaged or cut down.

Trees provide shelter and shade and their environmental
benefits are essential to human life. Their root structure must
be protected, rather than erased or damaged. Planting trees
and using their ability to provide shade, create vistas, block
unsightly elements, provide fruit and encourage biodiversity and
pollinators can enhance nearly every project.

ENvIRONMENT 145
TIP 62
ENVIRONMENT
NATURAL FEATURES
CONDUCT AN ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF
NATURAL HABITATS.
What you can see

Bats, newts and badgers are just some of our wildlife with
protected status.

Certain animals and trees have legal protection and must not be
disturbed, nor their habitats destroyed by construction projects.
There are strict rules and severe penalties to ensure vulnerable
and important species are protected. Certain places are also
labelled sites of special scientific interest, and others may be
deemed ‘green belt’ or agricultural use only to limit and control
where development may take place. Larger projects should have
a specialist ecological survey conducted to ensure any protected
species can be identified and protected, as well as to examine
the impact on the wider ecology of the site.

All construction has an environmental and ecological impact, but
particular care must be given not to disturb rare and protected
species. Rewilding and rehabilitation of former industrial sites
into parkland and wildlife habitats is increasingly important and
necessary. Whilst your site and remit may be limited, there is
scope to lobby and engage with these issues.

ENvIRONMENT 147
TIP 63
ENVIRONMENT
NATURAL FEATURES
CHECK FLOOD RISK DATA, ESPECIALLY IN LOW-

LYING LOCATIONS.
What you can see

This map of York shows zones where there is a 1 in 25 and a 1 in
100 annual likelihood of flooding. As you can see, large areas of
the city are affected.

There are strict policies laid down for any developments in
the flood zone and owners of existing buildings will have
contingencies in place to deal with potential floods. National
agencies have strategic plans to address and avert issues of
flooding. However, in some cases it is not possible to prevent
flooding and the impact has to be managed.

Examples from around the world show many ingenious methods
of dealing with flood risk. In some cases, a sacrificial zone will
allow for occasional floods by putting utility accommodation on
the ground floor. In the Netherlands, housing that ‘floats’ allows
the accommodation to overcome the problem. In other areas,
housing and linking walkways are placed on ‘stilts’ to lift the
accommodation above the flood level.

Normal river level
1 in 25 annual probability of flooding
1 in 100 annual probability of flooding
ENvIRONMENT 149
TIP 64
ENVIRONMENT
NATURAL FEATURES
EXPLORE THE BACKSTORY OF ANY FORMAL

LANDSCAPES.
What you can see

This is the ‘Roman Garden’, a part of the Victorian Grosvenor
Park in Chester. This section was laid out in 1949 to display
fragments from the Roman legionary fortress.

This is a rather unusual example of a formally laid out landscape,
and one that provides a place for visitors to sit and ponder the
antiquities. The medieval wall, which forms the eastern boundary
of the old city, provides shelter and creates its own microclimate
as the sun heats it up during the morning. The garden provides a
pedestrian route to the river and is popular with tourists.

Working within a site that already has a formal landscape allows
you to explore the existing design strategy and consider how
this might affect your proposals. You may feel you can improve
or completely change what is there. An analysis of the site and
its history should be the starting point and allow you to justify
your scheme in an objective way.

ENvIRONMENT 151
TIP 65
ENVIRONMENT
MAN-MADE FEATURES
CONSIDER THE EXISTING STREETSCAPE.
What you can see

The Town Hall Square in Chester provides a civic space for
various events throughout the year.

Civic space is important and having a flexible gathering space
in our towns and cities is essential for building community and
providing a place for celebrations, protests, special events,
Christmas fairs and summer festivals. The way in which the
square is laid out also provides places for visitors to relax.

Street furniture, ground materials and civic paraphernalia
contribute to the special character of civic spaces. Sometimes,
for example in docklands areas, the objects can be of historic
interest and tell the story of the place. Being aware of what
is around the site and how it works allows you to put your
proposals in context and consider what objects and finishes are
important and what might be changed.

ENvIRONMENT 153
TIP 66
ENVIRONMENT
MAN-MADE FEATURES
HOW DOES STREET FURNITURE IMPACT ON THE

SITE?
What you can see

A sketch of fixed and temporary street furniture, including
planting and solar shading.

Our streets and public spaces need to be carefully designed
and planned with appropriate gathering spaces and resting
spots. The furniture enables streets and squares to be used and
enjoyed throughout the day as gathering spaces, rather than just
as thoroughfares.

Think about how you can design the streets, public realm and
outside spaces so that they are enjoyable and add value to the
cityscape. Rather than using bollards, railings or other defensive
solutions to control behaviour, consider how planting, material
changes and furniture can be deployed instead. Providing places
for people to gather adds value to a site, offers informal security
and a sense of wellbeing, as well as providing opportunities to
introduce greenery and wildlife habitats.

ENvIRONMENT 155
TIP 67
ENVIRONMENT
MAN-MADE FEATURES
CONSIDER THE IMPACT OF TELECOMMUNICATIONS,

MASTS AND SATELLITE DISHES ON YOUR SITE.
What you can see

A telephone mast and street lamp with some uncoordinated
cables and wires.

All cities and buildings rely on an array of services and
infrastructure, some of which is carried on masts or fixed to
buildings, such as telecommunication wires and electricity. It can
become intrusive and add a sense of ‘clutter’ to our streetscapes
and façades.

Whilst the installation of services and infrastructure may be
beyond the scope and reach of some projects, whenever
possible coordinate these essential services so that they are
appropriately sited, preferably hidden from view, and easily
accessible for future maintenance and servicing.
Tip links with 68.

ENvIRONMENT 157
TIP 68
ENVIRONMENT
MAN-MADE FEATURES
CONSIDER THE IMPACT OF ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING.
What you can see

The Wellington Arch in London lit up at night.

Using artificial lighting can dramatically enhance a building at
night. Certain objects, such as the archway shown here, are
singled out as celebrated jewels within the cityscape. More
discreet and subtle lighting solutions may be more appropriate in
other contexts.

Think about how your scheme will look at night-time. Can it be
enhanced through some celebratory lighting that accentuates its
features and draws attention to it? Other proposals might benefit
from more subtle or utilitarian lighting. Beware of increasing light
pollution or causing a nuisance to neighbours through insensitive
lighting. Also consider how the light fittings look during daylight
hours. They should be unobtrusive and mounted with care to not
detract from the main façade.
Tip links with 67.

ENvIRONMENT 159
TIP 69
ENVIRONMENT
MAN-MADE FEATURES
IS YOUR SITE IMPACTED BY NOISE?
What you can see

The Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs
commissioned a study on noise pollution and air quality.
Here you can see the noise levels at the intersection of two
motorways, the M1 and M62 near Leeds.

The noise level along the motorway exceeds 75 decibels and
has a major impact on the surrounding areas. The noise pollution
level in the areas within the dashed lines are unacceptably high.

