MECHANICAL STRESSES IN TRANSFORMER WINDINGS*
By E. BILLIG, Dr.Tech., Member, f
(The paper was first received 13//; December, 1944, and in revised form 2&th February, 1945.
\2th December, 1946.)
SUMMARY
The forces and stresses set up in transformer windings and their
clamping structures, as the result of external or internal short-circuits
or of switching operations, are considered in detail.
Various arrangements of windings and tappings in large power
transformers are described. Points at which particularly high
mechanical stresses occur in concentric windings are discussed in
detail. Axial forces between the top and bottom halves of each
winding or between different windings are responsible for bending
stresses in turns near the ends or adjacent to gaps in the windings, for
compressive stresses in the body of the winding, and for tensile and
compressive stresses in the clamping gear. Radial forces produce
tensile stresses in the outer and buckling stresses in the inner winding.
Such stresses are more pronounced in coils adjacent to the main
leakage duct. The excessive mechanical stresses which can be caused
by internal electrical breakdowns are discussed. The mechanism of
cumulative shrinkage, the loss in clamping pressure due to switching
stresses and thermal cycles, and the danger of subsequent movement
of the windings causing abrasion of the insulation and final electrical
breakdown, are considered in detail. A rule is given for the minimum
clamping pressure that should be maintained within the windings.
Readers interested in the mathematical treatment of the subject-matter
arc referred to E.R.A. Reports, Refs. Q/T101, 103, 105 and 106, in
which quantitative expressions are derived for the maximum values of
currents, forces and stresses which can occur in the windings. Certain
statements made in this paper on the merits of various forms of design
represent the personal opinion of the author. They do not necessarily
express the official opinion of the E.R.A.
(1) INTRODUCTION
Although power transformers have attained a high degree of
reliability in service, breakdowns nevertheless do occur from time
to time under abnormal conditions. Such conditions arise when
transformers are subjected to frequent short-circuits at their
secondary terminals, with the supply voltage maintained at
nearly its full value. In large interconnected supply systems with
fault capacities of the order of 1 million kVA or more, the
voltage can be maintained even with the largest sizes of power
transformers in use to-day. The electromagnetic forces which
can be produced under such conditions are formidable. These
forces are applied not only to metallic conductors, but also to
insulating materials of greatly inferior mechanical strength, and
it will be readily understood that they must be given careful
consideration if serious damage is to be avoided.
(2) ARRANGEMENT OF WINDINGS
The magnetic energy of a transformer is stored in the magnetic
field in the iron core and in the space surrounding the windings.
The forces involved, therefore, greatly depend on the relative
disposition of the several parts.
"Sandwich" windings are no longer used for commercial core-
type transformers of the sizes under discussion, because of diffi-
culties in insulating, cooling and bracing the coils.
"Concentric" windings are now almost universally used, and
only this type will be considered. Usually the low-voltage wind-
ing is placed next to the core. In some cases a double-concentric
* Transmission Section paper.
f British Electrical and Allied Industries Research Association.
[227]
/ / was read before the TRANSMISSION SECTION
arrangement might be used with the h.v. winding sandwiched
between two concentric l.v. coils, in order to reduce the reactance
of very large h.v. transformers to a reasonably low value.
Because of their mechanical strength, circular coils only are
used for large transformers, this being the shape any coil tends
in general to assume under the action of electromagnetic
forces.
Current transformers are sometimes exposed to heavy short-
circuits, especially where used on a h.v. feeder supplying a local
load from a power station nearby. A fairly large number of
turns must then be used in the current transformer to give a
reasonable performance, with the result that when a short-
circuit occurs on the feeder excessively large forces will come
into play in the windings.
(3) ARRANGEMENT OF TAPPINGS
Some of the gravest dangers arise in windings which are not
properly "balanced" magnetically; e.g. if one winding were
axially displaced with respect to the other, if the windings were
of greatly differing axial lengths, or if a considerable part of one
winding were open-circuited by means of tappings. Such un-
balance always produces additional stray flux, eddy-current loss,
local heating and increase in mechanical stress. The larger the
transformer and the greater the tapping range, the more im-
portant it becomes to keep such asymmetries as small as
possible.
Tappings at one end of a winding are permissible only in very
small transformers (Fig. la). In larger transformers they are
usually arranged at or very near the centre of the windings
(Fig. \b), their electrical disposition being either at the centre
as in delta-connected windings (Fig. \c) or near the neutral
point as in star-connected transformers (Fig. Id).
With a uniform distribution of ampere-turns in the untapped
winding there is a preponderance of its ampere-turns in the region
opposite to the open-circuited portion of the tapped winding.
This can be improved by "thinning out" that part of the untapped
winding which is opposite the gap so that it contains only half
the normal number of ampere-turns (Fig. le). This will reduce
the stray flux in the gap at both the maximum and minimum
tapping positions to one-half of the maximum value it would
otherwise have. Further improvement can be obtained by
shortening the tapped winding at both ends so that the magnetic
centres not only of the two windings as a whole but of their
respective halves are as close together as possible (Fig. If).
Tappings may be distributed over more than one section of the
winding (Fig. lg), so reducing the amount of flux concentration.
The untapped winding may be split into several parts, corre-
sponding to the tapped part of the winding, and connected in
parallel (Fig. \h). The distribution of current in these parallel
windings will be such as to give nearly complete balance in the
various parts of the windings.
For excessively large tapping ranges—10% and over—a special
"tapping coil" may be provided (Fig. 1/). Its top and bottom
halves may be connected in parallel (Fig. 1/), or each of its
"tapped out" sections may be distributed uniformly over the
whole winding length (Fig. \k).
 228 BILLIG: MECHANICAL STRESSES IN TRANSFORMER WINDINGS
in any other winding and will, therefore, arise in a single winding
reactor just the same as in the primary winding of a transformer
with open secondary when that transformer is connected to the
source of supply, with the possibility of a heavy current inrush. A
transformer winding in the usual form of a long cylinder of small
radial thickness will experience considerable axial compressive
forces, the magnitude of which depends mainly on the proportion
of the leakage flux interlinked with the winding. The proximity
of iron will reduce the magnetic reluctance of the flux path, thus
(a) (b) (c) increasing the amount of flux around the winding and raising the
mechanical pressure. If the outer winding is short-circuited, the
whole leakage flux passing through the duct will return through
the inner winding, i.e. via the core, causing practically double
compression on the inner coil and leaving very little on the
outer. The conditions will be reversed if the coil adjacent to
the core is short-circuited.
(4.1.2) Radial Forces.
The tendency of adjacent flux lines to repel each other pro-
duces a pressure perpendicular to these lines at any point.
(d) Under short-circuit conditions in a transformer the whole flux
corresponding to the supply voltage at the terminals will pass
through the duct between the h.v. and l.v. windings and give rise
to a repulsion between them corresponding to a pressure B2J%TT*
in the duct, where Bs is the instantaneous value of the leakage flux
density within the duct.
In a concentric transformer, the magnitude of this radialTorce
tending to press the inner winding against the core and stressing
the outer winding like the wall of a cylindrical container under
internal pressure is
6-41 kJogrammes
(j) (k>
Fig. 1.—Tapping arrangements. W T
where 0* = leakage flux, maxwells \
The axial forces acting on the windings vary with the tapping i — current in one winding, ! instantaneous values.
position. Except for special winding arrangements, such as amperes J
shown in Figs. l(/») and l(k), it is impossible to obtain perfect n = number of turns in same winding.
balance between the windings in all tapping positions. The / = mean length of turn, cm.
windings should thus be arranged in such a way as to prevent H = overall axial height of winding, cm.
an undue amount of unbalance in any tapping position, though S = effective radial width of duct, cm.
this might preclude perfect balance for any one position. For
instance, the cross-flux of the arrangement in Fig. 1(6) can be If a short-circuit occurs at the instant when the voltage passes
halved by "thinning out" as indicated in Fig. l(e). through zero, i.e. with a fully asymmetric short-circuit current,
the maximum peak value that could be reached is
Magnetic balance is not, however, the only point of im-
portance. The separate tapping coil of Figs. 1 (/), 1 (j) and 1 (k), for
instance, might adversely affect the distribution of the electric tons
field due to a steep-fronted surge, and would in some cases in-
crease the effective capacitance to earth, thus increasing the where / is the supply frequency in c/s, ex the reactance of the
steepness of the initial voltage distribution and the amplitudes transformer expressed as a fraction, and N its rating in kVA
of the subsequent oscillations within the winding. per phase, or per group if there is more than one group per
phase as in double-concentric or sandwich arrangements.
The same formula holds approximately for the bursting force of
(4) ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCES ACTING ON WINDINGS a reactor—one winding only—when the transformer rating N is
As the electromagnetic forces are proportional to the square replaced by twice the throughput of the reactor and the radial
of the current, they become dangerous when a short-circuit width of the duct by the mean radius of the coil.
occurs, either in the system supplied by the transformer or Table 1 shows the magnitude of this radial force for various
especially inside the transformer itself. Forces due to external
faults will be considered first. Table 1

