Module 2- Natural Sciences

Introduction: This module will introduce you to the key concepts of the natural
sciences: Biological and Physical Sciences.

Module Learning Outcomes:

In this module, you should be able to:
1. explain the importance of the natural sciences;
2. analyze the concepts employed in the fields of Biological and Physical
Sciences;
4. conduct and explore scientific experiments;
5. appreciate the beauty of natural science by explaining its contributions.

Lesson 1

The Scientific Method

I. Learning Outcomes:
In this lesson, you should be able to:
1. arrange given situations based on the steps of scientific method;
2. select and summarize a particular scientist’s contribution in science;
3. identify deductive and inductive reasoning; and
4. apply the concept of scientific method to daily life situations.

II. Pre-Assessment: TRUE OR FALSE

Place a T next to statements that are true and an F next to statements that
are false.
___ 1. The first step of the scientific process is testing the hypothesis.

___ 2. Sometimes, steps of the scientific process must be repeated.

___ 3. Every experiment should have at least three experimental factors

or variables.

___4. A control is a factor that is missing the variable, but is the same as
other factors in every other way.

___5. Written observations made while using the scientific process are
known as data.

___6. A theory is a hypothesis that has not yet been tested.

___7. Measurements must be made carefully to make sure all factors,

except the variable, are the same.

___8. In the salt water experiment performed in the video, salt was the
single variable.

___9. Recording data keeps other scientists from repeating our

experiments.

___10. A hypothesis is an educated guess.

 III. Lesson Map:

The figure above shows the scientific consisting a series of well-defined steps. If a
hypothesis is not supported by experimental data, a new hypothesis can be proposed.

IV. Core Content:

ENGAGE: METHOD STEPS

ACTIVITY 1:

In the example below, the scientific method is used to solve an everyday

problem. Order the method steps (statements in the box) with the process of
solving the everyday problem (numbered items).

There is something wrong with the electric outlet.

If something is wrong with the outlet, my coffeemaker also won’t work

when plugged into it.
My toaster doesn’t toast my bread.

I plug my coffee maker into the outlet.

My coffeemaker works.

Why doesn’t my toaster work?

1. Observation:__________________________________________________
 2. Question :_________________________________________________
3. Hypothesis :__________________________________________________
4. Prediction :_________________________________________________
5. Experiment:__________________________________________________
6. Result :__________________________________________________

Based on the results of the experiment, is the hypothesis correct? If it is

incorrect, propose some alternative hypotheses.

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

EXPLORE: ART CONNECTION

ACTIVITY 2:

The scientific method has been used for hundreds of years by scientists in
many different fields. The method has led to many great scientific discoveries
throughout history. Choose a scientist from the list below base on the
corresponding color of your shirt today. Write a one-page summary of their
chosen person’s contributions to science. Use the guide questions below:
 What discovery or discoveries did the person make using the scientific
method?
 How did the Scientific Method contributed to the study, prediction or
experiment conducted by your chosen scientist?
 Does the Scientific Method provide the best way in unfolding facts or
hidden truth?
 Did the method used successfully attempted to minimize the influence
of bias or prejudice in the experimenter?
Use library books and encyclopedia articles or browse the internet to learn more
about your chosen scientists.

Nicolaus Copernicus Johannes Kepler Sir Issac Newton

Carolus Linnaeus Gregor Mendel Louis Pasteur

Marie Curie George Washington Carver Jane Gooda

Scientists use two types of reasoning, inductive and deductive (MODULE 1-
Lesson 3), to advance scientific knowledge.

As is the case in this example, the conclusion from inductive reasoning can
often become the premise for inductive reasoning.

ACTIVITY 3:
Decide if each of the following is an example of inductive or deductive
reasoning.

______1. All flying birds and insects have wings. Birds and insects flap
their wings as they move through the air. Therefore, wings enable flight.
______2. Insects generally survive mild winters better than harsh ones.
Therefore, insect pests will become more problematic if global
temperatures increase.
______3. Chromosomes, the carriers of DNA, separate into daughter cells
during cell division. Therefore, DNA is the genetic material.
______4. Animals as diverse as humans, insects, and wolves all exhibit
social behavior. Therefore, social behavior must have an evolutionary
advantage.

The scientific method may seem too rigid and structured. It is important to
keep in mind that, although scientists often follow this sequence, there is
flexibility. Sometimes an experiment leads to conclusions that favor a change
in approach; often, an experiment brings entirely new scientific questions to
the puzzle. Many times, science does not operate in a linear fashion; instead,
scientists continually draw inferences and make generalizations, finding
patterns as their research proceeds. Scientific reasoning is more complex
than the scientific method alone suggests. Notice, too, that the scientific
method can be applied to solving problems that aren’t necessarily scientific in
nature.

EXPLAIN: THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

         the Scientific Method   and  the Scientist
"Equipped with his five senses,
            man explores the Universe around him
                and calls the adventure Science."
Edwin P. Hubble
                                       astronomer - 1948

SCIENTIFIC METHOD is a manner for investigating nature and it’s the

methods by which scientists, collectively and over time, attempt to construct
an accurate, reliable, consistent, and non-biased representation of the natural
world. It is also
 a way of investigating the things (patterns) we observed around us;
 a way of recording the laws (mechanics) that governs around us;
 a systematic study of patterns of living things and their processes;
and it:
 employs rigorous methodology; and
 devises experiments to validate observations.

A common theme in scientific endeavors is the use of HYPOTHETICO-

DEDUCTIVE REASONING: The formulation of a hypothesis (a tentative
answer to a question) and the execution of experiments from which one may
deduce a general answer to the hypothesis. The steps in this process include:

1. Observation.

2. Asking a critical question (this is the ‘larger’ question that you are
interested in, but itself is too big to answer
3. Developing a Hypothesis (this is the more concrete answerable steps that
will fill in the ‘puzzle’ which help elucidate the answer to the bigger question.

