SOLAR ENERGY LAB REPORT

Quantum Efficiency Measurements of Solar Cells

SUBMITTED TO – JULIAN PETERMANN

JULIE ROGER
Light technology institute, Karlsruhe institute of technology

SUBMITTED BY-
GROUP 148
GAURAV SHARMA (2505399)
HARENDRA KALYAN (2503791)
JOBIN GEEVARGHESE JOY (2506187)
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Abstract..........................................................................................2
2. Introduction...................................................................................2
3. Working Principle of Solar Cell..................................................3
4. Efficiency of Solar Cell.................................................................4
5. External and Internal Quantum Efficiency................................5
6. Tandem Solar Cells.......................................................................6
7. Measurement Setup......................................................................7
8. Results............................................................................................8
9. Conclusion....................................................................................15
10. References....................................................................................15

Quantum Efficiency Measurements of Solar Cells 1

 1. Abstract
To optimize the efficiency of the solar cells, understanding and characterizing their quantum
efficiency is crucial. Quantum Efficiency have a key role in maximizing the performance of
photovoltaic systems. This report conducts a thorough evaluation into the measurements of
quantum efficiency in solar cells, offering insights into the fundamental mechanisms that
govern the conversion of light into electricity.

Our report highlights the importance of quantum efficiency measurements and distinguishes
different types of cells based on the observations. The valuable findings presented in this
report contribute significantly to ongoing efforts aimed at unlocking the full potential of
solar energy for a greener and more sustainable future.

2. Introduction
Photovoltaic Cells, commonly known as Solar Cells, are used in converting sunlight into elec-
trical energy. To maximize the efficiency and performance of solar cells, understanding their
Quantum Efficiency (QE) is important. In order to measure QE, first the bandgap needs to be
analysed. The Valence Band represents the lower energy levels where electrons are bound,
while the Conduction Band allows their free movement. The energy bandgap between them
determines photon absorption; photons with energy matching the gap are absorbed, influ-
encing the wavelength range a solar cell can effectively convert into electricity.

In this report, we present our results and evaluations to measure quantum efficiency, in-
cluding External Quantum Efficiency (EQE) and Internal Quantum Efficiency (IQE) measure-
ments. It measures the efficiency with which a device can convert incident photons into
charge carriers (electrons and holes) contributing to the device's electrical output. The EQE
is typically expressed as a percentage and represents the ratio of collected charge carriers to
the number of incident photons at a specific wavelength or energy. Internal Quantum Effi-
ciency is another critical parameter used to characterize the performance of photovoltaic
devices. Unlike EQE, which measures the efficiency of external charge carrier collection, IQE
assesses how efficiently photons are converted into charge carriers within the active mater-
ial of the device itself. IQE is also expressed as a percentage and represents the ratio of gen -
erated charge carriers to the number of absorbed photons. IQE is essential because not all
absorbed photons in a device result in the generation of charge carriers. Some may be lost
as heat or wasted as non-productive processes. A higher IQE value indicates a more efficient
device at converting absorbed photons into charge carriers.

Different types of solar cells have different QE characteristics because of the change in
structure and material. We observe these characteristics for different solar panels provided
to us and try to figure out the type of cells used in these panels.

Quantum Efficiency Measurements of Solar Cells 2

 3. Working Principle of Solar Cell

Figure 1: Working principle of a Solar Cell (C.B. Honsberg, 2019)

A solar cell is a device that converts sunlight into electricity using a special effect called the
photovoltaic effect. When sunlight hits the surface of the solar panel, it generates both
current and voltage, which results in electricity. This conversion process needs two
important things: a material that can absorb light and make an electron go to a higher
energy level, and the movement of this energized electron from the solar cell to an outside
circuit. Once in the circuit, the electron releases its energy and completes the circuit,
eventually going back to the solar cell. There are different materials and methods that can
be used for solar energy conversion, but the most common way is by using semiconductor
materials arranged in a specific way called a p-n junction.

The efficiency and performance of a solar cell are influenced by a variety of factors, ranging
from local properties and the presence of metal contacts and gaps in multi-cell modules to
optical and electrical losses. Furthermore, manufacturing processes, storage conditions,
handling procedures, and the aging of the cell can also contribute to additional losses and
decreased performance. Continuous advancements in materials, manufacturing techniques,
and quality control are pursued to minimize these losses and improve the overall efficiency
of solar cells.