(4.1) External Faults Three-phase kVA 100 1000 10 000 100 000
(4.1.1) Internal Axial Compression.
The tendency of flux lines to contract like elastic bands pro-
duces a tension along these lines. The lines of force around a Reactance ex, % • • 3-75 5-5 8 10
Effective width of duct d,
current-carrying conductor of any cross-sectional shape thus inches 1 2 3 6
exeit a pressure on that conductor, tending to squeeze it into a Crest radial force Ps, tons 44-6 152 697 2 783
section of minimum perimeter, i.e. into a circular shape. This
internal compression is quite independent of the currents flowing In absolute units, dynes/cm«
 BILLIG: MECHANICAL STRESSES IN TRANSFORMER WINDINGS 229

sizes of typical 3-phase 50-c/s transformers with simple con- (4.2) Internal Faults
centric windings. The force varies approximately as the |th Excessive currents can also be caused by internal faults or by
power of the rating. electrical or mechanical faults in the tap-changing gear. These
This value is the theoretical maximum, which under practical faults involve only parts of a winding. Owing to the heavy con-
conditions will never be reached. Even in the largest supply centration of current within a small space, the forces and stresses
systems there will always be some voltage drop at the primary produced are usually much more severe than in the cases pre-
terminals of a transformer if its secondary winding is short- viously considered, and are likely to result in permanent deforma-
circuited. Furthermore, the resistance of the windings will cause tion, decrease of clearances, and further breakdowns. Once
damping of the d.c. component of the short-circuit current. The started, internal faults thus have a tendency to spread pro-
combined effect will be a reduction of the first current peak and gressively unless the supply is quickly interrupted. This is not
of the corresponding value of the forces. Fig. 2 gives the factors always easy to achieve, because the high fault reactance limits
iO the current drawn from the line to only a fraction of the full-load
1 111111 1 current, and protective relays would have to be set rather fine.
0-9 \ 1 JJ 1 LU Effective protection of transformers against internal faults should
\ not, therefore, rely exclusively upon the direct action of electrical
0-8 --- stance dan
s •s, > ^« t L quantities. Buchholz relays or similar devices responsive to dis-
07 \ s -«* integration products of the insulation are found to be more
\ K^

reliable.
06 /\ \ > x«.
/ s ~\ An accidental short-circuit across part of a winding may occur
•=.05
owing to one of the following causes:—
j
04 / Drop m supply wttage (a) Breakdown of the insulation between turns, coils or wind-
/ Scale I
/ •»•».
;
ings, or from any live part to the frame or to the iron core
03 ^. (earth), caused by high dielectric stress, by overheating, or by
02 mechanical damage to the insulation produced by slackness in
the winding, etc.
o-i (b) Faulty operation of the tap-changing gear.
(c) Accidental short-circuit between tapping leads or across
01 02 03 0-4 0-5 075 10 NJCO/N, Scale!
the terminals to which these are connected.
0 1 2 3 4 5 lOX/R ScaleD 15 A common occurrence is the sticking of a contactor in the
Fig. 2.—Damping factors for current, c due to winding resistance closed position. The closing of the next contactor in the normal
and k due to drop in supply voltage. sequence of events during a tap-changing operation may then
R •-= resistance of transformer.
X =» reactance of transformer. result in the portion of the winding connected between the two
NT<X> =• short-circuit capacity of transformer with unlimited supply. contactors being short-circuited through them. Another likely
Ni -- short-circuit capacity of supply system on primary side of transformer.
cause is a diverter switch the contacts of which have become
c2 and k2 by which the value of the forces according to the above welded together or which fails to open for some other reason.
formula should be multiplied to allow for damping due to finite This leaves the selector switch to break the full-load current, a
resistance and limited power of the supply circuit. duty for which it has not been designed. The arc drawn on
breaking this current is likely to bridge the gap between adjacent
(4.1.3) Axial Forces. contactors and thus short-circuit part of the winding.
The primary and secondary windings are in a state of unstable A typical example of an internal fault in a transformer winding
equilibrium in the axial direction: if the magnetic centre of one is the flashover across an end-coil or a tapping coil subsequent
winding is displaced axially against the other, an axial force to the arrival of a steep-fronted high-voltage surge at the terminals
comes into play which tends to increase the displacement, of the transformer. Such surges create high voltage stresses
and which, in turn, grows with it. For a small displace- across parts of the winding adjacent to points where the surge
ment the force is approximately proportional to it. Fig. 22 impedance changes abruptly, i.e. especially across end-coils or
shows that a displacement equal to even less than 1 % of the tapping coils. Tapping coils at either side of a junction are in
axial height of the windings gives rise to a force which is danger whether actually in circuit (Fig. 4a) or "tapped out"
an appreciable fraction of the tremendous radial force Ps. This
state of unstable equilibrium is illustrated in Fig. 3, where the

Fig. 4.—Flashover across Fig. 5.—Short-circuit across one

Fig. 3.—Unstable equilibrium between transformer windings.
repulsive forces are pictured as acting between the magnetic
centres of the two windings.*
• Actually the forces P do not act between the centres of the two windings, and
their axial components J»» are smaller -than would correspond to the construction
shown in Fig. 3 (see Section 11.1.1).
VOL. 93, PART H.
tapping, coil. coil in a stack of h.v. coils.
(Fig. 4b). When such an internal fault occurs the distribution
of the magnetic flux is fundamentally altered (Fig. 5). The
entire core flux corresponding to the voltage maintained across
the terminals of the winding again passes as leakage flux between
the three parts of the winding, but this time mainly in a radial
15
230 B1LLIG: MECHANICAL STRESSES IN TRANSFORMER WINDINGS
direction, giving rise to a large axial repulsion between the
parts. The forces are transmitted through the insulating
material between coils and finally act as end thrust on the clamp-
ing gear, which is stressed accordingly. Due to the high re-
actance of such a winding arrangement, the current drawn from
Fig. 6.—Effect of short-circuit across the end coil of a 10 000-kVA transformer.
the line is usually small, often less than full load, but inside the
faulty coil a very heavy current circulates, its value being ap-
proximately in inverse proportion to the number of turns affected.
This may easily^xceed one hundred times normal current and
cause:
(a) A high overload in the faulty coil, likely to burn it out
within a very short period.
(6) An electromagnetic force which pushes the coil away from
the centre of the remainder of the winding. This force is smallest
if the fault occurs across a coil near the centre of a uniform
winding, is larger for a coil adjacent to a gap in the winding, and
very large if the coil affected is at one end of the winding. It can
be shown that this axial force is practically independent of the
number of turns involved, so long as this is a relatively small
portion of the turns in the whole body of the winding. For a
faulty end-coil its magnitude is given by
A ^ 4 7 - 4 ^ tons
where 0 is the crest value of the main core-flux, in megamaxwells,
and / and H are, respectively, the mean length of turn and the
total axial height of the winding, in inches.* As this thrust is
* This should be multiplied by a correction factor
* , + B f
n
which makes due allowance for the reduction of the fault reactance owing to finite
radial thickness t of the winding and to its clearance e from the iron core.
independent of the number of turns in the coil, the mechanical
stresses produced in each turn are in inverse proportion to the
number of turns affected. The effect of a short-circuit across
an end-coil comprising about 1 % of the turns in a 10-MVA
transformer, is shown in Fig. 6.
The reactance Lt between the short-circuited and the remaining
sound parts of the winding can be calculated. It is of the order
of 100% for faults involving only a small fraction of the winding.
Quantitatively, it is in the same ratio to the ordinary leakage
reactance Lh as the axial height H of the winding stack is to the
effective width 8 of the leakage duct, or Lt : Lh ~ H: 8.
As larger parts of the primary winding are short-circuited, the
reactance decreases rapidly; the mechanical stresses in the
short-circuited part are gradually reduced, but the magnetizing
current rises rapidly, as there are fewer turns left across the full
supply voltage. When about one-third of the winding is short-
circuited the core becomes practically saturated and the current
drawn by the winding becomes excessive. There is no corre-
sponding current circulating in the short-circuited part of the
winding, and in consequence the turns at both ends of the part
of the winding still remaining in circuit are pulled together.
Core saturation, with its dangerous effects, does not, of course,
occur when parts of the secondary winding break down. Fig. 7
gives the reactance and axial thrust between windings, when part
of the secondary is short-circuited from one end. The Figure*
shows how the reactance rises slowly for small asymmetries, but
more rapidly for larger ones. The axial force, on the other hand,
rises sharply at first, but with the increase in reactance due to
• The reactance values in Fig. 7 are plotted as multiples of the balanced-winding
reactance £j, (ordinary leakage reactance).
 BILLIG: MECHANICAL STRESSES IN TRANSFORMER WINDINGS 231

Fig. 10.—Earth fault on a delta winding.

