Content Analysis

UNIT 9 EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

Structure
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Learning Outcomes
9.2 Nature of Experimental Method
9.3 Classic Experimental Research Design
9.4 Process of Experimental Research
9.4.1 Control of Extraneous Variables
9.4.2 Randomisation
9.5 Experimental Design
9.5.1 Factorial studies
9.5.2 Quasi experimental design
9.6 Field Experiments
9.7 Merits and Demerits of Experimental Method
9.8 Let Us Sum Up
9.9 Keywords
9.10 References and Further Readings
9.11 Check Your Progress: Possible Answers

9.0 INTRODUCTION
Communication research has established itself on a firm footing and is a fertile
field for young researchers. The area is rich, vast and varied. Experimental method
is a well-established method of media research but its use is restricted. There is
a tendency among researchers to opt for the survey method. Experimental research
is highly popular in psychology and social psychology. In the case of media
research, experimental method can produce an enormous amount of data.
However, media researchers find several issues for conducting experiments. For
instance, the method is largely quantitative and uses extensive statistical
procedures for analysis. Issues relating to infrastructure, i.e. getting the appropriate
testing conditions, and/or getting matching subjects for experiments pose
problems for researchers. There can be laboratory experiments or field
experiments. The purpose is to find out and establish a causal relationship between
an independent variable and a dependent variable. This method is also amenable
to statistical analysis depending on the data generated.

We have discussed earlier that the selection of a research method depends upon
the topic selected and the researcher’s methodological approach towards the
selected topic. The experimental technique supports empirical approach to
research.

9.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

After studying this unit, you should be able to:
discuss the nature and method of experimental research;
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Research Methods – describe the process of classic experimental research design;
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differentiate between experimental and quasi-experimental designs;
explain the nature and scope of field experiments; and
outline the advantages and disadvantages of experimental method of research.

9.2 NATURE OF EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

As already stated, the experimental method is widely used in natural sciences
and in certain social science disciplines. Being quantitative in nature, experiments
attempt to find out the relationship of cause and effect between factors. In other
words, they help establish and find out cause and effect. Of course, there are
differing views. Some scholars think it is not easy to find out a cause and effect
relationship between two variables, independent and dependent. Nonetheless,
the experimental method is one of the effective methods in which the researcher
has the opportunity to control the time order when presenting two variables.
This enables him/her to ensure that cause happens first and then the effect and s/
he can also control other possible causes of the variable being studied.

Experimental method is scientific in nature and character. As science makes

progress, its forms of explanations also keep changing. Since social sciences
adopt scientific methods of empiricism, their explanations of social phenomena
also keep changing. Explanations are categorised into deductive and probabilistic.
This classification is done on the basis of types of generalisations that an
explanation employs. Let us take the deductive explanation for evaluation. The
pre-conditions of a deductive explanation are;
1) A universal generalisation.
2) A statement of conditions which makes the generalisation appears true.
3) An event to be explained (explicandum), and
4) The rules of logic.
The law of gravitation is a good example for a deductive explanation. Its
applicability encompasses past, present and future. In natural sciences, deductive
explanations are made possible with manipulation and control through
experimentation. Experiments help us demonstrate the effect of one phenomenon
on another phenomenon. However, only few phenomena of interest to social
scientists are susceptible to manipulation and control. Yet there are certain ethical
questions related to the manipulation of social phenomena by social scientists.
Besides, most human factors are not amenable to the research methods adopted
by natural scientists.

Social scientists mostly prefer to have probabilistic explanations. In these, a

generalisation is supposed to provide evidence for the phenomena under
investigation. No explanation can be deduced from the generalisation. In universal
generalisation, we may say ‘All A is B’, whereas a probabilistic generalisation
will say that ‘n percent of A and B’. Probabilistic explanations are weak compared
to deductive explanations. Probabilistic explanations have a very limited
predictive capacity. The deductive explanation is strong in its predictive power.