Figure 2: Standard One – Diode Method (htt)

Quantum Efficiency Measurements of Solar Cells 3

Basic equation:

I = Current supplied by module [A].

V = Voltage at the terminals of the module [V].
q = Charge of the electron = 1.602·E-19 Coulomb
n = Number of cells in series.
Iph = Photocurrent [A]
IO = dark saturation current [A]
Rs = Series resistance [ohm].
RSH = Shunt resistance [ohm].
k = Boltzmann's constant = 1.381 E-23 J/K. (Single Diode Equivalent Circuit Models, n.d.)

4. Efficiency of Solar Cell

The open-circuit voltage (Voc) of a photovoltaic represents the array's open-circuit voltage
when no load is connected. Voc is higher than the voltage at the maximum power point
(Vmp), which is the ideal operational voltage when the array is connected to a load. On the
other hand, the short-circuit current (Isc) is the maximum current that flows through the PV
array when its terminals are short-circuited, effectively placing a zero-resistance load across
them. The maximum power point (MPP) is the point on the current-voltage (I-V) curve
where the product of current and voltage is at its peak. This point represents the optimal
operating conditions for the array, resulting in the highest power output. It's a critical
parameter for designing and sizing PV systems, as it defines the most efficient point of
operation. When this point touches Pmax then fill factor becomes 1 so, higher the fill factor
higher the power conversion efficiency.

Figure 3: Maximum Power Point with a V-I curve (Alternative Energy Tutorials, n.d.)

Quantum Efficiency Measurements of Solar Cells 4

Parameters of the I-V curve
• ISC =Short circuit current
• VOC =Open circuit voltage
• Imp = Current at maximum power point
• Vmp = Voltage at maximum power point

Pmp is the maximum power that can be extracted by the solar cell.
The power conversion efficiency (PCE) of a solar cell is given by:

5. External and Internal Quantum

Efficiency

Figure 4: EQE vs Wavelength (C.B. Honsberg, 2019)

Quantum efficiency is a critical measure that quantifies the ratio between collected carriers
and incident photons in a solar cell, reflecting its efficiency. All photons of particular
wavelength would be absorbed, generating minority carriers which then got collected and
resulting in a quantum efficiency of unity at that wavelength. However, real solar cells
experience recombination effects, leading to reduction in quantum efficiency. Factors such
as front surface passivation and diffusion length impact different regions of the quantum
efficiency curve.

Quantum Efficiency Measurements of Solar Cells 5

In addition to these factors, optical losses also play very important role. Reflection and
transmission losses can decrease the external quantum efficiency of solar cells. By
accounting for these losses, the internal quantum efficiency provides insights into the
efficiency of photons that remain within the cell. Maximizing quantum efficiency through
strategies like reducing recombination effects, optimizing optical properties, and minimizing
reflection and transmission losses seems to be crucial for enhancing solar cell performance.

External Quantum Efficiency is a measure of how efficiently a photovoltaic device converts

incoming photons into electrical charge carriers. It is expressed as a percentage and provides
valuable information about the device's performance and can be calculated by the ratio of
the number of charge carriers (electrons or holes) generated by the device in response to
the number of incident photons on the device's active area. Higher EQE indicates that the
number of carriers collected by the cell is close to the number of photons that are being ab-
sorbed which means better efficiency.

and the Internal Quantum Efficiency represents the percentage of incident photons that
generate charge carriers within the material. IQE focuses on intrinsic material performance,
disregarding charge collection efficiency.

where R and T are reflection and transmission coefficients.

6. Tandem Solar Cells

Tandem solar cells, also referred as multi-junction solar cells, represent an advanced type of
photovoltaic device. These cells are made by stacking multiple individual solar cell layers on
top of each other. Each layer has its own ability to absorb specific portions of the solar
spectrum. This design allows the tandem solar cell to convert a broader range of sunlight
into electricity, beyond the capabilities of traditional single-junction solar cells.

Figure 5: Series connected Tandem Solar Cell (C.B. Honsberg, 2019)

Quantum Efficiency Measurements of Solar Cells 6

Tandem solar cells come in two configurations: individual cells or series-connected cells.
Series-connected cells are easier to manufacture, but they have a limitation: the current
passing through each cell remains the same, which restricts the range of band gaps that can
be effectively utilized. The prevailing approach for tandem cells is to grow them
monolithically, which means that all the cells are deposited as layers on a single substrate. To
connect the individual cells, tunnel junctions are employed.
Tandem solar cells optimize solar energy conversion efficiency by combining materials with
varying bandgaps in a stacked configuration. The top layer, is amorphous Silicon (high
bandgap), absorbs short wavelengths, while the bottom layer, microcrystalline Silicon (low
bandgap), captures longer wavelengths. Tandem solar cells are especially advantageous for
space applications, where sunlight is much more intense and their higher efficiency can be
fully utilized.