Fig. 7.—Fault reactance and axial force for short-circuit across part
of the secondary winding.
greater asymmetry the force then rises more slowly and eventually
a maximum is reached at about 15% unbalance, when the re-
actance has risen by 29% of its original value.
(4.2.1) Internal Faults involving only One Phase of a 3-Phase Trans-
former Bank.
A flashover across part of the winding in one phase constitutes
a single-phase load on the source of supply. If the winding
affected is the primary of a delta-connected transformer, the
two other phases of the delta are not involved (see Fig. 8).
occurs somewhere from the delta winding to earth (Fig. 10). The
effective voltage Ef of the fault corresponds to the distance from
the neutral point N of the vector diagram to the fault, and single-
phase current is fed into the fault from both parts of the affected
phase, flowing through them in opposite directions. The fault
current is thus again limited mainly by the (fairly high) reactance
between the top and bottom parts of the winding and the impe-
dance of the earth-return path and that of the supply system.
The current is a minimum when the fault occurs at the mid-point
of one phase of the delta (for instance from a tapping lead) and
is of the order of 1-3 times full load. As the fault moves nearer
to one end of the winding, the current rises untilfinallyit reaches
the full short-circuit value determined by the impedance of the
supply circuit and the earth return.
If the primary winding is connected in star, with an earth fault
occurring at any point of it (Fig. 11), single-phase current again

Fig. 11.—Earth fault on a star winding.

circulates in the secondary or tertiary delta, involving the re-

Fig. 8.—Fault within a delta winding. actance of that winding as well. For a fault near the star point
If the faulty winding is connected in star and there is a the effective voltage Ef, and consequently the fault current, are
secondary or tertiary delta winding on the transformer, single- very small. As the fault moves nearer to one line end, the current
phase current circulates through the delta, involving all three gradually rises until it again reaches the full short-circuit current,
phase windings. The numbers in Fig. 9 give the magnitude of when the breakdown occurs from one line end of the transformer.
(5) DETAILED CONSIDERATION OF FORCES
Considering first the case of a reactor with only one winding,
the turns at each end will experience the greatest pull towards
the centre, as the individual forces from each turn all pull in the
same direction, i.e. the top turn will experience a downward pull
from all the other turns. As turns nearer the centre are con-
Fig. 9.—Fault within a star winding. sidered, the downward pull from the majority of turns will be
currents flowing in the various windings of the transformer on partly offset by the upward pull from the turns above it, until
the assumption of a 1 : 1 turns ratio with the fault comprising a for a turn at the centre the pulls from the upper and lower halves
fraction / of the total turns per phase. The reactance of the will cancel out exactly.
fault is of the same order as in the previous case of a faulty delta In the standard type of winding construction each turn presses
winding, as the additional reactance of the secondary or tertiary against its neighbour nearer the centre. All these individual
delta winding is usually negligible. forces accumulate towards a maximum at the centre.
If the fault occurs across a star-connected winding of a trans- In a two-winding transformer, the pull towards the centre
former which has no delta winding, the fault current cannot be exerted on a particular turn from any one turn of the same
balanced by any opposing ampere-turns and thus involves the winding is nearly cancelled by the push of a corresponding
fairly high zero-phase reactance of the transformer. Fault adjacent turn in the other winding carrying current in the opposite
currents are then correspondingly small. direction. There is thus only a slight residual pull towards the
centre, exerted on each turn in the main body of the winding.
(4.2.2) Earth Faults. At the ends, however, the balancing of forces due to primary and
Consider the primary delta winding of a transformer connected secondary currents is less perfect, and there are considerable
to a system with earthed neutral, and assume that a breakdown residual forces tending to pull these end-turns towards the centre;
232 BILLIG: MECHANICAL STRESSES IN TRANSFORMER WEVDINGS
this effect increases with an increase in the ratio of duct width 401
\ Vithout iron core
to axial height. The cumulative pressure increases rapidly from — M i
zero at the ends of the winding to a certain value which depends A/ithr iron core /! I

mainly on the duct width, and then remains practically constant 1 —

\

4
s

throughout the main body of the winding; this is considerably 35%

Si /
less than in a single-winding reactor of comparable charac- 1 \]\ i
1 r
teristics. The magnitude of this pressure Ph can be related to 1
I
i> \
\ <

f
the radial force P$ given in Section 4.1.2 and, for both windings T-30%
s
together, is given by \
Ph:Ps~S:H s, \
4/ii
o-

where 8 = the radial width of the duct and H = the axial height 25% \
of each winding. The residual pull on the end coils is somewhat Tapped
s ^c
if-.

\
reduced by the proximity of the core yokes, which tend to attract V £2 -.
f

\/
these coils. 1 /
\ b
The proximity of the iron core also results in an increase in \
axial pressure in the winding nearer the core and a decrease in •'

> \\ |
the outer winding. The sum of these pressures is, however, not
appreciably altered. 7 K
1
i
y
\ Inner winding
'' The uniform distribution of turns in the windings is often dis-
(ne ther windm? taDDed)//L-
turbed by tappings or by some reinforcement of the insulation. c
This local reduction in ampere-turn density in one winding, with \
no corresponding reduction in the other, gives rise to a "cross- I0X y
\\ /
V 1 A
field" which is mainly radial in direction. As shown in Fig. 12, 8% Outer or inner winding
i (ne ther winding tapped)
\r -/
1/ 6%

j
/
p
A
/-
1

Ocite r w 1 \ j
2% 1 •>-

( H-
vi rid apped)
—
\
~ 0 10 h/H 20 30 40
t 50 60%
/ H -100% -

\\ Fig. 13.—^Distribution of axial pressure Ph in the two windings of a

Fig. 12.—Repulsion between the halves of a tapped winding.
a gap in the winding, even if exactly at the centre, gives rise to a
force pushing the two halves of that winding apart and, by the
law of equal action and reaction, also causes a corresponding
increase of axial compression in the untapped winding. For
convenience in the design of transformer and tap-changing gear,
tappings are usually arranged on the h.v. side, and the tapped
winding in the vast majority of cases is the outer one. The re-
pulsion between the two halves of such a winding, as well as the
additional compression on the untapped winding, are nearly
doubled by the presence of the iron core (Fig. 13). Turns
adjacent to a gap in the winding, like those at the end of the
winding, lose the benefit of balancing opposing forces and are
subjected to a strong thrust away from the gap (Fig. 14).
The tapping arrangements indicated in Fig. 1 are given in
order of merit assessed on ampere-turn balance. For a given
maximum range of tappings, a%, Fig. 15 indicates the distribu-
tion of residual ampere-turns,* which are a rough measure of the
radial field and thus of the axial force acting on each individual
turn. These diagrams will be more or less modified in actual
transformers, where the distribution of turns is not uniform,
owing to reinforcement of the insulation at the end of windings
and near tapping points, or to transposition of turns. Fig. 16,
for example, gives the distribution of ampere-turns and subse-
quent pressure within the windings of a 45-MVA transformer,
wound according to Fig. 1(/) with a tapping range of ± 10%,
that had shown evidence of movement in parts of the winding.
This could be satisfactorily explained in every detail by the
diagram shown. The pressure exerted on various parts of the
* It has been proved elsewhere25 that "residual ampere-turns" and "cross-field'*
arc only approximately proportional to one another.
transformer with and without iron core, with and without tap-
pings at the centre of the outer winding for:
Width of duct 8/H = 5%.
Clearance to core e/H =• 2 • 5 %.
Centre tap a/H = 1 0 % .
winding is approximately proportional to the product of the area
under the ampere-turn curve and the current flowing in that part.
Those parts of the winding which are "cut out," i.e. which carry
no current, are, of course, free from direct action of electro-
magnetic forces. There is thus a tendency for a gap to be
formed in any tapped winding at the tapping point, as the forces
tend to push the current-carrying parts of the coil away from
those which are idle.
In most cases it is impossible to ensure that the tappings are
arranged in complete symmetry for all tapping positions. In the
layout of a transformer it is therefore important to realize how
the cross-field and the axial forces in the windings vary when
the transformer is operated in any tapping position. By the use
of the superposition principle it is possible to find the distribution
quite simply for all positions, once the diagram has been drawn
for any one position. In that case the simplest way is probably
to start with the distribution for "full winding" and then to
allow for tapped-out parts by superimposing corresponding
"additional" currents of negative sign and their fields, which will
give the resultant field for any actual tapping position. Fig. 17
illustrates the method for the case of the 45-MVA transformer
mentioned above. The curves for the "additional'' ampere-turns
are nearly linear, except near the ends of the winding where the
turns are thinned out. The residual ampere-turns for any tapping
position are simply the difference between these triangular curves
and the curve giving the distribution for "full winding." Fig. 17
indicates, for instance, the maximum value of the ampere-turns
 1BILLIG: MECHANICAL STRESSES IN TRANSFORMER WINDINGS 233

nil
iiV

1
iJl Without core
+ 1*5
11 ith core
- w esidual
D
-met hoc with and
AT-

U.
K\ without core
\

+ 10
1.1
\t ,4 y <soer/

1°*'
\
1

\ •*&< X'
lkiA
ntre

u
+05
\\ \\
Ir.Ml \ \ ^1 ^ <>^ •sh % H
AI
1! towards

V
\\. . .o'

