Lab 1 - THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this exercise you should be able to:

1. Describe the scientific method.
2. Define and give examples of independent, dependent and controlled variables.
3. Explain what controls are and why they are important.
4. Record data in tabular and graphic form.

INTRODUCTION

Scientists, including biologists, solve problems by using a logical and orderly process
called the scientific method. There is nothing mysterious about this step-by-step process. In fact,
we use this method to solve little every day problems. But, we do it so quickly and automatically
that we are not conscious of the steps involved: observation, question, hypothesis, testing, and
conclusion.

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

1. OBSERVATIONS are made of objects or events in the natural world

2. QUESTION is asked about the observations

3. HYPOTHESIS (educated guess) is developed to answer the question or explain the

observations. It is a product of logic, previous knowledge, insight, and creativity.

4. TESTING of the hypothesis to see if it is true. This may involve experimentation, further
observation, surveys or computer models.

5. CONCLUSION - if the test results support the hypothesis, it is accepted. An invalid

hypothesis is usually modified and retested.

A hypothesis that has been supported by extensive testing and widely accepted is called a
THEORY, such as “cell theory” or “evolutionary theory.”

In order to examine the scientific method in more detail, we will consider the research
performed by the Italian physician Francisco Redi. In 1668, Redi investigated the appearance of
maggots on rotting meat (at the time, it was widely believed that the maggots arose
spontaneously).

OBSERVATION

Flies swarm around meat left in the open, and maggots appear in a few days.

⇓
QUESTION
Why do maggots appear on rotting meat ?

⇓
HYPOTHESIS
Flies produce maggots.

⇓
TESTING
Redi designed an experiment to test one factor: access of the flies to the meat. He took two clean
jars and filled them with identical pieces of meat. He left one jar open (control jar) and covered
the other with gauze (experimental jar). After a few days, maggots swarmed over the meat in the
open jar, but none appeared in the covered jar.

⇓
CONCLUSION

The hypothesis is correct; flies produce maggots.

⇓
THEORY

The research of Redi and others supported the hypothesis: “Life comes from life” which is
referred to as the Biogenesis Theory.

Key Elements of an Experiment

1. Variables are factors that may change during the course of the experiment. There are three
types of variables:

a) Dependent variable - the variable that the investigator measures; its value depends on (is
affected by) the value of the independent variable
b) Independent variable - manipulated during the experiment; chosen because the investigator
thinks it will affect the dependent variable
c) Controlled variables - all the factors that the investigator attempts to keep the same

2. Controls make it possible to draw clear-cut conclusions. Without controls for comparison, one
cannot be sure that the change in the dependent variable is due to the independent variable. A
controlled experiment consists of two groups of subjects: the experimental group and the
control group. In the control group, the independent variable is either eliminated or set at a
standard value (Example 2).

Example 1: Hypothesis - fertilizer will increase tomato production

Dependent variable - weight (grams) of tomatoes produced

Independent variable – fertilizer

Controlled variables - plant variety, light, water, soil, temperature

Experimental group – fertilized

Control group - not fertilized

Example 2: Hypothesis - refrigeration slows bacteria growth

Dependent variable - number of bacteria (cells/ml)

Independent variable – temperature

Controlled variables - type of bacteria, nutrients, pH, salinity

Experimental group – refrigerated

Control group - room temperature

Pulse Rate

Pulse rate can be an important diagnostic tool because it indicates the number of heart
contractions per minute. It can easily be measured on the undersurface of the wrist behind the
thumb:

a) Hold your lab partner’s forearm with the palm

up toward you.

b) Take the wrist of this arm and lightly place

your index and middle fingers on the surface
facing you in the area behind the thumb
(Figure 1). Your thumb should be holding the
underside of the wrist.

c) Feel for a beating sensation in this area . Do

not use you thumb because it has its own pulse.

d) Count the number of beats that occur per 15

seconds. Multiply the beats by 4 to obtain the
pulse rate per minute.

In today’s lab, you will use the scientific method to investigate pulse rate.

Investigation of Pulse Rate

Work in a group of 4-8 students.

1. Observation - Average pulse rate is 75 beats per minute. But, it varies widely under
different conditions and among different individuals.

2. Question – What are the variables that affect pulse rate ?

3. Hypothesis -
A) List the factors (variables) that affect pulse rate.

B) Pick a variable which can be investigated during today’s lab, and construct a hypothesis.

4. Testing -
A) Develop an experiment to test your hypothesis; your fellow students will be test subjects.

Brief Explanation of the Experiment -

What is the Dependent Variable ?

