Chapter 2

RESEARCH METHODS AND DESIGNS

Research is a systematic inquiry used to describe, explain, predict or control some observed
phenomenon - the research topic. And careful understanding of the different methods and designs, with
the aid of appropriate statistical tools, will allows us to make sense of and interpret a great deal of
information. By understanding the research process, including the kinds of statistical analysis that are
used, you will be able to become a wise consumer of psychology information and make better judgments of
the information that you come across.

This chapter will focus on the on the discussion of the different research process which include:
 Scientific methods
 Sampling Methods
 Research design
 Types of research

Additionally, at the end of the module, it is expected that the student will be able to:
 apply scientific methods in their daily life
 determine the appropriate sampling methods and designs used in researches
 differentiate different types of researches

Rules of the Scientific Method

In essence, scientific method is an important procedures in almost all fields of study. This
statement is specifically true according to the following premises:

1. Universe is assumed to be orderly. So, events have specific causes.

2. It is publicly verifiable. Ex. You can go to the library.
3. It is repeatable for a given lab, as well as across different labs.

General Procedures of the Scientific Method

In psychology, we are brazen up with massive amounts of data. How do changes in

one variable impact other variables? Is there a way we can measure that relationship? What is the overall
strength of that relationship and what does that mean? Statistics allow us to answer these kinds of
questions with the application of scientific method. The following ay generalized steps in scientific method:

1. Ask a question about the world.

2. Operationally define the relevant terms.
Operational definition - a concept defined by how it is measured (thus, it typically includes
numbers). Ex. "Hunger" - 24 hours of food deprivation.
3. Choose a research method.
4. Collect & statistically analyze the data.
5. Report the results publicly (i.e., publish or present it).

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III. Research Methods
These differ in the kinds of information about behavior they yield, as well as in the types of behavior
to which they are best suited for studying. We will look at five different methods. Note that they are not
mutually exclusive.

1. Naturalistic Observation
Also called systematic observation or the observational method. It is a systematic method for
observing behavior as it naturally occurs. Some important issues include:
1. Unobtrusiveness - subject is unaware they're being observed.
2. Naturalness - subject is "at home."
3. Systematic Recording - behavior is measured (or counted) somehow. For
example, frequencies (how many), durations (how long), and/or latencies (how long until)
might be recorded for operationally defined behaviors. Procedures such as time
sampling (where behavior is sampled at regular intervals) might be used. We might want to
compute reliabilities to see if the different observers are in agreement about what is being
measured.
2. Surveys
Are a way to gather a large amount of information relatively easily and quickly.
o Include Questionnaires & Interviews.
o Require careful consideration of:
a. Question Structure - should not be leading
b. Adequacy of sampling?
c. Population - the whole group we are interested in.
Sample - the group we work with.
d. Random Sample - one in which each member of the population has an equal chance
of becoming a member of the sample.
o Example of Survey Data

Premarital Sexual Attitudes

(from Gallup Poll data) % saying it's wrong in:

Sample 1969 1973

Nationwide 68 48

Gender

Female 74 53

Male 62 42

Education

Grade School 77 60

High School 69 45

College 56 41

Geog. Location

East 65 38

Midwest 69 51

South 78 58

West 55 41

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3. Case Studies
Are used a lot by clinicians. An individual or small group of individuals is studied in detail. For
example, we might want to study the mental disorder schizophrenia. It is a form of psychosis that
that occurs with an incidence in the population of about 1%. It typically becomes apparent between
the ages of 15 and 35. The individual or small group of individuals we work with is called a cohort.
o There are several ways we could do this. Two include:

1. Retrospective Technique - looks back at past events. We might arrange a cohort of 10

people that have the disorder. We would interview them, their parents or guardians as well
as any teachers or employers that we could get in contact with. An advantage to this
technique is that it is relatively easy to do. A disadvantage is that memory for past events
may be faulty

2. Longitudinal or Proactive Technique - follows events as they occur. So we would have

to find the next 1000 babies born in the state who's parents would be willing to particpate in
a study where we visit with them once per year for the next 35 years. Since 1% of 1000 is
10, that would give us the cohort we desire. An advantage is that the data are very accurate.
A disadvantage is the time and cost of doing such a large scale study.