4. Making a prediction that can be tested (what results might you expect?)

5. Collecting data: this can be performing experiments, making more precise

observations, developing and using models. ***ideally you will have multiple
approaches here, possibly testing several hypotheses – see the sea butterfly
example

6. Analyzing the data. What do they say? This part often involves statistics or
math of some sort, graphing, looking for patterns etc.

7. Making a logical conclusion based on experimental results.

8. Developing a new set of questions/hypotheses based on these conclusions,

which will not be the whole picture.

Here is an example from the University of Miami website:

1. OBSERVATION: Flamingos eat a variety of invertebrates that they strain

from the silt. Interestingly, flamingo feather color is similar to that of the
shrimps they eat.

2. CRITICAL QUESTION: Is the color of the flamingo related to the color of

the shrimp in their diet?

3. DEVELOP HYPOTHESIS: Flamingo color is derived from shrimp pigments.

 a. Null Hypothesis: There will be no significant difference in feather color
between groups of flamingos fed different diets.

b. Alternate Hypothesis There will be a significant difference in feather

color between groups of flamingos fed different diets.

4. MAKE PREDICTION: If flamingo diet is changed, its feather color will

change.

5. PERFORM EXPERIMENTS:
a. One group of flamingos gets a diet consisting of all items, including
shrimp. Control – sometimes abbreviated as "con")

b. Other group of flamingos gets the same amount and type of food, but
without shrimp. (Treatment – sometimes abbreviated as "trt "). All other
variables (habitat, light period, amount of food, etc.) are held CONSTANT in
both groups.

6. COLLECT AND ANALYZE DATA:

a. Possible result #1: No difference in color between trt and con groups.
b. Possible result #2: Significant difference in color between trt and con
groups.

7. CONCLUSION:
a. If you get result #1, then the null hypothesis cannot be rejected.
b. If you get result #2, the null hypothesis is rejected, and the alternative
hypothesis is accepted.

The results of this study suggest further experiments. (What component of

the shrimp is responsible for the color of the flamingo's feathers? How does
the flamingo metabolize nutrients in the shrimp into pink pigments?)

Important aspects of hypotheses:

 A HYPOTHESIS is a TENTATIVE EXPLANATION of a phenomenon.

 A prediction is based on past experience about the phenomenon. It's
an "educated guess" about what you expect to happen.
 Multiple hypotheses make good science. (If you have only one possible
answer, you may bias your experiment and your analysis.)
 Hypotheses should be testable via experimental procedures or field
studies based on the hypothetico-deductive approach.
 A hypotheses can be refuted (proven wrong, or FALSIFIED), but it
CANNOT BE PROVEN CORRECT. (It is impossible to perform enough
experiments to be certain that the answer will always be the same,
and that the same explanation will hold true.)
 However, if a hypothesis is tested again and again and is never
falsified, it may become elevated to the level of a THEORY.

A word about THEORY:

 It is a hypothesis that has stood the test of time.
 It is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural
world.
 It is an organized system of accepted knowledge that applies in a
variety of circumstances to explain a specific set of phenomena.
 It is constantly subject to testing, modification, and refutation as new
evidence and ideas emerge.
 Theories also have predictive capabilities that guide further
investigation. Example: The Theory of evolution by means of natural
selection.
 And the LAW:
 A law is described by a sequence of events in nature that has been
observed to occur without variation under the same conditions.
 Natural law is the basis of the experimental method in science, and is
dependent upon cause and effect. Example: The Laws of
Thermodynamics.

Before you can use the scientific method correctly in your own experiments, you must
have a good understanding of independent and dependent variables. To better
understand how the scientific method works in action, consider the following examples
of simple experiments you can try yourself in everyday life.

Example #1: Freezing Water

Consider how the scientific method applies in this simple experiment with freezing
water under two different conditions.

Define Purpose: I want to know if water freezes faster on its own or with sugar added
to it.

Construct Hypothesis: The null hypothesis is that there will be no difference in how long
it takes the water to freeze, whether or not it has sugar added to it. The alternative
hypothesis is that there will be a statistically significant difference in freezing time
between the two scenarios.

Test Hypothesis and Collect Data: Fill two identical containers with the same amount of
room temperature water. Add a measured amount of sugar to one of the containers.
Place the two containers into the freezer. At regular intervals of 15 minutes, open the
freezer and observe the status of the water in each container. Continue until both have
completely frozen. Write down the time it took for each container of water to reach a
fully frozen level.

Analyze Data: Look at the time it took for each container of water to freeze. Did the
water with sugar added take a significantly longer or shorter amount of time to freeze?

Draw Conclusion: Based on the results of your experiment, come to a conclusion as to

whether water with sugar freezes faster, slower, or at the same rate as water without
sugar added.

Communicate Results: Report your findings in the form of a written report as an oral
presentation.

In the case of this experiment, you may choose to vary the amount of sugar added
(during step 3 of the scientific method above) to see if it alters the results as well. This
could be a more robust experiment as you would then have additional data to report.

Example #2: Growing Bean Plants

Here is another example where the scientific method can be used to study the natural
world.

Define Purpose: I want to know if a bean plant will grow more quickly outside or inside.
For the purposes of this experiment, you might decide on a time frame of three weeks.

Construct Hypothesis: The null hypothesis is that there is no difference between

growing a bean plant indoors or outdoors. The alternative hypothesis is that there is a
statistically significant difference between the two growing situations for bean plants.