7. Measurement Setup

Figure 6: Our Measurement Setup

To perform the experiment, we were provided with a setup consisting of-

 Xenon Lamp
 Monitor Diode (MON)
 DUT (Device under Test)
 Monochromator
 Filters
 Chopper
 Lock-in Amplifier
 Bias lamp with a blue/red filter
 Computer
For the Quantum Efficiency measurement setup, light from a Xenon Lamp is directed onto
the Device under Test (DUT) where our Solar Panel is placed, and as well as onto a
Monitoring Diode (MON). We use a Monochromator and filters to select specific wavelength
(𝜆) so that we can find the efficiency of the solar cells accordingly. The resulting current

Quantum Efficiency Measurements of Solar Cells 7

response of the DUT and the MON are measured. By use of a calibrated solar cell a
wavelength dependent calibration value ([𝐶𝑉(𝜆)] = 𝑊/𝐴) can be found, and the QE
calculated from the measured currents.
𝐸𝑄𝐸(𝜆) = ℎ⋅𝑐⋅𝐼𝐷𝑈𝑇(𝜆)/𝑒⋅𝜆⋅𝐼𝑀𝑂𝑁(𝜆)⋅𝐶𝑉(𝜆)
‘ℎ’ is Planck’s constant, ‘𝑐’ the speed of light and ‘𝑒’ the elementary charge. (Carsten Schinke,
2019)
When measuring for this experiment, the problem which is most prominent is the low
intensity of the exciting beam. So, to overcome that, for higher wavelength resolution a large
part of the spectrum, emitted from the xenon lamp, is cut in every single measurement. But
the current response to this is thus extremely small and can’t be distinguished from
background noise without further processing. To make measurements possible the light
from the Xenon Lamp is chopped. A Lock-in amplifier is used to lock onto the chopping
frequency and resulting modulated current of the DUT and MON. A lock-in amplifier is a
technical amplifier that extracts weak signals from noisy environments by exercising a
reference signal of the same frequency as the message signal. It employs phase-sensitive
detection, multiplying the input and reference signals and integrating the result over a
specified time period. We take the EQE measurements for all four cells provided from
330nm to 1100nm with intervals of 10nm each. An additional component to the system is a
bias light with a blue or red filter for applying a continuous illumination to the DUT, when
Tandem Cells are being examined. Because for the measurement of the tandem cell, two
curves have to be taken, one with a red filter in front of the bias lamp and a second with a
blue filter in the beam path. Both layers need to generate charge carriers (electron-hole
pairs) to measure a current. By biasing and saturating one layer with the appropriate filter
ensures that its absorption and quantum efficiency are maximized for the specific
wavelength range it's sensitive to, while the other layer is not contributing significantly to
the measured current during that particular measurement. The top layer gets energized
even with lower wavelengths of light (high energy photons) but the bottom layer needs
higher wavelength light (low energy photons) for the electron-hole pair to form.

8. Results
 Task A: EQE Measurement Setup
Xenon Lamp: It is used as the setup's light source. The Xenon Lamp produces broad-
spectrum light, which is essential for precisely determining the device's external quantum
efficiency over a wide spectral range.
Monitor Diode: It is used to measure the QE by offering a consistent and known light source.
This helps in precise calibration and standardization of the measurements. It basically acts
like a benchmark against which the QE of the devices being tested are be evaluated.

Quantum Efficiency Measurements of Solar Cells 8

 Figure 7: Sketch of the System Setup

Monochromator or Filters: Monochromator are frequently employed to isolate particular

light wavelengths for measurement. The wavelength of the incoming light can be chosen and
controlled by researchers using a monochromator, and the wavelength range can be
constrained to the region of interest using filters.
Chopper: A chopper wheel in an EQE measurement setup is a rotating device that
alternately blocks and unblocks light incident on a photodetector.
Lock-in Amplifier: It is usual practice to use a lock-in amplifier to improve the signal-to-noise
ratio. The photovoltaic device produces a faint electrical signal in response to the incident
light, which the lock-in amplifier aids in extracting.
Bias Lamp: It is used as a controlled light source with known wavelengths to accurately
evaluate the performance of the solar cells.
Device Under Test: In this setup, it can be used in any situation when a certain system or
component is being tested under controlled circumstances for its performance,
effectiveness, dependability, or other qualities.

