Electronics Unit 1 - B.Tech 2nd Year

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Electronics Engineering (BEC-101/201) & (KOE – 038/048)

SYLLABUS
BEC – 101/201 KOE – 038/048
Unit Topics Unit Topics
Semiconductor Diode: Depletion PN junction diode: Introduction of semiconductor materials;
layer, V-I characteristics, ideal and Semiconductor diode: Depletion layer, V-I characteristics,
practical Diodes, Diode Equivalent I ideal and practical, diode resistance, capacitance, diode
Circuits, Zener Diodes breakdown equivalent circuits, transition and diffusion capacitance, Zener
mechanism (Zener and avalanche) diodes breakdown mechanism (Zener and avalanche).
Diode Application: Diode
Diode application: Series, parallel and series, parallel diode
Configuration, Half and Full Wave
I rectification, Clippers, Clampers,
configuration, half and full wave rectification, clippers,
clampers, Zener diode as shunt regulator, voltage-multiplier
Zener diode as shunt regulator,
circuits special purpose two terminal devices : light-emitting
Voltage-Multiplier Circuits II diodes, Varactor (Varicap) diodes, tunnel diodes, liquid crystal
Special Purpose two terminal
displays.
Devices: Light-Emitting Diodes,
Photo Diodes, Varactor Diodes,
Tunnel Diodes.
SYLLABUS
BEC – 101/201 KOE – 038/048
Bipolar Junction Transistor: Bipolar junction transistors and field effect transistor: Bipolar
Transistor Construction, Operation, junction transistor: Transistor construction, operation,
Amplification action. Common Base, amplification action, common base, common emitter, common
Common Emitter, Common Collector collector configuration dc biasing BJTs: operating point,
Configuration fixed-bias, emitter bias, voltage-divider bias configuration.
II Field Effect Transistor: III Collector feedback, emitter-follower configuration. Bias
Construction and Characteristic of stabilization. CE, CB, CC amplifiers and AC analysis of
JFETs. Transfer Characteristic. single stage CE amplifier (re Model), Field effect transistor:
MOSFET (MOS) (Depletion and Construction and characteristic of JFETs. AC analysis of CS
Enhancement) Type, Transfer amplifier, MOSFET (depletion and enhancement) type,
Characteristic. transfer characteristic.

SYLLABUS
BEC – 101/201 KOE – 038/048
Operational Amplifiers: Operational amplifiers: Introduction and block diagram of Op-
Introduction, Op-Amp basic, Amp, ideal & practical characteristics of Op-Amp, differential
Practical Op-Amp Circuits amplifier circuits, practical Op-Amp circuits (inverting
(Inverting Amplifier, Non-inverting amplifier, non-inverting amplifier, unity gain amplifier,
III Amplifier, Unit Follower, Summing IV summing amplifier, integrator, differentiator), Op- Amp
Amplifier, Integrator, parameters: input offset voltage, output offset voltage, input
Differentiator).Differential and biased current, input offset current differential and common-
Common-Mode Operation, mode operation.
Comparators.

FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRONICS
Electronics Engineering & (KOE – (BEC-101/201)
ENGINEERING
(BEC-101/201) 038/048)
BEC – 101/201

ENGINEERING
(BEC-101/201) 038/048)
KOE – 038/048
Unit V

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(BEC-101/201) 038/048)
 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS:
 The branch of engineering which deals with the flow of Electrons
through vacuum, gas or semiconductor is called Electronics.
 Electronics essentially deals with electronic devices and their
utilization.

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 ATOMIC STRUCTURE:
 Atom is the basic building block of all the elements.
 Electrostatic force of attraction between electrons and the nucleus
holds up electrons in different orbits.