Test Hypothesis and Collect Data: Plant four bean plants in identical pots using the
same type of soil. Place two of these in an outdoor location, and place the other two in
an indoor location. Try to choose locations where the plants will get a similar amount of
sunlight. Care for the plants in an identical way, like giving the same amount of water.
Then, each day for the three-week experimental period, observe and measure plant
growth. Carefully record the size of each plant in a notebook.

Analyze Data: Review the data and determine how the plants in both environments
progressed over the course of the three weeks. You may choose to find an average
between the two indoor plants to determine the "typical" indoor plant growth, doing the
same for the two outdoor plants to calculate the "typical" outdoor plant growth.

Draw Conclusion: Based on the data you collected, determine if there is a conclusive
answer to the question as to whether a bean plant placed inside or outside will grow
more quickly.

Communicate Results: Prepare a way to present the results of the experiment, like in
the form of a written report, a slideshow presentation, or as a display at a science fair.

Example #3: Counting Cars

Applications of the scientific method include simple observation too.

Define Purpose: I want to know if solo drivers are illegally using the carpool lane on the
freeway in my city, and if so, how widespread the problem is.

Construct Hypothesis: The null hypothesis might be that there are zero people driving
alone who are using the carpool lane on the freeway. The alternative hypothesis could
be that there are a significant number of solo drivers using the carpool lane.

Test Hypothesis and Collect Data: To test this hypothesis, you might find a pedestrian-
friendly overpass from which you can observe the carpool lane on the freeway. For a
60-minute period during rush hour, you tally up the number of vehicles in the carpool
lane who have the minimum number of passengers to qualify for the lane, as well as a
separate tally for the number of vehicles with solo drivers. (For the purposes of this
experiment, we might ignore location-specific exemptions, like how some states allow
electric vehicles to drive in the carpool lane regardless of the number of passengers.)

Analyze Data: Review your data. You might choose to calculate the percentage of
vehicles that contained solo drivers.

Draw Conclusion: Based on the data you collected, decide whether a significant number
of solo drivers were using the carpool lane during your observation period.

Communicate Results: Present your findings in a written or oral presentation.

While a single sampling over a single rush hour in one location may not be
representative of a city as a whole, these sorts of observations can be a great starting
point for further study and analysis.

EXTEND: USING THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Think of a problem or unanswered question you have had during the last few weeks.
Use the scientific method to work through the problem or to find an answer to the
question. The steps below will help.

1. Define the problem or question.

2. Gather information using one or more of the five senses. Some ways to
gather information include interviewing people, observing things, or reading
books and articles. Summarize your findings below.

3. Form a hypothesis. Using the information you have gathered, make an

educated guess about how to solve the problem or answer the question.

4. Perform on or more experiments to test your hypothesis. Describe your

experiment or experiments below.

5. Make observations and record data below.

6. State a conclusion. Did your findings prove or disprove the hypothesis?

EVALUATE: POETRY AND THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Make a situation applying the scientific method through a poem.

V. Topic Summary:

In this lesson, you have learned the following:

 Scientific method a manner for investigating nature and it’s the
methods by which scientists, collectively and over time, attempt to
construct an accurate, reliable, consistent, and non-biased
representation of the natural world.
 The steps in scientific method are the following: OBSERVATION,
CRITICAL QUESTION, DEVELOPING HYPOTHESIS, MAKING
PREDICTION, PERFORMING EXPERIMENTS, COLLECTING AND
ANALYZING DATA, and MAKING CONCLUSIONS.
 A theory is a hypothesis that has stood the test of time
 A hypothesis is a tentative explanation of a phenomenon.
 A law is described by a sequence of events in nature that has been
observed to occur without variation under the same conditions.

VI. Post-Assessment:
Place a T next to statements that are true and an F next to statements that
are false.

___ 1. The first step of the scientific process is testing the hypothesis.

___ 2. Sometimes, steps of the scientific process must be repeated.

___ 3. Every experiment should have at least three experimental factors

or variables.

___4. A control is a factor that is missing the variable, but is the same as
other factors in every other way.

___5. Written observations made while using the scientific process are
known as data.

___6. A theory is a hypothesis that has not yet been tested.

___7. Measurements must be made carefully to make sure all factors,

except the variable, are the same.

___8. In the salt water experiment performed in the video, salt was the
single variable.

___9. Recording data keeps other scientists from repeating our

experiments.

___10. A hypothesis is an educated guess.

VII. References:
 AIMS Multimedia. 1999. REAL WORLD SCIENCE: SCIENTIFIC METHOD
  Mallarey, Charles. 2008. The Scientific Method and the Scientist.
University of Miami. On-line Testing Center.
 OLIVAR, JOSE T. II. EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE. Phoenix Publishing
House, Inc. 2016

Lesson 2

Physical Sciences

I. Learning Outcomes:
In this lesson, you should be able to:
1. describe the theories that explain the origin of the universe;
2. describe the Doppler effect;
3. compare the different hypothesis explaining the origin of the Solar
System;
4. describe the characteristics of Earth that are necessary to support life;
5. examine planetary systems outside of our solar system; and
6. create conceptual model of the expanding universe.

II. Pre-Assessment:
Write T if the statement is true and F if the statement is false.

_______1. The universe is defined as all existing matter and space

considered as a whole.
_______2. Earth is an open system composed of four basic spheres.
_______3. Earth’s subsystems are closely linked by the biogeochemical
cycles.
_______4. Jupiter is a gas giant.
_______5. The habitable zone is also referred to as the Solar nebula.
_______6. Hydrosphere is the totality of Earth’s water.
_______7. The atmosphere is the mixture of gases that surrounds the
planet.
_______8. Lithosphere is composed of the frozen liquid which is part of
the cryosphere.
_______9. The four systems of earth are unlinked systems—any change
in one of them affects another.
_______10. Geosphere refers to the solid Earth.
 III. Lesson Map:

The figure above shows the 4 major spheres of the earth and its subsystems.