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 Experimental Methods
9.3 CLASSIC EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
DESIGN
A classic experimental research design contains two groups for comparison. One
is an experimental group and the other is a control group. These two groups are
equal in every respect. However, there is one difference. The experimental group
is administered or exposed to an independent variable, which is called
experimental stimulus, and the control group is not exposed to the experimental
stimulus. Measurements on the dependent variable are called scores and are taken
twice from each group. The first measurement is known as the pre-test. It is
taken prior to the administration of experimental stimulus to the experimental
group. The control group also undergoes measurement. The second set of
measurement takes place after the experimental group is exposed to the
experimental stimulus. This is known as the post-test. The control group, of
course, is not exposed to the experimental stimulus. But both the groups are
measured. The difference in measurement between the post-test and pre-test will
be compared in each of the two groups, experimental and control. In case of the
difference in the experimental group, we can safely assume that the independent
variable causes changes in the dependent variable, or the independent variable
has an effect on the dependent variable and is causally related dependent variable.
Group Pre-test Post-test Difference
Experimental Ml M2 M2-Ml =Ra
Control M3 M4 M4- M3 =Rb
Selden Menefee and Audrey Menefee who visited Tiptur area of Karnataka
conducted an experimental study using a mimeographed newspaper to measure
the information level of sample subjects chosen. When the measurements were
compared between the experimental group and the control group, it was found
that the information level of the experimental group had gone up due to the
exposure to the mimeographed newspaper more than the control group that was
not exposed to the newspaper, the experimental stimulus. This meant that exposure
to the newspaper caused the increase in the information level of those exposed to
it.

Check Your Progress: 1

Note: 1) Use the space below for your answers.
2) Compare your answers with those given at the end of this Unit.
1) What is the main purpose of experimental method?
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2) Identify the pre-conditions of a deductive explanation.
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Research Methods – 3) Briefly explain the classical experimental method.
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9.4 PROCESS OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

The experimental method involves two operations: manipulation and observation.
In scientific jargon, researchers manipulate an independent variable and then
observe the consequence or response of the subjects as to the dependent variable.
Each experiment may be different, but every researcher has to consider the
common steps to follow in an experiment.

Below is a direct quotation from Wimmer and Dominick (2003) who have
identified the steps as:

1) “Every researcher has to select the setting. Most experiments are conducted
either in a laboratory or any other environment which will be under the
control of the investigator. Experiments are also conducted under natural
settings, but the researcher will have limited control over his experiment.

2) Any research will have to select the experimental design. The hypotheses
or research question will determine the appropriateness of the design. The
types of variable available for manipulation or evaluation, availability of
respondents, and resources will impact the design selection.

3) Operationalise the variables: In experimental research, the independent

variables are operationalised after their creation through manipulation. Scales
or rules are constructed to categorise observations of behaviour to
operationalise the dependent variables.

4) Decide how to manipulate the independent variable. A set of clear and specific
instructions, events or stimuli is developed to manipulate the independent
variables and present them to the subjects of the experiment. The two types
of manipulations are straight forward and staged. “In straight forward
manipulation, written materials, verbal instructions, or other stimuli are
presented to the subjects”. If it is staged manipulation, the investigators
create events and circumstances that help them to manipulate the independent
variable. It can be simple or elaborate. The use of a confederate is also in
vogue. A confederate is a person who acts like a subject, but in reality, he is
also part of the manipulation.

5) Select and assign subjects to experimental conditions. In order to guarantee

external validity, the best way is to select the subjects randomly from the
population and assign them to the experimental and control groups.

6) Conduct a pilot study: A pilot study involving a small number of subjects

will reveal problems and enable the investigator make suitable corrections
and revisions. It is done to find out whether the manipulation of the
independent variable has had the desired effect.
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7) Administer the experiment: The main phase of research is data collection. Experimental Methods
Experimental manipulations are done on the subjects, either individuals or
groups. Then the effect of independent variable is measured and the
debriefing of subjects takes place. While debriefing the investigator will
explain the objectives and consequences or implications of the study
undertaken.

8) Analysis and interpretation of results: The scores of subjects on the dependent

variables measured are tabulated and statistically analysed. Then the
investigator will interpret the results.”

9.4.1 Control of Extraneous Variables

In media research, an investigator comes across unwanted extraneous variables.
S/he has to remove or control them to ensure internal validity of the instrument/
method employed for research. These extraneous variables are also referred to
as confounding variables, which normally contaminate and complicate the
findings. The confounding variables are controlled by the environment,
experimental manipulations, experimental design and assigning subjects to both
experimental and control groups.

Generally, three types of techniques are used in assigning subjects to groups.

They are:
Randomising
Matching
Generalisation
Matching and randomisation are the two methods of control. Matching controls
variables are known to the researcher before the research process starts.
Randomisation will enable him/her to remove the effect of unexpected or not­
seen-before factors.