There are many noise and air quality studies available online
that you can consult for your own site. Ensure you are aware of
noise problems and any other potential issues for your site. The
noise pollution may be seasonal or diurnal. Orientation, building
specification and being aware of vibrations and noise transfer
through the fabric of the building should also be considered.

75+ decibels
70–75 decibels
65–69 decibels
60–65 decibels
ENvIRONMENT 161
TIP 70
ENVIRONMENT
TIMEFRAME
INVESTIGATE HOW THE SITE USE VARIES OVER

24 HOURS.
What you can see

This is the Ropewalks area of Liverpool and the heart of the club
and bar area of the city (shown in blue).

During the daytime these streets are relatively quiet, with the
exception of Bold Street on the right-hand side of the map,
which also has shops and restaurants. In the evening and early
hours of the morning the area is buzzing with activity as people
enjoy the nightlife, music and vibrancy of the district.

Understanding how areas of the city are used over a 24-hour
period is important. Some of these streets can be quite noisy
late at night and although there are some flats in the area, it
would not be the obvious choice for residential use for families.

ENvIRONMENT 163
TIP 71
ENVIRONMENT
TIMEFRAME
EXPLORE HOW SITE USE CHANGES OVER THE

COURSE OF A YEAR.
What you can see

The Edinburgh International Festival is a major cultural event that
occurs in August each year, with this map showing the location
of some of the performance venues.

The influx of thousands of visitors makes the city into a very
different place with all the cafes, bars and restaurants at full
capacity and many residents moving out, renting their homes
to visitors.

Being aware of how a city changes throughout the year allows
you to put into perspective the different modes of use. You may
happen to visit on a day when it is quiet and form a particular
impression. Looking into the festivals and events that occur,
as well as the Christmas shopping period, can turn up a very
different picture.

ENvIRONMENT 165
TIP 72
ENVIRONMENT
STREET HIERARCHIES
CONSIDER THE PROPORTION OF PAVEMENT TO

ROAD.
What you can see

The Embankment, running along the north bank of the River
Thames in central London, where there are designated zones for
pedestrians and different types of transport.

London, like many cities, has embraced cycling as a sustainable
and convenient way of getting around the city. The Embankment
is a major thoroughfare; segregating traffic allows safe routes
for travel as well as creating pleasant places to sit and enjoy
the view.

Thinking about the public realm and how it works in the area
around your site means that your proposals can be put in
context. It may even be that you are recommending a new
way of using existing streets, squares and parks, either by
segregation or by using some sort of ‘shared platform’, where all
types of traffic have to take equal care. Opportunities for street
cafes may also be affected.

ENvIRONMENT 167
TIP 73
ENVIRONMENT
STREET HIERARCHIES
CONSIDER THE STREET’S HEIGHT TO WIDTH RATIO.
What you can see

Mercer Street off Seven Dials in the Covent Garden area
of London; a narrow street originally providing access
to workshops.

The Seven Dials area of Covent Garden has a colourful
history. Originally laid out by Thomas Neale to maximise
the development potential and rental, the buildings were
subsequently used for workshops and warehouses. It also forms
one of the boundaries of the Mercer Walk scheme (referred to in
Case Study 3).

Being aware of the proportions of streets by looking up and
exploring the section provides an extra dimension to your site
analysis. Whether it is a wide boulevard or narrow back street
makes a difference to your intervention and affects how the
scheme can be viewed.

ENvIRONMENT 169
TIP 74
ENVIRONMENT
SUSTAINABILITY
EXPLORE OPPORTUNITIES TO UTILISE THE SITE’S

RESOURCES.
What you can see

At the Centre for Alternative Technology in Powys, Wales,
there is a funicular used to transport visitors up the steep
embankment. Both carriages are connected via a cable
and operate using a small amount of energy by utilising the
counterbalance of the other carriage.

Every aspect of the design process – contextual analysis,
movement of people and factors such as embodied energy –
must be considered at all stages of the design, construction, use
and re-use of the site.

How might you utilise the site’s natural attributes to increase
sustainability and reduce carbon dependency? Researchers
at places like the Centre for Alternative Technology have been
grappling with these issues for decades, but the responsibility
now extends from the fringes of the built environment and is a
core responsibility for all designers.

ENvIRONMENT 171
TIP 75
ENVIRONMENT
SUSTAINABILITY
CONSIDER OPPORTUNITIES TO DEPLOY LOCAL

MATERIALS.
What you can see

A detail of St Alban’s Church in Norwich. Built in the inter-war
period, it utilises locally available stone – unknapped flints, set
within red-brick dressings.

The materials used for this church are locally available and have
not had to travel very far from the place they were quarried
and burnt. Using local materials reduces the amount of energy
required to transport the materials to the site. It can also help
with creating a sense of place and adding local flavour.

Reducing the carbon footprint of construction is essential
and this includes reducing the amount of energy required to
transport heavy and large building materials. Where possible,
aim to source materials and products that are produced close
to the site. Not only will this reduce the carbon produced during
the construction of the project, but it will also help to create a
regional design response. Local techniques, crafts and skills can
also be deployed to produce designs that reflect their locality
and community.

ENvIRONMENT 173
TIP 76
ENVIRONMENT
PHENOMENOLOGY
EXPLORE OPPORTUNITIES TO CREATE THE SENSE

OF A JOURNEY.
What you can see

In the grounds of Fountains Abbey, North Yorkshire, are a series
of ‘eye-catcher’ follies. They lead the eye through the landscape
and give various focal points. En route to one of the follies, the
visitor encounters dramatic landscapes with trees and grottoes
and is finally rewarded with a view back over the landscape and
perhaps to another folly.

Consider creating a series of ‘events’, ‘eye-catchers’, vistas and
views that entice the visitor through your project landscape.

What special and unique qualities does your site have that could
be arranged into a journey or sequential experience for the
visitor to enjoy. Create your own architectural promenade. This
can also help with wayfinding and signposting.

ENvIRONMENT 175
TIP 77
ENVIRONMENT
PHENOMENOLOGY
CONSIDER THE POTENTIAL FOR AN

ARCHITECTURAL PROMENADE AND MYSTERY.
What you can see

A sketch of the Oratory temple in Liverpool, perched on top of a
small rocky outcrop. It sits above a former stone quarry, later a
garden and burial site.

Moving through this space with its hidden views, tunnels and
almost subterranean landscapes invokes certain feelings and
responses from visitors. Our senses – especially those of sound
and touch – become heightened and we enjoy the shadows
and shifts in light. There is a sense of the sublime and attractive
decay in this space.

Consider how you might use shadows, darkness and
anticipation. The sense of exploring, touching and hearing
can be immensely powerful. Not everything can be explained
or understood, we need to leave some room for mystery
and ambiguity.

ENvIRONMENT 177
TIP 78
ENVIRONMENT
PHENOMENOLOGY
BE AWARE OF HISTORICAL CONNOTATIONS.
What you can see

The Cestrian Book of the Dead provides a record of historical
sites of drownings on the Dee Estuary dating back to the early
1500s. The dotted line shows the line of the old ford between
England and Wales.

