DEFINING THE RESEARCH

In research process, the first and foremost step happens to be that of selecting and properly
defining a research problem.* A researcher must find the problem and formulate it so that it
becomes susceptible to research. Like a medical doctor, a researcher must examine all the
symptoms (presented to him or observed by him) concerning a problem before he can diagnose
correctly. To define a problem correctly, a researcher must know: what a problem is?

WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROBLEM?

A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in the
context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same.
Usually we say that a research problem does exist if the following conditions are met with:
(i) There must be an individual (or a group or an organisation), let us call it ‘I,’ to whom the
problem can be attributed. The individual or the organisation, as the case may be,
occupies an environment, say ‘N’, which is defined by values of the uncontrolled
variables, Yj.
(ii) There must be at least two courses of action, say C1 and C2, to be pursued. A course of
action is defined by one or more values of the controlled variables. For example, the
number of items purchased at a specified time is said to be one course of action.
(iii) There must be at least two possible outcomes, say O1 and O2, of the course of action, of
which one should be preferable to the other. In other words, this means that there must
be at least one outcome that the researcher wants, i.e., an objective.
(iv) The courses of action available must provides some chance of obtaining the objective,
but they cannot provide the same chance, otherwise the choice would not matter. Thus,
if P (Oj | I, Cj, N) represents the probability that an outcome Oj will occur, if I select Cj in N,
then PbO1|I, C1, Ng ≠ PbO1|I, C2 , Ng . In simple words, we can say that the choices must

have unequal efficiencies for the desired outcomes.

Over and above these conditions, the individual or the organisation can be said to have the
problem only if ‘I’ does not know what course of action is best, i.e., ‘I’, must be in doubt about the
solution. Thus, an individual or a group of persons can be said to have a problem which can be
technically described as a research problem, if they (individual or the group), having one or more
desired outcomes, are confronted with two or more courses of action that have some but not
equal efficiency for the desired objective(s) and are in doubt about which course of action is best.
We can, thus, state the components1 of a research problem as under:
(i) There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the problem.

(ii) There must be some objective(s) to be attained at. If one wants nothing, one cannot
have a problem.
 (iii) There must be alternative means (or the courses of action) for obtaining the objective(s)
one wishes to attain. This means that there must be at least two means available to a
researcher for if he has no choice of means, he cannot have a problem.
(iv) There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to the selection
of alternatives. This means that research must answer the question concerning the
relative efficiency of the possible alternatives.
(v) There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains.

Thus, a research problem is one which requires a researcher to find out the best solution for the
given problem, i.e., to find out by which course of action the objective can be attained optimally in
the context of a given environment. There are several factors which may result in making the
problem complicated. For instance, the environment may change affecting the efficiencies of the
courses of action or the values of the outcomes; the number of alternative courses of action may
be very large; persons not involved in making the decision may be affected by it and react to it
favourably or unfavourably, and similar other factors. All such elements (or at least the important
ones) may be thought of in context of a research problem.

SELECTING THE PROBLEM

The research problem undertaken for study must be carefully selected. The task is a difficult one,
although it may not appear to be so. Help may be taken from a research guide in this connection.
Nevertheless, every researcher must find out his own salvation for research problems cannot be
borrowed. A problem must spring from the researcher’s mind like a plant springing from its own
seed. If our eyes need glasses, it is not the optician alone who decides about the number of the
lens we require. We have to see ourselves and enable him to prescribe for us the right number by
cooperating with him. Thus, a research guide can at the most only help a researcher choose a
subject. However, the following points may be observed by a researcher in selecting a research
problem or a subject for research:
(i) Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will be a difficult task to
throw any new light in such a case.
(ii) Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researcher.
(iii) Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.

(iv) The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the related
research material or sources of research are within one’s reach. Even then it is quite
difficult to supply definitive ideas concerning how a researcher should obtain ideas for
his research. For this purpose, a researcher should contact an expert or a professor in the
University who is already engaged in research. He may as well read articles published in
current literature
 available on the subject and may think how the techniques and ideas discussed therein
might be applied to the solution of other problems. He may discuss with others what he
has in mind concerning a problem. In this way he should make all possible efforts in
selecting a problem.
(v) The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training of a researcher, the
costs involved, the time factor are few other criteria that must also be considered in
selecting a problem. In other words, before the final selection of a problem is done, a
researcher must ask himself the following questions:
(a) Whether he is well equipped in terms of his background to carry out the research?
(b) Whether the study falls within the budget he can afford?
(c) Whether the necessary cooperation can be obtained from those who must
participate in research as subjects?
If the answers to all these questions are in the affirmative, one may become sure so far
as the practicability of the study is concerned.
(vi) The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study. This may not be
necessary when the problem requires the conduct of a research closely similar to one that
has already been done. But when the field of inquiry is relatively new and does not have
available a set of well-developed techniques, a brief feasibility study must always be
undertaken.

If the subject for research is selected properly by observing the above mentioned points, the
research will not be a boring drudgery, rather it will be love’s labour. In fact, zest for work is a
must. The subject or the problem selected must involve the researcher and must have an upper
most place in his mind so that he may undertake all pains needed for the study.

NECESSITY OF DEFINING THE PROBLEM

Quite often we all hear that a problem clearly stated is a problem half solved. This statement
signifies the need for defining a research problem. The problem to be investigated must be defined
unambiguously for that will help to discriminate relevant data from the irrelevant ones. A proper
definition of research problem will enable the researcher to be on the track whereas an ill-defined
problem may create hurdles. Questions like: What data are to be collected? What characteristics
of data are relevant and need to be studied? What relations are to be explored. What techniques
are to be used for the purpose? and similar other questions crop up in the mind of the researcher
who can well plan his strategy and find answers to all such questions only when the research
problem has been well defined. Thus, defining a research problem properly is a prerequisite for
any study and is a step of the highest importance. In fact, formulation of a problem is often more
essential than its solution. It is only on careful detailing the research problem that we can work out
the research design and can smoothly carry on all the consequential steps involved while doing
research.
TECHNIQUE INVOLVED IN DEFINING A PROBLEM
Let us start with the question: What does one mean when he/she wants to define a research
problem? The answer may be that one wants to state the problem along with the bounds within
which it is to be studied. In other words, defining a problem involves the task of laying down
boundaries within which a researcher shall study the problem with a pre-determined objective in
view.

How to define a research problem is undoubtedly a herculean task. However, it is a task that must
be tackled intelligently to avoid the perplexity encountered in a research operation. The usual
approach is that the researcher should himself pose a question (or in case someone else wants the
researcher to carry on research, the concerned individual, organisation or an authority should pose
the question to the researcher) and set-up techniques and procedures for throwing light on the
question concerned for formulating or defining the research problem. But such an approach
generally does not produce definitive results because the question phrased in such a fashion is
usually in broad general terms and as such may not be in a form suitable for testing.

Defining a research problem properly and clearly is a crucial part of a research study and must in
no case be accomplished hurriedly. However, in practice this a frequently overlooked which causes
a lot of problems later on. Hence, the research problem should be defined in a systematic manner,
giving due weightage to all relating points. The technique for the purpose involves the undertaking
of the following steps generally one after the other:
(i) statement of the problem in a general way;
(ii) understanding the nature of the problem;
(iii) surveying the available literature
(iv) developing the ideas through discussions; and
(v) rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition.