Matching is a method to equate the experimental group with control group, on

external variables presumably related to research hypotheses. The two methods
of matching the groups are precision matching and frequency distribution.
Precision matching is also known as pairwise matching. Each subject in the
experimental group is matched by another one in the control group with the
same characteristics. If, for example, one person is of 30 years of age in the
experimental group, another subject in the control group will also be of the same
age. The problem with this method is the matching of a large number of variables,
which is difficult. Pairwise matching is a tough task. Precision matching has a
very high number of losses of cases in the absence of compatible twins.

This is usually substituted by frequency distribution. Here experimental and

control groups are matched for each variable separately rather than in combination.
It is not one-to-one matching, but these two groups are matched on identified
central characteristics. For instance, the average age of one group should match
with the average age of another group. This may be less precise, but is easy to
manage. As we know, matching can control a limited number of pre-identified
extrinsic variables. There may be a good number of confounding variables that
affect the relationship between independent and dependent variables.
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9.4.2 Randomisation
One cannot be sure of eliminating the confounding variables. Hence, there is
scope for wrong interpretation of results. This can be avoided by opting for
randomisation - a process by which subjects are assigned to the experimental
and control groups. The assignment can be done by flipping the coin, or by using
a table of random digits or the lottery method or any other suitable method. This
will ensure an equal probability of being selected to either the experimental or
the control group. Randomisation will remove any systematic mistake because
of extrinsic variable that may be related to either independent or dependent
variables.

Internal validity is important in communication research. Another equally

significant aspect of research is the generalisability of the findings. The effect of
one variable on another in a natural setting and on a bigger population is known
as external validity of research designs. It also refers to the ability to generalise
the research findings. Two factors related to external validity that can affect the
generalisation of research results are representativeness of the sample and the
reactive arrangements.

The random assignment of subjects to the experimental and control groups will
ensure equality between the groups and also internal validity of the investigation.
However, it may not be representative of the larger population, but represent
only the sample selected. High rate of refusal and enormous cost may affect
opting for a highly representative sample. Next will be the reactive arrangements.
The results of a study should not only be generalised to a large population, but
also to a real-life situation. This is difficult to accomplish. It may result in reactive
effect of testing on the subjects. For instance, a pre-test may affect the response
of subjects to the experimental stimulus. Such an effect can be avoided by opting
for post-test only.

Check Your Progress: 2

Note: 1) Use the space below for your answers.
2) Compare your answers with those given at the end of this Unit.
1) Explain the two operations involved in experimental method.
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2) List the common steps to follow in experimental research.
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3) Explain in brief the three factors that can be used to control the confounding Experimental Methods
variables.
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9.5 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

The experimental design refers to the ‘total experimental plan or structure of the
research’. It is selecting and planning the experiment related to a research problem.
The simple procedure is pre-test, experiment and post-test. Other factors like
variables, sampling, control and constructing a measuring instrument should also
be included in the process. Normally, research designs are classified as
experimental and quasi-experimental. We have already discussed the basic
procedure of a classical research design. Some of the popular experimental designs
are recounted here:

a) Pre-test-post-test control group

The pretest-posttest control group design is one of the basic procedures
commonly adopted by media researchers. This procedure helps in controlling
the rival hypotheses because of effects of maturation, testing, history and
other sources, because each group faces the same situations during the
experiment. This is the other name for classical experimental design.

b) Post-test only control group

There is a possibility of subjects becoming sensitive to the experiment during
pre-test. In the post-test only control group method, neither the experimental
group nor the control group is exposed to the pre-test. Only the experimental
group is exposed to the independent variable and these will be a post-test of
the group. Then the two groups are compared to the presence of statistical
significance. This helps in controlling the rival explanation as both groups
are equally affected by factors like maturation, history and others.

