Biology Laboratory Manual-Tenth Edition PDF

McGraw-Hill Create Review Copy for Instructor user. Not for distribution.
Course
BIOL1406/7
use user
http://create.mcgraw-hill.com
Copyright 2011 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights
reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Except as
permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part
of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form
or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system,
without prior written permission of the publisher.
This McGraw-Hill Create text may include materials submitted to
McGraw-Hill for publication by the instructor of this course.
The instructor is solely responsible for the editorial content of such
materials. Instructors retain copyright of these additional materials.
ISBN-10: 1121289932
ISBN-13: 9781121289932
Contents
1. Scientific Method: The Process of Science 1
2. Measurements in Biology: The Metric System and Data Analysis 11
3. The Microscope: Basic Skills of Light Microscopy 21
4. Mitosis and Meiosis 33
5. Mendelian Genetics 53
6. Human Genetics 69
iii
Credits
1. Scientific Method: The Process of Science: Chapter 1 from Biology Laboratory Manual, Ninth Edition by Vodopich,
Moore, 2011 1
2. Measurements in Biology: The Metric System and Data Analysis: Chapter 2 from Biology Laboratory Manual,
Ninth Edition by Vodopich, Moore, 2011 11
3. The Microscope: Basic Skills of Light Microscopy: Chapter 3 from Biology Laboratory Manual, Ninth Edition by
Vodopich, Moore, 2011 21
4. Mitosis and Meiosis: Chapter 8 from Laboratory Manual to accompany Biology, Tenth Edition by Mader, 2010 33
5. Mendelian Genetics: Chapter 9 from Laboratory Manual to accompany Biology, Tenth Edition by Mader, 2010 53
6. Human Genetics: Chapter 10 from Laboratory Manual to accompany Biology, Tenth Edition by Mader, 2010 69
iv
VodopichMoore: Biology
Laboratory Manual, Ninth
Edition
1. Scientific Method: The

Process of Science
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2011
Text
Biology Laboratory Manual, Ninth Edition
exercise one
Scientific Method
The Process of Science
Objectives
By the end of this exercise you should be able to:
1.
Define science and understand the logic and sequence of the scientific method.
2.
Develop productive observations, questions, and
hypotheses about the natural world.
3.
Calculate the range, mean, and standard deviation for a set of replicate measurements.
4.
Design and conduct a controlled experiment to
test a null hypothesis.
5.
Understand the difference between a hypothesis
and a scientific theory.
he word science brings to mind different things to different students. To some students, science is a textbook. To
others, its a microscope, a dissected frog, or a course that
you take. In fact, science is none of those. Some definitions
are more useful than others, but for biological research a
good definition of science is the orderly process of posing and
answering questions about the natural world through repeated
and unbiased experiments and observations. This definition
emphasizes that science is a process rather than a book,
course, or list of facts. Science is not a thing. Its a way of
thinking about and doing thingsa way of learning and
knowing about the natural world (fig. 1.1).
Our definition also emphasizes that people do science
by asking questions and then doing experiments to answer
those questions. Questions and curiosity are part of human
nature, and science is a human activity. Like any human
task, it takes practice to do science effectively.
Finally, our definition emphasizes that science is a tool
for learning about the natural world. It is ineffective for
moral choices, ethical dilemmas, and untestable ideas. For
example, the scientific method cannot tell us if pollution is
good or bad. It can tell us the environmental consequences of
pollution, but whether these consequences are good or
bad is a judgment that we make based on our values or
goals, not on science. Although this is an important limitation of the scientific method, science remains one of the
most powerful ways of knowing about our world.
Figure 1.1
Science is a process of learning about the natural world. Doing
experiments that involve gathering repeated and unbiased
measurements (data) is the heart of testing hypotheses and
answering questions.
The questioning and testing inherent in science systematically sift through natural variation to find underlying
patterns. The natural world includes much variation, and
learning biology would be relatively easy if simple observations accurately revealed patterns of the natural world. But
they usually dontnature is too complicated to rely solely
on simple observation. We can certainly learn much about
our environment just by looking around us, but casual
observations are often biased and misleading because nature
varies from time to time and from organism to organism. Biologists need a structured and repeatable process for testing
ideas about the variation in nature. Science is that process.
Question 2
What factors might be responsible for variation in measurements of traits such as the heights of 10-year-old pine trees,
or the kidney filtration rates of 10 replicate lab mice?
Question 1
What practices besides science are used among world cultures to learn about the natural world?
11
BIOL1406/7
Edition

Process of Science
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2011
Text
The process of science deals with variation primarily

through an organized sequence of steps that maintains as
much objectivity and repeatability as possible. Although
these loosely organized steps, sometimes called the scientific
method, vary from situation to situation, they are remarkably effective for research and problem solving. The typical
steps in the process of science are:
Make insightful observations
Pose and clarify testable questions
Formulate hypotheses
Do experiments to gather data
Quantify the data
Test the hypotheses
Refine hypotheses and re-test
Figure 1.2
Pillbugs are excellent experimental organisms to test hypotheses
about microenvironments, such as under logs and within leaf litter.
Pillbugs are readily available and easily cultured in the lab (10).
Answer the questions and make conclusions

SAFETY FIRST Before coming to lab, you were
asked to read this exercise so you would know
what to do and be aware of safety issues. In the
space below, briefly list the safety issues associated
with today's procedures. If you have questions
about these issues, contact your laboratory assistant before starting work.
DEVELOPMENT OF OBSERVATIONS,
QUESTIONS, AND HYPOTHESES
Make Insightful Observations
Good scientists make insightful observations. But thats not
as easy as it seems. Consider these two observations:
Observation 1: There are fewer elk in Yellowstone
National Park than there used to be.
Observation 2: The density of elk in Yellowstone National Park has declined during the
consecutive dry years since the reintroduction of the native wolf population.
Which of these two observations is the strongest and most
useful? Both of them may be true, but the second one is
much more insightful because it provides a context to the
observation that the elk population is declining. It also
suggests a relevant factorthe introduction of the wolf
populationas a productive topic for investigation. It also
suggests a relationship between density of the elk population
and the variation in the local environment.
Procedure 1.1
Make insightful observations
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Record the most insightful of the two observations

on Worksheet 1 on page 9.
Consider this observation: Pillbugs (sometimes called
roly-poly bugs) often find food and shelter where
fungi are decomposing leaf litter (fig. 1.2).
For this example we are interested in whether
pillbugs are attracted to leaves or to fungi (including
yeasts) growing on the leaves surface.
Observation 1: Pillbugs often hide under things.
Propose a more productive observation.
Observation 2:
Record observation 2 on Worksheet 2 on page 10.
You may revise this later.
Consider the following two observations.
Pose and Clarify Testable Questions
Observation 1: Fungi often grow on leftover food.

Observation 2: Fungi such as mold and yeast grow
more on leftover bread than on
leftover meat.
Which of the above observations is the most useful
for further investigation? Why?
Productive observations inspire questions. Humans think

in terms of questions rather than abstract hypotheses or
numbers. But phrasing a good question takes practice and
experience, and the first questions that capture our attention are usually general. For example, Which nutrients can
yeast most readily metabolize? is a general question that
expands the observation posed in procedure 1.1. This question is broadly applicable and is the type of question that
we ultimately want to understand. Enter this as the General
Question in Worksheet 1.
EXERCISE 1
12
Edition

Process of Science
Text
Broad questions are important, but their generality often makes them somewhat vague. The best questions for the
process of science are specific enough to answer clearly.
Therefore, scientists usually refine and subdivide broad
questions into more specific ones. For example, a more specific question is What classes of biological molecules are
most readily absorbed and metabolized by yeast? Enter this
as Specific Question 1 in Worksheet 1.
A further clarification might be Does yeast absorb and
metabolize carbohydrates better than it absorbs and metabolizes proteins? This is a good, specific question because it
clearly refers to organisms, processes, and variables that are
likely involved. It also suggests a path for investigationthat
is, it suggests an experiment. Enter this as Specific Question
2 in Worksheet 1.
Question 3
Consider the questions What color is your roommates
car? and How many legs do cats have? To answer these
questions, would you use the scientific method, or would
you rely on observation? Why?
Procedure 1.2
Posing and refining questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
13
Examine the following two questions.

Question 1: Do songbird populations respond to the
weather?
Question 2: Do songbirds sing more often in warm
weather?
Which of those questions is the most useful for
further investigation? Why?
Examine the following general question, and record
it in Worksheet 2.
General Question: What influences the distribution
of pillbugs?
Propose a specific question that refers to the food of
pillbugs as a variable, and record it here and in
Worksheet 2. Know that you may revise this later.
Specific Question 1
Propose a more specific question that refers to pillbugs
eating leaves, as opposed to pillbugs eating fungi
growing on leaves. Record this question here and in
Worksheet 2. Know that you may revise this later.
Specific Question 2
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2011
Figure 1.3
These tubes of yeast are
fermenting nutrients provided
in solution. The CO2 produced
by the yeast accumulates at the
top of the test tubes and
indicates that yeasts rate of
metabolism. From left to right,
the tubes include a control
with no added nutrients, a tube
with low nutrients, and a tube
with high nutrients.
Formulate Hypotheses
Well-organized experiments to answer questions require that
questions be restated as testable hypotheses. A hypothesis is a
statement that clearly states the relationship between biological
variables. A good hypothesis identifies the organism or process
being investigated, identifies the variables being recorded, and
implies how the variables will be compared. A hypothesis is a
statement rather than a question, and an analysis of your experimental data will ultimately determine whether to either accept
or reject your hypothesis. Remember that even though a hypothesis can be falsified, it can never be proved true.
Accepting or rejecting a hypothesis with no middle
ground may seem like a rather coarse way to deal with questions about subtle and varying natural processes. But using
controlled experiments to either accept or reject a hypothesis
is effective. The heart of science is gathering and analyzing
experimental data that leads to rejecting or accepting hypotheses relevant to the questions we want to answer.
In this exercise, you are going to do science as you investigate yeast nutrition and then experiment with food
choice by pillbugs. As yeast ferments its food, CO2 is
produced as a by-product. Therefore, we can measure the
growth of yeast by the production of CO2 (fig. 1.3).
A hypothesis related to our question about the growth
of yeast might be:
H0: CO2 production by yeast fed sugar is not significantly different from the CO2 production by
yeast fed protein.
A related alternative hypothesis can be similarly stated:
Ha: Yeast produces more CO2 when fed sugar than
when fed protein.
The first hypothesis (H0) is a null hypothesis because it
states that there is no difference. This is the most common
way to state a clear and testable hypothesis. (Your instructor
may elaborate on why researchers state and test null hypotheses more effectively than alternative hypotheses.) Researchers usually find it more useful to associate statistical
probabilities with null hypotheses rather than with alternative hypotheses. Enter the null hypothesis into Worksheet 1.
A well-written null hypothesis is useful because it is
testable. In our experiment, the null hypothesis (1) specifies yeast as the organism, population, or group that we want
to learn about; (2) identifies CO2 production as the
Scientific Method
BIOL1406/7
Edition

Process of Science
variable being measured; and (3) leads directly to an experiment to evaluate variables and compare means of replicated
measurements.
Procedure 1.3
Formulating hypotheses
1.
2.
Examine the following two hypotheses:

Hypothesis 1: Songbirds sing more when the weather
is warm.
Hypothesis 2: The number of bird songs heard per
hour during daylight temperatures
above 80F is not significantly different from the number heard per hour at
temperatures below 80F.
Which of these hypotheses is the most useful for
further investigation? Why?
3.
Which of these hypotheses is a null hypothesis? Why?
4.
Examine the following hypothesis.

Hypothesis 1: Pillbugs prefer leaves coated with a
thin layer of yeast.
Propose a more effective null hypothesis. Be sure that
it is a null hypothesis, that it is testable, and that it
includes the parameter you will control in an
experiment.
Hypothesis 2 (H0):
5.
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2011
Text
For this experiment the treatment (i.e., independent) variable

being tested is the type of food molecule (i.e., protein, sugar),
and the response (i.e., dependent) variable is the CO2 production that indicates yeast growth.
An experiment that compensates for natural variation
must be well designed. It should (1) include replications, (2)
test only one treatment variable, and (3) include controls.
Replications are repeated measures of each treatment under
the same conditions. Replications effectively deal with naturally occurring variation. Usually the more replications,
the better. Your first experiment today will include replicate
test-tubes of yeast, each being treated the same. Good
design tests only one treatment variable at a time.
Good experimental design also requires controls to
verify that the biological response we measure is a function of
the variable being investigated and nothing else. Controls are
standards for comparison. They are replicates with all of the
conditions of an experimental treatment except the treatment
variable. For example, if the treatment is glucose dissolved in
water, then a control has only water (i.e., it lacks only glucose, the treatment variable). This verifies that the response
is to glucose and not to the solvent. Controls validate that
our results are due only to the treatment variable.
Procedure 1.4
An experiment to determine the effects of food type on
yeast growth
1.
2.
6.
Enter your null hypothesis in Worksheet 2.

3.
EXPERIMENTATION AND DATA

ANALYSIS: YEAST NUTRITION
4.
5.
Gather Experimental Data

To test our hypothesis about yeast growth, we must design a
controlled and repeatable experiment. The experiment suggested by our specific question and hypothesis involves offering sugar such as glucose to one population of yeast,
offering protein to another population of yeast, and then
measuring their respective growth rates. Fortunately, yeast
grows readily in test tubes. As yeast grows in a closed, anaerobic container it produces CO2 in proportion to how readily
it uses the available food. CO2 production is easily measured
by determining the volume of CO2 that accumulates at the
top of an inverted test tube.
Experiments provide data that determine if a hypothesis
should be accepted or rejected. A well-designed experiment
links a biological response to different levels of the variable being investigated. In this case, the biological response is CO2
production indicating growth. The levels of the variable are
sugar and protein. These levels are called treatments, and in
our experiment they include glucose, protein, and a control.
EXERCISE 1
6.
7.
8.
9.
Label 12 test tubes as C1C4, G1G4, and P1P4.

See Worksheet 1.
To test tubes C1C4 add 5 mL of water. These are
control replicates.
To test tubes G1G4 add 5 mL of 5% glucose solution.
These are replicates of the glucose treatment.
To test tubes P1P4 add 5 mL of 5% protein solution.
These are replicates of the protein treatment.
Swirl the suspension of yeast until the yeast is
distributed uniformly in the liquid. Then completely
fill the remaining volume in each tube with the yeast
suspension that is provided.
For each tube, slide an inverted, flat-bottomed test tube
down over the yeast-filled tube. Hold the yeast-filled
tube firmly against the inside bottom of the cover tube
and invert the assembly. Your instructor will
demonstrate how to slip this slightly larger empty tube
over the top of each yeast tube and invert the assembly.
If done properly, no bubble of air will be trapped at the
top of the tube of yeast after inversion.
Place the tubes in a rack and incubate them at 50C
for 40 min.
After 40 min measure the height (mm) of the bubble
of accumulated CO2. Record your results in
Worksheet 1.
When you are finished, clean your work area and
dispose of the contents of each tube as instructed by
your lab instructor.
14
Edition

Process of Science
Analyze the Experimental Data

Analysis begins with summarizing the raw data for biological responses to each treatment. The first calculation is the
mean (x ) of the response variable for replicates of each
treatment, and for the control replicates. The mean is a single number that represents the central tendency of the response variable. Later the mean of each treatment will be
compared to determine if the treatments had different effects.
The second step in data analysis is to calculate variation within each set of replicates. The simplest measure of
variation is the range, the highest and lowest values in a set
of replicates. A wide range indicates much variation in the
data. The standard deviation (SD), another informative
measure of variation, summarizes variation just as the range
does, but the standard deviation is less affected by extreme
values. Refer to the box Variation in Replicate Measures
to learn how to calculate the standard deviation.
Question 4
Even the seemingly simple question How tall are mature
males of the human species? can be difficult to answer.
How would you best express the answer?
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2011
Text
Procedure 1.5
Quantify and summarize the data
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Examine your raw data in Worksheet 1.

Calculate the mean of the response variable (CO2
production) for the four control replicates. To
calculate the means for the four replicates, sum the
four values and divide by four. Record the mean for
the control replicates in Worksheet 1.
The CO2 production for each glucose and protein
replicate must be adjusted with the control mean.
This ensures that the final data reflect the effects of
only the treatment variable and not the solvent.
Subtract the control mean from the CO2 production
of each glucose replicate and each protein replicate,
and record the results in Worksheet 1.
Record in Worksheet 1 the range of adjusted CO2
production for the four replicates of the glucose
treatment and of the protein treatment.
Calculate the mean CO2 production for the four
adjusted glucose treatment replicates. Record the
mean in Worksheet 1.
Calculate the mean CO2 production for the four
adjusted protein treatment replicates. Record the
mean in Worksheet 1.
Refer to Variation in Replicate Measures, and
calculate the standard deviation for the four adjusted
glucose treatment values and for the four adjusted
protein treatment values. Record the two standard
deviations in Worksheet 1.
Variation in Replicate Measures

Natural variation occurs in all processes of biology. This
variation will inevitably produce different results in replicated treatments. One of the most useful measures of variation of values about the mean is standard deviation. Its
easy to calculate: calculate the mean, calculate the deviation of each sample from the mean, square each deviation,
and then sum the deviations. This summation is the sum of
squared deviations. For example, data for CO2 production
by yeast in four replicate test tubes might be 22, 19, 18, and
21 mm. The mean is 20 mm.
CO2 Production (mm)
Mean
Deviation
Deviation2
22
20
19
20
1
18
20
2
21
20
Sum of squared deviations 10
The summary equation for the sum of squared deviations is

N
Sum of squared deviations
15
(x i x )2
i1
Where
N total number of samples
x the sample mean
xi measurement of an individual sample
N
The summation sign () means to add up all the squared

i1
deviations from the first one (i 1) to the last one (i N).