 Task B: EQE Measurement Setup

For the measurement of efficiency for Tandem Cells, we use filters to observe the effect of
longer and shorter wavelengths of light onto different layers of the cell.
Blue Filter: The blue filter, on the other hand, is used to excite the front cell or top sub-cell of
the tandem solar cell. The front cell is designed to absorb higher-energy photons (shorter
wavelengths). The blue filter selectively allows shorter wavelengths (typically below 500 nm)
mainly in the blue region. The blue filter is able to match the spectral range that the front
cell is optimized to absorb.
Red Filter: The red filter is used to excite the bottom sub-cell of the tandem solar cell used in
the experiment. The bottom cell, also called the "rear" cell, is designed to absorb lower-

Quantum Efficiency Measurements of Solar Cells 9

energy photons (longer wavelengths). The red filter allows only longer wavelengths (typically
above 600 nm) to pass through and matches the range of wavelengths that the top cell is
designed to absorb efficiently.

 Task C: Identify Solar Cells from EQE

 Amorphous Silicon Pin solar cell: We observe at around 580 nm we see that there’s
a drop which can be because of reflection. In an Amorphous Silicon pin solar cell the
EQE significantly declines after 700 nm due to rear surface recombination, reduced
absorption at longer wavelength, and low diffusion length. After around 780 nm we
observe that there is no absorption. It can be concluded that it is because after a
certain wavelength the photon energy is not high enough to excite the electrons
from valence band to conduction band.
Absorption Loss: Has a low absorption coefficient for sunlight, which leads to a
limited ability to capture and convert photons into charge carriers.

EQE & IQE vs Wavelength (Cell-3:

Amorphous Silicon)
1.00E+02
Quantum Efficiency (%)

8.00E+01
6.00E+01
4.00E+01
2.00E+01
0.00E+00
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 0 3 4 3 8 4 2 4 6 5 0 5 4 5 8 6 2 6 6 7 0 7 4 7 8 8 2 8 6 9 0 9 4 9 8 1 02 1 06 1 10

WAVELENGTH (nm)

EQE IQE=EQE/1-R

Recombination Loss: The presence of defects and dangling bonds in the amorphous
structure causes a higher rate of electron-hole recombination, which reduces the carrier
lifetime.
Transport Loss: Slow carrier mobility in amorphous silicon limits the efficient movement of
charge carriers to the respective places.
 Microcrystalline Silicon Pin solar cell: For Microcrystalline Silicon Cells, external
quantum efficiency at wavelength 700-800 nm starts declining as the absorption is
not optimum. The primary reason for that could be assumed due to the energy levels
of the material and the absorption characteristics of the microcrystalline silicon
structure.

Quantum Efficiency Measurements of Solar Cells 10

 EQE & IQE vs Wavelength (Cell-1: Microcrystal-
line Silicon)
1.00E+02
Quantum Efficiency (%) 8.00E+01
6.00E+01
4.00E+01
2.00E+01
0.00E+00
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 0 3 4 3 8 4 2 4 6 5 0 5 4 5 8 6 2 6 6 7 0 7 4 7 8 8 2 8 6 9 0 9 4 9 8 1 02 1 06 1 10

WAVELENGTH (nm)

EQE IQE=EQE/1-R

Absorption Loss: While microcrystalline silicon has better light absorption than amorphous
silicon, it still faces some absorption losses due to its inherent material properties.
Defect-Related Recombination: The presence of defects and grain boundaries in
microcrystalline silicon leads to non-radiative recombination, reducing the charge carrier
lifetime.
Transport Loss: The carrier mobility in µC-Si:H is higher than a-Si:H but lower than crystalline
silicon, causing some limitations in charge carrier movement.
 Crystalline Silicon Single-Junction Solar Cell : The Quantum Efficiency is uniform
almost all over our spectrum range meaning that the absorption changes very little.
Although we can observe that at around 380 nm there’s a small decrease in efficiency
which can be concluded because of photons not being collected properly at this
wavelength.