A brief description of all these points will be helpful.

(i) Statement of the problem in a general way:
First of all the problem should be stated in a broad general way, keeping in view either some
practical concern or some scientific or intellectual interest. For this purpose, the researcher must
immerse himself thoroughly in the subject matter concerning which he wishes to pose a problem.
In case of social research, it is considered advisable to do some field observation and as such the
researcher may undertake some sort of preliminary survey or what is often called pilot survey. Then
the researcher can himself state the problem or he can seek the guidance of the guide or the
subject expert in accomplishing this task. Often, the guide puts forth the problem in general terms,
and it is then up to the researcher to narrow it down and phrase the problem in operational terms.
In case there is some directive from an organisational authority, the problem then can be stated
accordingly. The problem stated in a broad general way may contain various ambiguities which
must be resolved by cool thinking and rethinking over the problem. At the same time the feasibility
of a particular solution has to be considered and the same should be kept in view while stating the
problem.
(ii) Understanding the nature of the problem:
The next step in defining the problem is to understand its origin and nature clearly. The best way
of understanding the problem is to discuss it with those who first raised it in order to find out how
the problem originally came about and with what objectives in view. If the researcher has stated
the problem himself, he should consider once again all those points that induced him to make a
general statement concerning the problem. For a better understanding of the nature of the
problem involved, he can enter into discussion with those who have a good knowledge of the
problem concerned or similar other problems. The researcher should also keep in view the
environment within which the problem is to be studied and understood.
(iii) Surveying the available literature:
All available literature concerning the problem at hand must necessarily be surveyed and examined
before a definition of the research problem is given. This means that the researcher must be well-
conversant with relevant theories in the field, reports and records as also all other relevant
literature. He must devote sufficient time in reviewing of research already undertaken on related
problems. This is done to find out what data and other materials, if any, are available for
operational purposes. “Knowing what data are available often serves to narrow the problem itself
as well as the technique that might be used.”2. This would also help a researcher to know if there
are certain gaps in the theories, or whether the existing theories applicable to the problem under
study are inconsistent with each other, or whether the findings of the different studies do not
follow a pattern consistent with the theoretical expectations and so on. All this will enable a
researcher to take new strides in the field for furtherance of knowledge i.e., he can move up
starting from the existing premise. Studies on related problems are useful for indicating the type
of difficulties that may be encountered in the present study as also the possible analytical
shortcomings. At times such studies may also suggest useful and even new lines of approach to
the present problem.
(iv) Developing the ideas through discussions:
Discussion concerning a problem often produces useful information. Various new ideas can be
developed through such an exercise. Hence, a researcher must discuss his problem with his
colleagues and others who have enough experience in the same area or in working on similar
problems. This is a working hypotheses are a set of suggested tentative solutions of explanations
of a research problem which may or may not be the real solutions. The task of research is to test
and establish such hypotheses. Hypotheses should be clearly and precisely stated in simple terms,
they should be testable, limited in scope and should state relationship between variables. They
should be amenable to testing within a reasonable time and should be consistent with most of the
known facts (Testing of hypotheses has been dealt with later in the book). quite often known as
an experience survey. People with rich experience are in a position to enlighten the researcher on
different aspects of his proposed study and their advice and comments are usually invaluable to
the researcher. They help him sharpen his focus of attention on specific aspects within the field.
Discussions with such persons should not only be confined to the formulation of the specific
problem at hand, but should also be concerned with the general approach to the given problem,
techniques that might be used, possible solutions, etc.

(v) Rephrasing the research problem:

Finally, the researcher must sit to rephrase the research problem into a working proposition. Once
the nature of the problem has been clearly understood, the environment (within which the
problem has got to be studied) has been defined, discussions over the problem have taken place
and the available literature has been surveyed and examined, rephrasing the problem into
analytical or operational terms is not a difficult task. Through rephrasing, the researcher puts the
research problem in as specific terms as possible so that it may become operationally viable and
may help in the development of working hypotheses.*
In addition to what has been stated above, the following points must also be observed while
defining a research problem:
(a) Technical terms and words or phrases, with special meanings used in the statement of
the problem, should be clearly defined.
(b) Basic assumptions or postulates (if any) relating to the research problem should be
clearly stated.
(c) A straight forward statement of the value of the investigation (i.e., the criteria for the
selection of the problem) should be provided.
(d) The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data available must also be
considered by the researcher in defining the problem.
(e) The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the problem is to be studied
must be mentioned explicitly in defining a research problem.

AN ILLUSTRATION
The technique of defining a problem outlined above can be illustrated for better understanding
by taking an example as under:
Let us suppose that a research problem in a broad general way is as follows:
“Why is productivity in Japan so much higher than in India”? In this form the question
has a number of ambiguities such as: What sort of productivity is being referred to? With
what industries the same is related? With what period of time the productivity is being
talked about? In view of all such ambiguities the given statement or the question is much
too general to be amenable to analysis. Rethinking and discussions about the problem
 may result in narrowing down the question to: “What factors were responsible for the
higher labour productivity of Japan’s manufacturing industries during the decade 1971
to 1980 relative to India’s manufacturing industries?”
This latter version of the problem is definitely an improvement over its earlier version
for the various ambiguities have been removed to the extent possible. Further
rethinking and rephrasing might place the problem on a still better operational basis as
shown below:
“To what extent did labour productivity in 1971 to 1980 in Japan exceed that of India in
respect of 15 selected manufacturing industries? What factors were responsible for the
productivity differentials between the two countries by industries?”

With this sort of formulation, the various terms involved such as ‘labour productivity’, ‘productivity
differentials’, etc. must be explained clearly. The researcher must also see that the necessary data
are available. In case the data for one or more industries selected are not available for the
concerning time-period, then the said industry or industries will have to be substituted by other
industry or industries. The suitability of the time-period must also be examined. Thus, all relevant
factors must be considered by a researcher before finally defining a research problem.

CONCLUSION
We may conclude by saying that the task of defining a research problem, very often, follows a
sequential pattern—the problem is stated in a general way, the ambiguities are resolved, thinking
and rethinking process results in a more specific formulation of the problem so that it may be a
realistic one in terms of the available data and resources and is also analytically meaningful. All this
results in a well-defined research problem that is not only meaningful from an operational point of
view, but is equally capable of paving the way for the development of working hypotheses and for
means of solving the problem itself.
 LITERATURE REVIEW

Luqman Yasin Gelle

Research & Professional Development Center

East Africa University, Garowe Campus

 WHAT IS LITRATURE REVIEW

 Is an account of what has been

published on a topic by accredited
scholars and researchers

 ‘Literature’ covers everything relevant

that is written on a topic e.g. books,
journal articles , historical records,
govt. reports, thesis/dissertations

December 17, 2020 2

WHAT IS LITERATURE REVIEW…

 Literature review discusses published

information in a particular subject area,
and sometimes information in a particular
subject area within a certain time period.

 Literature review can be just a simple

summary of the sources, but it usually
has an organizational pattern and
combines both summary and synthesis.