The sum of squared deviations (10) divided by the
number of samples minus one (4 1 3) produces a value
of 10/3 3.3 mm2 (the units are millimeters squared). This
is the variance:
Variance
sum of squared deviations

N1
The square root of the variance, 1.8 cm, equals the standard
deviation
SD
Variance 3.3 1.8
The standard deviation is often reported with the mean in

statements such as, The mean CO2 production was 20
1.8 mm. The standard deviation helps us understand the
spread or variation among replicated treatments.
Scientific Method
BIOL1406/7
Edition

Process of Science
Test the Hypotheses

Our hypothesis about yeast growth is tested by comparing the
mean CO2 production by yeast fed glucose to the mean CO2
production by yeast fed protein. However, only determining if
one mean is higher than the other is not an adequate test because natural variation will always make the two means at
least slightly different, even if the two treatments have the
same effect on yeast growth. Therefore, the means and the
variation about the means must be compared to determine if
the means are not just different but significantly different. To
be significantly different, the differences between means must
be due to the treatment and not just due to natural variation.
If the difference is significant, then the null hypothesis is rejected. If the difference is not significant, then the null hypothesis is accepted. Testing for significant differences is
usually done with statistical methods.
Statistical methods calculate the probability that the
means are significantly different. But these complex calculations are beyond the scope of this exercise. We will use a
simpler method to test for a significant difference between
the means of our two treatments. We will declare that two
means are significantly different if the means plus or minus
1/2 of the standard deviation do not overlap.
For example, consider these two means and their standard deviations (SD):
Meana 10
SD 5
Meana (1/2)SD 7.5

Meana (1/2)SD 12.5
Meanb 20
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2011
Text
SD 10
Meanb (1/2)SD 15
Meanb (1/2)SD 25
them based on the results of your experiment and hypothesis testing should be straightforward.
Procedure 1.7
Answering the questions: yeast nutrition
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Are Meana and Meanb significantly different according to

our test for significance? Yes they are, because 7.5 C 12.5
does not overlap 15 C 25.
Procedure 1.6
Testing hypotheses
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Consider your null hypothesis and the data presented

in Worksheet 1.
Calculate the glucose mean (1/2)SD and the glucose
mean (1/2)SD. Record them in Worksheet 1.
Calculate the protein mean (1/2)SD and the protein
mean (1/2)SD. Record them in Worksheet 1.
Do the half standard deviations surrounding the
means of the two treatments overlap? Record your
answer in Worksheet 1.
Are the means for the two treatments significantly
different? Record your answer in Worksheet 1.
Is your null hypothesis accepted? Or rejected? Record
your answer in Worksheet 1.
Answer the Questions

The results of testing the hypotheses are informative, but it
still takes a biologist with good logic to translate these results into the answers of our specific and general questions.
If your specific questions were well stated, then answering
6
EXERCISE 1
Examine the results of hypothesis testing presented

in Worksheet 1.
Specific Question 2 was Does yeast absorb and
metabolize carbohydrates better than it absorbs
and metabolizes proteins? Enter your answer in
Worksheet 1.
Does your experiment adequately answer this
question? Why or why not?
Specific Question 1 was What classes of biological

molecules are most readily absorbed and metabolized
by yeast? Enter your best response in Worksheet 1.
Does your experiment adequately answer Specific
Question 1? Why or why not?
The General Question was Which nutrients can

yeast most readily metabolize? After testing the
hypotheses, are you now prepared to answer this
general question? Why or why not?
EXPERIMENTATION AND DATA

ANALYSIS: FOOD PREFERENCE
BY PILLBUGS
In the previous procedures you developed and recorded observations, questions, and hypotheses concerning food preference by pillbugs. Pillbugs may be attracted to dead leaves
as food, or they may be attracted to fungi growing on the
leaves as food. Leaves dipped in a yeast suspension can simulate fungi growing on leaves. Use the following procedures
as a guide to the science of experimentation and data analysis to test your hypothesis recorded in Worksheet 2.
Procedure 1.8
Design an experiment to test food preference by pillbugs
1.
Design an experiment to test your hypothesis in

Worksheet 2 about food preference by pillbugs. To do
this, specify:
Experimental setup
Treatment 1 to be tested
16
Edition

Process of Science
Treatment 2 to be tested
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2011
Text
3.
Enter your best response to Specific Question 1 in

Worksheet 2. Does your experiment adequately
answer this question? Why or why not?
4.
After testing the hypotheses, are you now prepared

to answer your General Question What influences
the distribution of pillbugs? Why or why not?
Control treatment
Response variable
Treatment variable
Number of replicates
Means to be compared
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Conduct your experiment and record the data in

Worksheet 2.
Analyze your data. Record the control means and
adjusted treatment means in Worksheet 2.
Calculate the range and standard deviation for your
treatments, and record them in Worksheet 2.
Test your hypothesis. Determine if the null
hypothesis should be accepted or rejected. Record
the results in Worksheet 2.
Answer the Specific Question 2, Specific Question 1,
and the General Question posed in Worksheet 2.
Procedure 1.9
Answering the questions: food preference by pillbugs
1.
2.
Examine the results of your hypothesis testing

presented in Worksheet 2.
Enter your answer to Specific Question 2 in
Worksheet 2. Does your experiment adequately
answer this question? Why or why not?
Question 5
What are some examples of biological theories?
Scientific Theories
Throughout this course you will make many predictions and
observations about biology. When you account for a group
of these observations with a generalized explanation, you
have proposed a scientific theory.
In science, as opposed to common usage, a theory is a
well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural
world that usually incorporates many confirmed observational and experimental facts. A scientific theory makes predictions consistent with what we see. It is not a guess; on the
contrary, a scientific theory is widely accepted within the
scientific communityfor example, the germ theory claims
that certain infectious diseases are caused by microorganisms. Scientific theories do not become facts; scientific theories explain facts.
INVESTIGATION
How Temperature Affects the Production of CO2 by Yeast
Observation: Fermentation of nutrients by yeast produces
CO2, and the production rate of this CO2 can be used to measure growth of the yeast. In this lab youve already investigated
how the production of CO2 is affected by different nutrients
(i.e., sugar, protein). Here youll investigate another variable:
temperature.
Question: How is the production of CO2 by yeast affected by
temperature?
a. Establish a working lab group and obtain Investigation
Worksheet 1 from your instructor.
b. Discuss with your group well-defined questions relevant to
the preceding observation and question. Choose and record
your groups best question for investigation.
17
c. Translate your question into a testable hypothesis and

record it.
d. Outline on Worksheet 1 your experimental design and supplies needed to test your hypothesis. Ask your instructor to
review your proposed investigation.
e. Conduct your procedures, record your data, answer your
question, and make relevant comments.
f. Discuss with your instructor any revisions to your questions,
hypothesis, or procedures. Repeat your work as needed.
Scientific Method
BIOL1406/7
Edition

Process of Science
Text
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2011
Questions for Further Thought and Study

1.
Newspaper articles often refer to a discovery as scientific or a claim having been proved scientifically. What is
meant by this description?
2.
Experiments and publications in science are usually reviewed by other scientists. Why is this done?
3.
Have all of our discoveries and understandings about the natural world been the result of applying the scientific
method? How so?
4.
Suppose that you hear that two means are significantly different. What does this mean?
5.
Can means be different but not significantly different? Explain your answer.
6.
How can science be used to address big issues such as global warming?
7.
Some people dismiss evolution by natural selection as being only a theory. Biologists often respond that yes,
evolution is a scientific theory. What does this mean?
8.
A hallmark of a scientific theory is that it is falsifiable. What does this mean, and why is it important?
EXERCISE 1
18
Edition

Process of Science
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2011
Text
Worksheet 1 Process of Science: Nutrient Use in Yeast

OBSERVATION
QUESTIONS
General Question:
Specific Question 1:
HYPOTHESIS H0:
EXPERIMENTAL DATA: Nutrient Use in Yeast
Treatments Minus Control x
Treatments
Control
CO2
Production
Replicate
(mm)
Replicate
Glucose
CO2
Production
(mm)
Replicate
Protein
CO2
Production
(mm)
Glucose CO2
Production
Adjusted for
the Control x
Protein CO2
Production
Adjusted for
the Control x
C1
______
G1
______
P1
______
______
______
C2
______
G2
______
P2
______
______
______
C3
______
G3
______
P3
______
______
______
C4
______
G4
______
P4
______
______
______
Control x ______
Protein x ______
Glucose x ______
Protein range ______ ______
Glucose range ______ ______
Protein SD ______
Glucose SD ______
TEST HYPOTHESIS
Glucose x (1/2)SD ______
Protein x (1/2)SD ______
Glucose x (1/2)SD ______
Protein x (1/2)SD ______
Do the half standard-deviations surrounding the means of the two treatments overlap? Yes ______ No ______
Are the means for the two treatments significantly different? Yes ______ No ______
Is the null hypothesis accepted? ______ or rejected? ______
ANSWER QUESTIONS
Answer to Specific Question 2
Answer to General Question
19
Scientific Method
10
BIOL1406/7
Edition

Process of Science
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2011
Text
Worksheet 2 Process of Science: Food Preference by Pillbugs

OBSERVATION
QUESTIONS
General Question:
HYPOTHESIS H0:
EXPERIMENTAL DATA: Food Preference by Pillbugs
Treatments Minus Control x
Treatments
Replicate
Control
Replicate
Treatment 1
Replicate
Treatment 2
Treatment 1
Adjusted for
the Control x
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
Control x ______
Treatment 2 x ______
Treatment 1 x ______
Treatment 2 range ______ ______
Treatment 1 range ______ ______
Treatment 2 SD ______
Treatment 2
Adjusted for
the Control x
Treatment 1 SD ______
TEST HYPOTHESIS
Treatment 1 x (1/2)SD ______
Do the half standard-deviations surrounding the means of the two treatments overlap? Yes ______ No ______
Are the means for the two treatments significantly different? Yes ______ No ______
Is the null hypothesis accepted? ______ or rejected? ______
ANSWER QUESTIONS
Answer to General Question
10
EXERCISE 1
110
Edition
2. Measurements in
Biology: The Metric
System and Data Analysis
exercise two
Measurements in Biology
The Metric System and Data Analysis
Objectives
1.
Identify the metric units used to measure length,
volume, mass, and temperature.
2.
Measure length, volume, mass, and temperature in
metric units.
3.
Convert one metric unit to another (e.g., grams to
kilograms).
4.
Use measures of volume and mass to calculate
density.
5.
Practice the use of simple statistical calculations
such as mean, median, range, and standard
deviation.
6.
Analyze sample data using statistical tools.
very day were bombarded with numbers and measurements. They come at us from all directions, including
while were at the supermarket, gas station, golf course,
and pharmacy, as well as while were in our classrooms and
kitchens. Virtually every package that we touch is described
by a measurement.
Scientists use a standard method to collect data as
well as use mathematics to analyze measurements. We must
measure things before we can objectively describe what we
are observing, before we can experiment with biological
processes, and before we can predict how organisms respond,
adjust to, and modify their world. Once we have made our
measurements, we can analyze our data and look for variation and the sources of that variation. Then we can infer the
causes and effects of the biological processes that interest us.
THE METRIC SYSTEM

Scientists throughout the world use the metric system to
make measurements. The metric system is also used in
everyday life virtually everywhere except the United States.
With few exceptions (e.g., liter bottles of soda, 35-mm film),
most measurements in the United States use the antiquated
English system of pounds, inches, feet, and so on. Check
with your instructor about bringing to class common grocery
store items with volumes and weights in metric units, or examining those items on display.
21
11
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2011
Text
Metric measurement is used worldwide in science to

improve communication in the scientific community. Scientists make all of their measurements in the metric system;
they do not routinely convert from one system to another.
However, the following conversions will help give you a
sense of how some common English units are related to
their metric equivalents:
1 inch 2.5 centimeters
1 foot 30 centimeters
1 yard 0.9 meter
1 mile 1.6 kilometers
1 ounce 28 grams
1 pound 0.45 kilogram
1 fluid ounce 30 milliliters
1 pint 0.47 liter
1 quart 0.95 liter
1 gallon 3.8 liters
1 cup = 0.24 liters
If you want to know those conversions, see Appendix II.
This exercise will introduce you to making metric
measurements of length, mass, volume, and temperature.
During this lab, you should spend your time making measurements, not reading background information. Therefore,
before lab, read this exercise carefully to familiarize yourself with
the basic units of the metric system.
Metric units commonly used in biology include:
meter (m)the basic unit of length
liter (L)the basic unit of volume
kilogram (kg)the basic unit of mass
degrees Celsius (C)the basic unit of temperature
Unlike the English system with which you are already familiar, the metric system is based on units of ten. This simplifies
conversions from one metric unit to another (e.g., from
kilometers to meters). This base-ten system is similar to our
monetary system, in which 10 cents equals a dime,
10 dimes equals a dollar, and so forth. Units of ten in the
metric system are indicated by Latin and Greek prefixes
placed before the base units:
11
12
BIOL1406/7
Edition
Prefix
(Latin)
deci
2. Measurements in
Biology: The Metric
Division of Metric Unit

0.1
(d)
To help you appreciate the magnitudes of these units, here

are the lengths and areas of some familiar objects:
101
2
centi
milli
(c)
(m)
0.01
0.001
10
103
micro
nano
()
(n)
0.000001
0.000000001
106
109
pico
(p)
0.000000000001
1012
Prefix
(Greek)
deka
(da)
hecto
(h)
Multiple of Metric Unit

10
100
101
102
kilo
(k)
1000
103
mega
giga
(M)
(G)
1000000
1000000000
106
109
Thus, multiply by:

0.01 to convert centimeters to meters
0.001 to convert millimeters to meters
1000 to convert kilometers to meters
0.1 to convert millimeters to centimeters
For example, there are 10 millimeters per centimeter.
Therefore,
62 cm
10 mm
= 620 mm
cm
In these conversion equations, the units being converted

from (in this case, centimeters) cancel out, leaving you with
the desired units (in this case, millimeters). Also note that
when units are converted to smaller units, the number associated with the new units will increase, and vice versa. For
example, 620 meters 0.620 kilometers 620,000 millimeters 62,000 centimeters.
Question 1
Make the following metric conversions:
1 meter
centimeters
92.4 millimeters
10 kilometers
82 centimeters
3.1 kilograms
meters
meters
meters
grams
millimeters
centimeters
decimeters
millimeters
The meter (m) is the basic unit of length. Units of area are
squared units (i.e., two-dimensional) of length.
1 m 100 cm 1000 mm 0.001 km
1 103 km
1 km 1000 m 103 m
1 cm 0.01 m 102 m 10 mm
470 m 0.470 km
1 cm2 100 mm2 (i.e., 10 mm 10 mm 100 mm2)
EXERCISE 2
Length
Housefly
Mt. Everest
Diameter of penny
Toyota Camry
0.5 cm
8848 m
1.9 cm
4.7 m
Area
Total skin area of adult human male
Football field (goal line to goal line)
Surface area of human lungs
Central Park (New York City)
Ping-pong table
Credit card
1.8 m2
4459 m2
80 m2
3.4 km2
4.18 m2
46 cm2
Procedure 2.1
Make metric measurements of length and area
Most biologists measure lengths with metric rulers or
metersticks.
1. Examine intervals marked on the metric rulers and
metersticks available in the lab.
2. Make the following measurements. Be sure to
include units for each measurement.
Length of this page
Width of this page
Area of this page
(Area Length Width)
Your height
Thickness of this manual
Height of a 200-mL beaker
Height of ceiling
Question 2
What are some potential sources of error in your
measurements?
Volume
Volume is the space occupied by an object. Units of volume
are cubed (i.e., three-dimensional) units of length. The liter
(L) is the basic unit of volume.
milligrams
Length and Area
12
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2011
Text
1 L 1000 cm3 1000 mL

1 L 0.1 m 0.1 m 0.1 m
1 cm3 0.000001 m3
To help you appreciate the magnitudes of these units, here

are the volumes of some familiar objects:
Chicken egg
One breath of air
Coke can
60 mL
500 cm3
355 mL
Scientists often measure volumes with pipets and graduated

cylinders. Pipets are used to measure small volumes, typi22
Edition
2. Measurements in
Biology: The Metric
13
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2011
Text
Figure 2.1
Figure 2.2
A pipet is used to extract and dispense volumes of liquid. A suction

bulb (shown in green on the left) draws fluid into the pipet, and
graduated markings on the pipet allow precise measurement of a
fluids volume. Never use your mouth to suck fluid into a pipet.
When measuring the volume of liquid in a graduated cylinder,

always measure at the bottom of the meniscus. The bottom of the
meniscus in this photograph is indicated by the arrow. The correct
volume is 25 mL.
cally 25 mL or less. Liquid is drawn into a pipet using a bulb

or pipet pump (fig. 2.1). Never pipet by mouth.
Graduated cylinders are used to measure larger volumes. To appreciate how to make a measurement accurately, pour 4050 mL of water into a 100-mL graduated
cylinder, and observe the interface between the water and
air. This interface, called the meniscus, is curved because
of surface tension and the adhesion of water to the sides of
the cylinder. When measuring the liquid in a cylinder such
as a graduated cylinder, always position your eyes level
with the meniscus and read the volume at the lowest level
(fig. 2.2).
Procedure 2.3
Measure the volume of a solid object by water
displacement
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Procedure 2.2
Make metric measurements of volume
1.
2.
3.
23
Biologists often use graduated cylinders to measure

volumes. Locate the graduated cylinders available in
the lab to make the following measurements.
Determine what measurements the markings on the
graduated cylinder represent. Be sure to include units
for each measurement.
Measure the milliliters needed to fill a cup (provided
in the lab).
Measure the liters in a gallon.
6.
Obtain a 100-mL graduated cylinder, a thumb-sized

rock, and a glass marble.
Fill the graduated cylinder with 70 mL of water.
Gently submerge the rock in the graduated cylinder
and notice that the volume of the contents rises.
Carefully observe the meniscus of the fluid and
record its volume.
Calculate and record the volume of the rock by
subtracting the original volume (70 mL) from the
new volume.
Rock volume
Repeat steps 25 to measure and record the volume
of the marble.
Marble volume
Biologists use pipets to measure and transfer small volumes

of liquid from one container to another. The following procedure will help you appreciate the usefulness of pipets.
13
14
BIOL1406/7
Edition
2. Measurements in
Biology: The Metric
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2011
Text
(B)
(A)
Figure 2.3
Biologists use balances to measure mass. (A) The parts of a triple-beam balance include (a) the zero-adjustment knob, (b) measuring pan,
(c) movable masses on horizontal beams, and (d) balance marks. (B) A top-loading balance has a measuring pan, a power switch, and a zero
calibration button.
Procedure 2.4
Learn to use a pipet
Question 3
What volume of liquid did you measure?
Biologists often measure mass with a triple-beam balance

(fig. 2.3), which gets its name from its three horizontal
beams. Suspended from each of the three beams are movable masses. Each of the three beams of the balance is
marked with graduations: the closest beam has 0.1-g graduations, the middle beam has 100-g graduations, and the
farthest beam has 10-g graduations.
Before making any measurements, clean the weighing
pan and move all of the suspended weights to the far left.
The balance marks should line up to indicate zero grams; if
they do not, turn the adjustment knob until they do. Measure the mass of an object by placing it in the center of the
weighing pan and moving the suspended masses until the
beams balance. The mass of the object is the sum of the
masses indicated by the weights on the three beams.
Mass
Procedure 2.5
Make metric measurements of mass
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Add approximately 100 mL of water to a 100-mL

beaker.
Use a 5-mL pipet with a bulb or another filling
device provided by your instructor to remove some
water from the beaker.
Fill the pipet to the zero mark.
To read the liquid level correctly, your eye must be
directly in line with the bottom of the meniscus.
Release the liquid into another container.
The kilogram (kg) is the basic unit of mass.1 A kilogram

equals the mass of 1000 cubic centimeters (cm3) of water at
4C. Similarly,
1 kg 1000 g 103 g
1 mg 0.001 g 103 g
2.
Here are the masses of some familiar objects:

9V battery
Ping-pong ball
Basketball
Quarter
1
14
40 g
2.45 g
0.62 kg
6.25 g
Remember that mass is not necessarily synonymous with weight. Mass

measures an objects potential to interact with gravity, whereas weight is the
force exerted by gravity on an object. Thus, a weightless object in outer space
has the same mass as it has on earth.
EXERCISE 2
1.
Biologists often use a triple-beam balance or a top

loading scale to measure mass. Locate the triplebeam balances or scales in the lab.
Measure the masses of the following items. Be sure to
include units for each measurement.
Penny
Paper clip
Pencil
Rock (used in procedure 2.3)
100-mL beaker (empty)
100-mL beaker containing 50 mL
of water
24
Edition
2. Measurements in
Biology: The Metric
Question 4
a. Density is mass per unit volume. Use data that
youve gathered to determine the density of water at
room temperature.
Density of water (mass/volume)
b.
What is the density of the wooden pencil? Does it

float? Why?
c.
What is the density of the rock? Does it sink? Why?
Temperature
Temperature is the measure of the kinetic energy of
moleculesthat is, the amount of heat in a system. Biologists measure temperature with a thermometer calibrated in
degrees Celsius (C). The Celsius scale is based on water
freezing at 0C and boiling at 100C. You can interconvert
C and degrees Fahrenheit (F) using the formula 5(F)
9(C) 160. Here are some typical temperatures:
40C
30.6C
75C
20C
37C
a very hot summer day

butter melts
hot coffee
temperature in a freezer
human body temperature
Procedure 2.6
Make metric measurements of temperature
1.
2.
3.
Obtain a thermometer in the lab. Handle a

thermometer with care. If it breaks, notify your
instructor immediately.
Determine the range of the temperatures that can be
measured with your thermometer by examining the
scale imprinted along the barrel of the thermometer.
Measure the following temperatures:
Room temperature
C
Cold tap water
Hot tap water
Inside refrigerator
C
C
C
Lets say that you want to know the mass of a typical

apple in your orchard. To obtain this information, you could
analyze one apple, but how would you know that youd
picked a typical sample? After all, the batch from which
you chose the apple may contain many others, each a little
different. Youd get a better estimate of typical if you
increased your sample size to a few hundred apples, or even
to 10,000. Or, better yet, to 1,000,000.
The only way to be certain of your conclusions would
be to measure all the apples in your orchard. This is impossible, so you must choose apples that represent all of the
other applesthat is, you must be working with a representative sample. A statistical analysis of those sample apples reduces the sample values to a few characteristic measurements
(e.g., mean mass). As you increase the size of the sample,
these characteristic measurements provide an ever-improving
estimation of what is typical.
There are a variety of software programs that perform
statistical analyses of data; all you have to do is enter your
data into a spreadsheet, select the data that you want to analyze, and perform the analysis. Although these software
packages save time and can increase accuracy, you still need
to understand a few of the basic variables that youll use to
understand your numerical data. Well start with the mean
and median:
The mean is the arithmetic average of a group of
measurements. Chance errors in measurements tend
to cancel themselves when means are calculated for
relatively large samples; a value that is too high
because of random error is often balanced by a value
that is too low for the same reason.
Hints for Using the Metric System
1.
2.
3.
4.
UNDERSTANDING NUMERICAL DATA

Statistics offer a way to organize, summarize, and describe
datathe data are usually samples of information from a much
larger population of values. Statistics and statistical tests allow
us to analyze the sample and draw inferences about the entire
population. Consequently, the use of statistics enables us to
make decisions even though we have incomplete data about a
population. Although this may seem unscientific, we do it all
the time; for example, we diagnose diseases with a drop of
blood. Decisions are based on statistics when it is impossible or
unrealistic to analyze an entire population.
25
15
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2011
Text
5.
6.
7.
8.
Use decimals, not fractions (e.g., 2.5 m, not 21/2 m).