c) Solomon four-group design

We have already observed that a pre-test has its own merits and demerits. It
enables us to assess the time sequence and also it is the basis of comparison.
Yet we may have reactive effects in the process. More than that, these are
occasions where we may not be able to have the luxury of pre-measurement
period. The Solomon four-group design will have the same features of a
classic experimental research design. The difference is that it will have an
additional set of control and experimental groups that are not made subject
to pre-testing. When we have two experimental and control groups each,
the comparisons will show whether the experimental stimulus (x) has
independently affected the groups that were not made sensitive by a pre-
test. If we find that the experimental stimulus had its effect without pre-test,
the findings can be generalised to the target population. The element of
causality will increase in its strength.
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Research Methods –
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9.5.1 Factorial studies
When a researcher analyses two or more independent variables simultaneously,
it is called factorial design. In this, each independent variable is called a factor.
The factorial study has advantages like saving of time, money and resources. It
allows the investigator to know the interaction between two or more inter ­
dependent variables in the effects they cause on the dependent variable. If we
say that it is a two-factor design, it means that there are two independent variables
which are manipulated. The same is the case with a three-factor design where
three independent variables are manipulated. Factors can have two or more levels.
An example here will make its understanding easy. Imagine that there is an
advertising campaign on radio and television. The subjects of these media are
assigned two groups, one that is exposed to the radio and the other, exposed to
television. These are known as two levels of investigation.

9.5.2 Quasi Experimental Design

The quasi experimental design is not suitable for application in certain research
situations. This is especially true when manipulation and random assignment of
respondents are not possible. In social sciences, two types of relationships are
identified. The first one is the stimulus-response, the second one is property­
disposition relationship. For the first one, reward and satisfaction or advertisement
and consumption levels can be given as examples. For property-disposition
relations attitudes, values and orientations can be given as examples. Stimulus­
response situations are best suited for experimental methods while property­
disposition can be tackled by quasi-experimental designs.
The four areas of difference between these two types of designs are identified.
1) The time gap between the effect of independent variable and the response to
it. In stimulus - response relations, the time interval is short. In contrast, in
property disposition relations it is longer.
2) A stimulus is easy to isolate and its effect can be well-described . On the
other, properties like social class are unclear and dispositions like prestige
and education have their own effect on other elements.
3) The, ‘before and after’ comparison is easy in experimental studies while it
is difficult in quasi-experimental studies. For example, two groups with
different properties and dispositions cannot be compared. An upper-class
group differs from a lower-class group on many counts, like values, and
social practices.
4) The time sequence of event varies in experimental research, the direction of
causality is clear for pre and post comparisons. However, the time sequence
is difficult to establish in the case of property-disposition relationship. As
such, manipulation, comparison and control cannot be applied to property
disposition relationships easily.

Experimental methods are strong on control but weak on representation. Quasi­

experimental studies, particularly surveys, are strong on representation, but weak
in control. Experiments can control both extrinsic and intrinsic variable through
randomisation. They also have control over the introduction of experimental
stimulus. This helps them in determining the direction of causation. These
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advantages cannot be seen in quasi-experimental designs. On the other, laboratory Experimental Methods
experiments cannot replicate social life. Quasi experiments will not have the
random assignment of subjects to experimental groups. The major types of quasi­
experimental designs are: pretest-posttest non-equivalent control group design
and interrupted time-series design. The one-shot case study, correlational designs,
panel and trend studies are also considered as types of quasi-experimental studies
by some scholars though they can be longitudinal studies.

Check Your Progress: 3

Note: 1) Use the space below for your answers.
2) Compare your answers with those given at the end of this Unit.
1) Explain the Solomon four-group methods.
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2) Distinguish between stimulus-response and property-disposition
relationships.
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3) List the four areas of difference between experimental and quasi­
experimental designs.
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9.6 FIELD EXPERIMENTS

As you are aware, the laboratory experiments are artificial, as such, they do not
have external validity. In contrast, field experiments have external validity.
Subjects react in their natural setting with normal behaviour. For example,
watching a TV commercial in a laboratory setting is different from viewing it in
a natural setting. One of the characteristics or advantages of field experiments is
that it is closer to reality and often non-reactive. Complex social processes and
events can be studied. Field experiments can be less expensive, as they do not
need special equipment. Yet, if the size of the study increase then the expenditure
may also increase. Sometimes, field experiment is the only option left in certain
social situations.

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Research Methods – There are a few practical difficulties with the field experiments. For instance,
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certain research studies cannot be done in the field due to ethical reasons. The
impact of television violence on children cannot be measured through field
experiments. Field experiments now and then face external obstacles that may
be unexpected. It is time-consuming when the researcher wants to establish
contacts, seek co-operation and obtain necessary permission. Often, this procedure
takes weeks and months. The most difficult part of field experiment is the control
of intervening variables. The extraneous variables will affect the accuracy of
experiments, and in turn the entire research work.