4^ r"
•
r— oed )

i k 10
—«•
i2^

——-
i
TTT*-*' wind in? (neither winding Capped
EBE
T
•iMi
50
%
1 o -0-5
*^ ^ v

'V
j

n
in 1

\ !
i*-
-^
\ ^ ,

-i-o \
\
\\ \

-1-5 \ V
\
\J \

\ +
-ao
H —j
h-a

1 1
l'V5Z
^/////V7//////777//////y/////////7////////////////
I
14. Distribution of axial force Fh in the two windings of a transformer, with and without iron core, with and without tapping at the
centre of the outer winding for:
Width of duct 4 = 5%
ti
Clearance to core — = 2 • 5 %
ti
Centre tap ^ =10%
ti
 234 BILLIG: MECHANICAL STRESSES IN TRANSFORMER WINDINGS
however, the l.v. winding is made up of a number of separate
"barrel-type" coils having rather thin walls. There is a danger
that, under high external pressure, such coils may collapse like
a thin-walled cylinder. If such a coil is wound over axial runners
it is likely to collapse owing to the polygonal, rather than circular,
shape.
If the h.v. and l.v. windings are not exactly concentric, a
restoring force will appear which tends to pull their axes into
coincidence.
3, In a balanced double-concentric arrangement, the leakage flux
density in both ducts is nearly equal and radial forces on the centre
TVs winding nearly cancel out leaving only a tension in the outermost
1
"4 and a compression in the innermost winding. Similarly, in a
• • • » "
4 4 properly-balanced sandwich arrangement, where the leakage flux
o a density is constant in all main ducts between h.v. and l.v. groups,
( a \ "4 there will be an axial repulsion only on the end groups, as the
a pressures acting on both sides of any other group will cancel out.
11 Proceeding in a radial direction through the windings of con-
(J) centric arrangements, the pressure rises with the leakage-flux den-
Fig. 15.—Distribution of residual ampere-turns for tapping arrange- sity from zero at the outside to a maximum value at the surface of
ments according to Fig. 1. the duct. If the turns are wound solidly on top of each other, the
that may occur in any position. It is 137 500 — 29 500 = 108 000 total stress will be taken up more or less uniformly over the whole
ampere-turns, or 5 • 72 % of the total ampere-turns in the winding, radial depth. If, however, the winding is made up of several
occurring at level V, i.e. near the centre of the winding, on layers separated from each other by a cooling duct, the inner
tapping 4.* layers, i.e. those nearer the duct, will be stressed to double the
previous value, while the layers more remote from the duct will
take progressively less stress. A special tapping coil of the outer
(6) MECHANICAL STRESSES IN WINDINGS winding, for instance, should therefore never be placed near the
All the various forces described in the previous Section depend main duct, but always on the outside of the outer winding.
on the magnitude of the instantaneous currents flowing in the
windings, and under normal operating conditions are not very The axial forces are transmitted through the whole length of
large. They vary as the square of the current, are unidirectional, the winding, compressing the copper conductors and also the
and pulsate at twice the operating frequency. Under short- insulation and supports between them. Where conductors are
circuit conditions, however, the forces reach excessive values; wound solidly side by side, the turns are well supported over
they must be overcome by the mechanical strength of the con- their whole length. If the individual conductors are wound "on
ductors themselves and of the supporting structures between the flat," in order to minimize eddy-currents losses, there is,
turns, coils, windings and the core. As the slightest asym- however, always a tendency for the wires to slip over each other
metry in the windings gives rise to forces which increase rapidly unless they are very tightly wound, especially where thicker
with the displacement, the whole structure should be so designed insulation is used or where the corners of the rectangular wire
as to avoid any movement whatever, even under extreme con- are rounded. This applies especially to coils wound with round
ditions. wire, as there is always a tendency for the turns to squeeze in
between neighbouring turns until the whole coil assumes a
The stresses produced by the rapidly varying mechanical forces
may greatly exceed the corresponding static stresses, f If the circular cross-section. This effect can be prevented by running
structure is fully elastic, the maximum stress due to a suddenly the wire through a special paste when winding the coil, so filling
applied load may reach double the static value. If resonance the interstices between the turns. After baking, the coils as-
occurs between the rate of loading and one of the free modes of sume a hard cement-like consistency which effectively prevents
oscillation of the structure, the amplitudes of movement and any movement of the wire.
stress may exceed double the static values and might well become In "disc" windings, the axial forces, acting uniformly over the
excessive. whole length of each turn, exert a bending moment on that part
The radial forces, even for the worst conditions of short- of the conductor which is not supported. The full axial pressure
circuit, can usually be withstood by the conductors, in which is transmitted over the supporting pieces in a cumulative way,
they produce a static tensile stress of approximately each turn contributing its own share. These supports must not
be too far apart, as this would result in an excessive bending
a ~ >—K X V/turn x A/cm-, in kg/cm2 stress in the conductors, and their supporting area must be large
enough to prevent any excessive compression of their own or
This stress remains well below the yield pointj for copper (about of the conductor insulation. On the other hand, sufficient clear
1 000 kg/cm2 at 100° C), even in the largest transformers so far space between the supports must be allowed so as to avoid inter-
built. Thus there is usually no need to brace or bandage the ference with the cooling of the coils. The bending stress at the
outer winding, provided that it is of circular shape. ends of the windings or adjacent to tappings should always be
The same formula applies to the inner winding, with the only checked, and, if necessary, the axial dimensions of the conductors
difference that a here is a compressive stress which the copper should be increased to give greater strength.
will more readily withstand. This latter statement applies only
to windings with fairly large radial thickness. Quite frequently, (7) SHRINKAGE OF WINDINGS
• According to Fig. 15(i), a maximum field of a/4 = 5% would be expected for Whilst the effect of the internal forces on the metallic con-
this type of winding with a tapping range of ± 10%, or a = 20%.
t A "static" stress is produced in a structure by a force which is applied to it ductors can be predicted with reasonable accuracy, the effect on
rather slowly so as to prevent any vibration.
1 It is realized that copper yields even under very small stress. The figure cited
the insulating materials used in the supports of the coils is less
indicates the stress beyond which the strain would become excessive. certain, as the behaviour of these materials under such special
 BILLIG: MECHANICAL STRESSES IN TRANSFORMER WINDINGS 235

(a) Amp-turn densities per inch of axial height

(H.V., L.V. and their difference).
(b) — . — . Residual amp-turns for actual current density.
(c) • — Residual amp-turns for uniform current density.
(d) - - - - - - - Integrated values of (6) corresponding to pres-
sure accumulated in windings L.V.I, H.V.I,
H.V.3.
(Insert) Winding arrangement.