December 17, 2020 3

WHAT IS LITERATURE REVIEW…
 A summary is a recap of the important information of
the source, but a synthesis is a re-organization, or a
reshuffling, of that information.

 It might give a new interpretation of old material or

combines new with old interpretations.

 Or it might trace the intellectual progression of the

field, including major debates.

 And depending on the situation, the literature review

may evaluate the sources and advise the reader on
the most pertinent or relevant issues.

December 17, 2020 4

What is LR?
 The format of a review of literature may vary
from discipline to discipline and from assignment
to assignment.
 A review may be a self-contained unit -- an end
in itself -- or a preface to and rationale for
engaging in primary research. A review is a
required part of grant and research proposals
and often a chapter in theses and dissertations.
 Generally, the purpose of a review is to analyze
critically a segment of a published body of
knowledge through summary, classification, and
comparison of prior research studies, reviews of
literature, and theoretical articles.

December 17, 2020 5

WHAT IS LITERATURE REVIEW…

 Literature review is the effective evaluation of

selected documents on a research topic.
 A review may form an essential part of the
research process or may constitute a
research project in itself.
 In the context of a research paper or thesis
literature review is a critical synthesis of
previous research.
 The evaluation of the literature leads logical
research question formulation.

December 17, 2020 6

WHAT IS LITERATURE REVIEW…
A ‘good’ literature review…..
….. is a synthesis of available research
….. is a critical evaluation
….. has appropriate breadth and depth
….. has clarity and conciseness
….. uses rigorous and consistent
methods
December 17, 2020
A ‘poor’ literature review is…..
…..an annotated bibliography
….. confined to description
….. narrow and shallow
….. confusing and longwinded
….. constructed in an arbitrary way
7
Why Conduct Literature Review

 Literature review gives an overview

of the field of inquiry:

i. What has already been done

ii. Who the key writers are
iii. What is the relevance
iv. What are the differences
v. Agreements and disagreements
vi. Are there flaws (Gaps)

December 17, 2020 8

 What’s Research Gap?

 A research Gap is the missing

element in the existing research
literature, and you have to fill with
your research approach to make your
manuscript publishable.
 It indicates a finding from a research
in which key question/s have not
been answered.

December 17, 2020 9

What’s Research Gap?......

 Research Gap is a research question

or problem which has not been
answered appropriately or at all in a
given field of study.

December 17, 2020 10

Why Conduct Literature Review…

 What are the prevailing theories and

hypothesis
 What are the unanswered questions
 What are the methodologies and methods
appropriate and useful
 Establishing what is already known about a
particular topic
 Prevent you from reproducing what is already
known
 Exposes gaps in the literature and help you to
position your research

December 17, 2020 11

Why Conduct Literature Review

 Literature review provides you with a handy

guide to a particular topic.
 Literature review can give you an overview
hence acts as a stepping stone.

December 17, 2020 12

 Questions to Ask

 How much literature do I need to look at?

 How far back do I need to go in reviewing

the literature?

 What related idea do I need to explore

(subtopics and overarching idea)

 What literature provides a framework for my

research?

December 17, 2020 13

. Problem Identification in
percentage

Historical

Introduction Problem

Development Background Identification

Problem

Identification

December 17, 2020 14

Past years literature
How many references to look for?

 Generally speaking, a reasonable

number of references in literature are
recommended as follows:
 Undergraduate: 5-20 titles
 Honours dissertation:20+ titles
 Masters thesis: 40 + titles
 PhD thesis : 50 +Titles

December 17, 2020 15

 Questions to Ask Yourself About
your Review of Literature
 Do I have a specific thesis, problem, or
research question which my literature
review helps to define.

 What type of LR am I conducting? Am I

looking at issues of theory, methodology,
policy quantitative research , qualitative
research.

December 17, 2020 16

 Questions to Ask Yourself About
your Review of Literature…..
 What is the scope of my literature reviews? What
type of publications am I using?(e.g. Journals,
books, Govt. Documents, popular media)? What
disciplinary databases am I searching ( e.g.
nursing, psychology, sociology, medicine, IT, etc.)

 How good are my information seeking skill? Has my

search been wide enough to ensure I have found all
the relevant material? Has it been narrow enough
to exclude irrelevant material? Is the number of
sources I have used appropriate.

December 17, 2020 17

Questions to Ask Yourself About
your Review of Literature

 Is there a specific relationship between the literature I

have chosen to review and the problem I have
formulated.
 Have I critically analyzed the literature I use? Do I just
list and summarize authors and articles or, do I assess
them, synthesize? Do I discuss the strengths and
weaknesses of the material I cite?
 Have I cited and discussed studies contrary to my
perspective?
 Will the reader find my literature review relevant,
appropriate and useful?

December 17, 2020 18

Questions to ask yourself about each book
or article You’re Reviewing

 Has the author formulated a

problem/issue?
 Is the problem/issue ambiguous or clearly
articulated? Is its significance ( scope,
severity, relevance) discussed?
 What are the strengths and limitations of
the way the author has formulated the
problem or the issue?
 Could the problem have been approached
more effectively from another perspective?
December 17, 2020 19
Questions to ask yourself about each book
or article You’re Reviewing

 How accurate are the measurements

and analysis? Is the conclusions validity
based upon the data and analysis?
 Is this reference or article that
contribute to our understanding of the
problem under study, and in what ways
is it useful for theory or practice.
 How does this book or article fit into the
thesis or questions I am developing?
December 17, 2020 20
 Why write LR?

 For professionals, they are useful

reports that keep them up to date
with what is current in the field.

 For scholars, the depth and breadth

of the literature review emphasizes
the credibility of the writer in his or
her field

December 17, 2020 21

Why write LR?
 The purpose of a literature review is for you
to take a critical look at the literature (facts
and views) that already exists in the area
you are researching.
 A literature review is not a shopping list of
everything that exists, but a critical
analysis that shows an evaluation of the
existing literature and a relationship
between the different works.
 It demonstrates the relevance of the
research.
December 17, 2020 22
Why write LR?
 Literature can include books, journal
articles, internet (electronic journals),
newspapers, magazines, theses and
dissertations, conference proceedings,
reports, and documentaries.

 Literature review constitutes a section of

the social sciences thesis/paper.

 Sometimes a literature review is written as

a paper in itself.

December 17, 2020 23

Why write LR?
 Literature review provides a background to
the study being proposed.
 The background may consider one or more
of the following aspects depending on the
research question being posed:

 Theoretical background – past, present or future

 Clinical practice – previous or contemporary
 Methodology and/or research methods
 Previous findings
 Rationale and/or relevance of the current study

December 17, 2020 24

 What should I do before writing the
literature review?
 Clarify
If your assignment is not very specific, seek
clarification from your supervisor/lecturer:
a. Roughly how many sources should you include?
b. What types of sources (books, journal articles,
websites)?
c. Should you summarize, synthesize, or critique
your sources by discussing a common theme or
issue?
d. Should you evaluate your sources?
e. Should you provide subheadings and other
background information, such as definitions
and/or a history?