IV. CORE CONTENT:

ENGAGE: THINK ABOUT IT!

When you think you are still on Earth, you are actually moving rapidly through space.
Earth rotates once about its axis every 24 hours and revolves around the Sun once
about every 365 days. You are gaining a lot of mileage without taking a step. When you
look up at the stars in the sky, they also seem to be still, although they are moving
through space at incredible speeds.

 How do Astronomers measure how stars and galaxies move?

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
 What do these movements tell astronomers about the universe formed?
_________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
 How did the solar system form?
 _________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
 What is the probability that there are planetary systems beyond your own? How
do you know?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

EXPLORE: REASON OUT

There are different theories of our universe’s origin. Among those, what
theory do you support best? Why?
 EXPLAIN: DIGGING DEEPER

FORMATION OF THE UNIVERSE, SOLAR SYSTEM, AND PLANETS

The Big Bang Theory

You just modeled how the universe formed and is expanding. You also
investigated how scientists track the motion of objects in the universe. The
Milky Way Galaxy formed about 10 billion years ago and is one of billions of
galaxies in the universe. According to a popular theory, the universe itself
formed somewhere between 12 and 14 billion years ago in an event called the
big bang. This is known as the big bang theory. Big bang makes it sound like
the universe began in an explosion. However, it did not. Scientists call the
beginning of the universe “time zero.” At time zero, the universe consisted
almost entirely of energy. The energy was concentrated into a volume smaller
than a grain of sand. The temperatures were unimaginably high. Then the
universe expanded extremely rapidly. As it expanded, the temperature
dropped. As the temperature dropped, matter was formed from some of the
original energy.
Cosmologists are scientists who study the origin and dynamics of the
universe. Cosmologists think that most of the matter in the universe was
formed within minutes of time zero. Initially, this matter was too hot to form
into atoms. After a few hundred thousand years, the temperature of the
universe dropped to the point where atoms could exist. The atoms were
mostly hydrogen and helium. Eventually, under the force of gravity, these
atoms began to clump together. They clumped into clouds of gas, which in
time formed the first stars. As more stars formed, they grouped together to
form the earliest galaxies. The expansion and cooling that started with the big
bang continues to this day.
Doppler Effect: Evidence of the Big
Bang

Scientists point to shifts in the wavelength

of light produced by distant galaxies as
evidence that the universe is expanding.
This phenomenon is known as the Doppler
Effect. You experienced the Doppler Effect
in the Investigate when you were
swinging the noisemaker. You probably
noticed that the pitch of the noisemaker
grew higher as it approached you then
dropped suddenly as it passed by you. You
may have had a similar experience with
the charging pitch in the tone of the siren
on passing emergency vehicle. (See Figure 1.)
Thenn dropped suddenly as it passed by you. You may have had a similar experience with the
changing pitch in the tone of the siren of a passing emergency vehicle. (See Figure 1.)
Sound occurs in waves. When a moving object producing a sound approaches you, the sound
waves are compressed, causing wavelengths to decrease (the distance between wave crests
becomes shorter). This causes the pitch of the sound to become higher. The pitch of a sound is
related to its wavelength; the higher the pitch, the shorter the wavelength. As the object moves
away, the wavelengths of the sound waves increase and the pitch drops. The longer the
wavelength, the lower the pitch.
Light also occurs in waves. As a result, the Doppler effect can be used to determine whether a
star or galaxy is moving toward Earth or away from it. Light from a star or galaxy can be
detected as a spectrum of colors.

You will learn more about the spectrum of light in a later section. Shorter wavelengths of light
are blue or violet in color. Longer wavelengths of light are red. If a star or galaxy is approaching
Earth, the wavelengths of light it emits become shorter. If a star or galaxy is moving away from
Earth, the wavelengths of light are longer.

Figure 2 The wavelengths of light from a receding star or galaxy are stretched toward the red
end of the light spectrum, while wavelengths of light from an approaching star or galaxy are
shortened toward the blue end of the light spectrum.
Scientists have observed that the wavelengths of light emitted by all galaxies, except our
close neighbors, are being shifted toward the red end of the spectrum. The wavelengths
at this end of the spectrum are longer. They have concluded that these galaxies must be
moving away from Earth. Therefore, the entire universe must be expanding. Remember
your model of an expanding universe from the Investigate? The dots (galaxies) on the
balloon moved apart as the model universe expanded.
In a similar way, distant galaxies, beyond our own and those close by, are moving away
from Earth.
The galaxies and stars are the visible
evidence of the big bang. However, there
is other, unseen evidence in the form of
radiation. This evidence is called the
cosmic background radiation. This is
radiation that is left over from the initial
moments of the big bang. Using special
instruments, astronomers have detected
this radiation coming in from all
directions of the universe.

The existence of the cosmic background

radiation is generally considered to be
solid evidence of the big bang. There is
strong evidence for the big bang theory.
However, it continues to be tested and
examined. Another explanation is the
steady-state theory. This theory suggests
the universe has always existed. It did
not have a moment of creation, or a time zero. The theory suggests that new matter is
continuously created out of empty space. The matter created out of empty space is
mostly hydrogen. The rate at which new matter appears is in balance with the
expansion of the universe. Therefore, the average density of the universe remains
constant.