The map reveals that the estuarine landscape was historically
a thriving social and cultural space for washing clothes,
grazing, bathing and leisure. However, due to the hazardous,
unpredictable nature of the terrain, many people died on the site.

An awareness of the history and past uses of your site provide
perspective and depth to your appreciation of it. Whilst marshes
are a popular destination for walkers and birdwatchers who
come to enjoy the tranquil surroundings, this macabre story
shows that a deep and dark history may exist. What stories lie
beneath your site?

ENGLAND
ENGLAND
Neston
Flint Burton
WALES
WALES
Shotwick
Route across estuary at low tide
ENvIRONMENT 179
CASE STUDY 4
AELTC COMMUNITY
TENNIS CENTRE
LANGSTAFF DAY ARCHITECTS
What you can see
The tennis club in Raynes Park had a problematic site. It frequently
flooded and the sports pitches could not be used. Other factors
and constraints had to be considered, such as orientating the
tennis courts in the same direction as the Wimbledon courts for
effective practice; providing suitable drop-off and parking areas;
maximising views from the club house over the courts without
overshadowing; providing community-use pitches that could be
isolated from the tennis courts; providing discrete maintenance
facilities and also respecting the residential neighbourhood.

This was a project with numerous demands and sometimes
contradictory requirements. The architects had to reconcile
these competing agendas, and they did this by first turning a
problem into an asset – flooding and drainage. By installing a
Sustainable Drainage System (SuDS) they developed a new
habitat for wildlife and worked with nature rather than against it.
They also salvaged drainage water for irrigation purposes.
The clubhouse was relocated by the car park and drop-off
point to provide a welcoming entrance with extensive
views overlooking the courts rather than the neighbouring
residential gardens.

Constraints and problems can become important design
generators. By carefully studying the site along with the client

requirements we were able to reconcile the array of demands
and problems that enhanced the project.
Drainage is becoming increasingly important and as we
become more susceptible to flooding we need to ensure this
is carefully considered at the design stage, and that large hard
landscaped areas are permeable. Using a SuDS allowed us to
create new habitats for wildlife and to eliminate the waterlogging
problems. We now have a solution that serves the community,
enhances the site and makes a positive contribution to
the environment.
detention basin
playing surfaces
flooding
no drainage
permeable
car park
surface
views from recycled
clubhouse water for
hard landscaping irrigation
clubhouse overlooking maintenance
for parking neighbours
under court
drainage
EXISTING PROPOSED
ENvIRONMENT 181
CHAPTER 5
GROUPINGS AND
USAGE
‘Groupings’ refer to the various functions and uses of the

site. For example, if the site is located within a predominantly
residential area then this is likely to affect the way it might
be developed and what future usage would be regarded as
appropriate. Establishing what is going on around the site
will help inform your project. Sometimes there may be similar
facilities close by and you will need to consider whether your
proposal is trying to work with these facilities or is in competition
with them. In live projects, ownership of land can also be an
important factor affecting access and sometimes the whole
viability of the project.
Site usage
What is the current use of the site and what is its designation
in terms of local authority planning? Establish how the site is
being used now. If there is a change of function, say from retail
to residential, there will be implications in terms of planning
approval, which must inform your design proposal.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003485988-5
around the site
The functions of the areas around the site will have an influence
on how the site might be developed. What is the predominant
use of the surrounding buildings or land? Where are the key
buildings or facilities located? How close is the local school or
hospital? Exploring what parks or other recreational amenities
are available may also be important, as well as the proximity
of countryside and other open spaces. The story of land use
is often a complex one and may involve accessing census or
other data to establish what is going on. Land ownership is also
important, and it may be that a single individual or company
controls what goes on over a large geographical area.
Considering the ‘public’ and ‘private’ areas provides a
perspective on access and perception. There are often
thresholds or boundaries that exist (not always physical) that
signal public access or private domains.
Relationship to the wider area

How the district or the area immediately around the site relates
to the wider geographical area may be important. Is your site
unique, or is it part of a much wider zone? How does your town
or city relate to the country as a whole? Are the functions you
propose replicated elsewhere? The sustainability and viability of
the proposal may be related to what is happening elsewhere and
the interdependency between these functions. When looking at
a site, consider the idea of ‘animation’ – how the area or street
becomes ‘alive’, how people use the streets and what impact
this makes.
GROUpINGS AND USAGE 183

TIP 79
GROUPINGS
SITE USAGE
MAP OUT THE VARIOUS FUNCTIONAL USES
AROUND YOUR SITE.
What you can see
A plan of Liverpool city centre showing certain buildings
highlighted according to their use. Certain parts of a city may
become associated with a particular activity or specialist
provision. Here the map shows the location of public houses,
nightclubs and cinemas within a small area highlighting the
night-time activity of the district.

You need to know what kind of neighbourhood your site is
located within. This may help with providing historical content
and context, as well as highlighting more pragmatic needs
especially with regards to noise, music venues, late-night
entertainment and large crowds.

It is useful to produce maps of the neighbourhood highlighting
the main uses and activities that take place there. This can help
to identify potential noise problems and usage patterns. Think
about how the district surrounding your site is currently used and
the main activities that occur. Will your proposal align with how
the area is currently used and perceived? Will it complement or
contrast with current usage patterns? Will you need to modify your
proposal to mitigate against problems or perceived nuisances?

Public houses
Nightclubs
Cinema

TIP 80
GROUPINGS
SITE USAGE
HOW HAS THE FUNCTION OF YOUR SITE CHANGED

OVER TIME?
What you can see

An old church building, designed for Christian worship, and now
with a broader community focus.

Buildings might serve a specific purpose and have a single
‘user group’, but often they have many different types of visitor/
occupancy at different times. Buildings also change uses and are
adapted to meet new demands and purposes at different stages
of their life.

Consider the various groups, communities, businesses,
occupants and visitors who are likely to inhabit and experience
your proposal. How might you respond to their needs (and if
possible, future as yet unknown uses)? It is more important
than ever that buildings can be reused and modified to suit
changing needs. Propose rehabilitation and adaption rather than
demolition and starting again to save energy and reduce waste.

TIP 81
GROUPINGS
AROUND THE SITE
BE AWARE OF ACTIVITIES OR FUNCTIONS

ASSOCIATED WITH YOUR SITE OR BRIEF.
What you can see

The area around Leeds has several large hospitals serving
the local community. Together they provide the full range of
diagnosis, treatment and specialist care.

Depending on the project brief, some functions may work
together with other facilities around the area; they also may be
linked to a distribution centre or head office.

Consider how your scheme relates to other sites and operational
issues. How quickly you can move between sites may affect
the viability and sustainability of a proposal. Proximity to rail or
road networks could be critical to the success of a proposal.
In the case of hospitals, staff and equipment may have to
transit between sites. Public transport connections will also be
important for some patients and their visitors.