10 I? tons
50*IOOOAT/inch
. -i 1 1 1 r .
-100-90-80-70-60-5(M0-30-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 30 IOOXIOOOAT.
Fig. 16.—Distribution of ampere-turns for external short-circuit |of a 45-MVA transformer with h.v. winding on tapping 7 (r.m.s. values are
given for the a.c. component of the short-circuit current).
conditions is still under investigation. Although no precise in- former. Although considerably below the short-circuit peak
formation is at present available, it has been found that with value, the current may amount to several times the full-load value.
pressures of the order of 1 ton/in2, which may well arise in large As there is no relief from opposing ampere-turns, the contractive
transformers, the insulating material will take a considerable per- effects will be relatively large. Integrated over the whole life of
manent set. Conductors which had moved slightly under the the transformer, the shrinkage produced by frequent switching
action of the electromagnetic forces whilst the fault lasted, would may be considerable, and may lead to serious trouble when a
return to their original positions only if all the deformations pro- short-circuit occurs. The h.v. winding, which is usually me-
duced were entirely elastic. Owing to the permanent character chanically weaker, is normally the outer winding, and fortunately
of part of the deformation, some portions of the windings will switching currents in the outer winding are lower, owing to the
be left in a slightly shifted position. Quite apart from any larger area available to the flux.
thermal or other ageing effects, there is thus a certain amount Particularly heavy stresses can be experienced when a trans-
of shrinkage produced by every short-circuit. former is switched on whilst short-circuited on the secondary
Excessive currents, too, may appear on energizing a trans- side, especially when the primary winding is adjacent to the core.
 236 BILLIG: MECHANICAL STRESSES IN TRANSFORMER WINDINGS
conductor insulation and to lead ultimately to complete break-
down.
(8) CLAMPING OF WINDINGS
To avoid trouble from shrinkage, every care must be exercised,
not only to balance the forces by proper design, but to use only
suitable insulating materials in the construction of the windings
and in such a way that shrinkage in service is reduced to a
minimum. An instance where particular difficulties are likely
to be met is the support of windings with a small radial depth
such as cylindrical tapping coils, especially if located in a strong
magnetic field. The practice of using end-rings cut from
Bakelized paper cylinders or similar materials is not to be recom-
mended unless suitable types are chosen, as there is a likelihood
of deterioration in time under the combined influence of hot oil
and mechanical pressure applied in an axial direction, i.e. edge-
wise to the paper laminations. Materials for the supports
should be pre-shrunk for a prolonged period until no more
settling will occur.
(8.1) Design of Clamping Structure
The purpose of a well-designed clamping structure is to prevent
any movement within the windings. This can be achieved by
any clamping device which puts the coils permanently under a
higher pressure than any produced by the short-circuit forces,
thus ensuring a constant pressure within the coils at all times.
The maximum stress produced in the clamping gear consists of
three components:—
(a) The clamping pressure applied when tightening down.
(b) The end thrust created by electromagnetic forces in the
winding due to an unbalance of ampere-turns and especially on
the occurrence of internal short-circuits.
(c) The differential thermal expansion of windings and
clamping gear.
0 10 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 70 8 0 ? 0 ICO 110 120 130 I 4 0 X ! C 0 0 A T ( To obtain a rigid construction, the clamping structure should
Fig. 17. Superposition of ampere-turns in the 45-MVA transformer tie the windings together, preferably without transmitting stress
of Fig. 16 for any tapping position. through any other part of the transformer. Thus the practice
Distribution tor "full winding" position. of clamping coils from the core yoke transmits the clamping
— — Additional distribution for any other position. pressure through the core, and this fact must be taken into
In this event the primary winding may draw current correspond- account in designing the core structure, and particularly the core-
ing to the sum of the short-circuit and switching current peaks, bolt insulation if it is subject to mechanical stress due to the
whereas the secondary carries only the normal short-circuit clamping pressure.
current. Having regard to the lack of balance between primary It is possible to effect the clamping of the coils in two essen-
and secondary ampere-turns and the fact that the forces are tially different ways: each winding may be clamped separately,
approximately proportional to the square of the currents, the or all the windings on one limb may be clamped together. Each
severity of such a fault will be readily appreciated. arrangement has its special difficulties if shrinkage does take
A large power transformer has about one-third to one-half of place. In the former case adjusting screws are usually provided
its axial winding length occupied by various insulating materials which compress each winding separately from the top yoke.
such as paper, cotton, pressboard, etc. With a total winding These screws can be tightened by hand or by means of a non-
length, including end-clearances, of about 80 in, it can be seen return spring device which takes up any shrinkage automatically.
that considerable shrinkage of the coils can take place, even if As, however, one winding may shrink more than the other, the
the insulation were to shrink by only a fraction of 1 %. The effect of clamping each winding tightly will be to push that
amount of shrinkage will be different for the various windings, winding which has shrunk more further down the core limb than
according to the amount and nature of the insulating materials the other, so producing magnetic asymmetry.* In the other
used in their construction. Under the same pressure the h.v. type of design, a common clamping ring for both windings is
winding will shrink more than the l.v. winding. Fortunately, usually provided at each end of the winding and the two are
this effect is largely offset by the proximity of the iron core, clamped together by means of tie-rods; alternatively the top ring
which tends to decrease appreciably the pressure in the outer— only may be depressed from the yoke. Tightening of the tic-
high-voltage—winding. There is, however, no doubt that short- rods or of the adjusting screws following unequal shrinkage then
circuit shrinkage will differ in the various windings. Under the results in restoring the pressure on one winding only, whilst the
influence of their own weight or of clamping springs, the coils other remains more or less slack, unless it is packed up again as
then drop by a corresponding amount, so causing an axial dis- * The opinion is sometimes expressed by maintenance engineers that any asym-
placement of the two windings, the very condition which must be ismetry so produced could be detected by an increase in the reactance. Although this
true in principle, the measurements would have to be taken with great care, as
avoided, as it results in increased forces, further shrinkage and (see Fig.relativelyeven a large displacement would produce only a small increase in reactance
7). Quantitatively, the increase is larger for windings with a small ratio of dis-
greater displacement on the occurrence of the next short-circuit. tance between windings to axial height of windings; e.g. with a ratio of 1 : IS,
The vicious circle so started is likely to cause damage to the axial unbalances of 1, 2and 5% would produce increases in reactance of 0-15.0-60
and 3 • 75 % respectively of the original value.
 BILUG: MECHANICAL STRESSES IN TRANSFORMER WINDINGS
in the original assembly. This, of course, can only be done after
lifting the transformer out of its tank. Another method that
has been suggested involves the introduction of springs at the
centre of the "softer" winding; these springs take up any
shrinkage symmetrically from the centre, so maintaining the
balance between the h.v. and l.v. windings. It is important that
the springs should be strong enough to withstand such clamping
pressures as may be necessary to prevent appreciable coil
movement.
It should be possible, however, to build a clamping structure
in which the pressure applied to a common clamp is distributed
evenly over both windings, even after they have shrunk by
different amounts. Care must be taken, however, that the
shrinkage is taken up without altering the relative positions of
the magnetic centres of the two windings affected.
Another method that has been suggested concerns the "cage
type" or "pressure-free" coil assembly (Fig. 18), where the force
w r ~Ph2
Fig. 18.—Cage-type or pressure-free coil assembly.
w = winding,
d = distance pieces.
p = play.
Po l p g pressure.
P = clamping psue.
pressure ffrom iindividual
F = pr di coils,
P±P2 total pressure within body of winding.
from each turn or disc coil is transmitted not to its neighbour
but to some supporting piece of nearly incompressible material.
A disadvantage of this construction is that a certain play must be
allowed for each coil in its supporting pieces. No clamping
pressure can, of course, be applied to the coils directly, as the
rigid supporting pieces will take up any such pressure.
(8.2) Maintenance of Clamping Pressure
The method of clamping windings under a pressure exceeding
the highest electromagnetic forces that may arise under fault
conditions, is effective only if the materials used are properly
pre-shrunk, as otherwise they will yield with time under the per-
manent clamping pressure, leaving the stack of windings com-
pletely slack. Lacking adequate data* on the mechanical be-
haviour of insulating materials under conditions obtaining in
transformers, it is assumed that the application of large pressures
prior to use in the transformer will effectively reduce further
permanent deformation during the life of the transformer. There
is, however, considerable doubt on this point, and an investiga-
tion into the long-time yield properties of insulating materials
may therefore produce interesting results. Meanwhile, it is
worth while to investigate the behaviour of the clamping structure
under the assumption that a certain amount of permanent set is
still possible.
Assume the simplest case of a coil C clamped by means of a
tie-rod S (Fig. 19a). Being subjected to mechanical stress, they
will both show some elastic strain, as illustrated in the simplified
diagram, Fig. 19(6), where the clamping gear is indicated as a
spring S. On assembly, the coil stack has an initial length hc.
When pressure is slowly applied by tightening down, the stack
* The effects of mechanical stresses on insulating materials, such as are used in
transformers, are at present under investigation by the E.R.A.
237
Tie reds
Clamping
arrangement
Clamping
v~' diagram
Strain
4
CI ci m p i n g d legra q\ (f)
(enlarged)
Fig 19.—Clamping arrangement.
is reduced in length. At the same time the tie-rod is subjected
to tension. Owing to the vastly different elastic behaviour of
the metallic tie-rod and the insulating material transmitting the
pressure within the coil, the stress/strain characteristic of the
former is much steeper (Fig. 19c).
Coil and tie-rod will both come to rest with the same length h0,
i.e. at a point where their characteristics intersect. The pressure
Po in the coil is then equal to the tension in the tie-rod. After
releasing the pressure, the tie-rod would contract to a length hs
and the coil expand to length hc—if there were no permanent
set in either.
Assume, now, that an electromagnetic force Ph is generated
within the coil by heavy unidirectional current tending to con-
tract it. Coil and spring will contract slightly and come to rest
at a point I. The compression of the coil is very slightly in-
creased, and the tension in the rod, owing to its steep charac-
teristic, greatly decreased, the difference between the two corre-
sponding to the internal contraction Ph. If the force Ph—owing,
for instance, to a gap cut out from the centre of the coil—is
reversed, resulting in an outward thrust on the clamping gear;
the coil and the rod will slightly expand, giving largely increased
tension in the rod but again hardly affecting the pressure in the
coil.
It is clear that, owing to the "soft" characteristic of the insu-
lating material within the coil, the pressure there hardly varies
and almost the whole of the electromagnetic force is met by a
change in the tension of the tie-rod. This holds good so long
as the electromagnetic force Ph tending to contract the coil re-
mains below the original clamping pressure Po. Otherwise the
tension in the rod will disappear completely and the whole force
Pc will be thrust on the coil itseJf—shown in dotted lines in
238 BILLIG: MECHANICAL STRESSES IN TRANSFORMER WINDINGS
Fig. 19(c). Although no experimental test results are at present
available, it is considered that a sudden large increase in coil
pressure would result in considerable shrinkage.* Assuming
that to be the case, it is clear that, when the contracting force Pc
has disappeared, both coil and tie-rod will settle down to a
slightly shorter length, with a reduction of the clamping pressure
to P'o. Should that process be repeated several times, the clamp-
ing pressure might be lost completely, leaving the winding slack
and vulnerable to subsequent damage. Even in normal opera-
tion the clamping pressure will gradually disappear owing to
"creep" of the insulating material and—to a smaller degree—of
the tie-rods unless this is taken up by some special mechanism.
(8.3) Thermal Expansion
The temperature of the coils and clamping gear varies with the
load cycle. The clamps assume about the same temperature as
the oil, but the coils are somewhat hotter. Windings and clamps
will expand as the transformer heats up, but the former more
than the latter, first because of its higher temperature, and
secondly because the coefficient of thermal expansion is higher
for copper (and especially for fibrous insulating material) than
for steel as used in the clamping gear.f This difference in ex-
pansion will lead to a corresponding increase in clamping pressure
given by the formula X
P =z
where Ahw and Ahs are the linear thermal expansions of the
winding stack and of the clamping structure respectively, and
Cw and C, the corresponding elastances, i.e. strain/stress,§ multi-
plied by length/cross-section. The effective elastance of the
winding stack is mainly determined by the compressibility of the
insulation, which is much larger than that of the metallic con-
ductors. Practically the whole amount of the differential
thermal expansion will thus be taken up by a corresponding
compression of the winding insulation.
As an example, consider a winding of, say, 200 cm axial height
which has one-third of its height occupied by various insulating
materials. With a rise of 70 deg C in the winding and of
45 deg C in the oil, the expansion of the winding would be
(16-7 X 10-6 x 133 + 59 x 10-6 X 67) x 70 = 0-43 cm, and
that of the tie-rod 10-5 x 10~6 x 200 x 45 = 0 0 9 cm. Practi-
cally the whole differential expansion of 0-34 cm will be taken
up by a compression of the insulating material amounting to
0-34/67 = 0-5%. Press board exposed to a high clamping
pressure for a considerable time has an incremental elasticity of
approximately 12 000 kg/cm2. The thermal strain of 0-5%
would therefore produce a compressive stress of 12 000 x 0-5/100
= 60 kg/cm2 in the winding. This calculation shows that there
is a possibility of cumulative shrinkage due to the repetition of
heating and cooling following the daily load cycles.
• Some preliminary test results which tend to confirm this assumption have in the
meantime been obtained. A cylindrical sample of grey elephantide, Grade III, 1 in
long and i in diameter, was2 tested in air at room temperature. When subjected to
121-3 kg/cm* (0 • 77 ton/in ) the strain was practically steady after 10 minutes and
reached a value of 7•6 %. When the pressure was then suddenly doubled for 20 sec,
the strain increased to 12-6%. After reduction to the original load it fell to 11-9%
and slowly settled down to 11-6% after a further 10 min. The doubling of the load
for the short time-interval had thus permanently reduced the thickness of the sample
by an additional 4%. With the load entirely removed the sample showed a per-
manent set of 7-9%.
t The coefficient of thermal expansion for copper is 16-7 X 10—6, for steel
10-5 x 1 0 - « , and for pressboard 59 x 10—6.
t This formula, "thermal stress equal to difference in thermal expansion divided
by overall elastance," is noteworthy for its simplicity. It is of general validity and
can be applied directly to many problems involving thermal stress.
§ Where strain is not directly proportional to stress, as is the case for pressboard
and similar materials which have no definite Young's modulus, the "incremental
elasticity" should be used, which is defined as change of stress divided by change of
strain.
(8.4) Mechanical Vibrations
In normal service the flow of current alternating at 50 c/s pro-
duces a small contracting force in the winding pulsating at 100 c/s.
As described above, this contracting force will be met by corre-
sponding variations in tension of the tie-rod if the winding is
properly clamped. The switching-in current on energizing the
transformer may produce much larger forces which, again, will
be taken up by the tie-rod. These forces occur quite frequently
and, as they are not so very much less than the short-circuit
forces, they are a potential source of serious trouble.
A winding is, in a mechanical sense, a complicated system
containing large masses of copper constrained by more or less
elastic structures, such as the clamping gear, insulating spacers,
etc., which can vibrate at a large number of modes of oscillation.
Should any part of the winding be exposed to a large force
pulsating at a frequency near its natural mode, movements in
that part, which are normally very small, might become excessive
and eventually damage the insulation. Fortunately, the dura-
tion of these excessive forces is short, as a fault giving rise to
large currents will usually be interrupted before the vibrations
can reach excessive amplitudes. In order to find the natural
modes of oscillation, consider an h.v. winding wound as a single
continuous disc winding, clamped between strong end-clamps.
If that winding were pulled out axially—against the pressure of
the clamps—and then let go, it would obviously start vibrating
at a fairly high frequency. The exact calculation of the fre-
quencies of these free vibrations is rather involved, as both
masses and restoring forces are distributed over the whole height
of the winding (Fig. 20a). There are, however, simple ways of
(a) w w w w
Fig. 20.—Mechanical vibration of coil.
(a) Uniformly distributed masses and forces.
(6) Lumped masses and forces. _
(c) Gaps h in winding resulting in impact.
solving the problem in its essential features. First, consider the
mass M' of each half of the coil concentrated at its ends, held
together by the elastic forces of the clamping gear (Fig. 206).
The fundamental frequency of such a symmetrical system is
given by the well-known formula
/o
~ 2VV (M>
where K' is the restoring force in dynes/cm deformation. Take
as an example the h.v. winding of a typical 50-MVA trans-
former, vibrating under the pressure of 6 tie-rods, each of 2 in
diameter and 159 cm long. The coil* contains 17701b of
copper, i.e. each half winding has a mass of M' — 4-025 x 105
* Full particulars of this transformer have been given in Ref. 25.
 BILLIG: MECHANICAL STRESSES IN TRANSFORMER WINDINGS 239