4. Test Methods
o Operationally defines variables.
o Exs. IQ test, TMAS, BDI, ACT, SAT.
5. Experimental Method
o Involves manipulating something we choose.
o Is the most powerful method because it allows us to determine cause & effect.
o Definitions:

Variable
Characteristic of a person or thing that can occur in different amounts or kinds. Ex. Performance
on a test.
Independent Variables (IVs)
We select and manipulate these. So an IV must have at least two levels (or values the IV can take).
Ex. Amount of sleep deprivation, where the control group is not deprived and the experimental
group is 24 hours deprived (they pulled an "all nighter"). In this case, the IV has two levels or values
it can take.
A variable that is similar to an IV, but is not truly manipulated is called an ex post facto variable.
Ex. gender; experimenter does not decide who will be male and who will be female.
Dependent Variables (DVs)
We measure these.
Extraneous Variables (EVs)
Variables other than the IV which can influence the DV. We worry about these. If an EV effects the
groups in an experiment differentially, we do not know whether the IV or EV is resulting in the
differences in the DV. In this case, we say that the results of the experiment are confounded. Thus,
confounding is a situation that an EV may produce. There are actually 3 possibilities in regards to
the effects of an EV. Only one of these is a problem (i.e., the situation of confounding).

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 Possibility Result
1 EV has no effect on either group Not a problem
2 EV effects all of the groups in the same manner Not a problem
3 EV effects the groups differentially (e.g., one & not the other) Confounding - A problem.

o Purpose: To see if changes in the IV cause changes in the DV.

o Example: Effects of Marijuana on Memory (Weil, Zinberg, & Nelson, 1968). Numbers given
are fictitious, but based on the actual data.

Experiment 1 (2 independent groups). The IV was marijuana with two levels.

IV -> Marijuana
Levels -> Control Experiment.
Average words remembered from 20 5-letter
17 12
nouns presented at 1 sec intervals
Experiment 2 (involved more than one IV and is thus called a factorial design). In Experiment 2,
they included the variable (ex post facto) of prior experience with the drug.
IV2 - IV1 - Marijuana
Experience Control Experim.
Naive Users 18 13
"Pot-heads" 17 18

Note that, in this case, there are three research questions (there is a question for each IV as well as
for their interaction).

1. Does IV1 have an effect on the DV. For example (as in Experiment 1), does marijuana
affect memory performance?
2. Does IV2 have and effect on the DV. For example, is prior experience with marijuana
related to its effect on memory performance? Notice that no mention is made of an effect,
because the variable is not something we manipulated (it is ex post facto)..
3. The interaction question asks whether the effect that one variable may have on the
DV depends on the other variable. For example, does the effect of marijuana on
memory depend on prior experience with the drug?

IVs Levels(Factor) Design Multiplying # Grps Comments

1 2(b) 1 factor between 2= 2 Exp 1 in example.
1 3(b) 1 factor between 3= 3
1 2(w) 1 factor within 1 grp tested 2x= 1
2 2(b) x 2(b) betw grps factorial 2x2= 4 Exp 2 in example.
2 2(b) x 2(w) mixed factorial 2= 2
2 2(w) x 2(w) within grps factorial 1 grp tested 4x= 1
3 2(b) x 3(b) x 4(w) mixed factorial 2x3= 6 3-Way factorial.

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Factors and Groups: An IV can be a between groups factor (involving different groups) or a within groups
factor (same group tested repeatedly). Each of these approaches has some advantages and disadvantages
that we will learn about later in the semester. For now, you can always tell the number of groups in a
design by multiplying out the between groups factors. If you have all within groups factors, then you
only have one group. Consider some examples to help make this clearer. In these examples,
let b be a between groups factor and w be a within groups factor.

The Role of Statistics

1. Significance of Differences
In an experiment with two groups, there are two reasons why differences may occur.
1. IV or treatment effect (what we manipulated).
2. Chance or sampling error (the error we can expect from using sample values to estimate
population values). Statistics helps us decide whether the difference is due to the IV
(significant)

Important concepts:
o Probability (p) - refers to how likely something is to occur. Probabilities range from zero
through one. Thus, in the case of statistics, the observed results could be:
Improbable Probable
Due to Chance Due to Chance

o Alpha level (α) - arbitrary level chosen to separate probable from improbable.
o The Stat test - determines the p that a given difference is due to chance. If the p ≤ α, we
say the difference is significant (or reliable)

2. Noncausal Relationships
Variables are not always related in a causal manner. Statistical techniques are available to assess
various aspects of relations between variables even when no causal relation exists.
3. Statistics as a Tool
It should be clear from our discussion of research design that statistics is a tool of the scientific
method. First, a research project is carried out. The data are then analyzed. If the research project
was poorly designed, even the most brilliant statistical analysis will not provide a meaningful
answer to the original research question.