December 17, 2020 25

What should I do before writing the
literature review?
 Find models
i. Look for other literature reviews in your area of
interest or in the discipline and read them to get a
sense of the types of themes you might want to look
for in your own research or ways to organize your
final review.
ii. You can simply put the word "review" in your search
engine along with your other topic terms to find
articles of this type on the Internet or in an
electronic database.
iii. The bibliography or reference section of sources
you've already read are also excellent entry points
into your own research.

December 17, 2020 26

What should I do before writing the
literature review?
 Narrow your topic
a. There are hundreds or even thousands
of articles and books on most areas of
study.
b. The narrower your topic, the easier it
will be to limit the number of sources
you need to read in order to get a good
survey of the material.
c. Your instructor will probably not expect
you to read everything that's out there
on the topic, but you'll make your job
easier if you first limit your scope.

December 17, 2020 27

What should I do before writing the
literature review?......
 Consider whether your sources are
current
i. Some disciplines require that you use
information that is as current as possible.
ii. In the sciences, for instance, treatments
for medical problems are constantly
changing according to the latest studies.
Information even two years old could be
obsolete.
iii. For social sciences, it can stretch back as
far as 10 years, but 5 years to the time of
research the better!

December 17, 2020 28

What should I do before writing the
literature review?
 If you are writing a review in the humanities,
history, or social sciences, a survey of the
history of the literature may be what is needed,
because what is important is how perspectives
have changed through the years or within a
certain time period.
 Try sorting through some other current
bibliographies or literature review in the field to
get a sense of what your discipline expects.
 You can also use this method to consider what is
"hot" and what is not.

December 17, 2020 29

What should I do before writing the
literature review?
 Find a focus
 A literature review, should be organized
around ideas, not the sources
themselves.
 Do not just simply list your sources and
go into detail about each one of them,
one at a time. No!

December 17, 2020 30

What should I do before writing the
literature review?
 As you read widely but selectively in your topic
area, consider instead what themes or issues
connect your sources together.
 Do they present one or different solutions?
 Is there an aspect of the field that is missing?
 How well do they present the material and do
they portray it according to an appropriate
theory?
 Do they reveal a trend in the field?
 A raging debate?
 Pick one of these themes to focus the
organization of your review.

December 17, 2020 31

 What should I do before writing the
literature review?
 Construct a working thesis
statement
 Use the focus you've found to construct a
thesis statement (distinct position). Yes!
 Literature reviews have thesis statements
as well!
 It should argue for a particular perspective
on the material.

December 17, 2020 32

What should I do before writing the
literature review?
 Consider organization
 You've got a focus, and you've narrowed
it down to a thesis statement.
 Now what is the most effective way of
presenting the information?
 What are the most important topics,
subtopics, etc., that your review needs
to include?
 And in what order should you present
them?

December 17, 2020 33

What should I do before writing the
literature review?
 Develop an organization for your review at
both a global and local level:
 First, cover the basic categories
Just like most academic papers, literature review
also must contain at least three basic elements:
i. an introduction or background information
section;
ii. the body of the review containing the discussion
of sources; and,
iii. finally, a conclusion and/or recommendations
section to end the paper.
December 17, 2020 34
What should I do before writing the
literature review?
1. Introduction:
 Gives a quick idea of the topic of the literature review, such as the central
theme or organizational pattern.
 Should provide the reader with the scale and structure of your review. It
serves as a kind of road map.

2. Body:
 Contains your discussion of sources and is organized either chronologically,
thematically, or methodologically
 Literature reviews should be evaluative and not merely descriptive. For
example possible reasons for similarities or differences between studies are
considered rather than a mere identification of them

3. Conclusions/Recommendations:
 Discuss what you have drawn from reviewing literature so far. Where might
the discussion proceed?
 of the review needs to sum up the main findings of your research into the
literature. The findings can be related to the aims of the study you are
proposing to do

December 17, 2020 35

What should I do before writing the
literature review?
 Organizing the body:
 You must consider how you will present the
sources themselves within the body of your
paper/dissertation.

 To organize your review, you may opt for any

of or combination of the six typical ways e.g.:
 Chronological
 By publication
 By trend
 Thematic
 Methodological
 Questions for Further Research

December 17, 2020 36

What should you write?
 the accepted facts in the area
 the popular opinion
 the main variables
 the relationship between concepts and
variables
 shortcomings in the existing findings
 limitations in the methods used in the
existing findings
 the relevance of your research
 suggestions for further research in the area.

December 17, 2020 37

What should you write?
 Literature reviews should comprise the following
elements:
 An overview of the subject, issue or theory under
consideration, along with the objectives of the
literature review
 Division of works under review into categories (e.g.
those in support of a particular position, those
against, and those offering alternative theses
entirely)
 Explanation of how each work is similar to and how it
varies from the others
 Conclusions as to which pieces are best considered in
their argument, are most convincing of their
opinions, and make the greatest contribution to the
understanding and development of their area of
research

December 17, 2020 38

What should you write?
 In assessing each piece, consideration should be given
to:
 Provenance—What are the author's credentials? Are
the author's arguments supported by evidence (e.g.
primary historical material, case studies, narratives,
statistics, recent scientific findings)?
 Objectivity—Is the author's perspective even-handed
or prejudicial? Is contrary data considered or is
certain pertinent information ignored to prove the
author's point?
 Persuasiveness—Which of the author's theses are
most/least convincing?
 Value—Are the author's arguments and conclusions
convincing? Does the work ultimately contribute in
any significant way to an understanding of the
subject?

December 17, 2020 39

What should you write?
 Layout
 Make your literature review have an academic and
professional appearance. Here are some points to
make the look of your report appealing to the reader
 White space: leave space between sections,
especially from the abstract. This gives an uncluttered
effect.
 Headings/sub-headings: these help to separate
ideas.
 Text boxes: you can use these for quotations or
paraphrasing to separate them from the rest of your
text. It is also pleasing to the eye.

December 17, 2020 40

What should you write?
 Graphics: centre your graphics, such as
diagrams or tables, to have space around
them. Try not to bury graphics in your text.
 Pagination: you can number pages or
sections or both, but the important thing to
do is to be consistent. The cover page
normally is not numbered. The content
page and abstract page usually have a
separate numbering system to the body of
your literature review.

December 17, 2020 41

What should you write?
 Language focus
 Create a balance between direct quotation
(citation) and paraphrasing. Avoid too much
direct quoting. The verb tense chosen depends
on your emphasis
 When you are citing a specific author's findings,
use the past tense ( e.g. found, demonstrated);
 When you are writing about an accepted fact,
use the present tense (e.g. demonstrates,
finds); and
 When you are citing several authors or making a
general statement, use the present perfect
tense (e.g. have shown, have found, little
research has been done, etc.).

