Unbalanced forces develop in pipelines and occur at

elbows, tees, wyes, reducers, valves, and dead ends.

Unbalanced thrust forces that exist in pressure piping
systems must have adequate physical restraint in the
form of reactive forces for stabilizing the system.
Reactive forces can be provided by (1) introducing
external forces, such as blockings, (2) transmitting
forces to the pipe wall by restrained, harnessed,
flanged, or welded joints, and (3) by an interaction of
physical external forces and partial transmission of
forces to the pipe wall, such as in the case of buried
pipe with tied joints or a combination of tied joints and
blocks. The first method applies to piping systems,
either buried or exposed; the second covers only
exposed pipe installations; and the third is pertinent
only to buried piping systems.
An adequate restraint must limit and control move
Practical ment of the pipe segments within allowable limits,
thereby ensuring water tightness of joints and the
integrity of the entire piping system. For pump-station
Applications piping, particularly pump stations with large-size pipe,
control of movement is crucial to prevent structural or
mechanical failures, such as cracking of valve castings
for Design of and pipe and pump-shaft misalignments.
Theoretical Analysis
Thrust Blocks Thrust forces in a pipe occur whenever the direction
or velocity of the confined water changes. Forces are
and Tied Joints developed from internal static pressure and dynamic
action of water contained in the system. In most cases
dynamic forces are relatively small in comparison with
static forces resulting from internal pressure. However,
George E. Neher and Y. T. Lin for large diameter pipe operating under low head, high
velocity conditions, the velocity head should be given
Piping systems are prone to forces that must somehow due consideration in design.
be absorbed and balanced if they are to retain their The magnitude of the hydraulic forces generated in
integrity. Various factors contributing to pipe movement closed circuits is governed by (1) pipe size, (2) angle of
are examined and countermeasures explained. deflection, (3) operating pressure and velocity head, (4)
MARCH 1978 0003-150X/78/0300-0131 $01.00 G. E. NEHER & Y. T. LIN 131
1978 American Water Works Association
 2000

+ — AV2
9

500
400
300
R = Resultant Force 200
F = Thrust
100
A = Cross Sectional Area of Pipe
Tee and Plug R = F
W = Weight of Water
Tied Joints g = Gravitational Acceleration 12 16 20 24 30 36 42 48
Bend: FT = F cos I) h = Pressure Head
Pipe Diameter in.
T = F - Fi P = Pressure
T = Restraining Force Required for Tied Joints
= F-1-cos II
V = Velocity Fig. 2 . Thrust Blocking Design Criteria for Various Pipe Bends
Tee and Plug T = F
Internal pressure 0.69 MPa (100 psi): allowable soil-bearing pres
Fig. 1. Hydraulic Force Diagram for Pressure Conduit sure, 96 kPa (2 kip/sq ft)

TABLE 1
Requirements for Thrust Blocks or Tied Joints*

Blocking
Tied Lengthf
Length Height each way
Pipe Size
Bend Type in. m ft m ft m ft

90deg 12 1.0 4 0.60 2 15.5 51

16 2.0 7 0.60 2 18.0 60
20 2.0 7.5 0.9 3 22.0 72
24 3.5 11 0.9 3 25.5 84
30 4.0 12.5 1.0 4 31.0 102
36 4.5 15 1.5 5 34.5 113
Tee and plug 12 1.0 3 0.6 2 15.5 51
16 1.5 5 .6 2 18.5 60
20 1.5 5.5 0.9 3 22.0 72
24 2.0 7.5 0.9 3 25.5 84
30 3.0 9 1.0 4 31.0 102
'Note,: Mate all hori$. brnd$ ia
36 3.5 11.5 1.5 4.5 36.5 119 sing cofiiinationaf ffa deflection
60 deg 12 1.0 3 0.6 2 7.6 25 angles one/ thrust blocks shoHfi in
Schedule above.
16 1.5 5 0.6 2 9.1 30 Use counter ~*yht crs skw
20 1.5 5.5 0.9 3 11.0 36 a* -fop of !{ verticaltends afar
5'ond use blocking epnaf to
24 2.5 7.5 0.9 3 13.0 42
30 2.5 9 1.0 4 15.5 51
LT a.-fcW. floriy.bcrid kfocking af&ottein
of all vertical bends.