Bradford Leeds
1. 2. 3.
4.
Halifax
5. 6.
Wakefield
Hospitals
1. Bradford
2. Leeds General
3. St James’s
4. St Luke’s
5. Calderdale Royal
6. Pinderfields
Motorways

TIP 82
GROUPINGS
AROUND THE SITE
CONSIDER THE PROXIMITY OF KEY FACILITIES.
What YOU CAN see

A map of York showing the location of key facilities.

The 15-minute city was a concept put forward by Professor
Carlos Moreno to describe a sustainable community where daily
necessities and services such as work, shopping, education,
healthcare and leisure can be easily reached within a 15-minute
walk or bike ride. York is a good example of this, partly as
a result of its size. However, larger cities can still provide a
sustainable infrastructure when they are broken down into
self-supporting districts.

Mapping the location of key facilities means that you can
assess how close your site is to the things that form part of
everyday life for a family. This is important because access
using public transport, cycling and walking is more sustainable
and also avoids long car journeys to ferry the family about.
The requirements included within your brief, and how to these
relate to facilities that already exist around the site, provides an
indication of sustainability.

Hospital
Secondary school
Cinema/entertainment
Sports facilities/stadium
Parks and recreation

TIP 83
GROUPINGS
AROUND THE SITE
INVESTIGATE THE PREVIOUS USES OF THE SITE.
What you can see

The Chester City Infirmary was the main hospital until a new
facility was built in the 1980s. The vacant site at the top
right-hand side of the drawing is an old Roman cemetery,
dating from c.200 bce. The lower plan shows the site today,
redeveloped for housing with the original buildings remodelled to
provide apartments.

Understanding the historical uses of the site allows a greater
level of engagement. Repurposing existing buildings is
sustainable and provides a link with the past. The site may also
have emotional ties, while archaeological remains may determine
how the land is used and developed.

Past uses of the site can have a bearing on your current
proposals, in the case of this example the undeveloped area is in
recognition of the historical significance of the Roman graveyard.
Gathering information from Digimap®, Google Earth and other
archive sources is quick and easy to do online and can reveal
the history of your site.

1940
2020

TIP 84
GROUPINGS
AROUND THE SITE
ESTABLISH CURRENT USAGE CATEGORIES LOCALLY.
What YOU CAN see

A map of the area around the Knowledge Quarter in Liverpool
gives an overview of the types of uses in the area.

The character of an area is influenced by the types of uses
within it. Whilst some buildings may have been repurposed, the
functions will affect activity and how busy the area is at different
times of the day and night.

In this example, a large part of the area is given over to
educational use for universities and schools. Interestingly, there
is also an area of housing comprising of some older apartments
as well as two-storey housing for families and retired people.
Understanding the grain of the area gives important clues as to
what sorts of interventions might be appropriate.

Rail station
Student accommodation
Commercial with some living accommodation upstairs
Ecclesiastical
Housing
Educational

TIP 85
GROUPINGS
RELATIONSHIP TO THE WIDER AREA
INVESTIGATE EMERGING TYPES AND PLANNED

DEVELOPMENTS.
What you can see

A map of Bristol showing the location of student
accommodation, student accommodation granted planning
permission and student accommodation currently under
consideration for planning permission.

There is a lot of information available to you in the public domain.
Access this information and use it to produce your own maps
to understand how your city is changing and what is likely to
happen in the near future. In this example, there has been a
sudden growth in student residences in the UK. This has had a
major impact on the development of our cities and the types of
projects seeking planning permission.

Depending on what you are planning for your site, the inclusion
of a large block of student housing could be a major advantage/
disadvantage. How is the city likely to develop and change, and
what kind of buildings are being proposed?

Student accommodation
Planning permission approved for student accommodation
Planning permission under consideration for
student accommodation

TIP 86
GROUPINGS
RELATIONSHIP TO THE WIDER AREA
MAP REPEATING SERVICES, FORMS AND TYPES.
What you can see

A map of Bristol showing the location of medical practices,
dental practices, pharmacies and hospitals.

It is useful to map out where similar activities are located,
as this will show the distribution of particular services and
amenities across the city and may help to demonstrate
need/change/future use.

Depending on the function of your site it can be desirable to
have a concentration and dense grouping of particular facilities.
Other functions will benefit from being spread out with sufficient
distance to balance with demand. You may wish to demonstrate
that certain functions could be better concentrated into a single
form, or perhaps your study will highlight an urgent need. This
kind of study can usefully feed into feasibility studies.

Medical practice
Hospital
Pharmacy
Dental practice

CASE STUDY 5
PHOENIX GARDEN
COMMUNITY BUILDING
OFFICE SIAN
What you can see
Phoenix Garden Community Building is located between Soho
and Covent Garden in central London. Phoenix Garden is the last
remaining of seven Covent Garden community gardens built in
the 1980s and occupies a former Second World War bomb site.

The building adopts a triangular-shaped plan that traces
the edge of the site’s boundary, invoking the classic English
walled garden typology. The solid brick wall is softened by
the arched entranceway and a band of limestone at roof level
proudly displays the building’s name. The north-facing façade
overlooking the garden’s interior is composed of oak framing
and large windows, offering views into the oasis beyond. The
site levels rise as one moves away from the building, revealing
the green roof when viewed from the far end of the garden. The
material palate of brick is again used on the floor, allowing the
garden paths to seamlessly enter the interior space, as well as
being a durable surface for muddy boots.

Context is as much about community and creating spaces for
conversations and gatherings as it is about the physical materials
and surrounding cityscape. Whilst the building’s concise
materiality is subtly drawn from the immediate streetscape, it
is the sense of moving through the solid brick wall and into the
unknown ‘secret’ garden beyond that guides the design.

It’s a humble building that Office Sian has successfully
elevated into a creative piece of architecture through its
commitment to distilling the design intent. Despite its small
stature, the careful detailing and clarity of approach makes it
stand out amongst its much larger neighbours.

CHAPTER 6
INTERFACE
The boundary of your site creates an interface with its perimeter.

Sometimes the boundary line is clear, as a fence or a river,
but often the threshold is less well defined. Views out to the
areas beyond can form important vistas and may act as design
drivers. Views into the site can also be significant; consider
how your design proposal will be seen from the surrounding
areas. The interface between your site and its surroundings is
important and will need constant review throughout the design
development process.
Site boundary
The location of the site boundary and what it consists of is the
starting point for any proposal. When dealing with live projects
this is not always straightforward. The boundary may be poorly
defined as part of a wide hedge or a fence may have been
removed, or else the boundary may not be marked physically at
all and is in the middle of a field. Establishing what the boundary
DOI: 10.4324/9781003485988-6
is, what materials it is constructed from and its permeability are
all important and may have an impact on the design proposals.
Ownership of the site and adjacent areas can be significant.
In certain circumstances a land-locked site may be difficult to
develop, or it may be that an adjacent owner controls a ‘ransom
strip’, which potentially provides access. Sometimes a boundary
will be created by a route or road, and considering how the site
relates to the movement along the street will have an impact
on the design. Finally, the permeability of the boundary is an
important consideration, and it may be that views out from the
site are impossible, or access to the site is restricted.
Views into the site