There are arguments against the steady-state theory. They include the discovery of the
cosmic background radiation. As you read earlier, this radiation indicates that the
universe did have a beginning. Just after the big bang, all that existed in the universe
was energy. As the universe expanded, it cooled. About 300,000 years after the big
bang, the temperature of the universe had cooled enough to allow atoms to form.
Leftover energy from this moment can be observed today. This radiation comes from all
directions in the universe.
The steady-state theory has also been challenged by the discovery that galaxies were
more crowded together in the past. This is evidence that the density of the universe has
changed over time.
It is impossible to know for certain how the universe began. Today, the evidence is in
favor of the big bang theory. However, one day scientists might make a discovery that
cannot be explained by this theory. Scientists would then have to start looking for a new
model of the origin and evolution of the universe.
The Fate of the Universe

What will ultimately happen to the universe? Historically, cosmologists have considered
three possible outcomes: it will expand forever; it will expand to a certain size and stop;
it will stop expanding and begin to collapse. All three cases are based on the idea that
the rate of expansion of the universe has slowed down since its beginning.

Recall from the previous sections that galaxies are millions and even billions of light-
years away. It takes light a long time to reach Earth from far away galaxies. When
astronomers observe the most distant galaxies, they are observing the galaxies as they
existed far back in time. These observations can provide an idea of what the universe
was like when it was much younger.

Scientists measure the extent to which

light from these galaxies is shifted
toward the red end of the spectrum.
This helps them to determine the
expansion rate of the universe in the
past. They can then compare that rate
to today’s rate. Scientists are surprised
by recent observations of the change
in the rate of expansion of the
universe. Data suggest that the rate of
expansion slowed for a while. Now it is
speeding up. The current explanation
for this change is that the universe is
filled with an unidentified form of
energy. That energy is causing the
expansion of the universe to speed up.
Scientists are calling this energy dark
energy. If these observations are
correct, scientists think that the universe will continue to expand forever.
The Nebular Theory

If there was a big bang, how did the solar system form? When you made a scale
model of the solar system in Section 1, you probably noticed how large the Sun is in
comparison to most of the planets. In fact, the Sun contains over 99 percent of all
of the mass of the solar system. Where did all this mass come from? According to
current thinking, the birthplace of our solar system was a nebula. A nebula is a
cloud of gas and dust. This particular nebula that gave rise to our solar system was
probably cast off from other stars that existed in this region of our galaxy. More
than 4.6 billion years ago, this nebula started the long process that led to the
formation of a star and planets. The idea that the solar system evolved from such a
swirling cloud of dust is called the nebular theory.
You can see one such nebula in the constellation Orion,
just below the three stars that make up the belt of
Orion. (See Figure 5.) Through a pair of binoculars or a
small telescope, the Orion Nebula looks like a faint
green, hazy patch of light. If you were able to view this
star- birth region through a much higher- powered
telescope, you would be able to see amazing details in
the gas and dust clouds. The Orion Nebula is very much
like the one that formed Earth’s star, the Sun. There
are many star nurseries like this one scattered around
our galaxy. On a dark night, with binoculars or a small
telescope, you can see many gas clouds that are
forming stars.

In the nebula that gave birth to our solar system,

gravity caused the gases and to be drawn together into
a denser cloud. At the same time, the rate of rotation
(swirling) of the entire nebula gradually increased. The
effect is the same as when a rotating ice skater draws
his or her arms in, causing their rate of rotation to
speed up. As the nebular cloud began to collapse and spin faster, it flattened out to
resemble a disk. Most of the mass collapsed into the center. You saw something similar
when you sprinkled the creamer onto the hot chocolate. Initially, the creamer spread out
over the surface of the liquid. But, when you stirred the chocolate in a circular motion,
the creamer clumped together in the center. Matter in the rest of the disk of the nebula
clumped together into small masses called planetesimals. The planetesimals gradually
collided together to form larger bodies called protoplanetary bodies.
At the center of the developing solar system, material kept collapsing under gravitational
force. As the moving gases became more concentrated, the temperature and pressure
of the center of the cloud started to rise. The same kind of thing happens when you
inflate a bicycle tire with a tire pump. As the air is compressed it gets warmer and heats
the pump. When you let the air out of the tire, the opposite occurs. The air gets colder
as it expands rapidly. When the temperature in the center of the gas cloud reached
about 15 million degrees Celsius, hydrogen atoms in the gas combined or fused to form
helium atoms. This process, called nuclear fusion, is the source of the energy from the
Sun. A star—the Sun—was born.

Fusion reactions inside the Sun create very high pressure. This pressure threatens to
blow the Sun apart. The Sun does not explode under all this outward pressure, however.
The Sun is in a state of equilibrium. The gravity of the Sun is pulling on each part of it
and keeps the Sun together. It radiates energy out in all directions, providing solar
energy to the Earth community.

The Birth of the Planets

The rest of the solar system formed in the swirling disk of material surrounding the
newborn Sun. Eight planets, more than 100 moons, and a large number of comets and
asteroids formed. Moons are also called satellites. New moons are still being discovered
today.

Four of these planets, shown at the top of Figure 7—Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars—
are called the terrestrial (“Earth- like”) planets.
They formed in the inner part of our solar
system, where temperatures in the original
nebula were high. They are relatively small,
rocky bodies. Some have molten centers, with a
layer of rock called a mantle outside their
centers, and a surface called a crust. Earth’s
crust is its outer layer. Even the deepest oil wells
do not penetrate the crust.

The larger planets, shown at the bottom of

Figure 7—Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune
—consist mostly of dense fluids like liquid
hydrogen. These gas-giant planets formed in the
colder, outer parts of the early solar nebula.
They have solid, rocky cores about the size of
Earth. The solid cores are covered with layers of
hydrogen in both gas and liquid form. These
planets lie far from the Sun and their surfaces
are extremely cold
.
There are trillions of comets and asteroids scattered throughout the solar system. Earth
and other solar-system bodies were scarred by impact craters. These craters were
formed when comets and asteroids collided with them. On Earth, erosion has removed
obvious signs of many of these craters. Astronomers see these comets and asteroids as
the leftovers from the formation of the solar system.