Express measurements in units requiring only a few
decimal places. For example, 0.3 m is more easily manipulated and understood than 300000000 nm.
When measuring pure water, the metric system offers
an easy and common conversion from volume measured in liters to volume measured in cubic meters to
mass measured in grams: 1 mL 1 cm3 1 g.
The metric system uses symbols rather than abbreviations. Therefore, do not place a period after metric
symbols (e.g., 1 g, not 1 g.). Use a period after a
symbol only at the end of a sentence.
Do not mix units or symbols (e.g., 9.2 m, not 9 m
200 mm).
Metric symbols are always singular (e.g., 10 km, not
10 kms).
Except for degrees Celsius, always leave a space
between a number and a metric symbol (e.g., 20 mm,
not 20mm; 10C, not 10 C).
Use a zero before a decimal point when the number is
less than one (e.g., 0.42 m, not .42 m).
15
16
BIOL1406/7
Edition
2. Measurements in
Biology: The Metric
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2011
Text
The median is the middle value of a group of

measurements.
The median is less sensitive to extreme values than is the
mean. To appreciate this, consider a sample consisting of
14 leaves having the following lengths (all in mm):
Question 6
a.
What is responsible for this difference between the
mean and median?
80 69 62 74 69 51 45 40 9 64 65 64 61 67
b.
How would the median change if the 9-mm-long leaf

was not in the sample?
c.
How would the mean change if the 9-mm-long leaf

was not in the sample?
d.
Consider these samples:
The mean length is 58.6 mm. However, none of the leaves

are that length, and most of the leaves are longer than
60 mm. In biology, the mean is usually preferred to the
median when reporting descriptive statistics.
Question 5
a. Does the mean always describe the typical
measurement? Why or why not?
b.
What information about a sample does a mean not

provide?
Sample 1: 25 35 32 28
Sample 2: 15 75 10 20
What is the mean for Sample 1?
What is the mean for Sample 2?
Determine the median by arranging the measurements in

numerical order:
9 40 45 51 61 63 64 64 65 67 69 69 73 80
The median is between the seventh and eighth measurement: 64 mm. In this sample, the mean differs from the
median.
In most of the exercises in this manual, youll have time to

make only one or two measurements of a biological structure
or phenomenon. In these instances, a mean may be the only
descriptor of the sample. However, if your class combines its
data so that there are many measurements, youll need to
know how to do a couple of other calculations so that you
understand the variation within your sample.
Significant Figures
Lets suppose that youre measuring the length of a bone, as
shown in figure 2.4. How would you record this lengthas
8 cm? 8.3 cm? 8.33 cm? 8.33333 cm? To answer this question, you need to know something about significant figures.
Significant figures are the number of figures required to
record a measurement so that only the last digit in the number is in doubt. For example, if the ruler youre using is calibrated only in centimeters and you find that the object
youre measuring is between 8 and 9 cm long (fig. 2.4), then
you should estimate your measurement only to a tenth of a
centimeter. That is, a measurement of 8.3 cm is acceptable,
but 8.33 is not because it implies a precision that did not exist in the equipment you used to make the measurement. If,
however, your ruler was calibrated in millimeters, then 8.33
cm would be acceptable. Remember this: When recording
measurements, include all of the digits you are sure of plus
an estimate to the nearest one-tenth of the next smaller
digit.
Here are some other guidelines for using the correct
number of significant figures in your measurements:
When adding or subtracting measurements, the answer
should have no more precision than the measurement
16
EXERCISE 2
having the least number of significant figures. For example, suppose the air temperature in an incubator
drops from 8.663C to 8.2C. This is a difference of
8.663C 8.2C = 0.5C, not 0.463C. If the second
temperature reading had been 8.200C, then the correct answer would have been 0.463C.
When converting measurements from one set of units
to another, do not introduce precision that is not present in the first number. For example, 8.3 cm = 83 mm,
not 83.0 mm.
When manipulating two measurements simultaneously, the precision of the final measurement should
not exceed that of the least number of significant figures. For example, the calculation for the mass of 17.2
mL of water is 17.2 mL 0.997821 g mL1 = 17.2 g,
not 17.162521 g.
Figure 2.4
cm
How long is this bone? 8 cm? 8.3 cm?

8.33 cm?
26
Edition
2. Measurements in
Biology: The Metric
Variability
Rounding Numbers
As you can see, the samples in Question 6d are different, but

their means are the same. Thus, the mean does not reveal
all there is to know about these samples. To understand how
these samples are different, you need other statistics: the
range and standard deviation.
The range is the difference between the extreme measurements (i.e., smallest and largest) of the sample. In Sample 1,
the range is 35 25 10; in Sample 2 the range is 75 10
65. The range provides a sense of the variation of the sample,
but the range can be artificially inflated by one or two extreme
values. Notice the extreme values in the sample of leaf measurements previously discussed. Moreover, ranges do not tell us anything about the measurements between the extremes.
Question 7
a. Could two samples have the same mean but different
ranges? Explain.
Could two samples have the same range but different

means? Explain.
b.
17
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2011
Text
Do not change the value of the last significant digit if that

digit is followed by a number that is less than 5. For example, if two significant figures are required, 6.449 rounds to
6.4, 66.449 rounds to 66, 66.641 rounds to 67, and 6.591
rounds to 6.6. Here is how an original measurement of
49.5149 rounds to various numbers of significant figures:
Five significant figures:
49.515
Four significant figures:
49.51
Three significant figures:
49.5
Two significant figures:
50
One significant figure:
50
Statisticians disagree on what to do when the number following the last significant figure is exactly 5, as in 89.5 (and, in
this case, the precision is limited to two significant figures).
Some round the measurement to the higher number, while
others claim that doing so introduces bias into the data. You
can decide which approach to take, but be consistent.
The summary equation for the sum of squared deviations is:

N
Sum of squared deviations
(x i x )2
i1
where
N total number of samples
x the sample mean
xi measurement of an individual sample
N
This formula is simple. The summation sign ( )

i1
The standard deviation indicates how measurements

vary about the mean. The standard deviation is easy to calculate. Begin by calculating the mean, measuring the deviation of each sample from the mean, squaring each deviation,
and then summing the deviations. This summation results
in the sum of squared deviations. For example, consider a
group of shrimp that are 22, 19, 18, and 21 cm long. The
mean length of these shrimp is 20 cm.
means to add up all the squared deviations from the first one
(i 1) to the last one (i N). The sum of squared deviations (10) divided by the number of samples minus one
(4 1 3) produces a value of 10/3 3.3 cm2 (note that
the units are centimeters squared). This is the variance:
Variance
Mean
Deviation
(Deviation)2
22
19
21
20
20
20
2
1
1
4
1
1
18
20
Sum of Squared Deviations 10
27
N1
The square root of the variance, 1.8 cm, equals the standard
deviation (SD):
SD
Sample
Value
sum of squared deviations
Variance 3.3 1.8
The standard deviation is usually reported with the mean in

statements such as, The mean length of the leaf was 20
1.8 cm.
The standard deviation helps us understand the
spread or variation of a sample. For many distributions of
measurements, the mean 1 SD includes 68% of the measurements, whereas the mean 2 SD includes 95% of the
measurements.
17
18
BIOL1406/7
Edition
2. Measurements in
Biology: The Metric
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2011
Text
Procedure 2.7
Gather and analyze data statistically
1.
2.
3.
Range
Use a meterstick or tape measure to measure your

height in centimeters. Record your height here:
cm
Record your height and gender (male or female) on
the board in the lab.
After all of your classmates have reported their
heights, calculate the following:
Size of sample
All classmates
Male classmates
Female classmates
Mean height
All classmates
All classmates
to
Male classmates
to
Female classmates
Standard deviation
to
All classmates
Male classmates
Female classmates
If there is sufficient time, obtain a newspaper that advertises

cars, groceries, or other common commodities. Choose one
example (e.g., new cars) and determine its average price
(e.g., determine the average price of a new car).
Question 8
a. What does your calculation tell you?
Male classmates
Female classmates
Median height
All classmates
Male classmates
Female classmates
b. What are the limitations of your sample?

Your instructor may ask you to do other statistical tests, such
as Students t, chi-square, and analysis of variance
(ANOVA). The type of test youll do will depend on the
amount and type of data you analyze, as well as the hypotheses you are trying to test.
INVESTIGATION
Variation in the Areas and Shapes of Leaves
Observation: Leaves, which are the primary photosynthetic
organ of most plants, are adapted for absorbing light. This involves exposing large surface areas to the environment.
c.
Question: How does the surface area and shape of leaves vary
on different parts of plants?
d.

the preceding observation and question. If leaves are not
available from outdoor plants (e.g., during winter), use
the plants provided by your instructor that were grown in-
18
EXERCISE 2
e.
f.
doors. Choose and record your groups best question for

investigation.
Translate your question into a testable hypothesis and
record it.
Outline on Worksheet 2 your experimental design and supplies needed to test your hypothesis. Ask your instructor to
Conduct your procedures, record your data, answer your
Discuss with your instructor any revisions to your questions,
28
Edition
2. Measurements in
Biology: The Metric
Text
19
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2011

1.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of using the metric system of measurements?
2.
Why is it important for all scientists to use a standard system of measures rather than the system that may be most
popular in their home country or region?
3.
Do you lose or gain information when you use statistics to reduce a population to a few characteristic numbers?
Explain your answer.
4.
Suppose that you made repeated measurements of your height. If you used good technique, would you expect the range
to be large or small? Explain your answer.
5.
Suppose that a biologist states that the average height of undergraduate students at your university is 205 cm plus or
minus a standard deviation of 17 cm. What does this mean?
6.
What does a small standard deviation signify? What does a large standard deviation signify?
29
19
Edition
3. The Microscope: Basic

Skills of Light Microscopy
21
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2011
Text
exercise three
The Microscope
Basic Skills of Light Microscopy
Objectives
Illuminating System

1.
Identify and explain the functions of the primary
parts of a compound microscope and dissecting
(stereoscopic) microscope.
2.
Practice carrying and focusing a microscope
properly.
3.
Use a compound microscope and dissecting microscope to examine biological specimens.
4.
Prepare a wet mount, determine the magnification and size of the field of view, and determine
the depth of field.
The illuminating system, which concentrates light on the

specimen, usually consists of a light source, condenser lens,
and iris diaphragm. The light source is a lightbulb located at
the base of the microscope. The light source illuminates the
specimen by passing light through a thin, almost transparent
part of the specimen. The condenser lens, located immediately below the specimen, focuses light from the light
source onto the specimen. Just below the condenser is the
condenser iris diaphragm, a knurled ring or lever that can
be opened and closed to regulate the amount of light reaching the specimen. When the condenser iris diaphragm is
open, the image will be bright; when closed, the image will
be dim.
any organisms and biological structures are too small to

be seen with the unaided eye (fig. 3.1). Biologists often
use a light microscope to observe such specimens. A light microscope is a coordinated system of lenses arranged to produce
an enlarged, focusable image of a specimen. A light microscope magnifies a specimen, meaning that it increases its apparent size. Magnification with a light microscope is usually
accompanied by improved resolution, the ability to distinguish two points as separate points. Thus, the better the resolution, the sharper or crisper the image appears. The resolving
power of the unaided eye is approximately 0.1 mm (1 in
25.4 mm), meaning that our eyes can distinguish two points
0.1 mm apart. A light microscope, used properly, can improve
resolution as much as 1000-fold (i.e., to 0.1 m).
The ability to discern detail also depends on contrast,
the amount of difference between the lightest and darkest
parts of an image. Therefore, many specimens examined
with a light microscope are stained with artificial dyes that
increase contrast and make the specimen more visible.
The invention of the light microscope was profoundly
important to biology, because it was used to formulate the
cell theory and study biological structure at the cellular
level. Light microscopy has revealed a vast new world to the
human eye and mind (fig. 3.2). Today, the light microscope
is the most fundamental tool of many biologists.
THE COMPOUND LIGHT MICROSCOPE

Study and learn the parts of the typical compound light microscope shown in figure 3.3. A light microscope has two,
sometimes three, systems: an illuminating system, an imaging system, and possibly a viewing and recording system.
31
Caring for Your Microscope

Microscopes are powerful tools for understanding biology.
However, theyre also expensive and fragile and require
special care. When you use your microscope, always do
the following to ensure optimal performance and care:
Always carry your microscope upright with both

handsone hand under the base and the other around
the microscopes arm (fig. 3.3).
Always begin by cleaning the ocular and objective

lenses with lens paper.
Always start your examinations with the low-power

objective in place.
If you shift to the high-power objective, rotate the

objective into place carefully. Never force the objective
lens into place. If the objective lens contacts the slide,
stop and restart your examination with the low-power
objective lens.
After shifting to the high-power objective, always use

only the fine adjustment to focus the image.
When youve completed your work with the

microscope, clean the lenses with lens paper, wrap the
electrical cord securely around the microscopes arm,
and return your microscope to its storage area.
21
22
BIOL1406/7
Edition

The McGrawHill
Companies, 2011
Text
20 mm
2 mm
0.2 mm
20 +m
2 +m
0.2 +m
2 nm
0.2 nm
20 nm
Figure 3.1
The size of cells and their contents. This diagram shows the size of human skin cells, organelles, and molecules. In general, the diameter of a
human skin cell is about 20 micrometers (m), of a mitochondrion is 2 m, of a ribosome is 20 nanometers (nm), of a protein molecule is 2 nm,
and of an atom is 0.2 nm.
Imaging System
The imaging system improves resolution and magnifies the image. It consists of the objective and ocular (eyepiece) lenses and
a body tube. The objectives are three or four lenses mounted on
a revolving nosepiece. Each objective is a series of several lenses
that magnify the image, improve resolution, and correct aberrations in the image. The most common configuration for student
microscopes includes four objectives: low magnification (4),
medium magnification (10), high magnification (40), and
oil immersion (100). Using the oil immersion objective requires special instructions, as explained in Exercise 24 to study
bacteria. To avoid damaging your microscope do not use the oil
immersion objective during this exercise.
The magnifying power of each objective is etched on
the side of the lens (e.g., 4). The ocular is the lens that
you look through. Microscopes with one ocular are mon-
22
EXERCISE 3
ocular microscopes, and those with two are binocular microscopes. Oculars usually magnify the image ten times. The
body tube is a metal casing through which light passes to
the oculars. In microscopes with bent body tubes and inclined oculars, the body tube contains mirrors and a prism
that redirects light to the oculars. The stage secures the glass
slide on which the specimen is mounted.
Viewing and Recording System

The viewing and recording system, if present, converts radiation to a viewable and/or permanent image. The viewing
and recording system usually consists of a camera or video
screen. Most student microscopes do not have viewing and
recording systems.
32
Text
23
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2011
Heath, William. Monster Soup commonly called Thames Water..., date unknown.
Art Gallery of Ontario, Toronto. Gift of the Trier-Fodor Foundation, 1980.
Edition
Figure 3.2
Egad, I thought it was tea, but I see Ive been drinking a blooming micro-zoo! says this horrified, proper nineteenth-century London woman
when she used a microscope to examine her tea. People were shocked to learn that there is an active, living world too small for us to see.
Oculars
Body tube
Arm
Nosepiece
Objectives
Slide holder
to adjust
position
Stage
Stage clip
Condenser
Coarse focus
adjustment
Fine focus
adjustment
Condenser iris diaphragm

Condenser adjustment
Light source
Base
Figure 3.3
Major parts of a compound light microscope.
33
The Microscope
23
24
BIOL1406/7
Edition

The McGrawHill
Companies, 2011
Text
A Summary of How to Use a Compound

Light Microscope
1.
Place the specimen on the microscopes stage.
2.
Rotate the low-power objective into place. Center the

specimen below the objective.
3.
Look through the oculars while using the coarse

adjustment to focus on the specimen. Center the area
of the specimen that you want to examine.
4.
Slowly rotate the high-power objective into place.

Look through the oculars while you use the fineadjustment to focus on the specimen.
5.
5.
6.
If you lose your specimen when you switch from low

power to high power, retrace the previous steps, paying
special attention to placing the specimen in the center
of the field of view.
USING A COMPOUND MICROSCOPE

Although the maximum magnification of light microscopes
has not increased significantly during the last century, the construction and design of light microscopes have improved the
resolution of newer models. For example, built-in light sources
have replaced adjustable mirrors in the illuminating system,
and lenses are made of better glass than they were in the past.
Your lab instructor will review with you the parts of
the microscopes (and their functions) you will use in the
lab. After familiarizing yourself with the parts of a microscope, youre now ready for some hands-on experience with
the instrument.
Procedure 3.1
Use a compound microscope
1.
Remove the microscope from its cabinet and carry it

upright with one hand grasping the arm and your
other hand supporting the microscope below its base.
Place your microscope on the table in front of you.
Question 1
a. As you view the letter e, how is it oriented? Upside
down or right side up?
b.
How does the image move when the slide is moved

to the right or left? Toward you or away from you?
c.
What happens to the brightness of the view when

you go from 4 to 10?
Do not use paper towels or Kimwipes to clean

the lenses of your microscope; they can scratch
the lenses. Clean the lenses only with lens paper.
2.
3.
4.
24
Plug in the microscope and turn on the light source.