EQE & IQE vs Wavelength (Cell-2: Crystalline

Silicon Single-Junction)
1.20E+02
Quantum Efficiency (%)

1.00E+02
8.00E+01
6.00E+01
4.00E+01
2.00E+01
0.00E+00
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 0 3 4 3 8 4 2 4 6 5 0 5 4 5 8 6 2 6 6 7 0 7 4 7 8 8 2 8 6 9 0 9 4 9 8 1 02 1 06 1 10

Wavelength (nm)

EQE IQE=EQE/1-R

Absorption Loss: Crystalline silicon has excellent light absorption properties, its thickness
may not fully capture all the incident photons, leading to some absorption losses.
Auger Recombination: At high carrier densities, Auger recombination can become a
significant loss mechanism in c-Si solar cells, particularly under high illumination levels.

Quantum Efficiency Measurements of Solar Cells 11

Surface Recombination: The presence of surface defects and impurities can lead to increased
recombination near the cell's surface, reducing the overall efficiency.
 Amorphous Silicon/Microcrystalline Silicon Tandem Solar Cell: Since Tandem Solar
Cells have multiple sub-cells on top of each other, with different bandgaps to capture
larger range of wavelength spectrum. Blue and Red filters are used to measure the
efficiency at the two layers, and two graphs are plotted according to that.

EQE & IQE vs Wavelength (Cell-5: Tandem Cell under Blue filter)
1.00E+02
9.00E+01
8.00E+01
Quantum Efficiency (%)

7.00E+01
6.00E+01
5.00E+01
4.00E+01
3.00E+01
2.00E+01
1.00E+01
0.00E+00
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 0 3 4 3 8 4 2 4 6 5 0 5 4 5 8 6 2 6 6 7 0 7 4 7 8 8 2 8 6 9 0 9 4 9 8 1 02 1 06 1 10
Wavelength (nm)

EQE1 IQE1

EQE & IQE vs Wavelength (Cell-5: Tandem Cell under Red filter)
9.00E+01
8.00E+01
7.00E+01
Quantum Efficiency (%)

6.00E+01
5.00E+01
4.00E+01
3.00E+01
2.00E+01
1.00E+01
0.00E+00
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 0 3 4 3 8 4 2 4 6 5 0 5 4 5 8 6 2 6 6 7 0 7 4 7 8 8 2 8 6 9 0 9 4 9 8 1 02 1 06 1 10
Wavelength (nm)

EQE2 IQE2

Absorption Loss: Each sub-cell absorbs specific parts of the solar spectrum, and any
mismatch in their absorption spectra can lead to sub-optimal photon utilization.
Recombination Loss: The presence of defects and grain boundaries in both a-Si:H and µc-Si:H
layers can contribute to recombination losses, impacting the overall efficiency of the tandem
cell.

Quantum Efficiency Measurements of Solar Cells 12

  Task D: Calculate Short Circuit Current Density
For the calculation of JSC, first we need to have the AM (Extraterrestrial Irradiance) and AM
(1.5). We obtained both of these from the NERL websites, and we filtered and selected the
wavelength spectra needed, which is between 300nm-1100nm. We also calculated the flux
in MS Excel for every respective wavelength.

For the current density, JSC we used the following equation:

JSC= ∫(EQE(λ)*AM1. 5G(λ)*q*λ/h*c)dλ (Sinicco, 2020)
where,
Q= Charge of electron
C= Speed of light
h= Planck’s constant

We then integrate it over the wavelength of range from 300nm to 1100nm with the help of
trapezoidal rule in MS Excel and calculate JSC for all the observed Solar cells in the
experiment.
 For AM (Extraterrestrial Irradiance) we have,
1. Microcrystalline Silicon pin solar cell (Cell1): JSC= 26.2 mA/cm2
2. Crystalline Silicon Single-Junction Solar Cell (Cell2): JSC= 35.8 mA/cm2
3. Amorphous Silicon pin solar cell: JSC= 17.4 mA/cm2
4. Amorphous Silicon/Microcrystalline Silicon Tandem Solar Cell:
JSC (under blue filter) = 13.6 mA/cm2
Jsc (under red filter) =14.1 mA/cm2

 For AM (1.5)
1. Microcrystalline Silicon pin solar cell (Cell1): Jsc= 21.6 mA/cm2
2. Crystalline Silicon Single-Junction Solar Cell (Cell2): Jsc= 29.4 mA/cm2
3. Amorphous Silicon pin solar cell: Jsc= 13.9 mA/cm2
4. Amorphous Silicon/Microcrystalline Silicon Tandem Solar Cell:
Jsc (under blue filter) = 11.6 mA/cm2
Jsc (under red filter) = 11 mA/cm2

Quantum Efficiency Measurements of Solar Cells 13

  Task E: Calculate the Power Conversion Efficiency
The Open Circuit Voltage (VOC) was calculated by the formula given below, by using bandgap
for every specific solar cell.