Asteroids are dark, rocky bodies that orbit the Sun at different distances. Many are
found between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, making up what is called the asteroid
belt. Many others have orbits outside of the asteroid belt.

Comets are mixtures of ice and dust grains. They exist mainly in the outer solar system.
However, when their looping orbits bring them close to the Sun, their ices begin to melt.
That is when you can see trails streaming out from them in the direction away from the
Sun. Some comets come unexpectedly into the inner solar system. Others have orbits
that bring them close to the Sun at regular intervals. For example, the orbit of Halley ’s
Comet brings it into the inner solar system every 76 years.

Extrasolar Planets

Have you ever looked up at the sky and wondered whether there are planets outside of
our solar system? Planets orbiting stars other than the Sun are known as extrasolar
planets. To date, astronomers have found hundreds of such planets, and new
discoveries are made every month. All of the extrasolar planets discovered so far are in
our galaxy. (See Figure 9.) Finding extrasolar planets is difficult. Distant planets are
often masked by the light of the star that they revolve around. A star can be millions or
even billions of times brighter than its orbiting planets. For this reason, it is almost
 impossible to observe these planets directly. Instead, astronomers gather indirect
evidence of their existence.

The most common technique is to analyze a star’s light. As a planet orbits a star,
the planet’s gravity tugs on the star. This causes the star to move away from and
toward Earth slightly as the planet orbits the star. Due to the Doppler effect, this
small movement affects the light emitted by the star. When the star moves away
from Earth, the wavelength of the light becomes longer. When the star moves
toward Earth, the wavelength becomes shorter. This change in wavelength results in
a change in the color of the light. The change in color indicates that a planet is
pulling the star. This provides indirect evidence of the existence of a planet.
The hundreds of extrasolar planets discovered so far are extremely varied in terms
of their physical properties and orbits. Most are gas giants, but a few terrestrial
planets have been identified. Many are extremely hot because of a close orbit to a
star. Some have an orbit that is very distant from the star and are icy-cold. Some orbit
massive stars, many times bigger and more brilliant than our Sun. Others circle dim
stars that are much smaller than the Sun.
Most extrasolar planets that have been identified are Jupiter-like gas giants. The
largest extrasolar planet found to date is HD 43848 b. This planet is about 120
light-years away. It has a mass equal to 25 Jupiters. It has an orbital period of
about 2371 days. The smallest extrasolar planet to date is Gliese 581 e. It has a
mass equal to 1.9 Earths and an orbital period of 66.8 days. This planet is over 20
light-years away. Some astronomers believe that eventually, the discovery of small
planets will outnumber giant planets. Some of these small planets will probably
resemble Earth.

Scientists have discovered

stars that do not have any
planets, but are solar systems
in the process of forming.
Vega, the brightest star in
the constellation Lyra, is one
example. Beta Pictoris, a
star in the southern
constellation Pictor, is
another. Both have disk-
shaped clouds around them.
(See Figure 10 on the next
page.) Scientists believe
these disks are massive,
rotating clouds of dust and
gas. These clouds of dust
and gas could eventually
form planets. This is much
like how the solar system
was formed.
INTRODUCTION AND ORIGIN OF EARTH
 EXTEND: UNDERSTANDING AND APPLYING

1. Briefly describe the origin of the universe according to the big bang
theory.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2. How does the Doppler Effect allow astronomers to
detect the motion of a star or galaxy?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
 ____________________________________________________________
3. What can astronomers infer from the fact that other
galaxies are moving away from ours?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

4. Why was the cosmic background radiation an important discovery?

_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
5. Explain how the Sun produces energy. What keeps the Sun from
blowing apart?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

6. Compare the different hypothesis explaining the origin of the Solar

System.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

7. Explain the basic process of planet formation.

_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
8. Compare the inner planets and the outer planets.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
9. What are the characteristics of Erath that are necessary to support life?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
10. Would it be possible for a gas giant to form close to the Sun?
Explain your answer.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
11. What are the differences between asteroids and comets?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
12. Why are there no comets in an orbit that is always close to the Sun?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
 EVALUATE: MODELING THE EXPANDING UNIVERSE

Instructions: Create a conceptual model of the expanding universe and gather

supporting evidence of the Theory that you have chosen.

V. Post-Assessment:
Instructions: Modify whether the statement is TRUE or FALSE.

_______1. The universe is defined as all existing matter and space

considered as a whole.
_______2. Earth is an open system composed of four basic spheres.
_______3. Earth’s subsystems are closely linked by the biogeochemical
cycles.
_______4. Jupiter is a gas giant.
_______5. The habitable zone is also referred to as the Solar nebula.
_______6. Hydrosphere is the totality of Earth’s water.
_______7. The atmosphere is the mixture of gases that surrounds the
planet.
_______8. Lithosphere is composed of the frozen liquid which is part of
the cryosphere.
_______9. The four systems of earth are unlinked systems—any change
in one of them affects another.
_______10. Geosphere refers to the solid Earth.