36 3.5 11.5 1.5 4.5 18.0 59

45 deg or wye 12 1.0 3 0.5 1.5 4.6 15
16 1.0 4 0.6 2 5.5 18
20 1.0 4 0.9 3 6.4 21 EL ZVATtON EL EV4 T1ON'.
24 2.0 6 0.9 3 7.6 25 TEE OR PLUG BENDS
30 2.0 7 1.0 4 9.1 30 TEE & BEND BLOCKING IN SOfL
36 3.0 10 1.0 4 10.7 35
30deg 12 0.6 2 0.5 1.5 2.1 7
16 0.8 2.5 0.6 2 2.4 8
20 1.0 3.5 0.8 25 3.0 10
24 1.0 4 0.9 3 3.4 11
30 1.5 5.5 1.0 3.5 4.3 14
36 2.0 6.5 1.0 4 4.9 16
22K deg 12 0.6 2 0.3 1 1.2 4
16 0.8 2.5 0.5 1.5 1.5 5 ELEVATION SECTION
20 0.9 3 0.6 2 1.8 6
24 0.9 3 0.9 3 1.8 . 6 ffftfffen ir"*" e r c ft c
A A
30 1.0 4 1.0 3.5 2.4 8 Iff TV 43* ff a r-c 10' II' II' n' II'
UfTOSo' 8' a' 8 to 1 S-C'
36 1.5 5 1.0 4 3.0 10 (. to' 7
11M deg 12 0.3 1 0.3 1 0.3 1 T f'-f f >' n' <?
uf-me* T V
16 0.5 1.5 0.5 1.5 0.3 1 £>zi PIPS JYfrv f r evu /a.-o
20 0.5 1.5 0.6 2 0.3 1
24 0.6 2 0.8 2.5 0.6 2 CONCRETE COUNTER-WEIGHT FOR VERTICAL BENDS IN PIPELINE
30 0.8 2.5 0.9 3 0.6 2
36 1.0 4 0.9 3 0.6 2

*For internal pressure of 0.69 MPa (100 psi) and an allowable soil-bearing pressure of 96 kPa Fig. 3. Typical Blocking Schedule
(2 kip/sq ft)
fTied length = 0.3T /(2 (soil weight) + pipe weight + water weight] where the pipe weight Internal pressure, 0.85 MPa (125 psi); allowable soil-bearing pres
is that for ductile iron, class 522. Soil weight = 100 Ib/cu ft. sure, 96 kPa (2 kip/sq ft)