December 17, 2020 42

What should you write?
 Final checklist
 Have I fulfilled the purpose of the literature review?
 Is it written at a level appropriate to its audience?
 Are its facts correct?
 Is all the information included relevant?
 Are the layout and presentation easy on the eye?
 Is the language clear, concise and academic?
 Does the abstract summarise the entire review?
 Does the introduction adequately introduce the topic?
 Is the body organised logically?
 Does the conclusion interpret, analyse and evaluate?
 Are the recommendations reasonable?
 Does the table of contents correspond with the actual contents?
Are page numbers correct?
 Have I acknowledged all sources of information through correct
referencing?
 Have I checked spelling, grammar and punctuation?
 Have I carefully proof-read the final draft?
December 17, 2020 43
How to review?
 The whole process of reviewing
includes:
i. Searching for literature
ii. Sorting and prioritizing the retrieved
literature
iii. Analytical reading of papers
iv. Evaluative reading of papers
v. Comparison across studies
vi. Organising the content
vii. Writing the review
December 17, 2020 44
How to review?
 Comparison across studies
 The aim is to extract key points by comparing
and contrasting ACROSS studies, instead of
reading one paper after another.
 Key points for a review may concern areas of
similarities and/or differences in:
 Research aim(s) or hypotheses
 Research design and sampling
 Instruments and procedures used
 How data were analysed
 Results or findings
 Interpretations

December 17, 2020 45

How to review?
 Tips on writing
Express one idea in a sentence. Ensure that all your sentences have
Sentences
a subject, verb and object.

Group sentences that express and develop one aspect of your topic.
Paragraphs
Use a new paragraph for another aspect or another topic.

Use sentences and paragraphs with appropriate use of commas,

Consistent Grammar colours and semi-colours. Incorrect use of punctuation can affect
the meaning.

Use words that link paragraphs and which show contrast and
Transition Words development to your argument e.g. ‘hence’, ‘therefore’, ‘but’,
‘thus’, ‘as a result’, ‘in contrast’.

December 17, 2020 46

How to review?
 Pitfalls
- Vagueness due to too much or
inappropriate generalizations
- Limited range
- Insufficient information
- Irrelevant material
- Omission of contrasting view
- Omission of recent work

December 17, 2020 47

END

THANK YOU

December 17, 2020 48

 VARIABLES
A variable is anything that can take on differing or varying values. The values can differ at various times
for the same object or person, or at the same time for different objects or persons. Examples of
variables are production units, absenteeism, motivation, etc.

Example 1:

Production units: One worker in the manufacturing department may produce one widget per minute, a
second might produce two per minute, a third might produce five per minute. It is also possible that the
same member could produce one widget the first minute, and five the next minute. In both cases, the
number of widgets produced has taken on different values, and is therefore a variable.

Example 2:

Absenteeism: Today three members in the sales department may be absent, tomorrow six members
may not show up for work; the day after, there may be no one absent. The value can thus theoretically
range from “zero” to “all” being absent, on the absenteeism variable.

Example 3:

Motivation: The levels of motivation of members to learn in the class or in a work team might take on
varying values ranging from “very low” to “very high.”

Example 4:

…………………………….

Types of Variables
Four main types of variables are:

1. The dependent variable (also known as the criterion variable).

2. The independent variable (also known as the predictor variable).

3. The moderating variable.

4. The intervening variable.

Variables can be

1. Discrete (e.g., male/female) or

2. Continuous (e.g., the age of an individual) or
3. Extraneous variables that confound cause-and-effect relationships
Dependent Variable

The dependent variable is the variable of primary interest to the researcher. The researcher’s goal is to
understand and describe the dependent variable, or to explain its variability, or predict it. In other
words, it is the main variable that lends itself for investigation as a viable factor.

Through the analysis of the dependent variable (i.e., finding what variables influence it), it is possible to
find answers or solutions to the problem. For this purpose, the researcher will be interested in
quantifying and measuring the dependent variable, as well as the other variables that influence this
variable.

Example 1:

A manager is concerned that the sales of a new product introduced after test marketing does not meet
with his expectations. The dependent variable here is sales. Since the sales of the product can vary—can
be low, medium, or high—it is a variable; since sales is the main focus of interest to the manager, it is
the dependent variable.

Example 2:

A basic researcher is interested in investigating the debt-to-equity ratio of manufacturing companies in

southern California. Here the dependent variable is the ratio of debt to equity.

Example 3:

A vice president is concerned that the employees are not loyal to the organization, and in fact, seem to
switch their loyalty to other institutions. The dependent variable in this case would be organizational
loyalty.

Here again, there is variance found in the levels of organizational loyalty of employees. The V.P. might
want to know what accounts for the variance in the loyalty of organizational members with a view to
control it. If he finds that increased pay levels would ensure their loyalty and retention, he can then
offer inducement to employees by way of pay raises, which would help control the variability in
organizational loyalty and keep them in the organization.

It is possible to have more than one dependent variable in a study. For example, there is always a tussle
between quality and volume of output, low-cost production and customer satisfaction, and so on. In
such cases, the manager is interested to know the factors that influence all the dependent variables of
interest and how some of them might differ in regard to different dependent variables. These
investigations may call for multivariate statistical analyses.
Questions & General Instruction:

1. Make use of all our discussions on Literature Review, APA and any other related discussion in
the class so far.

2. Use APA format to write any one of the exercises chosen from the range 1 to 5. The paper
should be well written, including being visually impressive. All necessary attention should be
paid to punctuations, grammar and any other requirements that make a good write up.

Exercise 1
An applied researcher wants to increase the performance of
organizational members in a particular bank.
What would be the dependent variable in this case? Furthermore,
using a review of at least 15 journal articles, establish determinants of
the variable.
Exercise 2
A marketing manager wonders why the recent
advertisement strategy does not work.
What would be the dependent variable here? Furthermore, using a
review of at least 15 journal articles, establish determinants of the
variable.
Exercise 3
A fund manager at a stock market wonders why the market
fluctuates. What would be the dependent variable here?
Furthermore, using a review of at least 15 journal articles, establish
determinants of the variable.
Exercise 4
Get a theory in your field of study. Write its applicability
and limitation in a particular situation. State any
assumptions you make in this case. Note use at least 10-15
journal articles.
Exercise 5
Take any dependent variable of your choice in your field of
interest/study. Review at least 15 journal articles to
establish determinants of the variable.
Independent Variable
An independent variable is one that influences the dependent variable in either a positive or
negative way. That is, when the independent variable is present, the dependent variable is also
present, and with each unit of increase in the independent variable, there is an increase or decrease
in the dependent variable also. In other words, the variance in the dependent variable is accounted
for by the independent variable. To establish causal relationships, the independent variable is
manipulated.

Example:
Research studies indicate that successful new product development has an influence on the stock
market price of the company. That is, the more successful the new product turns out to be, the
higher will be the stock market price of that firm. Therefore, the success of the new product is
the independent variable, and stock market price the dependent variable. The degree of perceived
success of the new product developed will explain the variance in the stock market price of the
company. This relationship and the labeling of the variables are diagrammed in Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.1
Diagram of the relationship between the independent variable (new product success: and the dependent
variable (stock market price).

New product Stock market

success price

Moderating Variable
The moderating variable is one that has a strong contingent effect on the independent variable–
dependent variable relationship. That is, the presence of a third variable (the moderating variable)
modifies the original relationship between the independent and the dependent variables. This
becomes clear through the following examples.