VI. Topic Summary:

In this lesson, you have learned the following:
o Big bang theory: a theory to try to explain the origin of the universe,
which proposes that the universe has expanded from a condition that
existed at “time zero.”
 o Cosmologist: a scientist who studies the origin and dynamics of the
universe.
o Matter: a solid, liquid, or gas that possesses inertia and is capable of
occupying space.
o Wavelength: the horizontal distance between two successive crests of a
wave.
o Doppler effect: the apparent change of wavelength occurring when an
object is moving toward or away from an observer.
o Radiation: emission of energy in the form of rays or waves.
o Cosmic background radiation: a form of electromagnetic radiation that fills
the universe.
o Steady-state theory: a theory that proposes that matter in the universe is
continuously being created at a rate that allows the density of the
universe to remain constant as it expands.
o Planetesimal: one of the small bodies (usually micrometers to kilometers
in diameter) that formed from the solar nebula and eventually grew into
protoplanets.
o Protoplanetary body: a relatively large clump of material, formed in the
early stages of solar-system formation, which was the seed of the planets
you see today.
o Comet: a chunk of frozen gases, ice, and rocky debris that orbits the Sun.
o Asteroid: a small planetary body in orbit around the Sun, larger than a
meteoroid but smaller than a planet.
o Extrasolar planet: a planet beyond our solar system, orbiting a star other
than our Sun.
o Earth has three compositional layer: crust, mantle and core.

VIII. References:
o REAL WORLD SCIENCE: SCIENTIFIC METHOD.AIMS Multimedia. 1999.
o Mallarey, Charles. The Scientific Method and the Scientist. University of
Miami. On-line Testing Center. 2008.
o OLIVAR, JOSE T. II. EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE. Phoenix Publishing
House, Inc. 2016
o American Geosciences Institute, 2020.
Lesson 3

Biological Sciences

I. Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. explain the early beliefs about the origin of life ;
2. distinguish the different experiments about the origins of life; and
3. conduct the Redi’s experiment on the existence of maggots.

II. Pre-Assessment:
Instruction: Write a 300-word essay regarding your insights on the origin and
existence of life.
III. Core Content:

ENGAGE: LIFE AND ITS BEGINNINGS

III. Lesson Map:

The figure above shows the integrating concepts in Biology.

IV. Core Content:

ENGAGE: LIFE AND ITS BEGINNINGS

Early Beliefs About the Origins of Life

Centuries ago, people were puzzled about how life originated on Earth. One
believe that governed their thinking is the theory of spontaneous generation or
abiogenesis. Spontaneous generation is the idea that life originates from non-living
matter. This idea was proposed by Aristotle in the fourth century and held its position
as the belief on the origin of life until the seventeenth century. People in the past
believed that flies can grow from cattle manure, mice from wheat stored in the dark,
maggots from decaying meat, fish from mud of previously dried lakes or lice from
sweat. As time passed by, scientists question this belief and began to explore an
opposing idea, biogenesis. Biogenesis is the belief that life originates from pre-existing
life. Since then, several experiments have been conducted to prove these contradicting
beliefs to explain how life came about.

Is the origin of life a scientific question?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
What are the supported beliefs that were discussed in your previous years? Among
those, what do you belief in the most? Support your claim.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

EXPLORE: EXPLROING ALL ABOUT ME!

Redi’s Experiment

In 1668, the Italian physician

Francisco Redi conducted an
experiment that challenged the
idea of spontaneous generation.
His experimental setup involved
rejecting spontaneous generation
using maggots that arose from
decaying meat. He designed the
experiment using two sets of jars that were identical, but one jar had a gauge covering.
Redi observed that flies were attracted to both jars. However the flies settled only on
the meat of the open jar, since the gauze blocked flies from hovering onto the meat in
the other jar. After several days, Redi observed that maggots arose from eggs laid by
flies on the rotten meat but not on the meat in the covered jar. He concluded that life
arose from living matter such as maggots from eggs of flies and not from spontaneous
generation in the meat.

Activity 1.1! Where do these lives begin?

Instruction: Give your insights in the following:

1. List down at least three living things and explain where does its life begins.
a.) ________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________
b.) ________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________
c.) ________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

EXPLAIN: THEORIES AND BRANCHES

7 THEORIES ON THE ORIGIN OF LIFE

Primordial soup
Life on Earth began more than 3 billion years
ago, evolving from the most basic of microbes
into a dazzling array of complexity over time.
But how did the first organisms on the only
known home to life in the universe develop
from the primordial soup? One theory involved
a “shocking” start. Another idea is utterly
chilling. And one theory is out of this world!
Inside you’ll learn just how mysterious this all is, as we reveal the different scientific
theories on the origins of life on Earth.

1. Panspermia
Perhaps life did not begin on Earth at all, but was brought here from elsewhere in
space, a notion known as panspermia. For
instance, rocks regularly get blasted off Mars by
cosmic impacts, and a number of Martian
meteorites have been found on Earth that some
researchers have controversially suggested
brought microbes over here, potentially making
us all Martians originally. Other scientists have
even suggested that life might have hitchhiked
on comets from other star systems. However,
even if this concept were true, the question of
how life began on Earth would then only
change to how life began elsewhere in space. Oh, and if you thought all that was
mysterious, consider this: Scientists admit they don’t even have a good definition of
life!

2. Simple Beginnings
Instead of developing from complex
molecules such as RNA, life might have
begun with smaller molecules interacting
with each other in cycles of reactions.
These might have been contained in
simple capsules akin to cell membranes,
and over time more complex molecules
that performed these reactions better
than the smaller ones could have evolved, scenarios dubbed "metabolism- first"
models, as opposed to the "gene-first" model of the "RNA world" hypothesis.

3. RNA World
Nowadays DNA needs proteins in order to form,
and proteins require DNA to form, so how could
these have formed without each other? The
answer may be RNA, which can store information
like DNA, serve as an enzyme like proteins, and
help create both DNA and proteins. Later DNA
and proteins succeeded this "RNA world,"
because they are more efficient. RNA still exists
and performs several functions in organisms,
including acting as an on-off switch for some genes. The question still remains how
RNA got here in the first place. And while some scientists think the molecule could
have spontaneously arisen on Earth, others say that was very unlikely to have
happened. Other nucleic acids other than RNA have been suggested as well, such as
the more esoteric PNA or TNA. A study in 2015 suggests the missing link in this RNA
puzzle may have been found.