If it isnt already in position, rotate the nosepiece until
the low-power (4) objective is in line with the light
source. (The 4 objective is sometimes called the
scanning objective because it enables users to scan
large areas of a specimen.) Youll feel the objective
click into place when it is positioned properly. Always
begin examining slides with the low-power objective.
Locate the coarse adjustment knob on the side of the
microscope. Depending on the type of microscope
that youre using, the coarse adjustment knob moves
EXERCISE 3
either the nosepiece (with its objectives) or the stage

to focus the lenses on the specimen. Only a partial
turn of the coarse adjustment knob moves the stage
or nosepiece a relatively large distance. The coarse
adjustment should only be used when youre viewing a
specimen with the 4 or 10 objective lens.
If your microscope is binocular, adjust the distance
between the oculars to match the distance between
your pupils. If your microscope is monocular, keep
both eyes open when using the microscope. After a
little practice you will ignore the image received by
the eye not looking through the ocular.
Focus a specimen by using the following steps:
a. Place a microscope slide of newsprint of the letter e
on the horizontal stage so that the e is directly
below the low-power objective lens and is right side
up. It should be centered over the hole in the stage.
b. Rotate the coarse adjustment knob to move the
objective within 1 cm of the stage (1 cm
0.4 in).
c. Look through the oculars with both eyes open.
d. Rotate the coarse adjustment knob (i.e., raising
the objective lens or lowering the stage) until the
e comes into focus. If you dont see an image, the
e is probably off center. Be sure that the e is
directly below the objective lens and that you can
see a spot of light surrounding the e.
e. Focus up and down to achieve the crispest image.
f. Adjust the condenser iris diaphragm so that the
brightness of the transmitted light provides the
best view.
g. Observe the letter, then rotate the nosepiece to
align the 10 objective to finish your observation.
Do not use the oil immersion objective.
Magnification
Procedure 3.2
Determine magnification
1.
Estimate the magnification of the e by looking at the

magnified image on lowest magnification (4), and
then at the e without using the microscope.
34
Edition

25
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2011
Text
Examine each objective and record the

magnifications of the objectives and oculars of your
microscope in table 3.1.
Calculate and record in table 3.1 the total
magnification for each objective following this
formula:
2.
3.
MagTot MagObj MagOcu
where
MagTot total magnification of the image
MagObj magnification of the objective lens
MagOcu magnification of the ocular lens
4.
5.
6.
For example, if youre viewing the specimen with a

4 objective lens and a 10 ocular, the total
magnification of the image is 4 10 40. That is,
the specimen appears 40 times larger than it is.
Slowly rotate the high-power (i.e., 40) objective
into place. Be sure that the objective does not touch the
slide! If the objective does not rotate into place
without touching the slide, do not force it; ask your
lab instructor to help you. After the 40 objective is
in place, you should notice that the image remains
near focus. Most light microscopes are parfocal,
meaning that the image will remain nearly focused
after the 40 objective lens is moved into place.
Most light microscopes are also parcentered,
meaning that the image will remain centered in the
field of view after the 40 objective lens is in place.
You may need to readjust the iris diaphragm because
the high-magnification objective allows less light to
pass through to the ocular.
To fine-focus the image, locate the fine adjustment
knob on the side of the microscope. Turning this knob
changes the specimen-to-objective distance slightly
and therefore makes it easy to fine-focus the image.
The circular, illuminated field of view of a compound light

microscope. Shown here is the letter e from newsprint that is
magnified 40 times.
Question 2
a. How many times is the image of the e magnified
when viewed through the high-power objective?
b.
If you didnt already know what you were looking at,

could you determine at this magnification that you
were looking at a letter e? How?
Determine the Size of the Field of View
Never use the coarse adjustment knob to fine-
The field of view is the area that you can see through the
ocular and objective (fig. 3.4). Knowing the size of the field
of view is important because you can use it to determine the
approximate size of an object you are examining. The field
of view can be measured with ruled micrometers (fig. 3.5).
An ocular micrometer is a small glass disk with thin lines
numbered and etched in a row. It was put into an ocular on
your microscope so that the lines superimpose on the image
focus an image on high power.
Compare the size of the image under high

magnification with the image under low
magnification.
7.
Figure 3.4
TABLE 3.1
TOTAL MAGNIFICATIONS
Objective Power
Objective
Magnification
AND
AREAS
OF
FIELD
Ocular
Magnification
10
40
35
OF
VIEW (FOV)
Total
Magnification
FOR
THREE OBJECTIVES
FOV
Diameter (mm)
FOV
Area (mm2)
Measurement (mm)
for 1 Ocular Space
The Microscope
25
26
BIOL1406/7
Edition

The McGrawHill
Companies, 2011
Text
View of
ocular
micrometer
View of
stage
micrometer
View of both micrometers

aligned at their 0 lines
Figure 3.5
Stage and ocular micrometers. Micrometers are used to calibrate microscopes and measure the size of specimens.
and allow you to measure the specimen. Before you can use
the micrometer you must determine for each magnification
the apparent distance between the lines on the ocular
micrometer. This means that you must calibrate the ocular
micrometer by comparing its lines to those lines on a standard ruler called a stage micrometer. A stage micrometer is
a glass slide having precisely spaced lines etched at known
intervals.
y ocular spaces x stage spaces
Procedure 3.3
Use a stage micrometer to calibrate the ocular
micrometer, and determine the size of the field of view
1 ocular space (mm) (x/y) 0.01
1.
2.
3.
26
Rotate the ocular until the lines of the ocular micrometer parallel those of the stage micrometer (fig. 3.5).
Align lines at the left edges (0 lines) of the two
micrometers by moving the stage micrometer
(fig. 3.5).
Count how many spaces on the stage micrometer fit
precisely in a given number of spaces on the ocular
micrometer. Record the values here.
EXERCISE 3
y
x
The smallest space on a stage micrometer

0.01 mm, so
y ocular spaces (mm) x stage spaces 0.01
4.
Calculate the distance in millimeters between lines

of the ocular micrometer. For example, if the length
of 10 spaces on the ocular micrometer equals the
length of seven spaces on the stage micrometer, then
y 10
x7
10 ocular spaces (mm) 7 stage spaces 0.01 mm
1 ocular space (mm) (7 0.01 mm)/10
1 ocular space (mm) 0.007 mm
1 ocular space 7 m
36
Edition
5.
6.
7.

Therefore, if a specimen spans eight spaces on your

ocular micrometer with that objective in place, that
specimen is 56 m long.
Calibrate the ocular micrometer for each objective
on your microscope. Record in table 3.1 the diameter
of the field of view (FOV) for each objective. Also
record for each objective lens in table 3.1 the
measurement (mm) for 1 ocular space. You can use
this information in future labs as you measure the
sizes of organisms and their parts.
Calculate the radius, which is half the diameter.
Use this information to determine the area of the
circular field of view with the following formula:
27
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2011
Text
For example, if 3.0 mm is the diameter of the field of

view for a 4 low-power objective, then what is the
diameter of the field of view of the 40 high-power
objective?
3.0 mm 4 FOVhigh 40
0.30 mm FOVhigh
7.
8.
Calculate and record in table 3.1 the diameters of the

field of view for the 10 and 40 magnifications.
Calculate and record in table 3.1 the circular area of
the field of view for the three magnifications by using
the following formula.
Area of circle radius2
( 3.14)
Area of circle radius2

( 3.14)
8.
Record your calculated FOV areas in table 3.1.
Alternate Procedure 3.3

Use a transparent ruler to determine the size of the field
of view
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Obtain a clear plastic ruler with a metric scale.

Place the ruler on the stage and under the stage clips
of your microscope. If your microscope has a
mechanical stage, ask your instructor how to place
the ruler to avoid damage. Carefully rotate the
nosepiece to the objective of lowest magnification.
Slowly focus with the coarse adjustment and then
the fine adjustment until the metric markings on the
ruler are clear.
Align the ruler to measure the diameter of the
circular field of view. The space between each line
on the ruler should represent a 1-mm interval.
Record in table 3.1 the diameter of this lowmagnification field of view. Also calculate the radius,
which is half the diameter.
The ruler cannot be used to measure the diameters of
the field of view at medium and high magnifications
because the markings are too far apart. Therefore,
these diameters must be calculated using the
following formula:
FOVlow Maglow FOVhigh Maghigh
Question 3
a. Which provides the largest field of view, the 10 or
40 objective?
b.
How much more area can you see with the 4

objective than with the 40 objective?
c.
Why is it more difficult to locate an object starting

with the high-power objective than with the lowpower objective?
d.
Which objective should you use to initially locate

the specimen? Why?
Determine the Depth of Field

Depth of field is the thickness of the object in sharp focus
(fig. 3.6). Depth of field varies with different objectives and
magnifications.
where
Procedure 3.4
Determine the depth of the field of view
FOVlow diameter of the field of view of the lowpower objective
1.
Maglow magnification of the low-power objective

(Be consistent and use the magnification of
the objective, not total magnification.)
2.
FOVhigh diameter of the field of view of the highpower objective

Maghigh magnification of the high-power objective
37
3.
Using the low-power objective, examine a prepared

slide of three colored threads mounted on top of each
other.
Focus up and down and try to determine the order of
the threads from top to bottom. The order of the
threads will not be the same on all slides.
Re-examine the threads using the high-power
objective lens.
The Microscope
27
28
BIOL1406/7
Edition

The McGrawHill
Companies, 2011
Text
4.
least four different levels of illumination. The fourth

level should have the diaphragm completely open.
Repeat step 3 for the 10 and 40 objectives.
Question 5
a. Is the image always best with highest illumination?
b.
Is the same level of illumination best for all

magnifications?
c.
Which magnifications require the most illumination

for best clarity and contrast?
5.
Examine your preparation of algae, and sketch in the

following field of view the organisms that you see.
Dont mistake air bubbles for organisms! Air bubbles
appear as uniformly round structures with dark, thick
borders.
6.
Prepare a wet mount of some newly hatched brine

shrimp (Artemia, which are popularly referred to as
sea monkeys) and their eggs. Sketch in the following
field of view what you see. Use your calculations for
the diameter of the field of view to estimate the
length of the shrimp.
Figure 3.6
A thin depth of field is apparent in this 100 image of cells of
Closterium, a green alga. The upper and lower layers of cells are out of
focus, while the midlayer of cells is within the thin depth of field and
is clearly focused.
Question 4
a.
Are all three colored threads in focus at low power?
b.
Can all three threads be in focus at the same time

using the high-power objective?
c.
Which objective, high- or low-power, provides the

greatest depth of field?
Preparing a Wet Mount

of a Biological Specimen
Procedure 3.5
Prepare a wet mount of a biological specimen
1.
2.
3.
28
Place a drop of water containing algal cells from a

culture labeled algae on a clean microscope slide.
Place the edge of a clean coverslip at an edge of the
drop at a 45 angle; then slowly lower the coverslip
onto the drop so that no air bubbles are trapped
(fig. 3.7). (Your instructor will demonstrate this
technique.) This fresh preparation is called a wet
mount and can be viewed with your microscope.
Experiment with various intensities of illumination.
To do this, rotate the 4 objective into place and
adjust the condenser iris diaphragm to produce the
least illumination. Observe the image; note its clarity,
contrast, and color. Repeat these observations with at
EXERCISE 3
Approximate length of the shrimp: ________
38
Edition

29
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2011
Text
Add a drop of algal culture

to a clean microscope slide.
Add a clean coverslip.
Gently lower the coverslip into

place with a dissecting needle.
(b)
Observe with low-power

objective lens.
(a)
Figure 3.7
(a) Preparing a wet mount of a biological specimen. (b) A wet mount might include the common algae Spirogyra, 800. See also figures 3.6, 24.9,
and 25.125.4.
Question 6
a.
Why is it important to put a coverslip over the drop
of water when you prepare a wet mount?
b.
Approximately how long and wide is a brine shrimp?
Practice
For practice using your microscope, prepare some wet
mounts of pond water or a hay infusion to view the diversity
of protozoa and algae (fig. 3.8). If the protozoa are moving
too fast for you to examine carefully, add a drop of methylcellulose (often sold commercially as Proto-Slo) to your
sample. (The methylcellulose will slow the movement of
the protozoa.) Also examine the prepared slides available in
the lab. Youll examine these slides in more detail in the
coming weeks, so dont worry about their contents. Rather,
use this exercise to familiarize yourself with the microscope.
Also prepare wet mounts of the cultures available in the
lab and sketch the organisms that you see. When youve
finished, turn off the light source, cover your microscope,
and store the microscope in its cabinet.
39
Figure 3.8
The diversity of organisms in pond water (200).
The Microscope
29
30
BIOL1406/7
Edition

THE DISSECTING (STEREOSCOPIC)

MICROSCOPE
A dissecting (stereoscopic) microscope offers some advantages over a compound microscope. Although a compound
microscope can produce high magnifications and excellent
resolution, it has a small working distance, the distance between the objective lens and specimen. Therefore, it is difficult to manipulate a specimen while observing it with a
compound microscope. Specimens that can be observed
with a compound microscope are limited to those thin
enough for light to pass through them. In contrast, a dissecting microscope is used to view objects that are opaque or
too large to see with a compound microscope.
A dissecting microscope provides a much larger working distance than does a compound microscope. This distance is usually several centimeters (compared to a
centimeter or less for a compound microscope), making it
possible to dissect and manipulate most specimens. Also,
most specimens for dissection are too thick to observe with
transmitted light from a light source below the specimen.
Therefore, many dissecting microscopes use a light source
above the specimen; the image is formed from reflected light.
Dissecting microscopes are always binocular (fig. 3.9).
Each ocular views the specimen at different angles through
one or more objective lenses. This arrangement provides a
three-dimensional image with a large depth of field. This is
in contrast to the image in a compound microscope, which
is basically two-dimensional. However, the advantages of a
stereoscopic microscope are often offset by lower resolution
and magnification than a compound microscope. Most dissecting microscopes have magnifications of 4 to 50.
Procedure 3.6
Use a dissecting microscope
1.
2.
3.
30
Carry the dissecting microscope to your desk.

Use figure 3.9 to familiarize yourself with the parts
of your microscope.
Use your dissecting microscope to examine the
organisms available in the lab. Sketch some of these
organisms.
EXERCISE 3
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2011
Text
4.
Use a ruler to measure the diameter of the field of

view with your dissecting microscope at several levels
of magnification.
Question 7
a. What is the area of the field of view when you use
the lowest magnification of your dissecting
microscope?
b.
What is the area when you use the highest

magnification?
c.
Place a microscope slide of the letter e on the stage.

As you view the letter e how is it oriented?
d.
How does the image through a dissecting microscope

move when the specimen is moved to the right or
left? Toward you or away from you?
e.
How does the direction of illumination differ in

dissecting as opposed to compound microscopes?
A COMPARISON OF COMPOUND
AND DISSECTING MICROSCOPES
Complete table 3.2 comparing magnification, resolution,
size of the field of view, and depth of field of a dissecting microscope and a compound microscope. Use the terms high,
low, or same to describe your comparisons.
Question 8
What other differences are there between compound and
dissecting microscopes?
310
Edition

31
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2011
Text
Figure 3.9
Dissecting (stereoscopic) microscope.
Ocular
lenses
Zoom
magnification
adjustment
Reflected
light
source
Arm
Objective
lenses
Focus
adjustment
Stage
Base
Transmitted
light source
TABLE 3.2
A COMPARISON
OF
DISSECTING
Characteristic
AND
COMPOUND MICROSCOPES
Dissecting Microscope
Compound Microscope
Magnification
Resolution
Size of field of view
Depth of field
INVESTIGATION
The Shapes, Surface Areas, and Volumes of Red Blood Cells
Observation: Red blood cells, which are the most common
type of blood cell, are used by vertebrates to deliver oxygen to
body tissues. Red blood cells are filled with hemoglobin, which
gives them their characteristic color.
Question: What are the shapes, surface areas, and volumes of
red blood cells?
the preceding observation and question. Choose and
record your groups best question for investigation.
c. Translate your question into a testable hypothesis and
record it.
311
d. Outline on Worksheet 3 your experimental design and supplies needed to test your hypothesis. Ask your instructor to
e. Conduct your procedures, record your data, answer your
f. Discuss with your instructor any revisions to your questions,
The Microscope
31
32
BIOL1406/7
Edition

Text
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2011

1.
What are the advantages of knowing the diameter of the field of view at a given magnification?
2.
Why must specimens viewed with a compound microscope be thin? Why are they sometimes stained with dyes?
3.
Why is depth of field important in studying biological structures? How can it affect your ability to find and examine a
specimen?
4.
What is the importance of adjusting the light intensity when viewing specimens with a compound microscope?
5.
What is the function of each of the following parts of a compound and dissecting microscope?
Oculars
Objectives
Condenser
Iris diaphragm
Stage
Coarse adjustment
Fine adjustment
6.
Examine the micrograph of the letter e shown in figure 3.4. This letter is magnified 40. What is the actual height of
the letter?
WRITING TO LEARN BIOLOGY

The smallest structures of cells are best seen with
a transmission electron microscope. Refer to your
textbook or other book and describe how an electron microscope can resolve such small structures. Write a short essay
about the advantages and limitations of a transmission
electron microscope.
32
EXERCISE 3
312
Mader: Laboratory Manual
to accompany Biology,
Tenth Edition
8. Mitosis and Meiosis
Text
33
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
Laboratory Manual to accompany Biology, Tenth Edition
L A B O R A T O R Y
Mitosis and Meiosis

Learning Outcomes
8.1 The Cell Cycle
Name and describe the stages of the cell cycle. 84
Describe how the cell prepares for mitosis, and identify the phases of mitosis in models and microscopic slides.
Explain how the chromosome number stays constant. 8588
Describe animal and plant cell cytokinesis. 8990
8.2 Meiosis
Name and describe the phases of meiosis I and meiosis II with attention to the movement of chromosomes.
Explain how the chromosome number is reduced. 9195
8.3 Mitosis Versus Meiosis
Compare the effects of mitosis to meiosis. 9697
Contrast the behavior of chromosomes during mitosis with the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis I.
Explain why meiosis I is emphasized and not meiosis II. 9697
8.4 Karyotype Abnormalities
Recognize that abnormalities in chromosome number and structure can occur when cells divide. 98
8.5 Gametogenesis in Animals
Contrast spermatogenesis and oogenesis using models and slides. 99101
Introduction
Dividing cells experience nuclear division, cytoplasmic division, and a period of time between divisions
called interphase. During interphase, the nucleus appears normal, and the cell is performing its usual
cellular functions. Also, the cell is increasing all of its components, including such organelles as the
mitochondria, ribosomes, and centrioles, if present. DNA replication (making an exact copy of the
DNA) occurs toward the end of interphase. Thereafter, the chromosomes, which contain DNA, are
duplicated and contain two chromatids held together at a centromere. These chromatids are called
sister chromatids.
During nuclear division, called mitosis, the new nuclei receive the same number of chromosomes
as the parental nucleus. When the cytoplasm divides, a process called cytokinesis, two daughter cells
are produced. In multicellular organisms, mitosis permits growth and repair of tissues. In eukaryotic,
unicellular organisms, mitosis is a form of asexual reproduction. Sexually reproducing organisms utilize
another form of nuclear division, called meiosis. In animals, meiosis is a part of gametogenesis, the
production of gametes (sex cells). The gametes are sperm in male animals and eggs in female animals.
As a result of meiosis, the daughter cells have half the number of chromosomes as the parental cell. As
we shall see, meiosis contributes to recombination of genetic material and to diversity among sexually
reproducing organisms.
This laboratory examines both mitotic and meiotic cell division to show their similarities and
differences and it also discusses chromosome abnormalities that can occur during mitosis and meiosis.
81
Laboratory 8
Mitosis and Meiosis
83
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
Text
The Cell Cycle
Interphase
As stated in the Introduction, the period of time

between cell divisions is known as interphase.
Because early investigators noted little visible activity
between cell divisions, they dismissed this period
of time as a resting state. But when they discovered
that DNA replication and chromosome duplication
occur during interphase, the cell cycle concept was
proposed. Investigators have also discovered that
cytoplasmic organelle duplication occurs during
interphase, as does synthesis of the proteins involved
in regulating cell division. Thus, the cell cycle can
be broken down into four stages (Fig. 8.1). State the
event of each stage on the line provided:
Figure 8.1
G2
growth and final
preparations for
division
as
ph
eta
m
o
Pr
in
tok
Cy
M
Mitosis
Te
lop
ha
se
Anapha
se
is
es
hase
Metap
e
G1
growth
G1
S
growth and DNA
replication
as
8.1
ph