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 A proton is positively charged particle, while the neutron has the same
mass as the proton, but has no charge.
 Therefore, nucleus of an atom is positively charged.
Atomic Weight = No. of protons + No. of neutrons

Atomic Number = No. of protons or electrons in an atom

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 An electron is a negatively charged particle having negligible mass.
 The charge on an electron is equal but opposite to that on a proton.
 In an atom under ordinary conditions.
Number of electrons = Number of protons

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 VALENCE ELECTRONS:
 The electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom are known as valence
electrons.
 Outermost orbit can have a maximum of 8 electrons.
 Valence electrons determine the physical and chemical properties of a
material.
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 Classification of Materials on basis of Valance Electrons:

Conductor(Metal):
 Number of valence electrons of an atom < 4
 Examples :
o Sodium(No of Valance electrons: 1 )
o Magnesium (No of Valance electrons: 2 )
o Aluminium (No of Valance electrons: 3 )

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 Insulator(Non-Metal):
 Number of valence electrons of an atom > 4
 Examples :
o Nitrogen (No of Valance electrons: 5 )
o Sulphur (No of Valance electrons: 6 )
o Neon (No of Valance electrons: 8 )

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 Semiconductor:
 When Number of valence electrons of an atom = 4
 The material has both metal and non-metal properties and is usually a semiconductor.
 Examples :
o Carbon
o Silicon
o Germanium.

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 Free Electrons:
 The valence electrons of different material possess different energies.
 The greater the energy of a valence electron, the lesser it is bound to the nucleus.
 In metals, the valence electrons possess so much energy that they are very loosely attached to
the nucleus.
 The loosely attached valence electrons move at random within the material and are called free
electrons.

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 Energy Bands:
 In case of a single isolated atom an electron in any orbit has definite energy.
 When atoms are brought together as in solids, an atom is influenced by the forces from other
atoms.
 Hence an electron in any orbit can have a range of energies rather than single energy.
 These range of energy levels are known as Energy bands.
 Within any material there are two distinct energy bands in which electrons may exist like
Valence band and conduction band.

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 Electrons in conduction band are either escaped from their atoms (free electrons) or only
weakly held to the nucleus.
 Thereby by the electrons in conduction band may be easily moved around within the material
by applying relatively small amount of energy. (either by increasing the temperature or by
focusing light on the material etc.)
 But much larger amount of energy must be applied in order to extract an electron from the
valence band.

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 This is because electrons in valence band are usually in the normal orbit around a nucleus.
 For any given material, the forbidden gap may be large, small or non-existent.

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 Classification of Materials on Basis of Energy Band
Diagram:
 Based on Width of the forbidden gap materials are broadly classified as:
 Conductors
 Insulators
 Semiconductors

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Conductors
 Conductors allow electric current to pass through them. Example: Copper, Al, salt
solutions, etc.

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 Since, conductors have no forbidden gap.
 Large numbers of electrons are available for conduction even at extremely low temperatures.
Temperature
 Thus, conduction is possible even by a very weak electric field. of
Conductors
 In conductors, conductivity decreases with increase in temperature. Conductivity
of
 Effect of change in temperature in conductors can be given as: Conductors
Rt= R0 (1+αΔt) R0 : Initial resistance
Rt : Resistance after change in temperature by Δt
α : Temperature coefficient of Resistance
 As in conductors, resistance increases on increase in temperature, so α must be positive for conductors

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Insulators
 Insulators are those substance, which do not allow electric current to pass through them.
Example : rubber, glass, wood etc.
 Valance and Conduction band are widely separated.

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Semi-Conductors
 Semiconductors are those substance whose conductivity lies in between that of a
conductor and an insulator.
 Example: Silicon, Germanium, Gallium etc.
For Si, Eg = 1.1eV &

For Ge, Eg = 0.7eV

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 Effect of Temperature On Semiconductor:
 In semiconductors at room temperature,
 The valence band is partially filled.
 The conduction band is also partially filled.
 The energy gap between conduction band and valence band is narrow.
 Therefore, comparatively smaller electric field is required to push the electrons from valence band to
conduction band.
 At low temperatures in semiconductors ,
 valence band is completely filled and
 conduction band is completely empty.
 At very low temperature a semi-conductor actually behaves as an insulator.
 As temperature increases, conductivity of semiconductor increases.
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 Main features of semiconductors:
 Conductivity lies between conductor and insulator.
 Forbidden energy gap 0.2-2.5eV.
 At 0K a pure semiconductor behaves as an insulator.
 Semiconductor materials show a reduction in resistance with increase in
temperature.