132 OPERATIONS JOURNAL AWWA


12 16 20 24 30 36 42
Pipe Diameter in.
Fig. 4. Volume Requirements for Thrust Blocks
Pressure conditions as for Fig. 2
water-hammer pressure, and (5) thermal expansion or
contraction.
Of these five factors, 1 through 4 must be given
proper design consideration for both exposed and
buried pipe. The thermal expansion and contraction for
buried pipe are of minor importance and can usually be
neglected without practical effect. However, for some
cases of exposed piping systems, thermal expansion
and contraction do become important factors.
For a restrained piping system, thermal stress due to
temperature change is
S = Eel
Also
F = aEet
where E is the modulus of elasticity of the pipe mate
rial,
e is the coefficient of linear expansion,
t is the change in temperature,
S is the unit stress,
F is the total force developed, and
a is the area of the pipe's cross section.
For an unrestrained piping system, of length J,
thermal expansion or contraction can be computed as
Ai = etl
Stress elongation due to operational pressure head or
water hammer can be estimated as
MARCH 1978
SECTIONA-A
•Scale '/*'" I'-O'
SECTION B-B so,h:&••?•<>•
Fig. 5. Dead-End Redesigned for Add-On Connection
Internal pressure 0.85 MPa (125 psi)
c- a£
Figure 1, a hydraulic force diagram for pressurized
conduits, shows a typical pipe bend with a deflection
angle 9. In this pipe of constant diameter under steady-
flow conditions, the two unbalanced forces F may be
combined with R, the equilibrant required for blocking.
Resolved into components, F and T can be obtained as
the required balance for tying or harnessing pipe joints.
For tees and dead-end pipe, T = F = PA, which means
that the entire force comes into play.
In the specific case of 90 deg bends, the thrust for
blocking purposes R is ^/ 2 PA, whereas for tying of
pipe joints, F equals T, which equals PA.
Practical Considerations
Pipelines buried in earth become a part of an envi
ronment in which the physical characteristics can
change abruptly in short distances. Although pipe is
normally laid to varying shallow depths in unconsoli-
dated materials by cut and cover methods, many
kilometers of pipe are laid in rock, in tunnels, and
under marine conditions.
When engineers design buried piping systems, the
trenching conditions in the installation are for all
practical purposes usually unknown. If rock or highly
G. E. NEHER & Y. T. LIN 133
 160 /SB
A *\ PROFIL.E.
a-o\_'
•f'O' £ '1*1 -Tfinbtr Pi'/ct
= j- -- H /under ffn Soufhaide of ftalf
PLAN SECTIONA-A
Rg. 6. Pipe Deflection Incurred for a Particular Project Because of
Unforeseen Trench Conditions
unstable soils are expected, borings are made to esti
mate to what extent these conditions prevail. But for
the great majority of projects, some quite extensive, no
knowledge of trenching conditions exists until the
backhoe takes its bite.
Since safe bearing pressures of soils can vary as
widely as the soil types, it is prudent to take a conser
vative approach to the design of restraints for unbal
anced hydraulic forces. Based upon judgments made
after many years of experience, it has been determined
that an allowable soil pressure of about 96 kPa (2000 lb/
sq ft) is a safe figure for trench wall bearing, which will
suffice for almost all trenching conditions except for
previously excavated areas, quicksand, muck, and very
soft clays. Fortunately, such formations are fairly rare,
but when they are encountered special provisions must
be made.
In areas of previously excavated trenches or where
there is the likelihood of additional underground
activity in the future, the use of thrust blocking is often
precluded. In such situations the analysis and subse
quent design for tying of joints should be based, as in
the case of blocking, upon conservative parameters,
particularly with regard to large feeder mains.
Experience has demonstrated that safety factors for
indeterminates such as the improper tamping of back-
134 OPERATIONS
ise
12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 84 90 96
SECTION B-& Fig. 7. Balancing Forces Required for Tied Joints
Internal pressure 0.69 MPa (100 psi)
fill, the failure of a mechanic to tighten all the bolts on a
restrained joint (in particular the ones not easily reach
ed), the fluctuation in groundwater conditions, the
heterogeneous characteristics of soils, the shifting of
loads, the overly opened joints, the failure of passive
soil pressure to react in time, and other factors of lesser
magnitude should not be glossed over without due
regard to the consequences. Diligent, thorough inspec
tion during installation can aid in lessening the impact
of these indeterminate factors but cannot be fully
counted upon.
For small-sized pipe, 12 in. and less, there is a line of
options for controlling runaway pipe deflections. Each
is good, has its advocates, and through experience has
proved its worth. Some swear by hardwood-block
supports; others by concrete; whereas many in recent
years have extolled the virtures of tie rods, clamping
devices, retainer glands, and anchored fittings. The
main concern is that the pipe stay in place: hardwood
blocks should be driven to compress the trench wall;