grammes. The restoring force of all the tie-rods together is (9) CONCLUSIONS
/C' = 2-32 x 1012 dynes/cm extension of each half length, cor- (a) The clamping structure should keep all the windings con-
responding to an elastic modulus E = 2 • 1 X 1012 dynes/cm. tinually under a pressure which is strong enough to prevent even
Hence the slightest movement in any circumstances which might arise
2-32 x in the operation of the transformer during the whole of its useful
life.
(b) All the methods of clamping which have been used up to
This value for the frequency is obviously too low, as the masses the present effect a compromise between various factors, and
are not concentrated but distributed over the axial height of the none of them fully solves the problems arising out of shrinkage.
coil. Therefore consider another extreme case, i.e. an elastic (c) High-voltage windings should preferably be arranged on the
body, with masses and restoring forces uniformly distributed outside from the point of view of mechanical strength.
over the height H. This is the mechanical equivalent of an {d) Tapping coils should be removed as far as possible from
electric transmission line with distributed capacitance and in- strong magnetic fields.
ductance. Phenomena analogous to electrical waves arise in the (e) There is scope for more detailed investigation of the be-
elastic body: any mechanical disturbance is propagated along the haviour of the materials now used as inter-turn, inter-coil, and
body as an elastic wave, progressing at a constant speed end insulation of transformer windings, and possibly for the
v — V(Slm), where stiffness S = AE, with cross-section A, development of a new material better suited to the purpose.
Young's modulus E, and m = mass per unit length. If left to The main property required of such a material, apart from the
itself, such a body may execute free vibrations, the frequency of usual electrical and mechanical requirements, would be freedom
which depends on its length. The lowest mode of vibration from appreciable yield even after extended operation over many
corresponds to a wavelength A equal to half the length of the years when immersed in oil at temperatures up to 100° C under
body if both ends are free to move. Hence, the fundamental a high continuous pressure of the order of 1 ton/in2, on which
frequency is given by is superposed a lower pressure pulsating at 100 c/s.
(J) Proper use should be made of the experience to be gained
f=s = from the performance of transformers under short-circuit.
i" 2flrV(m) Tiija' Records should be kept of the frequency and severity of faults
where M — total mass and H — total height of insulation. in the system and of the state of windings as found by occasional
Compared with the formula found above for 2 masses concen- inspection. The development of slackness and signs of move-
trated at the ends, the frequency for a system with the masses ment in the windings should be carefully recorded. Quantitative
uniformly distributed is higher in the ratio TT : 2, i.e. in the records of any loss in clamping pressure could readily be obtained
example given it comes to 600 c/s. by fitting a simple strain indicator to the clamping gear and by
taking readings at certain intervals.
(8.5) Loss of Clamping Pressure
An immediate effect of the loss in clamping pressure would be
a certain slackness in the windings. Any slight movement of (10) BIBLIOGRAPHY
conductors subsequent to a fault will produce small gaps at (1) SEARLE, G. F. C.: "On the Magnetic Field Due to a Current
certain points.* At the occurrence of the next fault an electro- in a Wire Placed Parallel to the Axis of a Cylinder of
mechanical force of large magnitude will again tend to com- Iron," Electrician, 1898, 40, pp. 453, 510.
press the winding. Owing to the slackness between adjacent (2) ROGOWSKI, W.: "Uber das Streufeld und den Streuinduk-
coils, however, these will start to close up and will gather con- tionskoeffizienten eines Transformators mit Scheiben-
siderable momentum before being restrained from further wicklung und geteilten Endspulen," Mitteilungen iiber
movement by the insulating spacers. The compressive stresses Forschungs-Arbeiten des V.D.I., 1909, No. 71.
are therefore considerably increased by the impact nature of the (3) STEINMETZ, C. P.: " Mechanical Forces in Magnetic Fields,"
forces (see Fig. 20c). Transactions of the American I.E.E., 1911, 30, p. 367.
If the force remains constant over the whole travel and the (4) ELLIS, A. G., and J. L. THOMPSON: "Large Power Trans-
material is fully elastic, with Young's modulus E, the maximum formers," Journal I.E.E., 1919, 57, p. 547.
stress is given by—• (5) BIERMANNS, J.: "Kursschlusskrafte an Transformatoren,"
Bulletin, Schweizer Elektrotechnischer Verein, 1923, 14,
pp. 212, 245.
(6) HAK, J.: "Mechanische Beanspruchungen in Reaktanz-
where <r0 is the corresponding static stress and h/H is the gap spulen,"Elektrotechnik und Maschinenbau, 1924, 42, p. 17.
expressed as a fraction of the overall height of the winding. (7) MtiLLNER, F.: "Stromkrafte in Transformator-Wicklun-
If there is no gap (Ji — 0) and thus no impact, the maximum gen," ibid., 1924, 42, p. 679.
dynamic stress is just double the static value. For a gap (8) HAGUE, B.: "The Electromagnetic Forces on Conductors
of h/H = 1 % with modulus E = 12 000 kg/cm2 and static near Iron," World Power, 1926, 5, pp. 124, 205.
stress (T0 — 100 kg/cm2 the maximum stress would, owing to the (9) "Mechanical Stresses in the Windings of Core-Type Trans-
impact, rise to 2 • 85 times the value cr0. formers," A.S.E.A. Journal, 1925, 2, p. 158.
Various processes have been described in this Section which (10) CLEM, J. E.: "Mechanical Forces in Transformers," Trans-
may give rise to some axial movement of a cylindrical winding actions of the American I.E.E., 1927, 46, p. 577.
or parts of it. Such movement, if continued for any length of (11) MOODY, W. S., and BOYAJIAN, A.: "Mechanical Forces in
time or repeated every time the transformer is energized, is Transformers," General Electric Review, 1927, 30, p. 420.
likely to chafe the turn insulation where it rides on the runners (12) VIDMAR, M.: "Der Transformator im Betrieb" (Springer,
along the insulating cylinder or the iron core, and would eventually Berlin, 1927).
lead to abrasion and electrical breakdown of the turn insulation. (13) STEroiNGER, W.: "Induktivitat, Energie und Stromkraft
* The possibility of the formation of slackness at the tapping point in a tapping
von Sammelschienen," Archiv fur Elektrotechnik, 1929,
coil has been discussed in more detail in Section S. 23, p. 153.
240 BILLIG: MECHANICAL STRESSES IN TRANSFORMER WINDINGS
<14) RICHTER, R.: "Elektrische Maschinen": 3, "Transforma-
toren," pp. 83-90 (Springer, Berlin, 1932).
(15) KORB, A.: "Stromkrafte bei Transformatoren mit Rohren-
Spulen," Elektrotechnik und Maschinenbuu, 1932, 50, pp.
489, 505.
(16) KORB, A.: "Radiale Druck- und Sprengkrafte in Rohren-
spulen," Archiv fitr Elektrotechnik, 1933, 27, p. 454.
(17) KORB, A.:" Axiale Stromkrafte zwischen koaxialen Rd'hren-
Wicklungen mit Abschaltspulen," Bulletin, Schweizer
Elektrotcchnischer Verein, 1933, 24, p. 333.
(18) BIHRMANNS, J.: "Die Aufgaben des heutigen Transforma-
toren-Baues," Elektrotechnische Zeitschrift, 1933, 54 (II),
pp. 717, 767.
(19) KORB, A.: "Der Einfluss des Eisens auf die radialen Strcm-
krafte bei Transformator-Rohrenspulen," Archiv fiir
Elektrotechnik, 1934, 28, p. 625. (a)
(20) STEPHENS, H. O.: "Transformer Reactance and Losses with
Non-Uniform Windings," Transactions of the American Fig. 21.—Arrangement of two parallel current conductors.
I.E.E., 1934, 53, p. 346. (a) Line conductor and current sheet.
(21) NORRIS, E. T.: "The Mechanical Strength of Large Power (b) Two current sheets.
Transformers," World Power, 1935, 24, p. 292.
r 'V(M
(H 821
<22) FISCHER, E.: "Einfluss des Eisenkernes auf die Stromkrafte where the factor <f)h = log-f ^ log../ -——- (3)
von Transformator-Wicklungen," Elektrotechnische /'i \ L h"
Zeitschrift, 1938, 59 (II), p. 1059. /•j, r2 = distances from the wire to the two edges of the
(23) MoRLtY, A.: "Strength of Materials," 7th ed., p. 326 sheet.
(Longmans, Green, London, 1928). h, H— /z = their axial projections.
(24) HAK, J.: "Eisenlose Drosselspulen" (K. F. Koehler, S — radial distance.
Leipzig, 1938). (Note: Natural logarithms are employed throughout.)
(25) BILMG, E.: "Mechanical Stresses in Transformer Wind- It is worth noting that the direction of the resulting force,
ings. Critical Resume," E.R.A. Report Ref. Q/T101, given by tan a = F/JFs ~ </>/,/</»rt, is not towards the centre of
1943. the bar but towards a point nearer the wire [see Fig. 2\(a)], i.e. the
(26) BILLIG, £\: "Electrical and Mechanical Effects of Internal axial component is always smaller than would be expected from
Faults in Transformers," E.R.A Report Ref. Q/T103. the radial force F8 if the resultant force F were assumed to pass
(27) BILLIG, E.: "Displacements in the Windings of a 45-MVA through the centre of the bar.
Transformer," E.R.A. Report Ref. Q/T105.
(28) BILLIG, E.: "The Calculation of the Magnetic Field of (11.1.2) Two Parallel Current Sheets.
Rectangular Conductors in a Closed Slot, and Its Appli- With axial heights H and H2, and linear current densities
cation to the Reactance of Transformer Windings," Ax = nxiJH, A2 — n2i2IH2 respectively (Fig. 216).
l.R.A. Report Ref. Q/T106, 1945.
Radial component offorce P6 = Pif/$ (4)
where force constant P — l A ^ J l l (5)f
(11) APPENDIX
(11.1) Formulae for Electro-Mechanical Forces in Transformer and factor 0 S - y -{- B - / a -\- ^ log °P (6)
ti
ti nn n i{s
Windings The various dimensions and angles occurring in equations (6)
The following extract from item 25 of the Bibliography and (8) are marked in Fig. 21(6). For two sheets with flush ends
might be found useful when calculating the forces likely to arise (c = 0) and of equal heights (H2 — H), the factor for the radial
in the windings of normal transformers. Two concentric wind- component may be simplified to
ings are assumed which may be approximated by parallel current
sheets, i.e. straight, thin bars of axial height H corresponding to • (fin)
the height of the windings which are separated by a distance S
according to the effective width of the leakage duct, and of
Axial component of force P/t • - Ptfi/, • (7)
length / corresponding to the mean length of turn in all the
windings concerned. For a winding with n turns, carrying p c s b q 8 (
current i*, the linear current density is A ~ ni/H. where factor xjjh = log - 4- ->> log - f — log - a) (8)