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 Classification of Semiconductors:
 Semiconductors are classified into two types.
 Intrinsic semiconductors.
 Extrinsic semiconductors.

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 Intrinsic semiconductors.
 A semiconductor in an extremely pure form is known as Intrinsic semiconductor.
Example: Silicon, Germanium
 Silicon and Germanium are tetravalent (having 4 valence electrons).
 Each atom forms a covalent bond or electron pair bond with the electrons of
neighbouring atom.

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 Crystalline structure of Intrinsic Semiconductor at Low Temperature:

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 Crystalline structure of Intrinsic Semiconductor at Low Temperature:
 Atoms has no free electrons available for conduction (All the valence electrons are
tightly bounded)
 The semiconductor therefore behaves as an Insulator at absolute zero temperature
(O-K)

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 Crystalline structure of Intrinsic Semiconductor at Room Temperature:
 In previous case, the atom had no free electrons available for conduction (i.e. All
the valence electrons were tightly bounded)
 But, At room temperature, some of the valence electrons gain enough thermal
energy to break up the covalent bonds.
 This breaking up of covalent bonds sets the electrons free and is available for
conduction.

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 When an electron escapes from a covalent bond and becomes free electrons a
vacancy is created in a covalent bond as shown in figure below:

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 Such a vacancy is called Hole & carries a positive charge.
 It moves under the influence of an electric field in the direction of the electric field
applied.
 The semiconductor crystal is electrically neutral as,
Numbers of holes = Number of electrons (Since, Hole is nothing but an absence of electrons)

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 Extrinsic semiconductors.
 When an impurity is added to an intrinsic semiconductor its conductivity changes.
 This process of adding impurity to a semiconductor is called Doping and the
impure semiconductor is called extrinsic semiconductor.
 Depending on the type of impurity added, extrinsic semiconductors are further
classified as:
 n-type semiconductor
 p-type semiconductor
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 When a small quantity of Pentavalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor it
is called as n-type semiconductor.
 Addition of Pentavalent impurity provides a large number of free electrons in a
semiconductor crystal.
 Examples for Pentavalent impurities:
- Arsenic
- Antimony
- Phosphorus
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 Such impurities which produce n-type semiconductors are known as Donor
impurities
 Because they donate or provide free electrons to the semiconductor crystal.
 To understand the formation of n-type semiconductor, consider a pure silicon crystal
with an impurity say Antimony added to it as shown in figure:

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The 5th Valence electron of the pentavalent
impurity finds no place in the covalent bond
thus, it becomes nearly free and travels to the
conduction band.

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 For each Antimony atom added, one free electron will be available in the silicon crystal.
 Though each Antimony atom provides one free electrons yet an extremely small amount of
Phosphorus impurity provides enough atoms to supply millions of free electrons.
 Due to thermal energy, still hole electrons pairs are generated but the number of free electrons
are very large in number when compared to holes.
 Thus in an n type semiconductor there are three types of charged particles:
1. Donor Ion (Positively Charged)
2. Majority carriers (here electrons which are negatively charged)
3. Minority carriers (here holes which are positively charged)
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 The resulting n type semiconductor is still electrically neutral.
 Here it must be remembered that ions are not free to move, and only carriers are
mobile.