Example 5.9 It has been found that there is a relationship between the availability of Reference
Manuals that manufacturing employees have access to, and the product rejects. That is, when
workers follow the procedures laid down in the manual, they are able to manufacture products that
are flawless. This relationship is diagrammed in Fig. 5.3A.
Although this relationship can be said to hold true generally for all workers, it is nevertheless
contingent on the inclination or urge of the employees to look into the Manual every time a new
procedure is to be adopted. In other words, only those who have the interest and urge to refer to
the manual every time a new process is adopted will produce flawless products. Others who do not
will not be benefited and will continue to produce defective products. This influence of the
attributes of the worker on the relationship between the independent and the dependent variables
can be diagrammed as in Figure 5.3B.

Figure 5.3B
Diagram of the relationship between the independent variable (availability of reference materials) and the
dependent variable (rejects) as moduated by the moderating variable (interest and inclination).
 Availability of
# of Rejects
Reference Manuals

IV DV

Interest
&
Inclination

MV
As in the above case, whenever the relationship between the independent variable and the
dependent variable becomes contingent or dependent on another variable, we say that the third
variable has a moderating effect on the independent variable–dependent variable relationship. The
variable that moderates the relationship is known as the moderating variable.

Example 5.10 Let us take another example of a moderating variable. A prevalent theory is that the
diversity of the workforce (comprising people of different ethnic origins, races, and nationalities)
contributes more to organizational effectiveness because each group brings its own special
expertise and skills to the workplace. This synergy can be exploited, however, only if managers
know how to harness the special talents of the diverse work group; otherwise they will remain
untapped.
In the above scenario, organizational effectiveness is the dependent variable, which is
positively influenced by workforce diversity—the independent variable. However, to harness the
potential, managers must know how to encourage and coordinate the talents of the various groups
to make things work. If not, the synergy will not be tapped. In other words, the effective utilization
of different talents, perspectives, and eclectic problem-solving capabilities for enhanced
organizational effectiveness is contingent on the skill of the managers in acting as catalysts. This
managerial expertise then becomes the moderating variable. These relationships can be depicted
as in Figure 5.4.

The Distinction between an Independent Variable and a Moderating

Variable
At times, confusion is likely to arise as to when a variable is to be treated as an independent
variable and when it would become a moderating variable. For instance, there may be two
situations as follows:

Situation 1
A research study indicates that the better the quality of the training programs in an organization and
the greater the growth needs of the employees (i.e., where

Figure 5.4
Diagram of the relationship among the three variables: workforce diversity, organizational effectiveness, and
managerial expertise.
 Organizational
Workforce diversity
effectiveness

Independent variable Dependent variable

Managerial
expertise

Moderating variable
the need to develop and grow on the job is strong), the greater is their willingness to learn new ways of doing things.

Situation 2
Another research study indicates that the willingness of the employees to learn new ways of doing things is not
influenced by the quality of the training programs offered by the organizations to all people without any distinction.
Only those with high growth needs seem to have the yearning to learn to do new things through specialized training.
In the above two situations, we have the same three variables. In the first case, the training programs and growth need
strength are the independent variables that influence employees’ willingness to learn, which is the dependent variable. In
the second case, however, the quality of the training program is the independent variable, and while the dependent
variable remains the same, growth need strength becomes a moderating variable. In other words, only those with high
growth needs show a greater willingness and adaptability to learn to do new things when the quality of the training
program is improved. Thus the relationship between the independent and dependent variables has now become
contingent on the existence of a moderator.
The above illustration makes it clear that even though the variables used are the same, the decision whether to label
them dependent, independent, or moderating depends on how they affect one another. The differences between the
effects of the independent and the moderating variables could be visually depicted as in Figure 5.5A and 5.5B (see page
94).
Note the steep incline of the top line and the relative flatness of the bottom line in Figure 5.5B.

Intervening Variable
An intervening variable is one that surfaces between the time the independent variables start operating to influence the
dependent variable and the time their impact is felt on it. There is thus a temporal quality or time dimension to the
intervening variable. The intervening variable surfaces as a function of the independent variable(s) operating in any
situation, and helps to conceptualize and explain the influence of the independent variable(s) on the dependent variable.
The following example illustrates this point.

Figure 5.5B
Illustration of the influence of independent variables on the dependent variable when a moderating variable is operating in the
situation.
 Effects for those high
in growth needs
Wi
llin
gn
es
s
to
le
ar
n Effects for those low
in growth needs

Training programs
Figure 5.6
Diagram of the relationship among the independent, intervening, and dependent variable.
Time: t1 t2 t3

Workforce Creative Organizational

diversity synergy effectiveness

Independent variable Intervening variable Dependent variable

Example 5.11InExample 5.10 where the independent variable workforce diversity influences
the dependent variable organizational effectiveness, the intervening variable
that surfaces as a function of the diversity in the workforce is creative synergy. This
creative synergy results from a multiethnic, multiracial, and multinational (i.e.,
diverse) workforce interacting and bringing together their multifaceted expertise in
problem solving. This helps us to understand how organizational effectiveness can
result from having diversity in the workforce. Note that creative synergy, the
intervening variable, surfaces at time t2, as a function of workforce diversity, which
was in place at time t1, to bring about organizational effectiveness in time t3. The
intervening variable of creative synergy helps us to conceptualize and understand
how workforce diversity brings about organizational effectiveness. The dynamics
of these relationships are illustrated in Figure 5.6.
Example5.12

It would be interesting to see how the inclusion of the moderating variable managerial expertise in the foregoing
example would change the model or affect the relationships. The new set of relationships that would emerge in the
presence of the moderator can be depicted as in Figure 5.7. As can be seen therefrom, managerial expertise
moderates the relationship between workforce diversity and creative synergy. In other words, creative synergy will
not result from the multifaceted problem-solving skills of the diverse workforce unless the manager is capable of
harnessing that synergy by creatively coordinating the different skills. If the manager lacks the expertise to perform
this role, then no matter how many different problem-solving skills the diverse workforce might have, synergy will
just not surface. Instead of functioning effectively, the organization might just remain static, or even deteriorate.
It is now easy to see what the differences are among an independent variable, intervening variable, and a
moderating variable. The independent variable helps to explain the variance in the dependent variable; the
intervening variable surfaces at time t2 as a function of the independent variable, which also helps us to conceptualize
the relationship between the independent and dependent variables; and the moderating variable has a contingent effect
on the relationship between two variables. To put it differently, while the independent variable explains the variance
in the dependent variable, the intervening variable does not add to the
Figure 5.7
Diagram of the relationship among the independent, intervening, moderating, and dependent variables.
Time: t1 t2 t3

Workforce Creative Organizational

diversity synergy effectiveness

Independent variable Intervening variable Dependent variable

Managerial
expertise

Moderating variable

variance already explained by the independent variable, whereas the moderating variable has an interaction effect with
the independent variable in explaining the variance. That is, unless the moderating variable is present, the theorized
relationship between the other two variables considered will not hold.
Whether a variable is an independent variable, a dependent variable, an intervening variable, or a moderating variable
should be determined by a careful reading of the dynamics operating in any given situation. For instance, a variable such
as motivation to work could be a dependent variable, an independent variable, an intervening variable, or a moderating
variable, depending on the theoretical model that is being advanced.
Research Design
 Introduction
Before beginning your paper/dissertation/thesis, you need to decide how you plan to design the study.

The research design refers to the overall strategy that you choose to integrate the different components of the
study in a coherent and logical way, thereby, ensuring you will effectively address the research problem (De
Vaus, 2001; Trochim, 2006).

It constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis of data.

Note that your research problem determines the type of design you should use, not the other way around.
 Research Design achieves the following

1.Identifies the research problem clearly and justify its selection, particularly in relation
to any valid alternative designs that could have been used,
2.Reviews and synthesizes previously published literature associated with the research
problem,
3.Clearly and explicitly specifies hypotheses [i.e., research questions] central to the
problem,
4.Effectively describes the data which will be necessary for an adequate testing of the
hypotheses and explains how such data will be obtained, and
5.Describes the methods of analysis to be applied to the data in determining whether or
not the hypotheses are true or false.
 Types of Research Design
Action Research Design Historical Design

Case Study Design Longitudinal Design

Causal Design Meta-Analysis Design

Cohort Design Mixed-Method Design

Cross-Sectional Design
Observational Design
Descriptive Design
Philosophical Design
Experimental Design
Sequential Design
Exploratory Design
 Action Research Design
Features of ARD:

1.This is a collaborative and adaptive research design that lends itself to use in work or community
situations.

2.Design focuses on pragmatic and solution-driven research outcomes rather than testing theories.

3.When practitioners use action research, it has the potential to increase the amount they learn
consciously from their experience; the action research cycle can be regarded as a learning cycle.

4.Action research studies often have direct and obvious relevance to improving practice and
advocating for change.

5.There are no hidden controls or pre-emption of direction by the researcher.

 Case Study Design

A case study is an in-depth study of a particular research problem rather

than a sweeping statistical survey or comprehensive comparative inquiry
(Yin, 2003) .
It is often used to narrow down a very broad field of research into one
or a few easily researchable examples.
The case study research design is also useful for testing whether a specific
theory and model actually applies to phenomena in the real world.
It is a useful design when not much is known about an issue or
phenomenon.
 Causal Design

Causality studies may be thought of as understanding a phenomenon in

terms of conditional statements in the form, “If X, then Y.”
This type of research is used to measure what impact a specific change will
have on existing norms and assumptions.
Most social scientists seek causal explanations that reflect tests of
hypotheses.
Causal effect (nomothetic perspective) occurs when variation in one
phenomenon, an independent variable, leads to or results, on average, in
variation in another phenomenon, the dependent variable.
Cross-Sectional Design
 The cross-sectional design measures differences between or from among a
variety of people, subjects, or phenomena rather than a process of change.
As such, researchers using this design can only employ a relatively passive
approach to making causal inferences based on findings.

 Cross-sectional research designs have two distinctive features:

i. a reliance on existing differences rather than change following

intervention; and,
ii. groups are selected based on existing differences rather than
random allocation.
Descriptive Design

Descriptive research designs help provide answers to the questions

of who, what, when, where, and how associated with a particular
research problem; a descriptive study cannot conclusively ascertain
answers to why.
Descriptive research is used to obtain information concerning the
current status of the phenomena and to describe "what exists" with
respect to variables or conditions in a situation.
Longitudinal Design
A longitudinal study follows the same sample over time and makes
repeated observations.
For example, with longitudinal surveys, the same group of people is
interviewed at regular intervals, enabling researchers to track changes
over time and to relate them to variables that might explain why the
changes occur.
Longitudinal research designs describe patterns of change and help
establish the direction and magnitude of causal relationships.
Measurements are taken on each variable over two or more distinct time
periods. This allows the researcher to measure change in variables over
time.
It is a type of observational study sometimes referred to as a panel study.
 Meta-Analysis Design

Meta-analysis is an analytical methodology designed to systematically evaluate and summarize the results from a
number of individual studies, thereby, increasing the overall sample size and the ability of the researcher to study effects
of interest.
The purpose is to not simply summarize existing knowledge, but to develop a new understanding of a research problem
using synoptic reasoning.
The main objectives of meta-analysis include analyzing differences in the results among studies and increasing the
precision by which effects are estimated.
A well-designed meta-analysis depends upon strict adherence to the criteria used for selecting studies and the
availability of information in each study to properly analyze their findings.
 Lack of information can severely limit the type of analyzes and conclusions that can be reached. In addition, the more
dissimilarity there is in the results among individual studies [heterogeneity], the more difficult it is to justify
interpretations that govern a valid synopsis of results.
 Exploratory Design
Design is a useful approach for gaining background information on a
particular topic.
Exploratory research is flexible and can address research questions of all
types (what, why, how).
Provides an opportunity to define new terms and clarify existing concepts.
Exploratory research is often used to generate formal hypotheses and
develop more precise research problems.
In the policy arena or applied to practice, exploratory studies help
establish research priorities and where resources should be allocated.
END
 Research Methods

Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methods

The Qualitative Research Methods

The qualitative research methods of data collection does not involve the collection of data
that involves numbers or a need to be deduced through a mathematical calculation, rather it
is based on the non-quantifiable elements like the feeling or emotion of the researcher.

Quantitative Method

Quantitative methods are presented in numbers and require a mathematical calculation to

deduce. An example would be the use of a questionnaire with close-ended questions to arrive
at figures to be calculated mathematically. Also, methods of correlation and regression, mean,
mode and median.
Methods of sampling

It would normally be impractical to study a whole population, for example when doing a
questionnaire survey. Sampling is a method that allows researchers to infer information about
a population based on results from a subset of the population, without having to investigate
every individual.
Reducing the number of individuals in a study reduces the cost and workload, and may make
it easier to obtain high quality information, but this has to be balanced against having a large
enough sample size with enough power to detect a true association.

There are several different sampling techniques available, and they can be subdivided into
two groups: probability sampling and non-probability sampling.

In probability (random) sampling, you start with a complete sampling frame of all eligible
individuals from which you select your sample. In this way, all eligible individuals have a chance
of being chosen for the sample, and you will be more able to generalize the results from your
study.

Probability sampling methods tend to be more time-consuming and expensive than non-
probability sampling. In non-probability (non-random) sampling, you do not start with a
complete sampling frame, so some individuals have no chance of being selected.

Probability Sampling Methods

1. Simple random sampling

In this case each individual is chosen entirely by chance and each member of the population
has an equal chance, or probability, of being selected. One way of obtaining a random sample
is to give each individual in a population a number, and then use a table of random numbers
to decide which individuals to include. For example, if you have a sampling frame of 1000
individuals, labelled 0 to 999, use groups of three digits from the random number table to pick
your sample. So, if the first three numbers from the random number table were 094, select
the individual labelled “94”, and so on.
2. Systematic sampling

Individuals are selected at regular intervals from the sampling frame. The intervals are chosen
to ensure an adequate sample size. If you need a sample size n from a population of size x,
you should select every x/nth individual for the sample.
For example, if you wanted a sample size of 100 from a population of 1000, select every
100/1000.

3. Stratified sampling

In this method, the population is first divided into subgroups (or strata) who all share a
similar characteristic. It is used when we might reasonably expect the measurement of
interest to vary between the different subgroups, and we want to ensure representation
from all the subgroups. For example, in a study of stroke outcomes, we may stratify the
population by sex, to ensure equal representation of men and women.