4. Chilly Start
Ice might have covered the oceans 3 billion years ago, as the sun was about a third
less luminous than it is now, scientists say.
This layer of ice, possibly hundreds of feet
thick, might have protected fragile organic
compounds in the water below from
ultraviolet light and destruction from
cosmic impacts. The cold might have also
helped these molecules to survive longer,
allowing key reactions to happen.

5. Deep-Sea Vents
The deep-sea vent theory suggests that life
may have begun at submarine
hydrothermal vents spewing key hydrogen-rich
molecules. Their rocky nooks could then have
concentrated these molecules together and
provided mineral catalysts for critical reactions.
Even now, these vents, rich in chemical and
thermal energy, sustain vibrant ecosystems

6. Community Clay
The first molecules of life might have met
on clay, according to an idea elaborated by
organic chemist Alexander Graham Cairns-
Smith at the University of Glasgow in
Scotland. These surfaces might not only
have concentrated these organic
compounds together, but also helped
organize them into patterns much like our
genes do now. The main role of DNA is to
store information on how other molecules
should be arranged. Genetic sequences in
DNA are essentially instructions on how
amino acids should be arranged in proteins. Cairns-Smith suggests that mineral crystals
in clay could have arranged organic molecules into organized patterns. After a while,
organic molecules took over this job and organized themselves.

7. Electric Spark
Lightning may have provided the spark needed
for life to begin. Electric sparks can generate
amino acids and sugars from an atmosphere
loaded with water, methane, ammonia and
hydrogen, as was shown in the famous
Miller-Urey experiment reported in 1953,
suggesting that lightning might have helped
create the key building blocks of life on Earth
in its early days. Over millions of years, volcanic clouds in the early atmosphere might
 have held methane, ammonia and hydrogen and been filled with lightning as well.

BRANCHES OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

Here are the different branches of biology (or divisions of biology) and their
definitions & their related resources.

Anatomy
Anatomy is the branch of biology that deals with the study of the structure
of organism and their parts.

Biochemistry

Biochemistry is the branch of biology concerned with the chemical and

physiochemical processes that occur within living organisms.

Biophysics

Biophysics is the science of the application of the laws of physics to biological

phenomena.

Biotechnology

Biotechnology is the exploitation of biological processes such as genetic

manipulation of micro-organisms for the production of antibiotics,
hormones, etc.

Botany

Botany is the scientific study of plants, including their physiology, structure,

genetics, and ecology.

Cell BiologyCell biology is the study of cell structure and

function, and it revolves around the concept that the cell is the fundamental

unit of life.

Ecology

Ecology is the branch of biology that deals with the relations of organisms to one
another and to their physical surroundings.

Evolution
Evolution is the process by which different kinds of living organisms are thought to have developed and
diversified from earlier forms during the history of the earth (Darwinism).

Genetics

Genetics is the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in living organisms.

Immunology

Immunology is the branch of medicine and biology concerned with immunity.

Marine Biology

Marine biology is the scientific study of organisms in the ocean or other marine
bodies of water.

Microbiology

Microbiology is the study of microscopic organisms, those being unicellular,

multicellular, or a cellular.

Molecular Biology

Molecular biology is the branch of biology that deals with the structure and
function of the proteins and nucleic acids.

Mycology

Mycology is the scientific study of fungi.

Parasitology

Parasitology is the branch of biology or medicine concerned with the study of parasitic organisms.

Photobiology

Photobiology is the scientific study of the interactions of light and living

organisms.

Phycology

Phycology is the scientific study of algae.

Physiology

Physiology is the branch of biology that deals with the normal functions of living organisms and
their parts.

Plant Physiology

Plant physiology is a sub-discipline of botany concerned with the

functioning, or physiology, of plants.

Radiobiology
Radiobiology is a branch of biology that involves the study of the action of
ionizing radiation on living things.

Structural Biology

Structural biology is a branch of molecular biology, biochemistry, and biophysics

dealing with the molecular structure of biological macro-molecules.

Theoretical Biology

Theoretical biology (aka Mathematical biology) is an interdisciplinary scientific

research field with a range of applications in biology, biotechnology, and
medicine.
 Virology

Virology is the branch of science that deals with the study of viruses.

Zoology

Zoology is the scientific study of the behavior, structure, physiology,

classification, and distribution of animals.

EXTEND: DOING AN EXPERIMENT

Activity 1.2!
Instruction: Try to research about the following beliefs and theories: Needham’s
Theory, Pasteur’s Experiment, Divine Creation, and Spontaneous Generation. Choose
any of it and break down your discussion using the table below.

Experiment

Proponent

Hypothesis
Experimental Design

Findings and Result

Implications

FOLLOW-UP QUESTION: How will you differentiate Redi’s experiment to other

theories?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

EVALUATE: ESSAY

Instructions: Write an essay summing up your understanding of the whole lesson.

Use the rubric below as your guide.
 VI. Topic Summary:
In this lesson, you have learned the following:

 Biology is a branch of science that deals with living organisms and

their vital processes. Biology encompasses diverse fields,
including botany, conservation, ecology, evolution, genetics, marine
biology, medicine, microbiology, molecular biology, physiology,
and zoology.
 There are seven theories which suggests the origins of Life:
Panspermia, Simple Beginnings, RNA World, Chilly Start, Deep-Sea
Vents, Community Clay, and Electric Spark.

V. Post-Assessment:
Instruction: Make an illustration about what you have learned. It could be in the form
of Poster-Slogan.
VII. References:
 BIOEXPLORER, 2020.
 Live Science. 7 THEORIES ON THE ORIGIN OF LIFE. 2016