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 When a small amount of trivalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor it is called p-type
semiconductor.
 The addition of trivalent impurity provides large number of holes in the semiconductor
crystals.
 Example: Gallium, Indium, Boron

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 Such impurities which produce p-type semiconductors are known as acceptor impurities.
 Because the holes created can accept the electrons in the semi conductor crystal.
 Silicon atom has 4 valence electrons and Gallium or BORON has 3 electrons.
 When Boron is added as impurity to silicon 3 valence electrons of Gallium or BORON make 3
covalent bonds with 3 valence electrons of silicon.

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 The 4th valence electrons of silicon left out because of short of one electron as shown in Fig.
This absence of electron is called a hole.

Therefore for each Boron atom added one
hole is created, a small amount of Boron
provides millions of holes.

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 Thus in an p type semiconductor there are three types of charged particles:
1. Acceptor Ion (Negatively Charged)
2. Majority carriers (here holes which are positively charged)
3. Minority carriers (here electrons which are negatively charged)

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 The resulting p type semiconductor is still electrically neutral.
 Here it must be remembered that ions are not free to move, and only carriers are mobile.

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 p-n junction diode (Unbiased Condition):
 When a p-type semiconductor material is suitably joined to n-type semiconductor the contact
surface is called a p-n junction.
 The p-n junction is also called as semiconductor diode.
 The left side material is a p-type semiconductor having –ve acceptor ions and +vely charged
holes. The right side material is n-type semiconductor having +ve donor ions and free
electrons.

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 Initially there is diffusion of charge Carriers (electrons and holes) from both sides of the
junction. These free charge Carriers recombine near the junction due to which reason is
formed which is known as depletion region.
 Due to recombination between electron and holes a region near the junction is formed which
contains only immobile ions and there is no fee charge carrier in this region. After formation
of this region diffusion across the junction stops.

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 A barrier is developed at the junction which is called barrier potential or cut-off voltage or
knee voltage. Value of barrier potential for Ge is 0.2 - 0.3 V and for Si is 0.6 - 0.7 V.

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 Biasing of p-n Junction:
 Connecting a p-n junction to an external d.c. voltage source is called biasing.
 Forward biasing
 Reverse biasing

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 Forward Bias Condition:
 In this condition p-type semiconductor is connected to positive and n-type semiconductor is
connected to negative terminal of the battery. Due to this biasing we can observe following
effects:
 Majority carriers on both sides of the junction will move towards the junction.
 Minority Carriers on both sides of the junction will move away from the junction.
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 The majority carriers move towards the junction, width of depletion region will decrease.
 Net current across the junction is only due to majority charge carriers and its directions from
p to n.
 A minimum positive voltage is required to start conduction in this condition. This minimum
positive voltage is known as knee voltage or cut in voltage

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 Reverse Bias Condition:
 In this condition n-type semiconductor is connected to positive and p-type is connected to
negative terminal of the battery. Due to this biasing, following effects can occur :
 Majority carriers on both sides of junction will move away from the junction.
 Minority Carriers on both sides of junction will move towards Junction.
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 As the majority of the carriers move away from the junction, width of depletion will increase
 Net current across the junction is only due to minority charge carriers and its directions from
n to p.
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 In Reverse bias condition the current across the junction is very small and become constant at
very low reverse bias Voltage. This constant current is known as reverse saturation current or
leakage current.

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 V-I Characteristics of p-n Junction diode:
 Irrespective of whether the diode is forward bias or reverse bias, the current ID flowing
through the diode is related to the applied voltage VD by the equation

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 Graphical Understanding of Diode Equation:

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 Graphical Understanding of Diode Equation:

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 Breakdown Mechanism in Reversed Biased Diode:
 If the reverse-bias applied to a P-N junction is increased; a point will reach when the
junction breaks down and reverse current rises sharply. This specific value of the reverse
bias voltage is called breakdown voltage (VZ).
 The following two processes cause junction breakdown due to the increase in reverse bias
voltage.
 Zener Breakdown
 Avalanche Breakdown