BIOL1406/7
Tenth Edition
Pr
o
34
The cell cycle.
Immature cells go through a cycle that consists of four

stages: G1, S (for synthesis), G2, and M (for mitosis).
Eventually, some daughter cells break out of the cell
cycle and become specialized cells.
S
G2
M
Explain why the entire process is called the cell cycle.
The time required for the entire cell cycle varies according to the organism, but 18 to 24 hours is
typical for animal cells. Mitosis (including cytokinesis, if it occurs) lasts less than an hour to slightly
more than 2 hours; for the rest of the time, the cell is in interphase.
Table 8.1
Structures Associated with Mitosis
Structure
Description
Nucleus
Chromosome
A large organelle containing the chromosomes and acting as a control center for the cells
Rod-shaped body in the nucleus that is seen during mitosis and meiosis and that contains
DNA and, therefore the hereditary units, or genes
An organelle found inside the nucleus; composed largely of RNA for ribosome formation
Microtubule structure that brings about chromosome movement during cell division
The two identical parts of a chromosome following DNA replication
A constriction where duplicates (sister chromatids) of a chromosome are held together
The central microtubule-organizing center of cells; consists of granular material; in animal
cells, contains two centrioles
Short, cylindrical organelles in animal cells that contains microtubules and are associated
with the formation of the spindle during cell division
Short, radiating bers produced by the centrioles
Nucleolus
Spindle
Chromatids
Centromere
Centrosome
Centrioles*
Aster*
*Animal cells only
84
Laboratory 8
Mitosis and Meiosis
82
Tenth Edition
Text
35
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
Mitosis
Mitosis is nuclear division that results in two new nuclei, each having the same number of
chromosomes as the original nucleus. The parent cell is the cell that divides, and the resulting cells are
called daughter cells.
When cell division is about to begin, chromatin starts to condense and compact to form visible,
rodlike sister chromatids held together at the centromere (Fig. 8.2a). Label the sister chromatids,
centromere, and kinetochore in the drawing of a duplicated chromosome in Figure 8.2b. This illustration
represents a chromosome as it would appear just before nuclear division occurs.
Figure 8.2
Duplicated chromosomes.
1.
DNA replication results in a duplicated

chromosome that consists of two sister
chromatids held together at a centromere.
a. Scanning electron micrograph of a
duplicated chromosome. b. Drawing of
a duplicated chromosome.
2.
3.
one chromatid
a.
b.
Spindle
Table 8.1 lists the structures that play a role during mitosis. The spindle is a structure that appears and
brings about an orderly distribution of chromosomes to the daughter cell nuclei. A spindle has bers
that stretch between two poles (ends). Spindle bers are bundles of microtubules, protein cylinders
found in the cytoplasm that can assemble and disassemble. The centrosome, the main microtubuleorganizing center of the cell, divides before mitosis so that during mitosis, each pole of the spindle has
a centrosome. Animal cells contain two barrel-shaped organelles called centrioles in each centrosome
and asters, arrays of short microtubules radiating from the poles (see Fig. 8.3). The fact that plant cells
lack centrioles suggests that centrioles are not required for spindle formation.
Observation: Animal Mitosis
Animal Mitosis Models
1. Using Figure 8.3 as a guide, identify the phases of animal cell mitosis in models of animal cell
mitosis.
2. Each species has its own chromosome number. Counting the number of centromeres tells you the
number of chromosomes in the models. What is the number of chromosomes in each of the cells
in this model series?
Whitesh Blastula Slide
The blastula is an early embryonic stage in the development of animals. The blastomeres (blastula
cells) shown are in different phases of mitosis (see Fig. 8.3).
1. Examine a prepared slide of whitesh blastula cells undergoing mitotic cell division.
2. Try to nd a cell in each phase of mitosis. Have a partner or your instructor check
your identication.
83
Laboratory 8
Mitosis and Meiosis
85
36

BIOL1406/7
Tenth Edition
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
Text
Mitosis Phases
Figure 8.3
Phases of mitosis in animal and plant cells.
The colors signify that the chromosomes were inherited from different parents.
centrosome
has centrioles
Animal Cell
at Interphase
aster
20 m
duplicated
chromosome
MITOSIS
nuclear
envelope
fragments
20 m
spindle
pole
9 m
kinetochore
centromere
chromatin
condenses
nucleolus
disappears
kinetochore
spindle fiber
spindle
fibers forming
Early Prophase
Centrosomes have duplicated.
Chromatin is condensing into
chromosomes, and the nuclear
envelope is fragmenting.
polar spindle fiber

Prophase
Prometaphase
Nucleolus has disappeared, and
The kinetochore of each chromatid is
duplicated chromosomes are visible.
attached to a kinetochore spindle fiber.
Centrosomes begin moving apart,
Polar spindle fibers stretch from each
and spindle is in process of forming.
spindle pole and overlap.
centrosome
lacks centrioles
Plant Cell
at Interphase
400
cell wall
86
Laboratory 8
Mitosis and Meiosis
chromosomes
6.2 m
500
spindle pole lacks centrioles and aster
84
Tenth Edition
Text
37
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
The phases of mitosis are shown in Figure 8.3. Mitosis is the type of nuclear division that (1) occurs in
the body (somatic) cells; (2) results in two daughter cells because there is only one round of division;
and (3) keeps the chromosome number constant (same as the parent cell).
chromosomes at
metaphase plate
20 m
daughter chromosome
20 m
cleavage furrow
16 m
nucleolus
kinetochore
spindle fiber
Metaphase
Centromeres of duplicated chromosomes
are aligned at the metaphase plate (center
of fully formed spindle). Kinetochore spindle
fibers attached to the sister chromatids
come from opposite spindle poles.
6.2 m
Anaphase
Sister chromatids part and become
daughter chromosomes that move toward
the spindle poles. In this way, each pole
receives the same number and kinds of
chromosomes as the parent cell.
Telophase
Daughter cells are forming
as nuclear envelopes and
nucleoli reappear. Chromosomes
will become indistinct chromatin.
6.2 m
1,500
spindle fibers
85
cell plate
Laboratory 8
Mitosis and Meiosis
87
38

BIOL1406/7
Tenth Edition
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
Text
Observation: Plant Mitosis

Plant Mitosis Models
1. Identify the phases of plant cell mitosis using models of plant cell mitosis and Figure 8.3 as a guide.
2. Notice that plant cells do not have centrioles and asters. Plant cells do have centrosomes and this
accounts for the formation of a spindle.
3. What is the number of chromosomes in each of the cells in this model series?
Onion Root Tip Slide
1. In plants, the root tip contains tissue that is continually dividing and producing new cells. Examine
a prepared slide of onion root tip cells undergoing mitotic cell division. Try to nd the phases that
correspond to those shown in Figure 8.3.
2. Using high power, focus up and down on a cell in telophase. You may be able to just make out the
cell plate, the region where a plasma membrane is forming between the two prospective daughter
cells. Later, cell walls appear in this area.
3. In the boxes provided, draw and label the stages of mitosis as observed in the onion root tip slide.
Prophase
Prometaphase
Anaphase
88
Laboratory 8
Mitosis and Meiosis
Metaphase
Telophase
86
Tenth Edition
Text
39
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis, division of the cytoplasm,
usually accompanies mitosis. During
cytokinesis, each daughter cell receives
a share of the organelles that duplicated
during interphase. Cytokinesis begins in
anaphase, continues in telophase, and
reaches completion by the start of the
next interphase.
Cytokinesis in Animal Cells
2 m
cleavage furrow
In animal cells, a cleavage furrow, an

indentation of the membrane between the
daughter nuclei, begins as anaphase draws
to a close (Fig. 8.4). The cleavage furrow
deepens as a band of actin laments called
the contractile ring slowly constricts the
cell, forming two daughter cells.
Were any of the cells of the whitesh
contractile ring
blastula slide undergoing cytokinesis?

How do you know?
2 m
Figure 8.4
Cytokinesis in animal cells.
A single cell becomes two cells by a furrowing process. A contractile

ring composed of actin filaments gradually gets smaller, and the
cleavage furrow pinches the cell into two cells.
Copyright by R. G. Kessel and C. Y. Shih, Scanning Electron Microscopy in
Biology: A Students Atlas on Biological Organization, Springer-Verlag, 1974.
87
Laboratory 8
Mitosis and Meiosis
89
40

BIOL1406/7
Tenth Edition
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
Text
Cytokinesis in Plant Cells

After mitosis, the cytoplasm divides by cytokinesis. In plant cells, membrane vesicles derived from the
Golgi apparatus migrate to the center of the cell and form a cell plate (Fig. 8.5), the location of a new
plasma membrane for each daughter cell. Later, individual cell walls appear in this area. Were any of the
cells of the onion root tip slide undergoing cytokinesis?
How do you know?
Figure 8.5
Cytokinesis in plant cells.
During cytokinesis in a plant cell, a cell plate forms midway between two daughter
nuclei and extends to the plasma membrane. Vesicles containing cell wall
components fuse to form cell plate.
cell plate
cell wall
cell
plate
cell plate
nuclei
Summary of Mitotic Cell Division

1. The nuclei in the daughter cells have the
cell had.
number of chromosomes as the parent
2. Mitosis is cell division in which the chromosome number

3. Answer this question. If a parent cell has 16 chromosomes, how many chromosomes do the
daughter cells have following mitosis?
90
Laboratory 8
Mitosis and Meiosis
88
Tenth Edition
8.2
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
Text
41
Meiosis
Meiosis is a form of nuclear division in which the chromosome number is reduced by half. The nucleus
of the parent cell has the diploid (2n) number of chromosomesthat is, two sets of chromosomes. After
meiosis is complete, the daughter nuclei have the haploid (n) number, or one set of chromosomes. For
example, diploid fruit y cells have 8 chromosomes (2n = 8) but undergo meiosis to produce gametes
with 4 chromosomes (n = 4). In sexually reproducing species, meiosis must occur or the chromosome
number would double with each generation.
A diploid nucleus contains homologues, also called homologous chromosomes. Homologues look
alike and carry the genes for the same traits. Before meiosis begins, the chromosomes are already double
strandedthat is, they contain sister chromatids.
Experimental Procedure: Meiosis
In this exercise, you will use pop beads to construct homologues and move the chromosomes to
simulate meiosis.
Building Chromosomes to Simulate Meiosis
1. Obtain the following materials: 48 pop beads of one color (e.g., red) and 48 pop beads of another
color (e.g., blue) for a total of 96 beads; eight magnetic centromeres; and four centriole groups.
2. Build a homologous pair of duplicated chromosomes using Figure 8.6a as a guide. Each chromatid
will have 16 beads. Be sure to bring the centromeres of two units of the same color together so that
they attract and link to form one duplicated chromosome. (One member of the pair will be red, and
the other will be blue.)
3. Build another homologous pair of duplicated chromosomes using Figure 8.6b as a guide. Each
chromatid will have eight beads. Be sure to bring the centromeres of two units of the same color
together so that they attract. (One member of the pair will be red, and the other will be blue.)
4. Note that your chromosomes are the same as those in Figure 8.7. The red chromosomes were
inherited from one parent, and the blue chromosomes were inherited from the other parent.
Figure 8.6
Two pairs of homologues.
The chromosomes of these homologous pairs are duplicated.
8 red
beads
8 blue
beads
4 red
beads
4 blue
beads
centromere
centromere
4 red
beads
4 blue
beads
8 blue
beads
8 red
beads
b.
a.
89
Laboratory 8
Mitosis and Meiosis
91
42

BIOL1406/7
Tenth Edition
Text
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
Meiosis I
Meiosis requires two nuclear divisions, and the rst round during meiosis is called meiosis I (see Fig. 8.7).
During prophase of meiosis I, the spindle appears while the nuclear envelope and nucleolus
disappear. Homologues line up next to one another during a process called synapsis. During crossingover, the nonsister chromatids of a homologue pair exchange genetic material. At metaphase I, the
homologue pairs line up at the metaphase plate of the spindle. During anaphase I, homologues separate
and the chromosomes (still composed of two chromatids) move to each pole. In telophase I, the nuclear
envelope and the nucleolus reappear as the spindle disappears. Each new nucleus contains one from
each pair of chromosomes.
Prophase I
5. Using Figure 8.7 as a guide, put all four of the chromosomes you built in the center of your work
area, which represents the nucleus. Place two pairs of centrioles outside the nucleus.
6. Separate the pairs of centrioles, and move one pair to opposite poles of the nucleus.
7. Synapsis is the pairing of homologues during prophase I. Simulate synapsis by bringing the
homologues together.
8. Crossing-over is an exchange of genetic material between two homologues. It is a way to achieve
genetic recombination during meiosis. Simulate crossing-over by exchanging the exact segments of
two nonsister chromatids of a single homologous pair. Why use nonsister chromatids and not sister
chromatids?
Metaphase I
Position the homologues at the metaphase plate in such a way that the homologues are prepared to
move apart toward the centrioles.
Anaphase I
Separate the homologues, and move each one toward the opposite pole.
Telophase I
9. During telophase I, the chromosomes are at the poles. What combinations of chromosomes are at
the poles? Fill in the following blanks with the words red-long, red-short, blue-long, and blue-short:
Pole A:
and
Pole B:
and
10. What other combinations would have been possible? (Hint: Alternate the colors at metaphase I.)
Pole A:
and
Pole B:
and
Conclusions: Meiosis I
Do the chromosomes inherited from the mother or father have to remain together following
meiosis I?
Name two ways that meiosis contributes to genetic variation among offspring:
a.
b.
Interkinesis
Interkinesis is the period between meiosis I and meiosis II. In some species, daughter cells do not
form, and meiosis II follows right after meiosis I. Does DNA replication occur during interkinesis?
Explain.
92
Laboratory 8
Mitosis and Meiosis
810
Tenth Edition
Text
43
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
Meiosis II
The second round of nuclear division during meiosis is called meiosis II (see Fig. 8.7).
During prophase of meiosis II, a spindle appears. Each chromosome attaches to the spindle
individually. During metaphase II, the chromosomes are lined up at the metaphase plate. During
anaphase II, the centromeres divide and the chromatids separate, becoming daughter chromosomes that
move toward the poles. In telophase II, the spindle disappears as the nuclear envelope reappears. Notice
that meiosis II is exactly like mitosis except that the nucleus of the parent cell and the daughter nuclei
are haploid.
Prophase II
1. Using Figure 8.7 as a guide, choose the chromosomes from one telophase I pole (see step 9, page
92) to represent those in the parent nucleus undergoing meiosis II.
2. Place two pairs of centrioles at opposite sides of these chromosomes to form the new spindle.
Metaphase II
Move the duplicated chromosomes to the metaphase plate. How many chromosomes are at the
metaphase plate?
Anaphase II
Pull the two magnets of each duplicated chromosome apart. What does this action represent?
Telophase II
Put the chromosomeseach having one chromatidat the poles near the centrioles.
Conclusions: Meiosis II
You chose only one daughter nucleus from meiosis I to be the nucleus that divides. In reality
both daughter nuclei go on to divide again. Therefore, how many nuclei are usually present when
meiosis II is complete?
In this exercise, how many chromosomes were in the parent cell nucleus undergoing meiosis II?
How many chromosomes are in the daughter nuclei?
Explain.
Summary of Meiotic Cell Division

1. The parent cell has the diploid (2n) number of chromosomes, and the daughter cells have the
(n) number of chromosomes.
2. Meiosis is cell division in which the chromosome number
3. If a parent cell has 16 chromosomes, the daughter cells will have how many chromosomes
following meiosis?
4. Whereas meiosis reduces the chromosome number, fertilization restores the chromosome number.
A zygote contains the same number of chromosomes as the parent, but are these exactly the same
chromosomes as either parent had?
5. What is another way that sexual reproduction results in genetic variation?
811
Laboratory 8
Mitosis and Meiosis
93
44

BIOL1406/7
Tenth Edition
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
Text
Meiosis Phases
Figure 8.7 Meiosis I and II in plant cell micrographs and animal cell drawings. Crossing-over occurred
during meiosis I.
MEIOSIS I
Plant Cell
at Interphase
centrosome has
centrioles
2n = 4
Animal Cell
at Interphase
Prophase I
Chromosomes have duplicated. Homologous
chromosomes pair during synapsis and
crossing-over occurs.
kinetochore
Metaphase I
Homologous pairs align
independently
at the metaphase plate.
Anaphase I
Homologous chromosomes separate
and move toward the poles.
MEIOSIS II
n=2
n=2
Prophase II
Cells have one chromosome
from each homologous pair.
Metaphase II
Chromosomes align
Anaphase II
Sister chromatids separate and
become daughter chromosomes.
Tenth Edition
Text
45
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
The phases of meiosis are shown in Figure 8.7. Meiosis is the type of nuclear division that (1) occurs in
the sex organs (testes and ovaries); (2) results in four cells because there are two rounds of cell division;
and (3) reduces the chromosome number to half that of the parent cell.
MEIOSIS I cont'd
Telophase I
Daughter cells have one chromosome
from each homologous pair.
n=2
Interkinesis
Chromosomes still
consist of two chromatids.
n=2
MEIOSIS II cont'd
n=2
n=2
Telophase II
Spindle disappears, nuclei form,
and cytokinesis takes place.
Daughter cells
Meiosis results in four
haploid daughter cells.
46

BIOL1406/7
Tenth Edition
8.3
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
Text
Mitosis Versus Meiosis
In comparing mitosis to meiosis it is important to note that meiosis requires two nuclear divisions but
mitosis requires only one nuclear division. Therefore mitosis produces two daughter cells and meiosis
produces four daughter cells. Following mitosis, the daughter cells are still diploid but following
meiosis, the daughter cells are haploid. Figure 8.8 explains why. Fill in Table 8.2 to indicate general
Table 8.2
Differences Between Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis
Meiosis
1. Number of divisions
2. Chromosome number in daughter cells
3. Number of daughter cells
Figure 8.8
Meiosis I compared to mitosis.
Compare metaphase I of meiosis I to metaphase of mitosis. Only in metaphase I are the homologous chromosomes
paired at the metaphase plate. Members of homologous chromosome pairs separate during anaphase I, and therefore
the daughter cells are haploid. The blue chromosomes were inherited from one parent, and the red chromosomes were
inherited from the other parent. The exchange of color between nonsister chromatids represents the crossing-over that
occurred during meiosis I.
2n = 4
Prophase I
Synapsis and
crossing-over occur.
Metaphase I
Homologous pairs align
independently at the metaphase plate.
Anaphase I
Homologous chromosomes
separate and move towards the poles.
Metaphase
Chromosomes align
Anaphase
Sister chromatids separate and
become daughter chromosomes.
MEIOSIS I
2n = 4
Prophase
MITOSIS
96
Laboratory 8
Mitosis and Meiosis
814
Tenth Edition
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
Text
47
differences between mitosis and meiosis and complete Table 8.3 to indicate specic differences
between mitosis and meiosis I. Mitosis need only be compared with meiosis I because the exact events
occur during both mitosis and meiosis II except that the cells are diploid during mitosis and haploid
during meiosis II.
Table 8.3
Mitosis Compared with Meiosis I
Mitosis
Meiosis I
Prophase: No pairing of chromosomes

Metaphase: Duplicated chromosomes at
metaphase plate
Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate
Telophase: Chromosomes have one
chromatid
Prophase I:
Metaphase I:
Anaphase I:
Telophase I:
Telophase I
Daughter cells are forming
and will go on to divide again.
n=2
Daughter cells
Sister chromatids
separate and become
daughter chromosomes.
n=2
MEIOSIS I cont'd
Four haploid daughter cells.