Exploring the views into the site from key vantage points is
important. Having these photographs or sketches available as a
constant reminder throughout the design process should ensure
that the impact of the scheme has been properly considered.
There may be reasons for taking a very positive stance so that
your proposal closes a vista or creates a landmark. Alternatively,
it may be the case that you want to fit in discretely. Either way,
testing how the scheme will be viewed is important.
With a live project the Local Planning Authority will take a
keen interest in these things and may require the architect to
produce CGI renders from specific viewpoints. Street elevations
are also a useful way to test a proposition, as are hand-drawn
sketches on tracing paper over site photographs. In conservation
areas there may be strict rules governing the height and impact
of new developments.
Views out from the site

Considering the available views out from the site is important for
two reasons. Firstly, the potential for views and any restriction on
privacy and interface distances may be a major constraint on the
design proposal. Secondly, views out from the site to other key
landmarks or vistas may provide a key design driver. Considering
the skyline and whether the site is elevated or not will make
a difference to the opportunities for views out. Exploring the
INTERFACE 203
potential and having this information to hand is essential if the
proposals are to exploit the opportunities.
Neighbours
Privacy and interface to the adjoining sites can be a major
constraint to the design proposals. In live projects this is
also tied into land ownership and legislation about interface
distances, especially if the project is concerned with housing.
Rights of light can also be an important consideration and, in
cities like London, a complex issue to assess. Corners need
special attention, as they offer a lot of design opportunity and
must respond to both streets and the wider junction.
Access
The nature of the boundary and the routes around the site
will determine the availability of access. Identifying potential
access points will allow you to consider what is possible in
terms of the developing design. Issues such as adjacent land
ownership, rights of access for you and your neighbours and
any restrictions will all be factors. In live projects these things
can sometimes make a project non-viable because there may be
issues outside the control of the site owner or developer.

A key vista from the town square in Amersfoort
TIP 87
INTERFACE
SITE BOUNDARY
ESTABLISH THE EXTENT AND NATURE OF THE SITE

BOUNDARY.
What you can see

A proposal to construct a new house (shown in yellow) in the
gap between existing houses. There are big level differences on
this steeply sloping riverside site.

Developing the site involves extensive excavations close to the
adjoining properties. Establishing the extent of the site boundary
accurately is essential and requires a topographical survey as
well as a ground investigation. This allows the developer to
anticipate the impact of the scheme and then negotiate with the
two neighbours who will be affected by the new construction.

Party wall agreements are a legal requirement when building in
close proximity to a neighbouring property. Understanding the
implications of your proposal is important at an early design
stage. Being a good neighbour and thinking about the impact
of your design is also important. What will the neighbouring
properties see? How will your design impact on shadows, views
and enjoyment of their property?

INTERFACE 207
TIP 88
INTERFACE
SITE BOUNDARY
ASSESS THE PERMEABILITY OF THE SITE

BOUNDARIES.
What you can see

A site between the city walls and the main perimeter road
in Chester.

The site is prominent and highly visible to traffic moving around
the city. Steel railings form the southern boundary to the street,
with high medieval sandstone walls to the west. Abutting the site
to the north is a more recent development in brick with a glazed
timber-framed upper storey overlooking the site.

What the boundary consists of and how permeable it is will
impact your design proposal. In the case of this site, the
prominent southern boundary provides a great opportunity,
whereas the windows at the upper level to the north will place
restrictions on what might be possible. Thinking about the
constraints and opportunities provides clues on the direction
your scheme might take.

INTERFACE 209
TIP 89
INTERFACE
SITE BOUNDARY
OBTAIN AN ACCURATE SITE SURVEY TO PROPERLY

ASSESS THE SITE’S POTENTIAL.
What you can see

A sketch scheme for a small housing development in a rural
location at the edge of a village in Cheshire. This was produced
using an Ordnance Survey map from Digimap®.

The number of dwellings that can be accommodated on the
site will have a direct bearing on the viability of the scheme.
Sometimes, at an early stage, architects rely on Ordnance
Survey data from Digimap® and this allows a general layout to
be produced, but more accurate plans will be required for the
final scheme.

It is essential to have a physical survey of the site. When
preparing a sketch scheme, the architect may use Digimap® and
will sometimes err on the side of caution when assessing the
development potential of the site. They will also state caveats
so that the developer understands the level of accuracy of the
proposal until such time as a topographical survey has been
carried out.

INTERFACE 211
TIP 90
INTERFACE
SITE BOUNDARY
CONSIDER THRESHOLDS WHERE BOUNDARIES ARE

POORLY DEFINED.
What you can see

This enclosure in the moorland of North Wales has tracks
running through it with varying levels of definition.

This area of the country has a long history of habitation dating
back to 4000 bce. Many of the tracks appear to relate to
Neolithic monuments and settlements associated with the ‘axe
factory’ located close by. Artefacts from this location have been
found in other parts of the country, indicating that some sort of
trade existed with objects being transported hundreds of miles.

Sometimes finding clues to determine the site layout and
the boundaries can be difficult. Picking up on old paths and
bridleways can provide a means of recognising the special things
about a site and these can be used to help make decisions
about your proposals.

INTERFACE 213
TIP 91
INTERFACE
SITE BOUNDARY
RESEARCH ANY LEGAL RESTRICTIONS IMPACTING

THE SITE.
What you can see

The site boundary is shown in yellow and the access road to the
site shown in grey.

This is a highly desirable site on the sloping bank of the River
Dee. Whist a case could be made to develop the land for
housing, the access is not an ‘adopted’ road, but a privately
owned one. Permission to use the road would therefore be
required if the site was to be used.

Checking ownership, covenants, wayleaves or restrictions on a
site can be important when assessing the viability of a proposal.
This information is not always in the public realm and when
dealing with live projects, it is best left to the client and their
legal advisors.

INTERFACE 215
TIP 92
INTERFACE
VIEWS INTO THE SITE
MAKE A SKETCH LOOKING INTO THE SITE.
What you can see

A sketch of Bold Street in Liverpool showing a strong linear axis
that terminates with St Luke’s Church.

Our proposals do not only offer views out, we must also
consider how the site is viewed from the outside. Consider how
others can view the site and how linear axes and strong visual
connections might be impacted by new additions.

Sketching a view that looks into your site can help you to
visualise how your proposal might look and how neighbouring
buildings will be impacted by your proposal.

INTERFACE 217
TIP 93
INTERFACE
VIEWS INTO THE SITE
HOW WILL YOUR PROPOSAL IMPACT THE

TOWNSCAPE?
What you can see

A six-storey hotel in Chester, designed in the 1980s. The building
is higher than its neighbours and sits alongside the Guildhall, one
of the important monuments of this city.

The hotel has a dramatic impact on the skyline of the city and
also competes with the spire of the Guildhall. The sketch shows
the vista looking into the site from the Grosvenor Bridge, one of
the main routes into the city from the south.