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SAMPLING METHODOLOGY

One of the most critical part in research is the determination of appropriate respondents. There are
two broad categories of sampling method.

1. Probability Sampling refers to sampling process where each unit in the population has known nonzero
probability of being included in the sample. It is the most unbiased but difficult method and it include
random sampling, stratified random sampling, systematic random sampling, cluster sampling and
multi-stage.

1.1. Random sampling is a procedure of selecting a sample whereby each member of the
population has an equal chance of being chosen into the sample. It is simple sampling technique
whereby it is impossible to predict who will be the sample to be chosen. This method include
fishbowl technique, lottery or raffle type, roulette wheel, use of table of random numbers.
1.2. Stratified random sampling involves subdividing the population into strata or layers and
randomly sampling from each. Consider an example of sampling undergraduate college students.
Sample from each stratum or group may be randomly selected using simple random techniques.
1.3. Systematic Random Sampling is a method where every knt name in the list of the population
members can be selected as part of the sample. It is used when population is arranged according to
a kind of system like alphabetical arrangement, location, size and others. The following formula
can be used

K = N/n where K is the sampling interval

N is the total population
n is the desired sample
1.4. Cluster Sampling is similar to stratified sampling. Here, the researcher identifies convenient,
naturally occurring group units such as neighborhoods, school districts or regions. In this method,
it is advisable to form clusters with heterogeneous components so that each cluster will be typical
of the population.
1.5. Multi – Stage Sampling is used when the respondents of the study are scattered all over a big
geographical area such as national, regional, provincial, or country level studies. –involves several
stage in drawing the samples sample from the population.
2. Non – Probability Sampling when probabilities of selection are not specified for the individual units in
the population and the researcher is not after generalizing the results of the study to the population or
universe.

2.1. Purposive sampling selects from those who can explain or give information based on
judgment with respondents randomly selected. It is also called judgmental sampling.
2.2. Convenience Sampling in this method, available respondents are selected at the time,
location where the data is to be collected. The process is continued until the desired sample size is
obtained. It is also called haphazard or incidental sampling.
2.3. Quota Sampling in this method, the main concern is to come up with the desired number of
samples no matter how they are selected. This is used to improve the representatives of the sample.
2.4. Snowball Sampling is used when the respondents are difficult to identify and best located
through referral network. In the first stage of snowball sampling, individuals are discovered and
may or may not be selected through random sampling method. The group then used to locate other
who possess similar characteristics and who, in turn, identify each other.

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 Types of Research
Research is a systematic inquiry used to describe, explain, predict or control some observed
phenomenon - the research topic. Research can be classified into four main forms based on the specific
purpose:

 Basic Research - This research is descriptive in nature and is used to understand and explain a
phenomenon. This type of research is often conducted for the sake of increasing and advancing a
knowledge base.

 Applied Research - The purpose of this research is to provide information that can be used and
applied in an effort to help people understand and control their environment. This type of research
is more prescriptive in nature and seeks to offer potential solutions to problems.

 Evaluation Research - The purpose of evaluation research is to examine the processes and
outcomes associated with a particular solution to a problem. The research may be formative in that
it attempts to improve the intervention or solution or it may be summative and attempt to evaluate
the effectiveness of solution or program.

 Action Research - This research is often conducted within a program, organization or community
and the researchers are involved in gathering data and studying themselves.

Research Designs
Quantitative Designs Qualitative Designs

Design Focus Design Focus

Correlational Explore the relationship between two
or more variables through a
correlational analysis. The intent is
to determine if and to what degree
the variables are related. It does not
imply one causes the other.
Case Study Intent is to study and understand a
single situation, which could be a
and Historical leader, a classroom, a process,
program, activity. Collect a variety of
material in a specific and bounded
time period. This is also used for
historical studies, when collecting
historical data to understand and
learn from the past.