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 Zener Breakdown
 It occurs in highly doped diode. In highly doped diode width of depletion region is narrow.
 So electric field is very high in the depletion region. So, force is very high.
 This high force pulled the valence electrons into conduction band by breaking covalent
bonds.
 These electrons become free electrons which are available for conduction.
 A large no. of such free electrons will constitute a large reverse current and called the Zener
effect.
(Raising the temperature will cause
 Zener breakdown occurs less than 6 V.
smaller breakdown voltage)
 Temperature coefficient is negative.
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Avalanche Breakdown
 It occurs in lightly doped diode. In lightly doped diode width of depletion region is wide.
 So electric field is low. So, force is low. This low force cannot break the covalent bonds.
 As we increase the reverse voltage applied to the diode, the kinetic energy of minority
carriers increases.
 While travelling, these accelerated minority carriers will collide with the stationary atoms and
impart some of the kinetic energy to the valence electrons present. These valence electrons
will break their covalent bonds and jump into the conduction band to become free for
conduction.
 Now these newly generated free electrons get accelerated. They will knock out some more
valence electrons by means of collision. This phenomenon is called as carrier multiplication
or Avalanche effect.
 Avalanche breakdown occurs greater than 6 V.
(Raising the temperature will cause
 Temperature coefficient is positive. larger breakdown voltage)

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 Diode Resistance:
 When some external voltage is applied across a diode, some current flows.
 Therefore, the diode can be imagined to have some resistive behaviour.
 This resistive behaviour of diode is generally called diode resistance.
 On the basis of type of applied voltage, diode resistance can be divided into two
parts.
 Static resistance or DC resistance.
 Dynamic resistance or AC resistance.

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 Static resistance or DC resistance
 The resistive behaviour of diode in presence of DC source is called static resistance
or DC resistance. It can be defined as the ratio of applied DC voltage across diode
and its respective current.

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 Dynamic resistance or AC resistance
 Resistive behaviour of diode in presence of ac source is called dynamic resistance or AC
resistance.
 AC resistance can be calculated using the current and voltage values for two points on the
diode characteristic curve and is given as:

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 Diode Equivalent Circuit:
1. Piecewise linear equivalent circuits:
 In this circuit diode non-linear characteristics is replaced by a straight line. So, resistance of
diode is constant i.e. Rf is constant. Diode is replaced by battery with resistance in series.
2. Simplified equivalent circuits:
Since diode forward resistance is low so it can be neglected
i.e. Rf = 0. Diode is replaced by battery.
3. Ideal equivalent circuits:
In ideal diode Rf = 0, Vγ = 0 and IO = 0.
An ideal diode can be used as a perfect switch.
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 Diode junction capacitance:

 The ability of the material to store electric charge is called capacitance.
 In a p-n junction diode, two types of capacitance take place. They are,
 Transition capacitance (CT)
 Diffusion capacitance (CD)

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Transition capacitance (CT)
 Just like the capacitors, a reverse biased p-n junction diode also stores electric charge at
the depletion region. The depletion region is made of immobile positive and negative ions.
 In a reverse biased p-n junction diode, the p-type and n-type regions have low resistance.
Hence, p-type and n-type regions act like the electrodes or conducting plates of the
capacitor.
 The depletion region of the p-n junction diode has high resistance. Hence, the depletion
region acts like the dielectric or insulating material.
 In depletion region, the electric charges (positive and negative ions) do not move from one
place to another place. However, they exert electric field or electric force. Therefore, charge
is stored at the depletion region in the form of electric field.
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 The ability of a material to store electric charge is called capacitance. Thus, there exists a
capacitance at the depletion region.
 The capacitance at the depletion region changes
with the change in applied voltage. When
reverse bias voltage applied to the p-n junction
diode is increased, a large number
of holes (majority carriers) from p-side and
electrons (majority carriers) from n-side are
moved away from the p-n junction. As a result,
the width of depletion region increases whereas
the size of p-type and n-type regions (plates)
decreases.