Their nuclei are genetically
different from the parent cell.
n=2
MEIOSIS II
Daughter cells
Telophase
Daughter cells
are forming.
Two diploid daughter cells.

Their nuclei are genetically
identical to the parent cell.
MITOSIS cont'd
815
Laboratory 8
Mitosis and Meiosis
97
48

BIOL1406/7
Tenth Edition
8.4
Text
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
Karyotype Abnormalities
In a karyotype, the chromosomes of an organism are arranged so that the pairs of chromosomes can be
seen (Fig. 8.9). At that time, it is possible to observe any possible abnormalities in chromosome number
and structure.
Figure 8.9
Karyotype of a person with Down syndrome.
Note the three number 21 chromosomes.
Abnormalities of chromosome number usually occur when cells divide during mitosis or during
meiosis, signifying that these complex processes dont always occur as expected. The most common
abnormal meiotic result is a change in number so that the individual has either 45 chromosomes or 47
chromosomes, instead of 46 chromosomes. An extra or missing chromosome can cause a fetus and/or a
child to develop apparent abnormalities. For example, a fetus who has a missing X chromosome may fail
to develop the appearance of a female and may not have the internal organs of a female. Either sex that
has an extra chromosome 21 has the symptoms of Down syndrome (Fig. 8.9).
Abnormalities of chromosome structure can occur when cells divide, particularly if cells have
been subject to environmental inuences such as radiation or drug intake. Some of the more common
structural abnormalities are:
Deletion: The chromosome is shorter than usual because some portion is missing.
Duplication: The chromosome is longer than usual because some portion is present twice over.
Inversion: The chromosome is normal in length but some portion runs in the opposite direction.
Translocation: Two chromosomes have switched portions and each switched portion is on the
wrong chromosome.
Abnormalities of chromosome structure can result in recognized syndromes, a collection of symptoms
that always occur together. Which syndrome appears depends on the particular abnormality.
98
Laboratory 8
Mitosis and Meiosis
816
Tenth Edition
8.5 Gametogenesis
in Animals
Gametogenesis is the formation
of gametes (sex cells) in animals.
In humans and other mammals,
the gametes are sperm and eggs.
Fertilization occurs when the nucleus
of a sperm fuses with the nucleus
of an egg.
Text
49
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
SPERMATOGENESIS
primary
spermatocyte
2n
Meiosis I
secondary
spermatocytes
n
Meiosis II
spermatids
Gametogenesis in Mammals
Gametogenesis occurs in the testes
of males, where spermatogenesis
produces sperm. Gametogenesis
occurs in the ovaries of females, where
oogenesis produces oocytes (eggs).
A diploid (2n) nucleus contains
the full number of chromosomes,
which is 46 in humans, and a haploid
(n) nucleus contains half as many,
which is 23 in humans. Gametogenesis
involves meiosis, the process that
reduces the chromosome number
from 2n to n. In sexually reproducing
species, if meiosis did not occur, the
chromosome number would double
with each generation. Meiosis consists
of two divisions: the rst meiotic
division (meiosis I) and the second
meiotic division (meiosis II). Therefore,
you would expect four haploid cells
at the end of the process. Indeed,
there are four sperm as a result of
spermatogenesis (Fig. 8.10). However,
in females, meiosis I results in a
secondary oocyte and one polar body.
A polar body is a nonfunctioning cell
that will disintegrate. A secondary
oocyte does not undergo meiosis II
unless fertilization (fusion of egg and
sperm) occurs. At the completion of
oogenesis, there is a single egg and at
least two polar bodies (Fig. 8.10).
Metamorphosis
and maturation
sperm
n
OOGENESIS
primary
oocyte
2n
Meiosis I
first
polar body
n
secondary
oocyte
n
Meiosis II
Meiosis II is completed
after entry of sperm.
second
polar body
n
egg
Fertilization
cont'd
sperm nucleus
fusion of sperm
nucleus and
egg nucleus
Figure 8.10
zygote
2n
Spermatogenesis and oogenesis in mammals.
Spermatogenesis produces four viable sperm, whereas oogenesis

produces one egg and two polar bodies. In humans, both sperm and egg
have 23 chromosomes each; therefore, following fertilization, the zygote
has 46 chromosomes.
817
Laboratory 8
Mitosis and Meiosis
99
50

BIOL1406/7
Tenth Edition
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
Text
Observation: Gametogenesis in Mammals

Gametogenesis Models
Examine any available gametogenesis models, and determine the diploid number of the parent cell
and the haploid number of a gamete. Remember that counting the number of centromeres tells you the
number of chromosomes.
Slide of Ovary
1. With the help of Figure 8.11, examine a prepared slide of an ovary. Under low power, you will see a
large number of small, primary follicles near the outer edge. A primary follicle contains a primary
oocyte.
2. Find a secondary follicle, and switch to high power. Note the secondary oocyte (egg), surrounded
by numerous cells, to one side of the liquid-lled follicle.
3. Also look for a large, uid-lled vesicular (Graaan) follicle, which contains a mature secondary
oocyte to one side. The vesicular follicle will be next to the outer surface of the ovary because this
type of follicle releases the egg during ovulation.
4. How many secondary follicles can you nd on your slide?
can you nd?
How many vesicular follicles
How does this number compare with the number of sperm cells seen in
the testis cross section (see Fig. 8.12)?

Figure 8.11
Microscopic ovary anatomy.
The stages of follicle and oocyte (egg) development are shown in sequence. Each follicle goes through all the stages.
Following ovulation, a follicle becomes the corpus luteum.
secondary
follicle
oocyte
vesicular (Graafian) follicle
primary
follicles
ovulation
corpus
luteum
100
Laboratory 8
Mitosis and Meiosis
secondary
oocyte
818
Tenth Edition
Text
51
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
Slide of Testis
1. With the help of Figure 8.12, examine a prepared slide of a testis. Under low power, note the many
circular structures. These are the seminiferous tubules, where sperm formation takes place.
2. Switch to high power, and observe one tubule in particular. Find mature sperm (which look like
thin, ne, dark lines) in the middle of the tubule. Interstitial cells, which produce the male sex
hormone testosterone, are between the tubules.
Summary of Gametogenesis
1. What is gametogenesis?
In general, how many chromosomes are in a gamete?
2. What is spermatogenesis?
How many chromosomes does a human sperm have?
3. What is oogenesis?
How many chromosomes does a human egg have?
4. Following fertilization, how many chromosomes does the zygote, the rst cell of the new
individual, have?
Figure 8.12
Microscopic testis anatomy.
a. A testis contains many seminiferous tubules. b. Scanning electron micrograph of a cross section of the seminiferous
tubules, where spermatogenesis occurs. Note the location of interstitial cells in clumps among the seminiferous tubules in
this light micrograph.
tails of sperm in lumen of seminiferous tubule
interstitial cells
140mm
uncoiled
seminiferous
tubule
a. Testis
819
b. Seminiferous tubules
100m
Laboratory 8
Mitosis and Meiosis
101
52

BIOL1406/7
Tenth Edition
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
Text
Laboratory Review 8
1. During anaphase of mitosis in humans or other 2n organisms, do the chromosomes have one or two
chromatids as they move toward the poles?
2. During anaphase of meiosis I, do the chromosomes have one or two chromatids as they move toward
the poles?
3. During anaphase of meiosis II, do the chromosomes have one or two chromatids as they move toward
the poles?
4. Asexual reproduction of a haploid protozoan can be described as n n. Explain.
5. Explain why furrowing is a suitable mechanism for cytokinesis of animal cells but not plant cells.
6. A student is simulating meiosis I with chromosomes that are red-long and yellow-long; red-short
and yellow-short. Why would you not expect to nd both red-long and yellow-long in one resulting
daughter cell?
7. If there are 13 pairs of homologous chromosomes in a primary spermatocyte, how many chromosomes
are there in a sperm?
8. Assume that you have built a homologous pair of chromosomes, each having two chromatids. One
homologue contains red beads, while the other contains yellow beads.
Describe the appearance of two nonsister chromatids following crossing-over.
9. What are the major differences between mitosis and meiosis?
10. A person with Down syndrome has what type of chromosome abnormality?
Biology Website
McGraw-Hill Access Science Website
The companion website for Biology provides a wealth of

information organized and integrated by chapter. You will find
practice tests, animations, videos, and much more that will
complement your learning and understanding of general
biology.
An Encyclopedia of Science and Technology Online

which provides more information including videos
that can enhance the laboratory experience.
www.accessscience.com
www.mhhe.com/maderbiology10
102
Laboratory 8
Mitosis and Meiosis
820
Tenth Edition
9. Mendelian Genetics
Text
53
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
L A B O R A T O R Y
Mendelian Genetics
Learning Outcomes
9.1 One-Trait Crosses
State Mendels law of segregation, and relate this law to laboratory exercises. 10410
Describe the life cycle of Drosophila (fruit fly), and recognize these stages in a culture bottle. 1067
Describe and predict the results of a one-trait cross in both tobacco seedlings and Drosophila. 1047
9.2 Two-Trait Crosses
State Mendels law of independent assortment, and relate this law to laboratory exercises. 11013
Explain and predict the results of a two-trait cross in corn plants and Drosophila. 11113
9.3 X-Linked Crosses
Explain and predict the results of a cross in Drosophila for X-linked genes. 11415
9.4 Chi-Square Analysis
Utilize the chi-square statistical test to help determine whether data do or do not support a hypothesis. 11617
Introduction
Gregor Mendel, sometimes called the father of genetics, formulated the basic laws of genetics
examined in this laboratory. He determined that individuals have two alternate forms of a gene (two
alleles, in modern terminology) for each trait in their body cells. Today, we know that alleles are on the
chromosomes. An individual can be homozygous dominant (two dominant alleles, GG), homozygous
recessive (two recessive alleles, gg), or heterozygous (one dominant and one recessive allele, Gg).
Genotype refers to an individuals genes, while phenotype refers to an individuals appearance
(Fig. 9.1). Homozygous dominant and heterozygous individuals show the dominant phenotype;
homozygous recessive individuals show the recessive phenotype.
Figure 9.1 Genotype versus phenotype.
Allele Key
Only with homozygous recessive do you

immediately know the genotype.
T = tall plant
t = short plant
Phenotype
Genotype
tall
TT
tall
Tt
short
tt
long wings
LL
long wings
Ll
short wings
ll
Allele Key
L = long wings
l = short wings
Phenotype
Genotype
91
Laboratory 9
Mendelian Genetics
103
54

BIOL1406/7
Tenth Edition
Text
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
9.1 One-Trait Crosses

A single pair of alleles is involved in one-trait crosses. Mendel found that reproduction between two
heterozygous individuals (Aa), called a monohybrid cross, resulted in both dominant and recessive
phenotypes among the offspring. The expected phenotypic ratio among the offspring was 3:1. Three
offspring had the dominant phenotype for every one that had the recessive phenotype.
Mendel realized that these results were obtainable only if the alleles of each parent segregated
(separated from each other) during meiosis (otherwise, all offspring would inherit a dominant allele, and
no offspring would be homozygous recessive). Therefore, Mendel formulated his rst law of inheritance:
Law of Segregation
Each organism contains two alleles for each trait, and the alleles segregate during the
formation of gametes. Each gamete then contains only one allele for each trait. When
fertilization occurs, the new organism has two alleles for each trait, one from each parent.
Inheritance is a game of chance. Just as there is a 50% probability of heads or tails when tossing
a coin, there is a 50% probability that a sperm or egg will have an A or an a when the parent is Aa.
The chance of an equal number of heads or tails improves as the number of tosses increases. In the
same way, the chance of an equal number of gametes with A and a improves as the number of gametes
increases. Therefore, the 3:1 ratio among offspring is more likely when a large number of sperm fertilize
a large number of eggs.
Color of Tobacco Seedlings

In tobacco plants, a dominant allele (C) for chlorophyll gives the plants a green color, and a recessive
allele (c) for chlorophyll causes a plant to appear white. If a tobacco plant is homozygous for the
recessive allele (c), it cannot manufacture chlorophyll and thus appears white (Fig. 9.2).
Figure 9.2
Monohybrid cross.
These tobacco seedlings are growing on an agar plate. The white plants cannot manufacture chlorophyll.
Experimental Procedure: Color of Tobacco Seedlings

1. Obtain a numbered agar plate on which tobacco seedlings are growing. They are the offspring of
the cross Cc Cc. Complete the Punnett square.
104
Laboratory 9
Mendelian Genetics
92
Tenth Edition
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
Text
55
Key:
C = green
c = white
parents
Cc
Cc
eggs
offspring
sperm
What is the expected phenotypic ratio?

2. Using a stereomicroscope, view the seedlings, and count the number that are green and the number
that are white. Record the plate number and your results in Table 9.1.
3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 for two additional plates. Total the number that are green and the number that
are white.
4. Complete Table 9.1 by recording the class data.
Table 9.1
Color of Tobacco Seedlings

Number of Offspring
Green Color
White Color
Plate #
Plate #
Plate #
Totals
Class data
Conclusions: Color of Tobacco Seedlings

Calculate the actual phenotypic ratio you observed.
expected ratio?
Do your results differ from the
Explain.
Do a chi-square test (see Section 9.4 of this laboratory) to determine if the deviation from the
expected results can be accounted for by chance alone. Chi-square value:
Repeat these steps using the class data. Do your class data give a ratio that is closer to the
expected ratio, and is the chi-square deviation insignicant?
93
Explain.
Laboratory 9
Mendelian Genetics
105
56

BIOL1406/7
Tenth Edition
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
Text
Drosophila Melanogaster Characteristics

Both the adults and the larvae of Drosophila melanogaster (the fruit y) feed on plant sugars and on
the wild yeasts that grow on rotting fruit. The female ies rst lay eggs on these same materials. After
a day or two, the eggs hatch into small larvae that feed and grow for about eight days, depending on
the temperature. During this period, they molt twice. Therefore, three larval periods of growth, called
instars, occur between molts. When fully grown, the third-stage instar larvae cease feeding and pupate.
During pupation, which lasts about four days, the larval tissues are reorganized to form those of the
adult. The life cycle is summarized in Figure 9.3.
Figure 9.3
Life cycle of the fruit y, showing differences between adult sexes.

Male has sex combs
Female lacks sex combs
1014 days
ventral
1 day
Pupa
Fertilized
egg
ventral
First instar larva

Third instar larva
35 day
Second instar larva
Observation: Drosophila melanogaster

Culture
You will be provided with a stock culture of Drosophila melanogaster to examine. Answer the following
questions:
1. Where in the culture vial are the adult ies?
2. The eggs?
3. The larvae?
4. The pupae?
106
Laboratory 9
Mendelian Genetics
94
Tenth Edition
Text
57
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
Flies
You will be provided with either slides, frozen ies, or live ies to examine. If the ies are alive, follow
the directions on page 108 for using FlyNap to anesthetize them.
1. Put frozen or anesthetized ies on a white card, and use a camel-hair brush to move them around.
Use a stereomicroscope or a hand lens to see the ies clearly.
2. If you are looking at slides, you may use the scanning lens of your compound light microscope to
view the ies.
3. Examine wild-type ies. Complete Table 9.2 for wild-type ies. Long wings extend beyond the
body, and short (vestigial) wings do not extend beyond the body.
4. Examine mutant ies. Complete Table 9.2 for all the mutant ies you examined.
Table 9.2
Characteristics of Wild-Type and Mutant Flies

Wild-Type
Ebony Body
Short-Wing
Sepia-Eye
White-Eye
Wing length
Color of eyes
Color of body
5. Use the following characteristics to distinguish male ies from female ies (Fig. 9.3):
The male is generally smaller.
The male has a more rounded abdomen than the female. The female has a pointed abdomen.
Dorsally, the male is seen to have a black-tipped abdomen, whereas the female appears to have
dark lines only at the tip.
Ventrally, the abdomen of the male has a dark region at the tip due to the presence of claspers;
this dark region is lacking in the female.
6. In animals such as fruit ies, chromosomes differ between the sexes (Fig. 9.4). All but one pair
of chromosomes in males and females are the same; these are called autosomes because they do
not actively determine sex. The pair that is different is called the sex chromosomes. In fruit ies
and humans, the sex chromosomes in females are XX and those in males are XY. Some genes on
the X chromosome have nothing to do with gender and these genes are said to be X-linked. The Y
chromosome does not carry these genes and indeed carries very few genes.
Figure 9.4
Drosophila chromosomes.
In Drosophila (fruit flies), both males and females

have eight chromosomes: three pairs of autosomes
(IIIV), and one pair of sex chromosomes (I). Males
are XY, and females are XX.
95
Sex chromosomes
I
Autosomes
II
III
Laboratory 9
IV
Mendelian Genetics
107
58

BIOL1406/7
Tenth Edition
Text
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
Anesthetizing Flies
The use of FlyNapTM allows ies to be anesthetized for at least 50 minutes without killing
them.
1. Dip the absorbent end of a swab into the FlyNapTM bottle, as shown in Figure 9.5.
2. Tap the bottom of the culture vial on the tabletop to knock the ies to the bottom of the
vial. (If the medium is not rm, you may wish to transfer the ies to an empty bottle
before anesthetizing them. Ask your instructor for assistance, if this is the case.)
3. With one nger, push the plug slightly to one side. Remove the swab from the FlyNapTM,
and quickly stick the anesthetic end into the culture vial beside the plug so that the
anesthetic tip is below the plug. Keep the culture vial upright with the swab in one place.
4. Remove the plug and the swab immediately after the ies are anesthetized
(approximately 2 minutes in an empty vial, 4 minutes in a vial with medium), and spill
the ies out onto a white le card. The length of time the ies remain anesthetized
depends on the amount of FlyNapTM on the swab and on the number and age of the ies
in the culture vial.
5. Transfer the anesthetized ies from the white le card onto the glass plate of a
stereomicroscope for examination, or use a hand lens.
Figure 9.5 FlyNap.

Flies can be anesthetized for at least 50 minutes without being killed in FlyNap.
a. Moisten swab in FlyNap.
b. Insert swab into culture bottle.
c. Remove flies as shown.
Wing Length in Drosophila

In fruit ies, the allele for long wings (L) is dominant over the allele for short (vestigial) wings (l). You
will be examining the results of the cross Ll Ll. Complete this Punnett square:
108
Laboratory 9
Mendelian Genetics
96
Tenth Edition
59
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
Text
Key:
L = long wings
l = short (vestigial) wings
Ll
parents
Ll
eggs
offspring
sperm
What is the expected phenotypic ratio among the offspring?