When developing a proposal, it is important to consider the
impact it may have on its surroundings. Views into the site from
a distance may be significant and it is important to explore the
potential impact that your scheme may have on the area as a
whole. Producing physical or 3D models will help to test the
impact of your proposal.

INTERFACE 219
TIP 94
INTERFACE
VIEWS INTO THE SITE
SURVEY THE ADJACENT PROPERTIES.
What you can see

The Liverpool Playhouse theatre showing the historical music
hall on the right from 1866, with the later modern addition on the
left from 1968. The extension provides an additional foyer, bar,
dressing rooms and workshop.

The new extension did not try to blend in with the historical
part of the building. A deliberate and provocative solution was
produced that sought to offer something new and distinct from
the old. By carefully abutting the older building on the side
façade, the historical arrangement and formal symmetry of the
old is respected.

Contemporary design can sit well in historical contexts and
provide a welcome foil to older architecture. An appropriate
solution can recognise and respect heritage whilst still being
contemporary and cutting edge. This does not mean that your
design should be gimmicky or a crude attempt to ‘stand out’, but
be brave and confident with your proposals when marrying old
and new.

INTERFACE 221
TIP 95
INTERFACE
VIEWS OUT FROM THE SITE
MAKE A SKETCH OF THE SKYLINE.
What you can see

A sketch from Birkenhead looking across the river towards
Liverpool. The city skyline has been sketched to show the
major landmarks.

Cities are collections of thousands of unique buildings providing
opportunities for distinctive skylines, views and roofscapes.

Your project might have a major impact on the skyline of the
cityscape. Certain places have protected vistas, for example
around St Paul’s Cathedral in London, whereas other cities have
become famous for particular views and the dramatic high-rise
skyscrapers. If your work will have an impact on the skyline or
city elevation, make sure it is tested and mocked up to on a large
scale to reveal its impact.

INTERFACE 223
TIP 96
INTERFACE
VIEWS OUT FROM THE SITE
IDENTIFY KEY AXES AND MONUMENTS.
What YOU CAN see

Liverpool One is a large retail development by Grosvenor Estates
in the centre of Liverpool. Views of the cathedral, the Royal Liver
Building and Royal Insurance Building can be seen from the
shopping centre.

The client amassed a high-profile team of architects as part
of a masterplan. Locking the development into the urban grain
was considered to be important and this included allowing local
monuments to become the focus of key vistas. The views out
were an important design driver for the masterplan.

Views out from your site can be generators for your design
strategy. Exploring how the city works in the area around your
site will allow you to pick up on key axes or monuments as well
as ensuring you are respectful of the existing urban grain.

INTERFACE 225
TIP 97
INTERFACE
NEIGHBOURS
ESTABLISH INTERFACE DISTANCES TO ADJACENT

PROPERTIES.
What you can see

A street in the centre of Leeds with a new development opposite
the Old Post Office.

The new building looks directly onto the older building with about
16m between them, creating the potential for loss of privacy and
visual intrusion.

Local authority planning legislation provides guidelines for
interface distances depending upon the type of buildings, their
function and what the affected rooms are used for. Regardless
of legal requirements, being respectful of neighbours’ privacy is
an important consideration, particularly in dense city centre sites
and where housing is concerned.

INTERFACE 227
TIP 98
INTERFACE
NEIGHBOURS
HOW WILL RIGHTS OF LIGHT IMPACT YOUR

PROPOSAL?
What YOU CAN see

Toronto Square in the centre of Leeds, located between the Old
Post Office and the former Yorkshire Penny Bank (in yellow), two
impressive buildings from the Victorian era.

The new building extension (in pink) created a dispute following
construction in 2009 because the owner of the Yorkshire Penny
Bank building claimed that it blocked his daylight. Following legal
action, the developer was required to remove parts of the sixth
and seventh floors.

Rights of light can be complex matters to assess and apply
equally to large buildings and much more modest domestic
extensions. This can be a particularly sensitive issue in central
London where architects sometimes engage a specialist to
assess the situation. Whatever the legal situation, it is important
to consider the impact your proposal is having on its neighbours
and their quality of light.

INTERFACE 229
TIP 99
INTERFACE
ACCESS
CONSIDER THE IMPLICATIONS OF ANY LEGAL

RESTRICTIONS.
What you can see

The proposed club house for rowing eights on the River Dee.

The proposal was not allowed to go ahead despite having
received planning approval from the local authority. Originally,
the riverside gardens were owned by the large Victorian houses
shown on the inset plan. A legal covenant restricted what could
be built on the site, even though ownership had changed.

Your site may have historical legal restrictions on how it may
be used, along with tithes, rents and other restrictions. It is
important that the client and their legal advisors confirm all legal
restrictions on their site. Access to this information is not always
in the public domain and detailed searches must be undertaken.

INTERFACE 231
TIP 100
INTERFACE
ACCESS
RESEARCH AND MAP ANY LEGAL RESTRICTIONS

AND RIGHTS OF ACCESS.
What you can see

A plan of Frodsham in Cheshire showing the M53 motorway in
red, along with the dashed line showing the railway. The pink
lines are bridleways and public footpaths. These are ancient
routes and must be kept open for all to use.

Developments must maintain these access rights even if it
means building bridges across motorways and railway lines,
and providing footpaths through developments. Even private
land may have access rights that are protected and must
be respected.

Legal checks and searches over access rights must be made
prior to developing a plot of land. If access rights exist on a
site they must be respected and kept fully open. They can also
become important design guides and constraints that inform and
shape your decisions.

INTERFACE 233
CASE STUDY 6
ROYAL HORTICULTURAL
SOCIETY VISITOR
CENTRE
HODDER + PARTNERS
What you can see

This is a new visitor centre in the grounds of Worsley New
Hall in Salford, adjacent to the Bridgewater Canal. The client
wanted to bring the health and wellbeing benefits of gardening
to more people and the site’s close proximity to Manchester
was important.

The siting of the new building (red outline) respects the
geometry of the original Victorian walled kitchen garden (green),
which is retained and now provides produce for the facility. The
building sits alongside an original lake, which has been relined.
The new Paradise Garden also picks up on the geometry of the
original site. Other parts of the site have poor ground conditions
and as such were designated for car parking.

The remains of the walled garden were an important design
driver in the planning of the building. We wanted all the elements
of the complex brief to be under one roof, without the building
itself becoming too dominant. Our intention was that the
building should blur into the landscape. The Bridgewater Canal
(blue dotted line) was an important vista forming the southern
boundary to the site. The canal is elevated, and we had a rule
that the horizon should not be bridged. The timber building
employs a sustainable design strategy using a section that
minimises solar gain.
INTERFACE 235
CASE STUDY 7
URBAN RENEWAL OF
KLOOSTERBUUREN
HANS VAN DER HEIJDEN
What you can see
This case study examines an urban renewal housing project
in Moerijk, north of The Hague in the Netherlands (shown in
yellow). Now used primarily for housing refugees, the scheme
retained an existing church (outlined in red), which once formed
part of a larger monastery on the site. The square adjacent
to the church provides a focus and also links with the existing
pedestrian routes (dotted in red).
The urban block (outlined in blue) is one of several residential
blocks on the outskirts of Delft. The main vehicular routes create
a grid pattern around the town within which smaller blocks sit.
Each of these smaller blocks has a more intimate urban grain
reflecting its uses and movement, as well as exhibiting its own
special character.
Aerial photographs are useful to show the urban grain without
abstracting information. With this project it was important not
to restrict our analysis just to our own block. The site analysis
accompanied the briefing process and the client was kept
fully engaged and encouraged to take a longer-term view
of the site. Even though the church’s future use had not yet
been determined, retaining it meant that the site edges were
articulated and helped the client market this unique feature of the
site. The existing green avenues were a real asset and created
an important link between the architecture and the landscape.