What is the Independent Variable ?

What is the Control(s) ?

Your instructor must review your hypothesis and experimental design before you
continue

B) Run the experiment - collect your data and record it in Table 1 below.

TABLE 1: Experimental Data

Subject Pulse Rate (beats/min)

C) Analyze the results - The easiest way to see relationships between two variables is to plot the
data on a graph. The following information will help you choose the best graph to represent your
data.

Line graphs (straight line or curved) and bar graphs are commonly used by biologists (see
page 7). The choice of graph depends upon the type of data:

Line graphs – best choice when the data is continuous (it can assume any value within a
numerical range) for example: effect of plant height on bean production; the
height of a bean plant is from 30 cm to 60 cm, plants can be 53.0 cm or 53.1
cm or 53.2 cm - all values within the range are possible

Only Line Graphs Can be Used to Make Predictions

Bar graphs – used when the data is discrete (values fall into several mutually exclusive
categories)
for example: swimming speed of various marine fish (swordfish, tuna, shark,
etc.) a line connecting the data for tuna and bass would be meaningless
because a fish cannot be part shark & part tuna

Identify (√) the following variables as continuous or discrete:

Variable Continuous Discrete

Height √
Species of fish √
Altitude
Type of pollution
Time
Gender
Color of flowers
Pulse rate

Is your Independent variable continuous or discrete? ______________

Which type of graph is appropriate for your data? __________________

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 Line Graph Showing the Growth
of Rye Grass

16

14

12

10
Height (cm)

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Time (days)

Bar Graph Showing the Distribution of AIDS Cases

1.4

1.2

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
Latin America North America Caribbean

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Plot your data on the graph paper on page 9, according to the standard rules:

• Always use a ruler and graph paper to plot points accurately.

• Each graph must have a title that describes the subject matter.

Y axis (dependent variable)

• The vertical or Y-axis should represent the
dependent variable: Pulse Rate.

• The horizontal or X-axis should represent the

independent variable.

• Each axis must be clearly labeled,

including units of measurement,
i.e. Pulse Rate (beats/min).

X axis (independent variable)

• Set the maximum values on both axes slightly above the maximum values of the data. The
data should extend over most of the graph’s area. For example, if the data goes from 3 to 23,
labeling the axis 0 to 100 will result in a graph that is compressed and difficult to read. A
scale from 0 to 25 is more practical. The most common graphing mistake is using an
inappropriate scale.

• Use a uniform scale for the dependent and independent variables. Each square on the graph
must have the same value. For example, if the data goes from 3 to 23, the axis can be marked
off at evenly spaced intervals of 5, e.g. 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25.

• Best fit v/s point-point graphs:

A graph is accurate if the points are connected dot to dot with short lines. However, a smooth
curve or straight line through a set of points is a visual way of averaging out chance
variability in data.
The graph showing the Growth of Rye Grass (page 7) is a best-fit line graph. Every two
weeks 15-20 seedlings were randomly selected to measure out of a population of several
hundred. Different seedlings were usually measured at each sampling period, and there is
considerable variability in individual growth rates within the same population. So, the trend
in growth is best revealed by drawing a best-fit line. Most of the points are either touching or
very close to the line.

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Ask your instructor which method he/she prefers.

TITLE: EFFECT OF ______________________ ON PULSE RATE

5. Conclusion - Write a brief statement supporting or invalidating your hypothesis.

Questions for Further Thought and Review

__________________________________________________________________________
Ecology students are required to do a lab research project, and two students decide to
study the population growth of beetles in a sack of flour (food for the beetles). They
collect the following data:
Week # beetles
0 2
2 80
4 225
6 275
8 950
10 1100
12 1100
14 900

1. Identify the independent variable __________________

2. Identify the dependent variable __________________

Is this data discrete or continuous ? _________________

3. Graph this data. Be sure to use a pencil and follow the graphing rules on page 8.

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4. Identify the time interval during which each of the following occurred:

the population grew (graph is rising) from week _____ to week _____

the population grew the fastest (graph is steepest) from week _____ to week _____

the population size remained the same (graph is horizontal) from week _____ to
week _____

the population decreased (graph is falling) from week _____ to week _____

5. Predict the number of beetles present at the following weeks:

week 5 - ___________ beetles week 9 - ___________ beetles

6. Could this data be presented as a bar graph ? __________

What would be the disadvantage ? ________________________________

7. Construct a hypothesis to explain why the beetle population declines.

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

8. Design a simple experiment to test this hypothesis.

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

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