concrete should be placed against native soil; and
ferrous metal tying systems must be protected with
ample coatings of bitumastic or other protective envel
opes to prevent deterioration.
Flexible tied jointing systems from different manu
facturers vary considerably as to method of restraint,
JOURNAL AWWA
degree of flexibility, and materials of construction.
Special joints are expensive and, for sizes 16-in. and
upward, can increase the per-foot material cost of full
lengths of pipe from 15 to 50 per cent. Where both
methods of restraint i.e., blocks or tied joints are
applicable to a given situation, a cost analysis should
be made to determine the most economical solution.
Thrust Blocks
Figure 2 displays the resultant forces created in
closed conduits under a 0.69-MPa (100-psi) head for
pipe up to 72-in. in diameter for various degrees of
angular deflection. Also shown is the reaction blocking
area required for a 96 kPa (2000 Ib/sq ft) trench-wall
loading as previously mentioned. From this graph other
resultant forces and reaction-blocking areas may be
calculated by multiplying the ratio of greater or lesser
internal pressures and safe bearing values by appro
priate ratios.
It is of interest to note that for thrust-block solutions
a tee, plug, and 60-deg bend generate the same resultant
forces and require like reaction areas. Although full
lengths of bevel pipe would not require restraint for a
96-kPa (2000-lb/sq ft) soil, under certain conditions
bevel adaptors of short laying lengths could.
Figure 3 was developed for a previously installed
transmission main project, some 64 km (40 mi) in
length. The internal design pressure 0.85 MPa (125 psi)
and an allowable soil-bearing value of 96 kPa (2 kip/sq
ft) were selected to cover whatever material might be
encountered in the entire length of trench excavation.
The schedule shows the size of the thrust blocks for 48-,
60-, and 72-in. pipe. Also shown is a table for counter
weights for vertical top bends. The counterweights are
nothing more than gravity blocks of concrete that
balance the upward hydraulic forces of vertical pipe
line deflections. At the bottom of the vertical bends,
concrete pads, in the same proportion as required for
horizontal bends, are used.
MARCH 1978
It should be noted that the incidences where reaction
blocking and counterweighting are necessary on a
project some 64 km long are quite minimal and add
very little to the total cost.
Large-degree top-vertical bends are to be avoided if
possible. The vertical transitions are better and of more
economical design if accomplished gently. The same
holds true for large horizontal deflections if sufficient
right-of-way is available to accommodate them.
The geometric configuration of the blocks (for esti
mating and general construction purposes) may be
altered somewhat as long as the minimum bearing area
H X L is provided where H and L are the height and
length, respectively, of the bearing area.
Forming for the concrete blocks is usually
accomplished by sand bags backed up by trench fill. A
four-bag concrete mix with a water cement ratio of
about 30 1 (8 gal) per sack is more than adequate to
transmit the thrust loads to the undistributed portion of
the trench wall.
An estimate of the quantity of concrete in cubic
yards needed for various-sized concrete blocks is
shown in Fig. 4. The curves show the volume of
blocking for pipelines 12- through 72-in. under a 0.69-
MPa (100-psi) internal pressure, assuming a safe
bearing value of 96 kPa (2 kip/sq ft) for the side walls of
the excavation. The approximate yardage is calculated
by the equation: 'A H (L -1).
Figure 4 may be conveniently reworked for costs by
substituting current prices for ready-mix concrete.
Under circumstances where design indicates that
blocks, or tied joints, or both are applicable for
restraint, the decision on which to use will logically be
based on cost.
Special Applications
Complex interconnections. Figure 5 shows the design
for a dead end, with provision for future extension and
a five-valve connection and crossover between a new
G. E NEHER & Y T. LIN 135
 60-in. main and an existing 48-in. main. (The latter
could be taken out of service for a time to allow a cut-
in.) It is seen that many unbalanced hydraulic forces of
various magnitudes are in play.
The main force to be reckoned with for the 0.85-MPa
(125-psi) pressure criteria is the thrust on the 60-in.
blank flange. This force, some 1.6 X 106 N (350 kip), has
been overcome by two sets of interlocking steel sheets
tied into an unexcavated sandy soil formation. The son
loading on the two sets of sheets, about 23 m 2 (250 sq ft),
is about 67 kPa (1400 Ib/sq ft). The concrete placed
ahead of the sheeting transmits the thrust from the
under and over 24 WF 120# sections (designed for
minimum deflection), which take the hydraulic thrust
from the two load-transfer stubs.
Other unresolved forces in this piping system are
those in the 60- by 36-in. tee looking up; the 36-in., 90-
deg vertical bend; the 36-in., 30-deg horizontal bend;
and the 48- by 36-in. tee. The downward thrust of the
60- by 36-in. tee is nullified by a concrete pad, and the