INTERFACE 237
AFTERWORD
A site analysis is not an end in and of itself. Rather, it is a way

of thinking about the problem and becoming more aware of
the external influences on the design. It is therefore a live
and developing document. Refer to it throughout your design
process to support your proposals and provide justification for
some of the key design moves you make.
Use your site analysis to inform discussions with your client,
the local community and other stakeholders to help create a
consensus on the constraints within the project’s environment.
Creating a proposal that fits with these constraints and supports
the existing infrastructure should ensure that the scheme not
only complements its environment but also provides a positive
and sustainable contribution for many years to come.
Sometimes there can be a difference of opinion on the merits
of a proposal and how it sits within its surroundings. You may be
asked to justify your stance. Being able to express your views
in an articulate and objective way without resorting to jargon is
important, especially when communicating with your clients and
the wider public.
From your analysis it is possible to create a diagram showing
the key design drivers, rather than just adding more information
to a map. This is important so that you know what to do next
and so that you have a full understanding of how the analysis
might influence the design approach. This ‘map’ can become the
key diagram and contain all the information needed to describe
and interpret the site. Your designs can be enriched, informed
and shaped by the site, street and place you’re working in –
there are clues and inspiration all around you. Make the most
of this data by drawing it and turning your observations into a
design generator. In the Appendix we’ve included two worked
examples that show how you might undertake an analysis.
The examples do not use everything discussed in this volume

(such as historical studies and materiality), but instead reveal
how you might interpret a site to develop a design strategy and
outline proposal.
The sketches and narrative contained in this book are just a
beginning. As architects we are always learning. Good luck with
your journey!
AFTERWORD 239
AppENDIx
WORKED EXAMPLE A
ARTS CENTRE AT REAR

OF BEDFORD HOUSE,
LIVERPOOL
Context – density, materiality and massing
The site (shown in red) is for a new arts centre to the south of
Bedford House, a 1960s three-storey office building. Surrounding
the site are three- and four-storey domestic buildings dating
from the mid-nineteenth century, as well as student housing
blocks from the 2000s.

Routes – vehicular
There is a busy road to the north and a quieter road to the
west of the site. Access for deliveries coming from the south to
Bedford House must be maintained.
Routes – pedestrian
The site is on the southern edge of the University of Liverpool
with movement of students across campus and to a pub located
just to the south of the site.
AppENDIx 241
Environment – climate and trees
This is mostly an urban environment, although there is some
greenery in a nearby square. The site is not overshadowed
and is quite sunny, particularly when the sun is higher in the
summer months.
Groupings and interface – edges and boundaries

There are adjacent buildings looking onto the site to the east
and west. The view out from the office block to the north is
particularly significant.

Interface – potential active frontages
There is potential for pleasant views out from the site to the
west, including a glimpse of the cathedral to the north-west. The
south-west corner is particularly important as the public-facing
site edge.
Interface – restrictions and potential views

Analysing the implications of interface, there is potential for views
to the west and south but restrictions to the north and east.
AppENDIx 243
Opportunities – testing the constraints
A design strategy starts to show potential for interesting things
happening to the south-west corner and the need for a buffer
zone to the north.
Brief analysis
Begin to explore the brief and to test out the implications of the
site constraints. How might the accommodation be arranged and
best positioned to exploit the features of the site such as the
climate, light and views?

Exploring
Consider the scale of the site and the surrounding buildings.
Analysis of the context can begin to suggest scale, entrance
locations, light/shadow and building orientation.
Testing
Test the design ideas and consider how they relate to your site
analysis. How are the views, routes, shadows, entrances, scale
and massing starting to align? Investigate these ideas further
in 3D with card models, photographs and montages to see the
implications of various design options.
AppENDIx 245
Preliminary proposals
Proposals can then begin to take shape and the impact of your
proposal tested. Note how the existing streetscape is included;
always include the neighbouring buildings (even in sketch form)
on your proposals. A perspective sketch need only take a few
minutes to produce but it can very quickly reveal your design and
how it responds to the site.

WORKED EXAMPLE B
CHEADLE HIGH STREET

REDEVELOPMENT
Context and brief

A development proposal to link the existing high street (shown in
blue) with the main road (in red) and other sites to the east.
AppENDIx 247
Groupings and nodes
The site is outlined in red with existing features shown and
future road improvements given in purple.
Routes and assets

Look in more detail at the existing buildings and other assets
on and around the site, as well as routes (note base map
transparency is increased).

Opportunities – strategic diagram
Create a diagram to show potential connections and key nodes
with possible development sites (shown here in red).
Design strategy
Use the analysis to develop a strategy for the proposed
development, showing landscape and picking up on connections
to the high street and further developments to the east.
AppENDIx 249
Development proposals
A more formal drawing shows the proposed interventions (dark
grey), landscape and routes. This example demonstrates how
you might develop a massing layout and overall design strategy.
The next stage would be to consider the historical, social and
material properties of the site.

glossary
number of dwellings per hectare; or the ratio of a building’s
height to the street width.
Desktop study: An investigation conducted using paper and
computer-based information.
Development: The act of proposing and delivering a building
project. Sometimes used to imply commercial investment or
speculative construction.
Development potential: How likely a site is to yield a profit for
investors risking their capital.
Digimap®: An online map and data delivery service, available
by subscription to UK higher and further education
establishments.
Feasibility study: A systematic review of a project’s potential
and the various options available to the clients.
Frontage: The front façade of a building or street and how it
interacts with the streetscape.
Greenbelt land: Land that has not been built on before or is only
used for agricultural purposes.
Historical grain: How the historical plot sizes or boundaries
continue to inform current usage.
Intervention: A deliberate design decision that responds to the
existing context.
Local authority: District government responsible for
administering and enforcing certain legislation.
Local Authority Planning: A governmental department
responsible for granting permission for future buildings and
administering policy.
Local plan: A strategic vision for a particular district, city
or region, usually compiled by the local authority or
commissioned by them.
Materiality: The physical properties of a material and how it
looks, weathers and feels.
Microclimate: A localised climate of a specific place that differs
from the wider climate of the area.
Mixed-use: A building that is used for a variety of different
purposes, for example, shops and cafes at ground floor with
residential usage above.