(11.1.1) Line Conductor Parallel to Current Sheet. For two sheets with flush ends (c = 0) and equal heights
(// = 0) the axial component disappears tyh ~ 0). For two
Radial component of force Fs = 2A1i2l^>s . . (l)f sheets, flush at one end but of unequal heights (H2 — H -- /;),
where the factor (f>$ is equal to the angle in radians subtended equation (8) may be simplified to
by two straight lines from the conductor wire to the edges of the
current sheet (Fig. 21a). w H-

Axial component of force Fh — 1AX i2l<f>h (2)t

* Instantaneous values are used in equations (1) to (7). Centimetres should be
used for linear dimensions except where otherwise stated.
— — (arc tan
h
K
o
H-h
+ arc tan —»- - — arc tan
o f) <s">
•"• Divide by 981 x 10s to convert to practical units (amp, cm, kg). f Divide by 981 x 10s to convert to practical units (amp, cm, kg).
 BILLIG: MECHANICAL STRESSES IN TRANSFORMER WINDINGS 141

Width of duct

0 5 10 15 35 40 45 Scale IH 50?.
100 95 90 &5 80 h
65 60 - 55 Scale IZ ,
Axial distance of end turn /n

Fig. 22.—Axial push between two windings of different height but with flush ends.

Values of tfjh are plotted in Fig. 22 against the relative unbalance

/////, with the relative width of gap 8/H as parameter.
For slightly unequal heights, h