other unrestrained forces are negated by the gravita
tional weight of pipe, water, and earth. The flanged
gasket joints are adequately protected from corrosion
by protective coatings.
The 60-in. blind flange is to be removed in the future
for installation of a 72-in. transmission-main extension
without shutdown of either pipeline that is presently in
service. Connections such as these should be of very
conservative design and based upon sound engineering
judgment. The slight additional cost between a safe-or-
sorry design for a few such connections on multimillion
dollar transmission-main projects is well justified.
Pipe bend on piling. Problems almost always arise in
the field after designs are complete, bids taken,
contracts let, pipe purchased, and pipe installed. Often
solutions must be found at the site. The appearance of
the topography, for example, can effectively hide
mysteries beneath the earth as encountered in the more
than 40-km-(25-mi-)long transmission-main project de
picted in Fig. 6. The contractor's crew on that section of
the work was laying an average of about 120 m (400 ft)
of 42-in. pipe per day. At the end of each day, a cap was
installed. One morning it was found that the last pipe
laid the previous day had settled and come completely
out of the bell. The logical solution was tried: stabilize
the bottom by replacing unsuitable material with gran
ular bedding. In a short time it became apparent that
this was not the answer. Soon the excavation was such
that it took several days to remove the backhoe, which
had been operating on mats. A muck deposit of
substantial size had been encountered.
The depth of the deposit was probed with a re-bar,
which delineated the depths as shown on the profile. It
was prudent to skip this area until the frost of winter
could allow heavy track-mounted equipment sufficient
support. Meanwhile, field solutions were worked out.
Local timber was cut, stripped, and peeled for piling,
and the engineer in residence designed the pile bents
and concrete cradle after conferences with the pipe
manufacturer and the installation contractor.
Later, with conditions right (frost line well below the
surface), the construction within the muck area was
accomplished at little extra cost to the owner. The
136 OPERATIONS
unbalanced forces of the gradual horizontal deflection
of 27 deg were absorbed by concrete blocking tied
integrally with the concrete cradle atop the piling
section and by the natural physical forces in that
portion of the segmental curve where average trenching
conditions were encountered.
The pipeline has been in service many years and is a
part of a single water-supply transmission main serving
some 100 000 people.
Tied Joints
As previously shown, the force generated by
hydraulic pressures to be balanced by a tied system is
given by the expression
T = F = PA (1 - cos 6)
The curves plotted in Fig. 7 for pipe diameters of 12-96
in. are convenient for estimating the total force to be
restrained for various pipeline deflections from 11 %-90
deg.
These curves, based on calculations for a design head
of 0.69 MPa [(100 psi) (230 ft approximately)], can be
readily adapted for greater or less design pressures by
multiplying the curve data for any particular pipe size
by the appropriate ratio.
For buried service, when determining which lengths
of pipe are to be restrained to counteract hydraulic
forces, conservative parameters should be used as
elaborated earlier. Simply stated, the major force in a
tied system restricting the thrust T is frictional
resistance to movement occasioned by the dead loads
of pipe, water, and trench backfill.
The magnitude of these dead loads is readily calcu
lated once the size, material, and the minimum depth of
cover is established. The one unknown in the analysis,
the one with the greatest impact, is the earth: hetero
geneous, and complex to an extreme.
Prudent designs for buried tied-piping arrangements
should embody a conservative approach to cover the
whole gamut of soil characteristics, trench wall condi
tions, compaction of backfill, and all the other
unknown variables.
Table 1 shows the conditions of pressure, depth of
cover, and unit weight of backfill indicated for pipe
sizes 12- through 36-in. The coefficient of friction is
taken as 0.30 according to best engineering judgment to
cover all cases except those encountered in unstable
ground.
For comparison, the blocking necessary to ac
complish an equivalent restraint is shown. Although
the pipe weight for Table 1 is based on class 522 ductile
iron, the tied lengths are equally applicable for
concrete pipe. Where the tied lengths are indicated as
less than the laying length for small deflections, only
the bend needs to be tied.
Yard and Plant Applications
In the vicinity and at the site of water-treatment
plants and pump stations, extremes in head conditions
are normally encountered. These heads may vary from
the low of open-channel flow to those in excess of 1.38
MPa (200 psi) without allowance for water hammer. In
such locales it is of utmost importance that reliability
and continuity of water supply be maintained. .
JOURNAL AWWA
 .Sent,