Types of field experiments

Field experiments have been categorised into two: experiments in which the
investigator manipulates the independent variable and the other in which
manipulation of independent variable happens naturally. Wimmer and Dominick
provide an example for the first type. Imagine an investigator wants to know the
effects of not being able to read a newspaper. The option is to choose two samples
comparable and not allow one sample to read a newspaper for a period of time.
The second sample will continue to read the newspaper. Later a comparison will
be made to know the effect on the other areas of life like interpersonal
communication. The other types of field experiment deal with passive
manipulation of the experimental stimulus. In some cases of field experiment,
the investigators may not be able to assign subjects randomly to experimental
and control groups. Such field experiments are known as quasi experiments.
One major challenge for a researcher is to guard against alternative explanations.

9.7 MERITS AND DEMERITS OF EXPERIMENTAL

METHOD
Like every method of research in social sciences, the experimental method has
its own advantages and disadvantages. The utilitarian advantages of experiments
are:
a) Evidence of causality: Experiments enable us to find out the cause and
effect relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable.
They also support in controlling the time order besides other possible causes
that research effort.
b) Control: As already stated, control is an advantage of the experiments. An
investigator will control the environment, and isolate the testing from other
influences and effects. It means they can structure the experimental setting
according to their choice. However, the artificial nature of the laboratory
setting is a disadvantage. Selection and control of subjects is another
advantage in experimental research.
c) Cost: When compared to other research methods, experiments can be less
expensive.
d) Replication: The experiments can be replicated. Since the conditions under
which experiments are conducted are clearly described, it becomes easy to
repeat the experiments by others. Modifications can also be done.

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Disadvantages: Experimental Methods

The experimental method has its own disadvantages:

a) Artificiality: As already stated, artificiality of environment of research as a
major problem in experiments as behavioural alterations take place when
media researchers employ the laboratory setting. Because of artificial
environment in the laboratory, results that emanate from these do not have
any resemblance when compared to the behaviour in natural atmosphere or
real life situation. In real life, subjects are exposed competing stimuli from
other sources. The artificiality may affect the external validity of research.
b) Researcher bias: The experiment can influence the experiment so that s/he
can get the result according to the pre-decided hypotheses. In order to avoid
this type of bias on the part of researcher, a technique called double­ blind is
used. In this, neither the researchers nor the subjects will know whether a
particular subject is given to the experimental or control group.
c) Limited scope: It is a fact that only select research questions can be
experimented upon. When issues and topics in mass communication concern
a huge number of people, experiments on a massive scale are not possible
to conduct.

Check Your Progress: 3

Note: 1) Use the space below for your answers.
2) Compare your answers with those given at the end of this Unit.
1) What are the characteristics of field experiments?
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2) Identify the categories of field experiments.
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3) Enumerate the advantages and disadvantages of experimental technique.
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Research Methods –
Quantitative 9.8 LET US SUM UP
Experimental method is a technique used in communication research. However,
its adoption is restricted in media research unlike in psychology and social
psychology. Natural sciences make the best use of experimental research.
Experiments attempt to find out the relationship between factors of cause and
effect. These enable us to ensure that cause happens is scientific in nature.
Explanations in social sciences are classified as deductive and probabilistic.

Deductive explanations are strong as their applicability encompasses past, present

and future. In natural sciences, deductive explanations are made possible with
manipulation and control. But in social sciences only a few phenomena are
amenable to manipulation and control.

A classic research design contains two equal groups: experimental and control.
The experimental group is exposed to experimental stimulus and the control
group is not. The measurements taken during pre-test and post-test are compared
to know whether the experiment involves manipulation and control, which are
difficult to achieve in social sciences. The experimental technique will normally
have a process of eight steps. Control of confounding or extraneous variables
can be done by matching, randomisation and generalisation. Internal and external
validity will have to be achieved in experimental research. There are two designs
when we deal with experimental method: Experimental design and quasi­
experimental designs pretest-posttest control group, post-test only group and
Solomon four-group designs belong to experimental design.

When a researcher analyses two or more independent variables simultaneously,

it is called a factorial study or design. Here each independent variable is called a
factor. Pretest-posttest non-equivalent control group design and interrupted time
series design belong to the category of quasi experiments.