glossary
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BIBLIOGRApHY 255
INDEx
access rights 232–3 contamination 140 gardens 150–1, 200–1, 234–5

access to site 204, 214 context 9–97 ground conditions 140–1
accessibility economic 10–11, 24 groupings and usage 182–99
15-minute city 190 historical 10, 14–23, 78, around the site 188–95
transport infrastructure 192, 212 site usage 184–6
112–13, 188 invisible city 88–96 wider area 196–9
adjacent properties 204, materiality and style 52–7
206–7, 220–1, 226–9 physical infrastructure habitats 146–7, 181
Aeltc Community Tennis 64–87 Hazelwood School 7–8
Centre 180–1 political 58–63 hidden paths 108–9
affordable housing 32 routes 100–21 historical connotations 178–9
air quality 162–5 social and cultural 10, historical context 10, 14–23,
airports 112, 116–17 24–9 78, 192, 212
alternative routes 108–9 covenants 230 historical evolution 20–1,
architectural style 16, 52, cultural context 10, 24–9 66–7, 186, 192
54–7 cycle routes 104–5, 166–7 historical grain 22, 72–3, 78
artificial lighting 158–9 Hodder + Partners 234–5
daylight 128, 228 household composition 44
Bedford House, Liverpool, demographics 38–9, 44 housing tenure 32
arts centre 240–6 density 11, 42
Bodleian Library, Weston deprived areas 38–9 infrastructure improvements
Library 98–9 desire lines 110–11 50–1
boundaries 72, 74, 202–3, development potential 210 interface 202–33
206–15 devolved administrations 59 access 230–3
brownfield sites 140 Digimap® 210 distances 226–7
building density 11, 42 digital models 94–5 neighbouring properties
building materials 11, 52, districts 24, 30–1, 74–5, 80–1 226–9
172–3 drainage 180–1 site boundary 202–3,
building reuse 186, 192 drawings 4, 5, 6 206–15
building style see views into the site 216–21
architectural style ecological surveys 146 views out from the site
bus routes 104–5, 114–15 economic context 10–11, 24 222–5
busy times 118–21, 162, 164 economic sustainability 48 invisible city 12, 88–96
electricity distribution 156–7
carbon footprint 172 energy conservation 170 key axes and monuments
census data 10, 30, 32 environment 124–79 224–5
change of use 36, 182, climate 128–35 key facilities 190–1
186 (see also historical man-made features 152–61 Kloosterbuuren urban
evolution) natural features 142–51 renewal 236–7
Cheadle High Street phenomenology 174–9
redevelopment 247–50 street hierarchies 166–8 land ownership 40
cityscape 22, 86, 154, 222 sustainability 170–2 land use 183 (see also site
(see also streetscape; timeframe 162–5 usage)
townscape) topographical 136–41 land values 36–7
civic space 152–3 environmental assessment landlords 40
climate 124–5 146 landscapes 150, 174–7 (see
coastal sites 134–5 environmental improvements also parks)
communications 50 Langstaff Day Architects
infrastructure 156–7 equipment for site visits 5 180–1
communities see events 28, 118, 164 legal restrictions 214, 230
neighbourhoods lighting 158–9
community engagement façade lighting 158–9 literary references 96
10, 26 festivals 28, 118, 164 local materials 52, 172–3
community garden 200–1 flood risk 148 local styles 16, 54–7
competing visions 46 footpaths 108–11, 232 (see
computer models 94–5 also pedestrian routes) man-made features 126,
conservation areas 62–3 funicular 170–1 152–61

inde
IMAGE CREDITS
All images Peter Farrall and Iain Jackson. Case Studies and
Worked Examples redrawn by Farrall and Jackson from
architects’ original drawings with permission.

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© RIBA Publishing, 2024

Published by RIBA Publishing, 66 Portland Place, London, W1B 1AD

The rights of Peter Farrall and Iain Jackson to be identified as the

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Commissioning Editor: Alex White

About the authors x

100 SITE ANALYSIS ESSENTIALS: AN ARCHITECT’S GUIDE

Historical 1 Investigate the layers of history.

Social and cultural 6 Research the social and economic landscape.

Economic 12 Consider the significance of land values.

Density and development 15 Review the density and plot size.

17 Consider competing future visions and other stakeholders.

Materiality and style 20 Consider the availability of locally sourced materials.

Political 23 Who are the political influencers?

Vehicular 43 Establish the hierarchy of routes affecting your site.

Pedestrian 45 Experience the city by walking.

Transport 48 Consider the bigger picture of transport infrastructure and accessibility.

Timeframe 51 Consider how special events impact the city.

Climate 53 Assess sun paths, shading and daylight.

Topographical 57 Survey site levels and features.

Natural features 60 Celebrate the natural features.

Man-made features 65 Consider the existing streetscape.

Timeframe 70 Investigate how the site use varies over 24 hours.

Street hierarchies 72 Consider the proportion of pavement to road.

Sustainability 74 Explore opportunities to utilise the site’s resources.

Phenomenology 76 Explore opportunities to create the sense of a journey

GROUPINGS AND USAGE

Relationship to the wider 85 Investigate emerging types and planned developments.

Views out from the site 95 Make a sketch of the skyline.

Neighbours 97 Establish interface distances to adjacent properties.

Access 99 Consider the implications of any legal restrictions.

We’d like to thank our colleagues and students at the University

Peter Farrall is Senior Lecturer in Architecture at the

Iain Jackson is an architect and professor at University of

x 100 SITE ANALYSIS ESSENTIALS: AN ARCHITECT’S GUIDE

Conducting a site analysis is an essential part of the

Structure of the book

xii 100 SITE ANALYSIS ESSENTIALS: AN ARCHITECT’S GUIDE

xiv 100 SITE ANALYSIS ESSENTIALS: AN ARCHITECT’S GUIDE

Analysis and synthesis

2 100 SITE ANALYSIS ESSENTIALS: AN ARCHITECT’S GUIDE

Importance of on-site recording

4 100 SITE ANALYSIS ESSENTIALS: AN ARCHITECT’S GUIDE

• paths, such as streets, trails, canals and railways

6 100 SITE ANALYSIS ESSENTIALS: AN ARCHITECT’S GUIDE

8 100 SITE ANALYSIS ESSENTIALS: AN ARCHITECT’S GUIDE

‘Context’ is the term given to the immediate area around

CONTExT DOI: 10.4324/9781003485988-2 9

Social and cultural

10 100 SITE ANALYSIS ESSENTIALS: AN ARCHITECT’S GUIDE

Density and development

Materiality and style

12 100 SITE ANALYSIS ESSENTIALS: AN ARCHITECT’S GUIDE

INVESTIGATE THE LAYERS OF HISTORY.

What you can see

What does this mean?

How might it affect your proposal?

14 100 SITE ANALYSIS ESSENTIALS: AN ARCHITECT’S GUIDE

CONSIDER THE STYLISTIC DIVERSITY.

What you can see

What does this mean?

How might it affect your proposal?

Tip links with 1, 3, 18, 19, 20, 21 22, 25 and 73.