24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 84 90
Pipe Diameter in

Fig. 10. Tied Lengths for Low-Head Pipe Yard Piping

Conditions as for Fig. 8

12 18 21 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 7B 84 90

Fig. 8. Resultant Forces for Blocking for Low-Head Plant Yard

Piping
Internal pressure, 30 kPa (10 ft head); velocity, 0.6 m/s (2 fps)

12 18 24 30 36 42 46 54 60 66 72 7

Fig. 9. Balancing Forces for Tied Joints for Low-Head Plant Yard Fig, 11. Two Tied-Joint Configurations for Suspended Piping
Piping
Conditions as for Fig. 8

MARCH 1978 G. E. NEHER & Y. T. LIN 137

 Support for thrusts by blocking buried piping in
constricted plant areas is not possible because of the
existence of previously installed utilities and the need
for future extensions. Under such conditions, tied joints
or a combined restraint of tied-blocked joints are in
order.
Figure 8 shows the resultant force R created by low
head, low velocity conditions, which are often the
average values encountered in water treatment
processes. Although the total forces to be restrained are
comparatively small, in pipes entering poured-concrete
structures through wall sleeves with fitting bends
located close to the wall, the fittings and pipe entering
the structure should be blocked if possible. If not,
fittings should be tied integrally with the concrete wall
to prevent movement and subsequent leakage.
Figure 9 is a graphic presentation of the balancing
forces required for restraining yard- and plant-piping
systems up to 96-in. diameter. Tees, plugs, and 90-deg
bends for tied joints of the same pipe diameter require
the same balancing-system equilibrium. As stated in
previous examples, the required balancing forces for
design heads other than 30 kPa (10 ft) may be derived
by multiplying curve data by the proper head ratio for
the pipe sizes and fittings under consideration.
Tied lengths of yard-piping systems in plant areas are
shown in Fig. 10. The lengths were figured for conduit
sizes to 96-in. diameter operating under 30 kPa (10 ft) of
head. The calculations for the restrained lengths are on
the premise that practically all water plants have
expanded in physical size as needs increased at least
once since their founding. Thus additional, adequate
factors of safety should be introduced.
Figure 10 does not allow for the dead-load weight of
trench backfill (as it may not be there) in the frictional-
force's resisting movement. For tied joints in plant
yards, only the frictional resistance to sliding produced
by the combined weight of pipe and water is consid
ered and the formula for the frictional resisting force
is
f = (pipe .weight -I- water weight) X 0.3
As expected, the data plot is very flat. Though the
tied lengths of these low-head systems are short, they
are among the most important to be restrained.
Presently, there is a plant expansion under construc
tion where special piling tie-backs must be placed to
give temporary support to a 60-in. concrete bend laid
prior to the development of present-day special-design
tied-joint fittings. In most cases it is sufficient to only
restrain a few lengths of pipe each side of the bends,
and in the case of minor angular deflections, only the
fitting need be tied.
Flexible Joints-Tied
In water-utility practice tied joints with special flex
ible capabilities are for the most part limited to
exposed plant piping installations in pump stations and
water-treatment installations. These types of joints
must provide thrust resistance while providing suffi
cient clearances for installation and enough flexibility
to accommodate length changes due to temperature
variations. For a long, straight pump discharge header
with restrained ends, a proper design must include
138 OPERATIONS
adequate allowance for expansion and contraction.
Joints available for this type application are
harnessed Dresser-type sleeves, grooved or collared
Victualic-type couplings, and flanged coupling adapt
ers. For high heads, the Victualic and flanged-type tied
couplings are limited to small sizes. They are available
in large diameter for low-head conditions. For use in
systems of high pressure and large diameter (36 in. and
greater), harnessed Dresser-type sleeves offer a reliable
restrained flexible joint.
In Fig. 11 typical design examples of steel-pipe
discharge headers under 0.3 MPa (100-ft) maximum-
design head are demonstrated. Hangers are provided at
both sides of the joints to allow movement of the
header. In addition, two harness tie bolts are installed
for each joint to transmit thrust forces.
Figure 11, case A, shows a design example of a 42-m
(140-ft)-long welded-steel discharge header for eight
pumping units. The header was restrained by blocking
at a dead end and by a wall pipe with a water stop
collar at the other. The tied joint provides flexibility for
thermal expansion and contraction and transmission of
thrust forces. It also allows suitable clearances for
installations.
In case B, a 48-in. main is suspended from the floor
slab of an existing settling-inlet basin with an offset in
the open space between the two structures.
The settling basin portion of the 48-in. line is some
205 m (680 ft) in length and hung below the interme
diate slab of four equal-width two-story settling basins.
The header is anchored to the basin floor slab with a
tied joint to restrain the thrust and with sufficient
flexibility to prevent a thermal expansion-and-contrac-
tion movement of the wall pipe, precluding leakage at
the walls. This tied system must be designed to offset
thermal length variations of both the pipe and struc
tures.
The change in elevation and direction of the 48-in.
pipe between the structures is accomplished by the use
of steel segmental bends, suspended and tied, to resist
thrust and allow seasonal temperature-induced move
ment between the two structures without causing joint
damage.
Summary
Adequate supports of conservative design for
resisting unbalanced hydraulic forces created by direc
tional changes in piping systems must be provided to
ensure water tightness and integrity of all piping
systems. Since there is no way to predict the physical
characteristics of materials in which water mains are
laid in advance of excavating, a conservative basis for
design is recommended. The restraints provided for
exposed pipe systems and low-head yardage conduits
in water plants should also be of conservative design.
Thrust-restraint problems require practical solutions
based on proper evaluation of knowns using common
sense and, above all, sound engineering judgments.
An annual conference paper selected by the JOURNAL, authored by
George E. Neher (Active Member, AWWA), partner, and Y. T. Lin
(Active Member, AWWA), ch. design engr., both of Alvord, Burdick
and Howson (Consultant Member, AWWA), Chicago, III.
55765 5600
JOURNAL AWWA