Experimental designs are not suitable for application in certain research situations,
especially when manipulation and random assignment of respondents are not
possible. Experimental designs are best suited to stimulus-response relationships
but not for property-disposition relationships. The property-disposition
relationships can be tackled by quasi-experimental designs that include one-shot
case study, correlational designs, panel and trend studies. Field experiments are
conducted in natural settings. They are closer to reality and often non-reactive.
They do not need any special equipment. The costs can be less compared to
other methods. The advantages of experimental methods are evidence of causality,
control, cost benefit and replication. The disadvantages are artificiality,
researcher’s bias and limited scope.

9.9 KEYWORDS
Confounding variables: Variables which are extraneous to the experiment. They
contaminate the findings.
Deductive explanation: An explanation that has the element of generalisation
regarding past, present and future.
Empiricism: Verification with strong evidence.
Explicandum: An event or phenomenon to be explained.
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Manipulation: Deliberately produce a change in the phenomenon selected. Experimental Methods

Pilot study: Involves a small number of subjects on whom the study is conducted.
Subjects: People who are selected to participated in the experiment.
Verstehen: A tradition of understanding human behaviour.

9.10 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

Broota, K.D (1992), Experimental Design in Behavioural Research, New Delhi,
Wiley Eastern Limited.
Nachmias, David and Chava Nachmais (1976), Research Methods in the Social
Sciences, New York, St. Martin’s Press.
Priest, Susanna Hornig (2010), Doing Media Research: An Introduction, New
Delhi:, SAGE Publications India Pvt. Ltd.
Wimmer D. Roger and Joseph R. Dominick (2003), Mass Media Research,
Belomont (USA) Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.

9.11 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS: POSSIBLE

ANSWERS
Check Your Progress 1
1) The main purpose of the experimental method is to find out the relationship
between factors of cause and effect. Experiments are more suitable to natural
sciences than social sciences. In other words, experimental research attempts
to find out the cause and effect relationship between an independent variable
and a dependent variable.
2) The four pre-conditions of a deductive explanation are:
A universal generalisation.
A statement of conditions which makes the generalisation appear true.
An event to be explained (explicandum)
The rules of logic.
3) A classical experimental research design has two equal groups for
comparison: experimental and control. The experimental group is exposed
to the experimental stimulus, but the control group is not, for post-test. The
difference between post-test and pre-test on the measurements taken will
prove that the independent variable has an effect on the dependent variable.
Check Your Progress 2
1) The two operations involved in experimental research are manipulation and
observation. In scientific jargon, researchers manipulate an independent
variable and then observe the response of the subjects on the dependent
variable.
2) Selection of the setting, selection of the experimental design,
operationlisation of variables, manipulation of independent variable,
selection and assignment of subjects to experimental conditions, conducting
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Research Methods – a pilot study, administering the experiment and analysis and interpretation
Quantitative
of extraneous variables are the eight steps involved in experimental research.
3) The confounding variables can be controlled by: matching, randomisation
and generalisation, Matching can be either precision matching or frequency
distribution. Randomisation can be done by assigning the subjects to
experimental and control groups by using different methods. If the findings
can be applied to a large population, it is called generalisation.
Check Your Progress 3
1) The Solomon four-group design will have the same features of classic
experimental research design, except that it will have an additional set of
control and experimental set of control and experimental groups that are not
subjected to pre-testing. If we find that the experimental stimulus had its
effect without pre-test, the findings can be generalised.
2) The stimulus-response relationship is based on reward-satisfaction
proposition. The property-disposition relationship has its basis in attitudes,
values and orientations. The first one amenable to experiments, while the
property-disposition relations are taken case of quasi-experimental designs.
3) The four areas of difference between experimental and quasi-experimental
designs are: time gap between the effect of independent variable and the
response to it; a stimulus can be easily isolated but properties are not; before
and after comparison; and the variation in time sequence.
Check Your Progress 4
1) Field experiments are being carried out in natural settings. Because of this,
they have external validity. Subjects will react with their normal behaviour.
Field experiments are non-reactive and less expensive and do not need special
equipment or facilities.
2) There are two types of field experiments: Experiments in which the researcher
manipulates the independent variable and the other in which manipulation
of the independent variable happens naturally.
3) The advantages of experimental method are: evidence of causality, control,
less cost, and replication. The demerits are artificiality, bias of the researcher
and limited scope.

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