Causal Compare two groups with the intent Narrative Describe the lives of individual(s) to
Comparative or of understanding the reasons or get meaning from them.
Ex – post facto causes for the two groups being
different and looking for plausible
causal factors

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Experimental Test an idea, treatment, program to
see if it makes a difference. There is a
control group and a test group.
Individuals are randomly assigned to
the two groups. One group gets the
treatment (test group) and the other
group (control group) does not get
the treatment. There is a pre and
post-test for both groups in a
traditional experimental design.
Grounded Theory The focus is to develop an
understanding of a phenomenon or
situation in order to be able to
develop a theory/model for items
such as factors, a form of
interaction, or a process.

Quasi- It is the same as experiment in that Phenomenology Studies a human experience at an

experimental there is a control and test group. experiential level such as
However, current groups are used as understanding what it means for a
is rather than randomly assigning woman to lose a child. It is about
people to the two groups. Both understanding the essence or
groups receive the pre and post- test meaning of the experience.
in a traditional design.

Mixed Research Designs

A mixed research design involves having both a quantitative design and qualitative design. Mixed designs is
the best approach if the study requires both quantitative and qualitative designs to address the problem
statement.

Mixed design studies take significantly more time, more resources, and require the researcher to develop
expertise in qualitative analysis techniques and quantitative analysis techniques. Qualitative studies can use
numbers, counts and even descriptive statistics. Using numbers does not mean the study has to be
quantitative or mixed methods.

Other Types of Research Designs

Descriptive research design is used when the researcher’s concern is to understand the nature,
characteristics, and components or aspects of a situation or phenomena.

Explanatory research design is utilized when the researcher seeks to explain the relationship between tow or
more variables and predict relationship between and among these factors.

Exploratory research design is after uncovering data on a phenomena little is known about, the exploratory
research.

Evaluation research design is appropriate when the researcher plans to assess the impact, effect, result and
outcome of operations, policies and programs.

Policy research design is deemed relevant when the researcher is concerned about generating information
relevant to the development and formation of policy and assessment of the effect or impact of such policy.

Ethnographic research design is relevant when the researcher is to come up with a holistic description of
phenomenon or situation with the use of multiple data collection technique.

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References

Foster, L., et.al. (2015). Beginning Statistics: an introduction for social scientists. 2nd edition. SAGE Publicatin
Ltd.

Lambajon, Jr. F.M. et.al. (2017) Psychological Statistics. Mindshapers Co., Inc. Manila.

Mamhot, M. R., et.al (2013). Statistics for general education: keypad approach. Purelybooks Trading and
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McCall, R. B. (2001). Fundamental Statistics for Behavioral Sciences (8-th edition). CA: Brooks Cole.

Pagala, R.C., (2011). Statistics Revised Edition. Mindshapers Co., Inc. Manila

Plonsky, M. (2015). Psychological Statistics: An Online Hypertext (Vers. 4.02). Retrieved from the Web January 5,
2018. http://www4.uwsp.edu/psych/stat.

Fraenkel, J.R., &Wallen, N.E. (1996). How to design and evaluate research in education (3rd Ed.). New York: McGraw-
Hill.

Foster, G.C.; Lane, D.;Scott, D.; Hebl, M.; Guerra, R.;Osherson, D.; & Zimmer, H., “An Introduction to Psychological
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Davidian, M. & Louis, T.A. (2012). Science.http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1218685.

Introduction to Statistics, Module 1, Nova Southeastern University (nd.)

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https://www.verywellmind.com/why-are-statistics-necessary-in-psychology-2795146

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 Exercise

1. Compare and contrast the following terms:

a. Qualitative and Quantitative research design
b. Probability and Non-probability sampling
c. Dependent, independent and extraneous variables
1. Why is it important to determine the appropriate research designs in a research work or study?
2. When do we use mixed method research design?
3. Enumerate and briefly discus the different research methods.

4. Identify what research design and appropriate sampling method/s used in the following researches.

a. The SWS would like to know the overall trust rating of the President in the entire country

b. A researcher would like to know the life of a drug dependent in a particular community.

c. The researcher wants to determine the mental health status all of frontliners dealing with
Covid 19 pandemic.

5. Proposed a research work and briefly explain the appropriate research design and sampling
procedures that you will use.

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