The study sample is then obtained by taking equal sample sizes from each stratum. In
stratified sampling, it may also be appropriate to choose non-equal sample sizes from each
stratum. For example, in a study of the health outcomes of nursing staff in a county, if there
are three hospitals each with different numbers of nursing staff (hospital A has 500 nurses,
hospital B has 1000 and hospital C has 2000), then it would be appropriate to choose the
sample numbers from each hospital proportionally (e.g. 10 from hospital A, 20 from hospital
B and 40 from hospital C). This ensures a more realistic and accurate estimation of the health
outcomes of nurses across the county, whereas simple random sampling would over-
represent nurses from hospitals A and B. The fact that the sample was stratified should be
taken into account at the analysis stage.

4. Clustered sampling

In a clustered sample, subgroups of the population are used as the sampling unit, rather than
individuals. The population is divided into subgroups, known as clusters, which are randomly
selected to be included in the study. Clusters are usually already defined, for example towns
could be identified as clusters. In single-stage cluster sampling, all members of the chosen
clusters are then included in the study. In two-stage cluster sampling, a selection of individuals
from each cluster is then randomly selected for inclusion.
Non-Probability Sampling Methods

1. Convenience sampling

Convenience sampling is perhaps the easiest method of sampling, because participants are
selected based on availability and willingness to take part. Useful results can be obtained,
but the results are prone to significant bias, because those who volunteer to take part may be
different from those who choose not to (volunteer bias), and the sample may not be
representative of other characteristics, such as age or sex..

2. Quota sampling

This method of sampling is often used by market researchers. Interviewers are given a quota
of subjects of a specified type to attempt to recruit.

For example, an interviewer might be told to go out and select 20 adult men, 20 adult women,
10 teenage girls and 10 teenage boys so that they could interview them about their television
viewing. Ideally the quotas chosen would proportionally represent the characteristics of the
underlying population.

Whilst this has the advantage of being relatively straightforward and potentially
representative, the chosen sample may not be representative of other characteristics that
weren’t considered (a consequence of the non-random nature of sampling). 2

3. Judgement (or Purposive) Sampling

Also known as selective, or subjective, sampling, this technique relies on the judgement of
the researcher when choosing who to ask to participate. Researchers may implicitly thus
choose a “representative” sample to suit their needs, or specifically approach individuals
with certain characteristics.

This approach is often used by the media when canvassing the public for opinions and in
qualitative research.

Judgement sampling has the advantage of being time-and cost-effective to perform whilst
resulting in a range of responses (particularly useful in qualitative research). However, in
addition to volunteer bias, it is also prone to errors of judgement by the researcher and the
findings, whilst being potentially broad, will not necessarily be representative.
 Bias in sampling

There are five important potential sources of bias that should be considered when selecting a
sample, irrespective of the method used. Sampling bias may be introduced when:

1. Any pre-agreed sampling rules are deviated from

2. People in hard-to-reach groups are omitted
3. Selected individuals are replaced with others, for example if they are difficult to contact
4. There are low response rates
5. An out-of-date list is used as the sample frame (for example, if it excludes people who have
recently moved to an area)

METHODS TO DETERMINE SAMPLE SIZE

1. Yemen’s formula

𝑁
𝑛=
1 + 𝑁(𝑒)2

With e=0.05
Where;
e = Deviation of sampling
N= Size of Population
n = Size of sampling

2. R.V. Krejcie and D. W. Morgan (1970)

 SAMPLE SIZE (S) REQUIRED FOR THE GIVEN POPULATION SIZE (N)

N S N S N S N S N S
10 10 100 80 280 162 800 260 2800 338
15 14 110 86 290 165 850 265 3000 341
20 19 120 92 300 169 900 269 3500 346
25 24 130 97 320 175 950 274 4000 351
30 28 140 103 340 181 1000 278 4500 354
35 32 150 108 360 186 1100 285 5000 357
40 36 160 113 380 191 1200 291 6000 361
45 40 170 118 400 196 1300 297 7000 364
50 44 180 123 420 201 1400 301 8000 367
55 48 190 127 440 205 1500 306 9000 368
60 52 200 132 460 210 1600 310 10000 370
65 56 210 136 480 214 1700 313 15000 375
70 59 220 140 500 217 1800 317 20000 377
75 63 230 144 550 226 1900 320 30000 379
80 66 240 148 600 234 2000 322 40000 380
85 70 250 152 650 242 2200 327 50000 381
90 73 260 155 700 248 2400 331 75000 382
95 76 270 159 750 254 2600 335 100000 384
From: R.V. Krejcie and D. W. Morgan (1970)
DATA COLLECTION TOOLS

INTERVIEW

An interview is a face-to-face conversation between two individuals with the sole purpose of
collecting relevant information to satisfy a research purpose. Interviews are of different types
namely; Structured, Semi-structured and unstructured with each having a slight variation
from the other.

 Structured Interviews - Simply put, it is a verbally administered questionnaire. In terms

of depth, it is surface level and is usually completed within a short period. For speed
and efficiency, it is highly recommendable, but it lacks depth.
 Semi-structured Interviews - In this method, there subsist several key questions which
cover the scope of the areas to be explored. It allows a little more leeway for the
researcher to explore the subject matter.
 Unstructured Interviews - It is an in-depth interview that allows the researcher to
collect a wide range of information with a purpose. An advantage of this method is the
freedom it gives a researcher to combine structure with flexibility even though it is
more time-consuming.

Advantages of interview studies

 It provides flexibility to the interviewers

 The interview has a better response rate than mailed questions, and the people who
cannot read and write can also answer the questions.
 The interviewer can judge the non-verbal behavior of the respondent.
 The interviewer can decide the place for an interview in a private and silent place, unlike
the ones conducted through emails which can have a completely different environment.
 The interviewer can control over the order of the question, as in the questionnaire, and
can judge the spontaneity of the respondent as well.

Disadvantages of interviews

 Conducting interview studies can be very costly as well as very time-consuming.

 An interview can cause biases. For example, the respondent’s answers can be affected
by his reaction to the interviewer’s race, class, age or physical appearance.
 Interview studies provide less anonymity, which is a big concern for many respondents.
  There is a lack of accessibility to respondents (unlike conducting mailed questionnaire
study) since the respondents can be in around any corner of the world or country.

QUESTIONNAIRES

This is the process of collecting data through an instrument consisting of a series of questions
and prompts to receive a response from individuals it is administered to. Questionnaires are
designed to collect data from a group.

For clarity, it is important to note that a questionnaire isn't a survey, rather it forms a part of
it. A survey is a process of data gathering involving a variety of data collection methods,
including a questionnaire.

On a questionnaire, there are three kinds of questions used. They are; fixed-alternative, scale,
and open-ended. With each of the questions tailored to the nature and scope of the research.

Pros

 Can be administered in large numbers and is cost-effective.

 It can be used to compare and contrast previous research to measure change.
 Easy to visualize and analyze.
 Questionnaires offer actionable data.
 Respondent identity is protected.
 Questionnaires can cover all areas of a topic.
 Relatively inexpensive.

Cons

 Answers may be dishonest or the respondents lose interest midway.

 Questionnaires can't produce qualitative data.
 Questions might be left unanswered.
 Respondents may have a hidden agenda.
 Not all questions can be analyzed easily.