Experimental Procedure: Wing Length in Drosophila
The cross described here will take three weeks. The experiment can be done in one week, however, if
your instructor provides you with a vial that already contains the results of the cross Ll Ll. In this
case, proceed directly to week 3. Alternately your instructor may provide you with data. In that case,
enter the data into Table 9.3 and proceed directly to the Conclusions on page 110.
1. Week 1: Place heterozygous ies in a prepared culture vial. Your instructor will show you how to
use instant medium and dry yeast to prepare the vial. Label your culture. What is the phenotype of
heterozygous ies?
What is the genotype of heterozygous ies?
2. Week 2: Remove the heterozygous ies from the vial before their offspring pupate. Why is it
necessary to remove these ies before you observe your results?
3. Week 3: Observe the results of the cross by counting the offspring. Follow the directions on
page 108 for anesthetizing and removing ies. When counting, use the stereomicroscope or
a hand lens. Divide your ies into those with long wings and those with short (vestigial) wings.
Record your results and the class results in Table 9.3.
Table 9.3
Wing Length in Drosophila

Number of Offspring
Long Wings
Short Wings
Your data
Class data
97
Laboratory 9
Mendelian Genetics
109
60

BIOL1406/7
Tenth Edition
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
Text
Conclusions : Wing Length in Drosophila

expected ratio?
Explain.
Do a chi-square test (see Section 9.4 of this laboratory) to determine if the deviation from the
Repeat these steps using the class data. Do your class data give a ratio that is closer to the expected
ratio, and is the chi-square deviation insignicant?
Explain.
What phenotypic results are expected for the cross Ll ll?
9.2
Two-Trait Crosses
Two-trait crosses involve two pairs of alleles. Mendel found that during a dihybrid cross, when two
dihybrid individuals (AaBb) reproduce, the phenotypic ratio among the offspring is 9:3:3:1, representing
four possible phenotypes. He realized that these results could only be obtained if the alleles of the
parents segregated independently of one another when the gametes were formed. From this, Mendel
formulated his second law of inheritance:
Law of Independent Assortment

Members of an allelic pair segregate (assort) independently of members of another allelic pair.
Therefore, all possible combinations of alleles can occur in the gametes.
Color and Texture of Corn

In corn plants, the allele for purple kernel (P) is dominant over the allele for yellow kernel (p), and the
allele for smooth kernel (S) is dominant over the allele for rough kernel (s) (Fig. 9.6).
Figure 9.6
Dihybrid cross.
Four types of kernels are seen on an ear

of corn following a dihybrid cross: purple
smooth, purple rough, yellow smooth, and
yellow rough.
20 mm
110
Laboratory 9
Mendelian Genetics
98
Tenth Edition
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
Text
61
Experimental Procedure: Color and Texture of Corn

1. Obtain an ear of corn from the supply table. You will be examining the results of the cross
PpSs PpSs. Complete this Punnett square:
Key:
P = purple
p = yellow
S = smooth
s = rough
parents
PpSs
PpSs
eggs
offspring
sperm
What is the expected phenotypic ratio among the offspring?

2. Count the number of kernels of each possible phenotype listed in Table 9.4. Record the sample
number and your results in Table 9.4. Use three samples, and total your results for all samples. Also
record the class data.
Table 9.4
Color and Texture of Corn

Number of Kernels
Purple Smooth
Purple Rough
Yellow Smooth
Yellow Rough
Sample #
Sample #
Sample #
Totals
Class data
99
Laboratory 9
Mendelian Genetics
111
62

BIOL1406/7
Tenth Edition
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
Text
Conclusions: Color and Texture of Corn

From your data, which two traits seem dominant?
Which two traits seem recessive?
and
and
expected ratio?
Use the chi-square test (see Section 9.4 of this laboratory) to determine if the deviation from the
Explain.
Wing Length and Body Color in Drosophila

In Drosophila, long wings (L) are dominant over short (vestigial) wings (l), and gray body (G) is
dominant over ebony (black) body (g). You will be examining the results of the cross LlGg LlGg.
Complete this Punnett square:
Key:
L = long wing
l = short (vestigial) wing
G = gray body
g = ebony (black) body
parents
LlGg
LlGg
eggs
offspring
sperm
What are the expected phenotypic results of this cross?
112
Laboratory 9
Mendelian Genetics
910
Tenth Edition
Text
63
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
Experimental Procedure: Wing Length and Body Color in Drosophila

The cross described here will take three weeks. The experiment can be done in one week if your
instructor provides you with a vial that already contains the results of the cross LlGg LlGg. In this
case, proceed directly to week 3. Alternately your instructor may provide you with data. In that case,
enter the data into Table 9.5 and proceed directly to the Conclusions.
1. Week 1: Place heterozygous ies in a prepared culture vial. Your instructor will show you how to
use instant medium and dry yeast to prepare the vial. Label your culture.
What is the phenotype of heterozygous ies?
What is the genotype of heterozygous ies?
2. Week 2: Remove the heterozygous ies from the vial before their offspring pupate. Why is it
necessary to remove these ies before you observe your results?
3. Week 3: Observe the result of the cross by counting the offspring. Follow the standard directions
(see page 108) for anesthetizing and removing ies. Find one y of each phenotype, and check
with the instructor that you have identied them correctly before proceeding. When counting, use
the stereomicroscope or a hand lens. Divide your ies into the groups indicated in Table 9.5, and
record your results. Also record the class data.
Table 9.5
Wing Length and Body Color in Drosophila

Phenotypes
Long Wings
Gray Body
Long Wings
Ebony Body
Short Wings
Gray Body
Short Wings
Ebony Body
Number of offspring
Class data
Conclusions: Wing Length and Body Color in Drosophila

expected ratio?
Explain.
Do a chi-square test (see Section 9.4) to determine if the deviation from the expected results can
be accounted for by chance alone. Chi-square value:
Repeat these steps using the class data. Do your class data give a ratio that is closer to the
expected ratio, and is the chi-square deviation insignicant?
Explain.
In the space provided, do a Punnett square to calculate the expected phenotypic results for the
cross L1Gg l1gg.
911
Laboratory 9
Mendelian Genetics
113
64

BIOL1406/7
Tenth Edition
9.3
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
Text
X-Linked Crosses
In most animals, including fruit ies and humans, males usually have an X and Y chromosome
while females have two X chromosomes. Some alleles, called X-linked alleles, occur only on the X
chromosome. Males with a normal chromosome inheritance are never heterozygous for X-linked alleles
and if they inherit a recessive X-linked alleles, it will be expressed.
Red/White Eye Color in Drosophila

In fruit ies, red eyes (XR) are dominant over white eyes (Xr). You will be examining the results of the
cross XRY XRXr. Complete this Punnett square:
Key:
XR= red eyes
Xr = white eyes
XR Y
parents
XRXr
eggs
offspring
sperm
What are the expected phenotypic results of this cross?

Females:
Males:
Experimental Procedure: Red/White Eye Color in Drosophila

The cross described here will take three weeks. The experiment can be done in one week if your
instructor provides you with a vial that already contains the results of the cross XRY XRXr. In this case,
proceed directly to week 3. Alternately your instructor may provide you with data. In that case, enter the
data into Table 9.6 and proceed directly to the Conclusions.
1. Week 1: Place the parental ies (XRY XRXr) in a prepared culture vial. Your instructor will show
you how to use instant medium and dry yeast to prepare the vial. Label your culture.
What is the phenotype of the female and male ies you are using?
What is the genotype of the female ies?
What is the genotype of the male ies?
114
Laboratory 9
Mendelian Genetics
912
Tenth Edition
Text
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
65
2. Week 2: Remove the parental ies from the vial before their offspring pupate.
Why is it necessary to remove these ies before you observe your results?
3. Week 3: Observe the results of the cross by counting the offspring. Follow the standard directions (see
page 108) for anesthetizing and removing ies. When counting, use the stereomicroscope or a hand
lens. Divide your ies into the following groups: (1) red-eyed males, (2) red-eyed females, (3) whiteeyed males, and (4) white-eyed females. Record your results in Table 9.6. Also record the class data.
Table 9.6
Red/White Eye Color in Drosophila

Number of Offspring
Your Data:
Red Eyes
White Eyes
Males
Females
Class Data:
Males
Females
Conclusions: Red/White Eye Color in Drosophila

Calculate the actual phenotypic ratio you observed for males and females separately.
Males:
Females:
Do your results differ from the expected results?
Do a chi-square test (see Section 9.4) to determine if the deviation from the expected results can be
accounted for by chance alone. Chi-square value:
Explain.
In the space provided, do a Punnett square to calculate the expected phenotypic results for the
cross XRY XrXr.
913
Laboratory 9
Mendelian Genetics
115
66

BIOL1406/7
Tenth Edition
9.4
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
Text
Chi-Square Analysis
Your experimental results can be evaluated using the chi-square (2) test. This is the statistical test
most frequently used to determine whether data obtained experimentally provide a good t, or
approximation, to the expected or theoretical data. Basically, the chi-square test can determine whether
any deviations from the expected values are due to chance. Chance alone can cause the actual observed
ratio to vary somewhat from the calculated ratio for a genetic cross. For example, a ratio of exactly
3:1 for a monohybrid cross is only rarely observed. Actual results will differ, but at some point, the
difference is so great as to be unexpected. The chi-square test indicates this point. After this point, the
original hypothesis (for example, that a monohybrid cross gives a 3:1 ratio) is not supported by the data.
The formula for the test is 2 = (d2/e)
where 2 = chi-square
= sum of
d = difference between expected and observed results (most often
termed the deviation)
e = expected results
For example, in a one-trait cross involving fruit ies with long wings (dominant) and fruit ies with
short wings (recessive), a 3:1 ratio is expected in the second generation (F2). Therefore, if you count
160 ies, 40 are expected to have short wings, and 120 are expected to have long wings. But if you
count 44 short-winged ies and 116 long-winged ies, then the value for the chi-square test would be as
calculated in Table 9.7.
Table 9.7
Calculation of Chi-Square (Example)
Phenotype
Observed
Number
Short wings
44
Long wings
116
Expected
Results
(e)
Difference
(d)
d2
Partial Chi-Square
(d2/e)
40
16
16/40 = 0.400
120
16
16/120 = 0.133
Chi-square = 2 = (d2/e) = 0.400 + 0.133 = 0.533
Now look up this chi-square value (2) in a table that indicates whether the probability (p) is that
the differences noted are due only to chance in the form of random sampling error or whether the results
should be explained on the basis of a different prediction (hypothesis). In Table 9.8, the notation C refers to
the number of classes, which in this laboratory would be determined by the number of phenotypic traits
studied. The example involves two classes: short wings and long wings. However, as indicated in the table
by C 1, it is necessary to subtract 1 from the total number of classes. In the example, C 1 = 1. Therefore,
the 2 value (0.533) would fall in the rst line of Table 9.8 between 0.455 and 1.074. These correspond with p
values of 0.50 and 0.30, respectively. This means that, by random chance, this difference between the actual
count and the expected count would occur between 30% and 50% of the time. In biology, it is generally
accepted that a p value greater than 0.10 is acceptable and that a p value lower than 0.10 indicates that the
results cannot be due to random sampling and therefore do not support (do not t) the original prediction
(hypothesis). A chi-square analysis is used to refute (falsify) a hypothesis, not to prove it.
116
Laboratory 9
Mendelian Genetics
914
Tenth Edition
Table 9.8
p
C1
1
2
3
4
5
Text
67
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
Values of Chi-Square
Hypothesis is Supported
Hypothesis is Not Supported
Differences Are Insignicant
Differences Are Signicant
0.99
0.95
0.80
0.50
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.05
0.02
0.01
0.00016
0.0201
0.115
0.297
0.554
0.0039
0.103
0.352
0.711
1.145
0.064
0.446
1.005
1.649
2.343
0.455
1.386
2.366
3.357
4.351
1.074
2.408
3.665
4.878
6.064
1.642
3.219
4.642
5.989
7.289
2.706
4.605
6.251
7.779
9.236
3.841
5.991
7.815
9.488
11.070
5.412
7.824
9.837
11.668
13.388
6.635
9.210
11.345
13.277
15.086
Source: Data from W. T. Keeton, et al., Laboratory Guide for Biological Science, 1968, p. 189.
Use Table 9.9 for performing a chi-square analysis of your results from a previous Experimental
Procedure in this laboratory. If you performed a one-trait (monohybrid) cross, you will use only the rst
two lines. If you performed a two-trait (dihybrid) cross, you will use four lines.
2 =
C 1=
p (from Table 9.8) =
Table 9.9
Phenotype
Calculation of Chi-Square
Observed
Number
Expected
Results
(e)
Difference
(d)
Partial Chi-Square
(d2/e)
d2
=
=
=
=
Chi-square = 2 = (d2/e) =
Conclusions: Chi-Square Analysis

Do your results support your original prediction?
If not, how can you account for this?
915
Laboratory 9
Mendelian Genetics
117
68

BIOL1406/7
Tenth Edition
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
Text
Laboratory Review 9
1. If offspring exhibit a 3:1 phenotypic ratio, what are the genotypes of the parents?
2. In fruit ies, which of the characteristics that you studied was X-linked?
3. If offspring exhibit a 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio, what are the genotypes of the parents?
4. If the F2 generation consists of 90 long-winged ies to 30 short-winged ies, what was the phenotype of
the F1 ies?
5. Briey describe the life cycle of Drosophila.
6. When doing a genetic cross, why is it necessary to remove parent ies before the pupae have hatched?
7. What is the genotype of a white-eyed male fruit y?
8. Suppose you counted 40 green tobacco seedlings and 2 white tobacco seedlings in one agar plate.
According to the chi-square test, do your results support the hypothesis that both parent plants were
heterozygous for the color allele?
9. Suppose you counted tobacco seedlings in six agar plates, and your data were as follows: 125 green
plants and 39 white plants. According to the chi-square test, are your deviations from the expected
values due to chance?
10. Suppose that students in the laboratory periods before yours removed some of the purple and yellow
corn kernels on the ears of corn as they were performing the Experimental Procedure. What effect
would this have on your results?
Biology Website

biology.

118
Laboratory 9
Mendelian Genetics
916
Tenth Edition
10. Human Genetics
Text
69
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
L A B O R A T O R Y
10
Human Genetics
Learning Outcomes
10.1 Chromosomal Inheritance
Explain how nondisjunction occurs and which numerical sex chromosome abnormalities may result from
nondisjunction. 12023
10.2 Genetic Inheritance
Determine students genotypes by observing themselves and their relatives. 12425
Solve genetics problems involving autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, and X-linked recessive alleles. 12528
Determine whether a pedigree represents a pattern of autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, or X-linked
recessive inheritance. 12830
Introduction
Our study of human genetics in this laboratory rst concerns the inheritance of an abnormal chromosome
number (see also page 98). Figure 10.1 contrasts a normal karyotype with an abnormal one. As you can
see, the abnormal karyotype has three number 21 chromosomes instead of two number 21 chromosomes.
Therefore, this individual has trisomy 21 (Down syndrome), the most common autosomal trisomy in
humans. An eyelid fold; a at face, stubby ngers; a large ssured tongue, and usually some degree of mental
retardation characterize Down syndrome. While Down syndrome is an autosomal syndrome, our laboratory
concentrates on syndromes due to an abnormal sex chromosome number.
Next, we consider autosomal dominant and recessive traits in human beings before moving on
to recessive X-linked traits. We will have the opportunity to observe that Mendels laws apply not only
to peas and fruit ies, they also apply to humans. This laboratory provides an opportunity to practice
genetics problems. Finally, we will learn how to read and construct a pedigree, which is a diagram
showing the inheritance of a genetic disorder within a family. Genetic counselors use pedigrees to
counsel couples about the chances of passing a genetic disorder to their children.
Figure 10.1 Normal

versus abnormal
human karyotype.
a. A normal karyotype has
22 pairs of autosomes
and one pair of sex
chromosomes. b. A person
with Down syndrome has
an abnormal karyotype
with three number 21
chromosomes.
101
a. Normal male karyotype with 46 chromosomes.
b. Down syndrome karyotype with an extra chromosome 21.
Laboratory 10
Human Genetics
119
70

BIOL1406/7
Tenth Edition
10.1
10. Human Genetics
Text
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
Chromosomal Inheritance
Usually, gametogenesis and fertilization occur normally, and an individual inherits 22 pairs of autosomes
and one pair of sex chromosomes (see Fig. 10.1a). Gametogenesis involves meiosis, the type of cell
division that reduces the chromosome number by one-half because the homologues separate during
meiosis I. When homologues fail to separate during meiosis I, called nondisjunction, gametes with too
few (n 1) or too many (n + 1) chromosomes result. Nondisjunction can also occur during meiosis II
if the chromatids fail to separate and the daughter chromosomes go into the same daughter cell. Again,
the gametes will have too few or too many chromosomes. Therefore, nondisjunction leads to various
syndromes because the individual has inherited an abnormal number of chromosomes (see Fig. 10.1b).
Syndromes Due to Numerical Sex Chromosome Abnormalities

A female with Turner syndrome (XO) has only one sex chromosome, an X chromosome; the O signies
the absence of the second sex chromosome. Because the ovaries never become functional, these females
do not undergo puberty or menstruation, and their breasts do not develop. Generally, females with
Turner syndrome have a short build, folds of skin on the back of the neck, difculty recognizing various
spatial patterns, and normal intelligence. With hormone supplements, they can lead fairly normal lives.
When an egg having two X chromosomes is fertilized by an X-bearing sperm, an individual with
poly-X syndrome results. The body cells have three X chromosomes and therefore 47 chromosomes.
Although they tend to have learning disabilities, poly-X females have no apparent physical
abnormalities, and many are fertile and have children with a normal chromosome count.
When an egg having two X chromosomes is fertilized by a Y-bearing sperm, a male with
Klinefelter syndrome results. This individual is male in general appearance, but the testes are
underdeveloped, and the breasts may be enlarged. The limbs of XXY males tend to be longer than
average, muscular development is poor, body hair is sparse, and many XXY males have learning
disabilities.
Jacob syndrome can be due to nondisjunction during meiosis II of spermatogenesis. These
males are usually taller than average, suffer from persistent acne, and tend to have speech and reading
problems. At one time, it was suggested that XYY males were likely to be criminally aggressive, but the
incidence of such behavior has been shown to be no greater than that among normal XY males.
Complete Table 10.1 to show how a physician would recognize each of these syndromes from a
karyotype.
Table 10.1
Numerical Sex Chromosome Abnormalities
Syndrome Number
Comparison with Normal Number
Turner:
Normal Female:
Poly-X:
Normal Female:
Klinefelter:
Normal Male:
Jacob:
Normal Male:
120
Laboratory 10
Human Genetics
102
Tenth Edition
10. Human Genetics
Text
71
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
Experimental Procedure: Gametogensis and Nondisjunction*

Gametogenesis in females is called oogenesis (egg production) and in males is called spermatogenesis
(sperm production) (see page 99).
Building the Chromosomes
1. Obtain the following materials: 36 red pop beads, 26 blue (or green) pop beads, and eight magnetic
centromeres.
2. Build four duplicated sex chromosomes (3 Xs and 1 Y) as follows:
Two red X chromosomes: Each chromatid will have nine red pop beads. Place the centromeres so
that two beads are above each centromere and seven beads are below each centromere. Bring the
centromeres together.
One blue X chromosome: Each chromatid will have nine blue pop beads. Place the centromere so
that two beads are above each centromere and seven beads are below each centromere. Bring the
Y chromosome: Each chromatid will have four blue pop beads. Place the centromeres so that
two beads are above each centromere and two beads are below each centromere. Bring the
Simulating Meiosis During Normal Oogenesis
Place one blue X and one red X chromosome together in the middle of your work area. (The blue
X chromosome came from the father, and the red X chromosome came from the mother.) Have the
chromosomes go through meiosis I and meiosis II. What is the sex chromosome constitution of each of
the four meiotic products? Each egg has
(number)
(type) chromosome(s).
Simulating Meiosis During Normal Spermatogenesis
Place a red X and a blue Y chromosome together in the middle of your work area. (The red X
chromosome came from the mother, and the blue Y chromosome came from the father.) Have the
chromosomes go through meiosis I and meiosis II. What is the chromosome constitution of each of the
four meiotic products? Two sperm have one
one
sex chromosome, and two sperm have
sex chromosome.
Simulating Fertilization
In the Punnett square provided here, ll in the products of fertilization using the type of gamete that
resulted from normal oogenesis and the types of gametes that resulted from normal spermatogenesis.
(Disregard the color of the chromosomes.)
*Exercise courtesy of Victoria Finnerty, Sue Jinks-Robertson, and Gregg Orloff of Emory University, Atlanta, GA.
103
Laboratory 10
Human Genetics
121
72