(VOC) =(0.75/e) * Bandgap

Power Conversion Efficiency (PCE) of a solar cell can be determined using the following
formula:
PCE = (V OC ∗ JSC ∗ FF)/Pin
For AM (1.5), we have Pin = 1000 W/m2 and FF = 0.8 with JSC calculated in above task.
1. Microcrystalline Silicon pin solar cell (Cell1):
JSC = 21.6 mA/cm2,
Bandgap= 1.12eV
PCE= 14.51%

2. Crystalline Silicon Single-Junction Solar Cell (Cell2):

JSC = 29.4 mA/cm2,
Bandgap= 1.1eV,
PCE= 19.4%

3. Amorphous Silicon pin solar cell:

JSC = 13.9 mA/cm2,
Bandgap= 1.75eV,
PCE= 14.63%

4. Amorphous Silicon/Microcrystalline Silicon Tandem Solar Cell:

When calculating the power conversion efficiency of a tandem solar cell, the Jsc of the
limiting subcell should be considered. The limiting subcell is the one that has the lowest Jsc,
as this determines the overall current that the tandem structure can produce. As in tandem
cell layers are connected in series to each other so, to fulfil the current matching constraint
Jsc of the limiting subcell sets the upper limit for the current generation. Hence, we use Jsc
we get using red filter. Voc calculated using high band gap and putting all these values in
above equation and got 15.47% power conversion efficiency for our tandem cell.

JSC (under blue filter) = 11.6 mA/cm2,

Low Bandgap = 1.12eV,
JSC (under red filter) =11 mA/cm2,
High Bandgap = 1.75eV,
PCE = 15.47 %

Quantum Efficiency Measurements of Solar Cells 14

 9. Conclusion
This Quantum Efficiency experiment highlights the important link between the Incident Light
wavelengths and Solar Cell Efficiency. After evaluating this parameter, we analyse the effi-
ciency of the light absorption of solar cells across different wavelengths. We learn the basic
configuration of the EQE system and get acquainted with the significance of Quantum Effi-
ciency with four different types of solar cells. By revealing the EQE spectrum and emphasiz-
ing optimal efficiency within specific wavelength ranges, the study informs solar cell design,
enhancing overall performance for more efficient and sustainable energy conversion.

10. References
(n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.pvsyst.com/help/pvmodule_model.htm

Alternative Energy Tutorials. (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://www.alternative-energy-tutorials.com/photovoltaics/solar-cell-i-v-characteristic.html

C.B. Honsberg, S. B. (2019). Photovoltaics Education Website. Retrieved from www.pveducation.org

Carsten Schinke, S. S. (2019). Analysis of the Quantum Efficiency. Physikalisches

Fortgeschrittenenpraktikum.

D.K. Sharma, G. P. (2014). Analysis of the Effect of Fill Factor on the Efficiency of Solar PV System for
Improved Design of MPPT. The 6th World Conference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion (p.
1281). WCPEC.

Matevž Bokalič, M. J. (2009). Solar Cell Efficiency Mapping by LBIC. 45th International Conference on
Microelectronics, Devices and Materials & The Workshop on Advanced Photovoltaic Devices
and Technologies, (p. 270). Postojna.

Single Diode Equivalent Circuit Models. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://pvpmc.sandia.gov/modeling-

steps/2-dc-module-iv/single-diode-equivalent-circuit-models/

Lab Manual provided by the Supervisors- J. Roger, Prof. Ulrich W. Paetzold Light Technology Institute
(LTI), KIT

Sinicco, I. (2020). Re: How to calculate the current density (Jsc) from EQE for DSSC? Retrieved from
ResearchGate:
https://www.researchgate.net/post/How_to_calculate_the_current_density_Jsc_from_EQE_
for_DSSC/5e7a1e4325dedb5bf177b935/citation/download.

Zurich Instruments. (2016, November). Retrieved from

https://www.zhinst.com/europe/en/resources/principles-of-lock-in-detection

Quantum Efficiency Measurements of Solar Cells 15