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 We know that capacitance means the ability to store electric charge. The p-n junction diode
with narrow depletion width and large p-type and n-type regions will store large amount of
electric charge whereas the p-n junction diode with wide depletion width and small p-type
and n-type regions will store only a small amount of electric charge. Therefore, the
capacitance of the reverse bias p-n junction diode decreases when voltage increases.
 The amount of capacitance changed with increase in voltage is called transition capacitance.
The transition capacitance is also known as depletion region capacitance, junction
capacitance or barrier capacitance. Transition capacitance is denoted as CT.

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The change of capacitance at the depletion region can be defined as the change in electric
charge per change in voltage.
CT = dQ / dV
Where,
CT = Transition capacitance
dQ = Change in electric charge
dV = Change in voltage
The transition capacitance can be mathematically written as,
CT = ε A / W
Where,
ε = Permittivity of the semiconductor
A = Area of plates or p-type and n-type regions
W = Width of depletion region

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Diffusion capacitance (CD)

 Diffusion capacitance occurs in a forward biased p-n junction diode. Diffusion capacitance is
also sometimes referred as storage capacitance. It is denoted as CD.
 In a forward biased diode, diffusion capacitance is much larger than the transition
capacitance. Hence, diffusion capacitance is considered in forward biased diode.
 The diffusion capacitance occurs due to stored charge of minority electrons and minority
holes near the depletion region.
 When forward bias voltage is applied to the p-n junction diode, electrons (majority carriers)
in the n-region will move into the p-region and recombines with the holes. In the similar
way, holes in the p-region will move into the n-region and recombines with electrons. As a
result, the width of depletion region decreases.

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 Diffusion capacitance is directly proportional
to the electric current or applied voltage. If
large electric current flows through the diode,
a large amount of charge is accumulated near
the depletion layer. As a result, large diffusion
capacitance occurs.
The formula for diffusion capacitance is
CD = dQ / dV
Where,
CD = Diffusion capacitance
dQ = Change in number of minority carriers
stored outside the depletion region
dV = Change in voltage applied across diode

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Electronics Unit 1 - B.Tech 2nd Year

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Electronics Engineering (BEC-101/201) & (KOE – 038/048)

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through vacuum, gas or semiconductor is called Electronics.

 Electronics essentially deals with electronic devices and their

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 Electrostatic force of attraction between electrons and the nucleus

holds up electrons in different orbits.

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mass as the proton, but has no charge.

 Therefore, nucleus of an atom is positively charged.

Atomic Weight = No. of protons + No. of neutrons

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 An electron is a negatively charged particle having negligible mass.

 The charge on an electron is equal but opposite to that on a proton.

 In an atom under ordinary conditions.

Number of electrons = Number of protons

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 Outermost orbit can have a maximum of 8 electrons.

 Valence electrons determine the physical and chemical properties of a

 Classification of Materials on basis of Valance Electrons:

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o Nitrogen (No of Valance electrons: 5 )

o Sulphur (No of Valance electrons: 6 )

o Neon (No of Valance electrons: 8 )

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 These range of energy levels are known as Energy bands.

Valence band and conduction band.

weakly held to the nucleus.

by applying relatively small amount of energy. (either by increasing the temperature or by

focusing light on the material etc.)

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 Since, conductors have no forbidden gap.

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Example : rubber, glass, wood etc.

 Valance and Conduction band are widely separated.

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For Si, Eg = 1.1eV &

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 Main features of semiconductors:

 Conductivity lies between conductor and insulator.

 Forbidden energy gap 0.2-2.5eV.

 At 0K a pure semiconductor behaves as an insulator.

 Semiconductor materials show a reduction in resistance with increase in

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 The semiconductor therefore behaves as an Insulator at absolute zero temperature

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 Such impurities which produce n-type semiconductors are known as Donor

 Because they donate or provide free electrons to the semiconductor crystal.