BIOL1406/7
Tenth Edition
Figure 10.2
10. Human Genetics
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
Text
Nondisjunction of sex chromosomes.
a. Nondisjunction during oogenesis produces the types of eggs shown. Fertilization with normal sperm results in the
syndromes noted. (Nonviable means existence is not possible.) b. Nondisjunction during meiosis I of spermatogenesis
results in the types of sperm shown. Fusion with normal eggs results in the syndromes noted. Nondisjunction during
meiosis II of spermatogenesis results in the types of sperm shown. Fusion with normal eggs results in the syndromes
shown.
XX
XY
Nondisjunction during
meiosis I or meiosis II
Nondisjunction
during meiosis I
eggs
sperm
XX
XY
eggs
sperm
X
XXX
XO
poly-X
Turner
XX
XO
XXY
Turner
Klinefelter
XY
XY
meiosis I
Y
XXY
Klinefelter
nonviable
a. Nondisjunction during oogenesis
Nondisjunction
during meiosis II
sperm
YY
XX
eggs
XX
XO
XYY
XXX
Turner
Jacob
poly-X
b. Nondisjunction during spermatogenesis
Simulating Nondisjunction During Meiosis I
1. Simulate meiosis during normal oogenesis and spermatogenesis as before, except as follows.
Assume that nondisjunction occurs during meiosis I, but the chromatids separate at the centromere
during meiosis II (Fig. 10.2a). What is the sex chromosome constitution of each of the four meiotic
products:
for oogenesis?
for spermatogenesis?
Further note that each egg having chromosomes has one

and one
122
Laboratory 10
(color) chromosome
(color) chromosome.
Human Genetics
104
Tenth Edition
10. Human Genetics
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
Text
73
2. In the space provided here, draw a Punnett square, and ll in the products of fertilization using
(a) normal sperm types of abnormal eggs as in Figure 10.2a, and (b) normal egg types of
abnormal sperm, as in Figure 10.2b for nondisjunction during meiosis I. (Disregard the color of the
chromosomes.)
a.
b.
Conclusions: Nondisjunction During Meiosis I

What syndromes are the result of (a)?
Are all offspring viable (capable of living)?
Explain.
What syndromes are the result of (b)?

Are all offspring viable?
Explain.
Simulating Nondisjunction During Meiosis II
1. Simulate meiosis during normal oogenesis and spermatogenesis as before, except as follows.
Assume that meiosis I is normal, but the chromatids of the chromosomes fail to separate during
meiosis II. What is the sex chromosome constitution of each of the four meiotic products:
for oogenesis?
for spermatogenesis?
2. In the space provided here, draw a Punnett square, and ll in the products of fertilization using
(a) normal sperm types of abnormal eggs, as in Figure 10.2a, and (b) normal egg types of
abnormal sperm, as in Figure 10.2b for nondisjunction during meiosis II.
a.
b.
Conclusions: Nondisjunction During Meiosis II

What syndromes are the result of (a)?
Explain.
What syndromes are the result of (b)?

105
Explain.
Laboratory 10
Human Genetics
123
74

BIOL1406/7
Tenth Edition
10.2
10. Human Genetics
Text
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
Genetic Inheritance
Just as we inherit pairs of chromosomes, we inherit pairs of alleles, alternate forms of a gene. As
before, a dominant allele is assigned a capital letter, while a recessive allele is given the same letter
lowercased.
The genotype tells the alleles of the individual, while the phenotype describes the appearance of
the individual.
Autosomal Dominant and Recessive Traits

The alleles for autosomal traits are carried on the nonsex chromosomes. If individuals are homozygous
dominant (AA) or heterozygous (Aa), their phenotype is the dominant trait. If individuals are
homozygous recessive (aa), their phenotype is the recessive trait.
Experimental Procedure: Autosomal Traits
1. For this Experimental Procedure, you will need a lab partner to help you determine your phenotype
for the traits listed in the rst column of Table 10.2. Figure 10.3 illustrates some of these traits.
Record your phenotypes by circling them in the rst column of the table.
Figure 10.3
Examples of human phenotypes.
Bent little finger

Widows peak
Straight hairline
Straight little finger
Unattached earlobes
124
Laboratory 10
Attached earlobes
Human Genetics
Hitchhiker's thumb
106
Tenth Edition
10. Human Genetics
75
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
Text
2. Determine your probable genotype. If you have the recessive phenotype, you know your genotype.
If you have the dominant phenotype, you may be able to decide whether you are homozygous
dominant or heterozygous by recalling the phenotype of your parents, siblings, or children. Circle
your probable genotype in the second column of Table 10.2.
3. Your instructor will tally the classs phenotypes for each trait so that you can complete the third
column of Table 10.2.
4. Complete Table 10.2 by calculating the percentage of the class with each trait. Are dominant
phenotypes always the most common in a population?
Table 10.2
Explain.
Autosomal Human Traits
Trait: d = Dominant
r = Recessive
Possible
Genotypes
Hairline:
Widows peak (d)
Straight hairline (r)
WW or Ww
ww
Earlobes:
Unattached (d)
Attached (r)
EE or Ee
ee
Skin pigmentation:
Freckles (d)
No freckles (r)
FF or Ff
ff
Hair on back of hand:

Present (d)
Absent (r)
HH or Hh
hh
Thumb hyperextensionhitchhikers thumb:

Last segment cannot be bent
backward (d)
Last segment can be bent
back to 60 (r)
Bent little nger:
Little nger bends toward
ring nger (d)
Straight little nger (r)
Interlacing of ngers:
Left thumb over right (d)
Right thumb over left (r)
Number in
Class
Percentage of
Class with Trait
TT or Tt
tt
LL or Ll
ll
II or Ii
ii
Genetics Problems Involving the Traits in Table 10.2
1. Nancy and the members of her immediate family have attached earlobes. Her maternal grandfather
has unattached earlobes. What is the genotype of her maternal grandfather?
Nancys
maternal grandmother is no longer living. What could have been the genotype of her maternal
grandmother?
107
Laboratory 10
Human Genetics
125
76

BIOL1406/7
Tenth Edition
10. Human Genetics
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
Text
Figure 10.4 Two common patterns of autosomal inheritance in humans.

Left: Both parents are heterozygous. Right: One parent is heterozygous and the other is homozygous recessive.
Parents
Aa
eggs
AA
Aa
Phenotypic Ratio
sperm
Aa
Aa
Key
A= Dominant allele
a = Recessive allele
Dominant phenotype
Recessive phenotype
3
1
aa
aa
eggs
Offspring
!
a
Aa
Aa
sperm
Aa
Parents
aa
aa
Key
A= Dominant allele
a = Recessive allele
Dominant phenotype
Recessive phenotype
Phenotypic Ratio
1
1
Offspring
See Figure 10.4 (left) for questions 2 and 3:

2. Joe does not have a bent little nger, but his parents do. What is the expected phenotypic ratio
among the parents children?
3. Henry is adopted. He has hair on the back of his hand. Could both of his parents have had hair
on the back of the hand?
hand?
Could both of his parents have had no hair on the back of the
Explain.
Genetics Problems Involving Genetic Disorders
See Figure 10.4 (left) for questions 1 and 2:

1. Cystic brosis is an autosomal recessive disorder. If both of Sallys parents are heterozygous for
cystic brosis, what are her chances of inheriting cystic brosis?
2. Nancy has cystic brosis, but neither parent has cystic brosis. What is the genotype of all people
involved?
See Figure 10.4 (right) for questions 3 and 4:
3. Huntington disease is an autosomal dominant disorder. If only one of Sams parents is
heterozygous for Huntington disease and the other is homozygous recessive, what are his chances
of inheriting Huntington disease?
4. In Henrys family, only his father has Huntington disease. What are the genotypes of Henry, his
mother, and his father?
Sex Linkage
The sex chromosomes carry genes that affect traits other than the individuals sex. Genes on the sex
chromosomes are called sex-linked genes. The vast majority of sex-linked genes have alleles on the X
chromosome and are called X-linked genes. Most often, the abnormal condition is recessive.
126
Laboratory 10
Human Genetics
108
Tenth Edition
10. Human Genetics
Text
77
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
Color blindness is an X-linked, recessive trait. The possible genotypes and phenotypes are as
follows:
Females
Males
XBXB = normal vision

XBXb = normal vision (carrier)
XbXb = color blindness
XBY = normal vision

XbY = color blindness
Experimental Procedure: X-Linked Traits

1. Your instructor will provide you with a color blindness chart. Have your lab partner present the
chart to you. Write down the words or symbols you see, but do not allow your partner to see what
you write, and do not discuss what you see. This is important because color-blind people see
something different than do people who are not color blind.
2. Now test your lab partner as he or she has tested you.
3. Are you color blind?
If so, what is your genotype?
4. If you are a female and are not color blind, you can judge whether you are homozygous or
heterozygous by knowing if any member of your family is color blind. If your father is color blind,
what is your genotype?
If your mother is color blind, what is your genotype?
If you know of no one in your family who is color blind, what is your probable genotype?
Genetics Problems Involving X-Linked Genetic Disorders
See Figure 10.5 (left) for questions 1 and 2 :

1. If a father is color blind, what are the chances his daughters will be color blind?
Be carriers?
2. Mary Jo is a carrier for hemophilia, an X-linked recessive disorder. Her mother is perfectly normal.
What is her fathers genotype?
Figure 10.5
Two common patterns of X-linked inheritance in humans.
Left: A color-blind father has carrier daughters. Right: The sons of a carrier mother have a 50% chance of being color blind.
Parents
Parents
XB XB
eggs
XB
XB Xb
XBXb
sperm
Xb
XB
XB Y
Offspring
109
XBY
XB Y
Key
XB=Normal vision
Xb=Color blind
Normal vision
Color blind
Phenotypic Ratio
Females All
Males All
XBXb
eggs
XB
XB
Xb
XB XB
XB Xb
sperm
XbY
XBY
XbY
Key
XB=Normal vision
Xb=Color blind
Normal vision
Color blind
Phenotypic Ratio
Females All
Males 1
1
Offspring
Laboratory 10
Human Genetics
127
78

BIOL1406/7
Tenth Edition
10. Human Genetics
Text
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
See Figure 10.5 (right) for questions 3 and 4 :

3. If a boy is color blind, from which parent did he inherit the defective allele?
4. Mary has a color-blind son but Mary and both of Marys parents have normal vision. Give the
genotype of all people involved.
5. A person with Klinefelter syndrome is color blind. Both his father and mother have normal
vision, but his maternal uncle is color blind. In which parent and at what meiotic division did sex
chromosome nondisjunction occur?
(Hint: Use Figure 10.2 to help solve this problem.)
6. A person with Turner syndrome has hemophilia. Her mother does not have hemophilia, but her
father does. In which parent did nondisjunction occur, considering that the single X came from
the father?
Is it possible to tell if nondisjunction occurred during meiosis I or
meiosis II?
Explain.
(Hint: Use Figure 10.2 to help solve this problem.)
Pedigrees
A pedigree shows the inheritance of a genetic disorder within a family and can help determine whether
any particular individual has an allele for that disorder. Then a Punnett square can be done to determine
the chances of a couple producing an affected child.
In a pedigree, Roman numerals indicate the generation, and Arabic numerals indicate particular
individuals in that generation. The symbols used to indicate normal and affected males and females,
reproductive partners, and siblings are shown in Figure 10.6.
Figure 10.6. Pedigree symbols.

= normal female and male
= affected female and male
= reproductive partners
= siblings
Pedigree Analyses
For each of the following pedigrees, determine how a genetic disorder is passed. Use Table 10.3 to
help with this determination. Is the inheritance pattern autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive,
or X-linked recessive? Also, decide the genotype of particular individuals in the pedigree. Remember
that the genotype indicates the dominant and recessive alleles present and the phenotype is the actual
physical appearance of the trait in the individual. A pedigree indicates the phenotype, and you can
reason out the genotype.
128
Laboratory 10
Human Genetics
1010
Tenth Edition
Table 10.3
10. Human Genetics
Text
79
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
Pedigree Solution Chart
Inheritance Pattern
Notes
Clues
Possible Genotypes
Autosomal dominant
(any chromosome
except X or Y)
If at least one chromosome

has the allele, the individual
will be affected.
One or both parents

are affected. Many of the
children are affected.
AA or Aa = affected
aa = normal
Autosomal recessive
(any chromosome
except X or Y)
Both chromosomes must

have the recessive allele
for the individual to be
affected.
Neither parent is
affected. Few of the
children are affected.
AA or Aa = normal
Aa = carrier*
aa = affected
X-linked recessive (only

the X chromosome)
The trait is only carried

on the X chromosome.
There must be a recessive
allele on the X chromosome
for the trait to be expressed.
Trait is primarily
found in males. It is
often passed from
grandfather to
grandson.
XAXA and XAXa = normal

female; XAXa = carrier female*
XAY = normal male
XaXa = affected female
XaY = affected male
A carrier is one who does not show the trait but has the ability to pass it on to his or her offspring.
1. Study the following pedigree:
a. What is the inheritance pattern for this genetic disorder?

b. What is the genotype of the following individuals? Use A for the dominant allele and a for the
recessive allele.
Generation I, individual 1:
Generation II, individual 1:
Generation III, individual 8:
2. Study the following pedigree:
1011
Laboratory 10
Human Genetics
129
80

BIOL1406/7
Tenth Edition
10. Human Genetics
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
Text
a. What is the inheritance pattern for this genetic disorder?

b. What is the genotype of the following individuals?
Generation I, individual 1:
Generation II, individual 8:
Generation III, individual 1:
Construction of a Pedigree
You are a genetic counselor who has been given the following information from which you will
construct a pedigree.
1. Your data: Henry has a double row of eyelashes, which is a dominant trait. Both his maternal
grandfather and his mother have double eyelashes. Their spouses are normal. Henry is married to
Isabella and their rst child Polly has normal eyelashes. The couple wants to know the chances of
any child having a double row of eyelashes.
2. Construct two blank pedigrees. Begin with the maternal grandfather and grandmother and end with
Polly.
Pedigree 1
Pedigree 2
3. Pedigree 1: Try out a pattern of autosomal dominant inheritance by assigning appropriate genotypes
for an autosomal dominant pattern of inheritance to each person in this pedigree. Pedigree 2: Try
out a pattern of X-linked dominant inheritance by assigning appropriate genotypes for this pattern
of inheritance to each person in your pedigree. Which pattern is correct?
4. What is your key for this trait?
Key:
normal eyelashes
double row of eyelashes
5. Use correct genotypes to show a cross between Henry and Isabella and calculate the expected
phenotypic ratio among the offspring:
Henry
Isabella
X
6. What are the percentage chances of Henry and Isabella having a child with double eyelashes?
130
Laboratory 10
Human Genetics
1012
Tenth Edition
10. Human Genetics
Text
81
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010
Laboratory Review 10
1. Name one pair of chromosomes not homologous in a normal karyotype.
2. A woman is heterozygous. Which one could produce an egg in which two X chromosomes carry an
allele for the recessive trait color blindness: nondisjunction during meiosis I or nondisjunction during
meiosis II?
Explain.
3. Which one could produce a sperm with two X chromosomes: nondisjunction during meiosis I or
nondisjunction during meiosis II?
Explain.
4. If an individual exhibits the dominant trait, do you know the genotype?
Why or why not?
and the
5. A son is color blind, but both parents are normal. Give the genotype of the mother
. Explain the pattern of inheritance.
father
6. What pattern of inheritance in a pedigree would allow you to decide that a trait is X-linked?
7. What pattern of inheritance in a pedigree would allow you to decide that a trait is autosomal recessive?
8. What is the difference between a Punnett square and a pedigree?
9. What is the probability
a. two individuals with an autosomal recessive trait will have a child with the same trait?
b. a woman heterozygous for an X-linked trait will have a son with a genetic disorder if the genetic
disorder is recessive?
If the genetic disorder is dominant?
c. a woman whose father was color blind will have a son who is color blind?
Biology Website

biology.

1013
Laboratory 10
Human Genetics
131
82

BIOL1406/7
Tenth Edition
10. Human Genetics
Text
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2010

Biology Laboratory Manual-Tenth Edition PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Biology Laboratory Manual-Tenth Edition PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

McGraw-Hill Create Review Copy for Instructor user. Not for distribution.

1. Scientific Method: The

Biology Laboratory Manual, Ninth Edition

1. Scientific Method: The

The process of science deals with variation primarily

Answer the questions and make conclusions

Record the most insightful of the two observations

Consider the following two observations.

Pose and Clarify Testable Questions

Observation 1: Fungi often grow on leftover food.

Productive observations inspire questions. Humans think

1. Scientific Method: The

Examine the following two questions.

Biology Laboratory Manual, Ninth Edition

1. Scientific Method: The

Examine the following two hypotheses:

Which of these hypotheses is a null hypothesis? Why?

Examine the following hypothesis.

For this experiment the treatment (i.e., independent) variable

Enter your null hypothesis in Worksheet 2.

EXPERIMENTATION AND DATA

Gather Experimental Data

Label 12 test tubes as C1C4, G1G4, and P1P4.

1. Scientific Method: The

Analyze the Experimental Data

Biology Laboratory Manual, Ninth Edition

Examine your raw data in Worksheet 1.

Variation in Replicate Measures

Sum of squared deviations 10

The summary equation for the sum of squared deviations is

Sum of squared deviations

The summation sign () means to add up all the squared

deviations from the first one (i 1) to the last one (i N).

sum of squared deviations

Variance 3.3 1.8

The standard deviation is often reported with the mean in

1. Scientific Method: The

Test the Hypotheses

Meana (1/2)SD 7.5

Are Meana and Meanb significantly different according to

Consider your null hypothesis and the data presented

Answer the Questions

Examine the results of hypothesis testing presented

Specific Question 1 was What classes of biological

The General Question was Which nutrients can

EXPERIMENTATION AND DATA

Design an experiment to test your hypothesis in

1. Scientific Method: The

Biology Laboratory Manual, Ninth Edition

Enter your best response to Specific Question 1 in

After testing the hypotheses, are you now prepared

Conduct your experiment and record the data in

Examine the results of your hypothesis testing

c. Translate your question into a testable hypothesis and

1. Scientific Method: The

Questions for Further Thought and Study

1. Scientific Method: The

Biology Laboratory Manual, Ninth Edition

Worksheet 1 Process of Science: Nutrient Use in Yeast

Protein range ______ ______

Glucose range ______ ______

Protein x (1/2)SD ______

Glucose x  (1/2)SD ______

Protein range

Glucose range

Glucose x (1/2)SD ______

Protein x (1/2)SD ______

Treatment 2 range

Treatment 1 range

Treatment 1 x (1/2)SD ______

Treatment 2 x (1/2)SD ______