the force becomes directly proportional to the amount of un-

balance.
To determine the axial forces between two sheets of uniform
density but of different heights the following considerations are
useful. There is no axial push between opposite parts of the
sheets which are at the same level. Hence the axial repulsion
between the two sheets in Fig. 23(a) is exactly the same as that
acting on the overhanging part only [Fig. 23(6)], and is given by
equation (8a). The same applies to sheets which are flush at
the top end [Fig. 23(c)], and the axial repulsion between which is
determined by the piece overhanging at the bottom. In the
general case of two sheets which are not flush at either end
(Fig. 23e) the force is thus given as the sum of the forces indi-
cated in Figs. 23(6) and 23(d). Generally it is convenient to
split windings into parts which are flush at one end; in other
words, the total axial force is given by the sum of the forces
acting on all the overhanging parts.
Fig. 23.—Axial forces between current sheets of unequal heights.
(a, b) Overhang at upper end.
(c, d) Overhang at lower end.
(e) Overhang at both ends.
The data given are sufficient to calculate the approximate
magnitude of various forces acting in transformer windings.*
For a transformer supplied from a source of infinitely large
power with a short-circuit applied across its secondary terminals
• In cases such as might arise on the occurrence of internal faults, the transformer
windings cannot reasonably be approximated by parallel current sheets for calculation
purposes. It is then convenient to use the more fundamental equation—
p = ll — (multiply by 10-2 for practical units, amp, cm, kg)
2 Sx
where the force Px in the direction x is given as proportional to the change of inductance
per centimetre displacement between windings. For a fuller treatment of such cascv
see item 26 of the Bibliography, where formulae for inductance and forces are given
 242 B1LLIG: MECHANICAL STRESSES IN TRANSFORMER WINDINGS
at the instant of zero voltage, the current will be fully asymmetric This is the repulsion between l.v. and h.v. windings. Now make
and may rise to 2V2 times its normal value if damping is proper allowance for the presence of the iron core, at a distance
neglected.* The force constant of equations (4), (5) and (7) of 3-41 in from the inner (l.v.) winding. There are two image
then comes to windings, one L.V.' at a distance of 2 x 3-41 in = 6-81 in or
N 6-81/62-5= 10-9%, and the other, H.V/ at a distance of
0-80 -•^—« tons (9) 6-81 + 3-89= 10-7 in or 10-7/62-5 - 17-1 % from the l.v.
winding which experiences
where
/ — supply frequency, in c/s. An additional pull of + 700 x 2-45* from winding L.V.'
ex — reactance expressed as a fraction. An additional push of — 700 x 2-20 from winding H.V/
8 = effective width of leakage duct, in inches. An additional pull of 700 x 0-25~~^175 tonsTrom both
N ~ kVA rating per limb for a simple concentric arrangement, image windings.
or half the kVA per limb for a double concentric
arrangement. A similar increase is obtained for the h.v. winding.
The radial and axial forces acting between any pair of con- The radial pressure on either winding is thus slightly increased
centric windings of uniform current density can thus be simply by the presence of the iron core. This pressure tends to squash
determined. Due allowance for the presence of the iron core or buckle the inner winding and to burst the outer one, producing
must be made, however, as it has a large influence on the magni- large tensile stresses in it.
tude of the forces. This may be done by considering the image
windings behind the core. The force due to these image wind- (11.2.3) Axial Shift of One Winding against the Other.
ings, acting on any particular winding, can be determined An axial shift of, say, 0- 5 % produces, according to equation (7)
exactly as if these windings were real. a repulsion of
When dealing with dissimilarities in the windings, such as may
be caused by tappings, by reinforced turn-insulation or by cross- Ph = 700 x 2f x 1-4%- 19-6 tons
overs, allowance can be made in two different ways. If the
dissimilarity is small in axial extent when compared with the between them in an axial direction as, from Fig. 22, with para-
total axial height of the windings, consider first the force due to meters 8lff= 6-25% and h/H=0-5% the factor if,h = 1 - 4 % .
a current distribution uniform over the whole winding and then Now make proper allowance for the presence of the iron core,
superpose the effect of the dissimilarities. For instance, con- being at a distance of 3 • 41 in from the l.v. winding. The image
sider the effect of a gap of a% due to a tapping in the primary of the l.v. winding being level with the winding itself does not,
winding which is otherwise fully balanced against the secondary. of course, produce any additional axial force on it, whilst the
On the "full" winding with ni ampere-turns which would produce image H.V/ at a radial distance of 10-7 in or 10-7/62-5 =
no axial thrust, must be superposed a piece carrying — ni. a % 17-1% raises the end thrust by 700 x 2 x 0-9%$ = 12-6 tons
ampere-turns located at the position of the original gap. The to a total of 4-6% or 32-2 tons.
push due to this piece may be calculated as described above.
However, if its axial extension is small compared with the whole (11.2.4) Thrust on End Clamps of Outer Winding Due to a 10% Tap
at Its Centre.
axial height of the winding, it may be thought of as being concen-
trated as a line conductor located at the centre of the gap, and the The current density in the outer winding is increased to 1/0-90
simple equations (2) and (3) may be applied directly. If the dis- = 1-11 times its average value over the inner, uniform winding.
similarities are of larger axial extent, split the winding into nearly Consider, for instance, the force on the top half of the outer
uniform parts and determine the force on each part separately. winding, extending over 45 % of the total axial height H. The
l.v. winding tends to push it up with a force of
(11.2) Example
X 700 x 59-7%§ = 464 tons
To illustrate the magnitude of the stresses involved in a large 0-90
transformer, take as an example a 50 000-kVA, 3-phase, 50-c/s,
66-kV delta/33-kV star transformer, with taps of ± 2- 5 and 5 % If the gap were filled up so as to make the whole h.v. winding
on the h.v. side.f uniform, of density 1-11, that same part of the winding would
The winding arrangement is simple concentric with the h.v. be pulled down with a force of 1/0-90* x 700 x 69% = 596
portion on the outside, and the essential data are: Reactance tons, i.e. there would be a pressure at the lower edge of the top
9-9%, effective width of leakage duct 3-89 in, axial height of half of the h.v. winding amounting to 596 — 464 =132 tons.
winding 62-5 in, mean length of turn 131 • 5 in. Due to the presence of the core, this would be reduced to
121 tons. Now consider the effect of the additional ampere-
(11.2.1) Peak Force Constant (Equation 9). turns required to reduce the current in the gap to zero. They
tend to push up the top half of the h.v. winding with a force
0 - 8 0 x 5 0 000/3 __. amounting to 1/0-902 X 0-55|| x 700 x 47-2% = 224-5 tons.
P = 70 tons
- " xir<H®ncTm ° * Similarly, the image of these ampere-turns in the gap would
increase that push by a further 1/0-902 x 0-55 x 700 x 15-3%
(11.2.2) Radial Force. = 72-8 tons. Hence the outward thrust on the end clamps of
From equation (6a) with parameter hjH = 3 • 89/62 • 5 = 6 • 22 %,the h.v. winding ultimately becomes
the factor ips = 2-69, and from equation (4)
224-5 + 72-8 - 121 = 176-3 tons, or 25-2% of P = 700 tons.
P 8 = 700 X 2-69 = 1 883 tons
* From equation (6a) for SfH = 10-9%.
* Compare Section 4.1.2 and Fig. 2 for damping. t There is a i % overhang at each end of the winding, i.e. at the top and the bottom.
t The design of this transformer has been more fully described in item 25 of the
Bibliography. t From Fig. 22, for S/H = 17-1 % and h/U =» 0-5%, ^ =» 0-9%.
t Owing to the resistance of the windings and to the voltage drop in the supply § For SIH = 6-25% and h\H = 45%, ^ = 59-7%.
system, all the forces and stresses would be reduced to 46-8% of the values calculated || The overall axial heights of the two interacting parts of the winding occupy only
below. 55 /„ of the complete height H, to which the force constant P refers.
 BILLIG: MECHANICAL STRESSES IN TRANSFORMER WINDINGS 243

(11.2.5) Force on End-Turns in H.V. Winding. are 5-15 and 62-1 in respectively; hence the outward thrust
With 588 turns in the full h.v. winding, the force constant per towards the clamps is
turn is
700 1-19 x log-—- = 2-98 tons
F — — — 119 tons
588
The distances from the centre of the end coil to the two ends of Therefore resultant inward pull =1-94 tons towards the body
the remaining body of the h.v. winding are 1 in and 62 in of the winding. This is reduced by the presence of the core to
respectively; hence the inward pull towards the body of the 1 • 5 tons per turn.
winding, according to equations (2) and (3), is A knowledge of the forces and pressures enables the windings
and mechanical details of the winding structure such as cross-
119 x log?? = 4-92 tons section of wires, spacing and size of coil spacers and axial
runners, number and cross-section of tie-rods and end clamps,
The distances to the top and bottom edges of the l.v. winding etc., to be properly designed.

DISCUSSION BEFORE THE TRANSMISSION SECTION, 12TH DECEMBER, 1945

Mr. C. W. Marshall: Empirical methods based on service ex-
perience have been most prominent in the development of trans-
formers which purport to be short-circuit-proof. It is therefore
gratifying to have a condensed and scientific statement of the
fundamental principles governing the mechanical design of
transformers.
In the early stages of Grid operation, several large transformers
of the 132-kV, 30- to 60-MVA class were broken down by light-
ning, and the mechanical damage sustained by the windings was
sometimes so extensive that immediate steps had to be taken
to improve the construction.
It has always been a C.E.B. specification requirement that all
transformers must be capable of withstanding a short-circuit at
their secondary terminals while full voltage is maintained at their
input terminals, but, when electrical failure occurs in the winding,
mechanical failure almost inevitably follows. Short-circuits on
overhead lines were everyday occurrences during long periods of
the war, and short-circuits on substations were all too familiar,
particularly during the "V.I" period. The Grid transformers Fig. A
withstood these repeated short-circuits remarkably well, but
sample units of all makes will be returned to the manufacturers'
works for examination and, if necessary, repairs and improve-
ments. Past experience has also shown that considerable
mechanical damage can be sustained by transformers without
immediate electrical breakdown, and this provides further
justification for the precautionary measure just mentioned.
The sources of trouble which have been encountered with the
Grid transformers are:
(a) Failure of the end rings: this class of trouble has only been
encountered when rings were made of insulating material which
deteriorated in service.
(b) Imperfect clamping of the end rings, and consequently of
the windings.
(c) Unsatisfactory sizes and proportions of individual con-
ductors. In some cases, excessively thin strip conductors have
been used which have become displaced, with the result that the
whole winding has collapsed on short-circuit.
{d) Shrinkage of insulation: with certain makes of older trans-
formers, insulation shrinkage was considerable, and although Fig. B
means were provided for re-tightening the coils the windings were
incapable of withstanding heavy short-circuits. The author has dealt fully with the subject of axial forces arising
A recent case of failure of transformer windings illustrates all from differences in lengths of coaxial windings. The practical
the above-mentioned points. The transformers illustrated in lesson to be learnt from this section of the paper is that indis-
Figs. A and B were identical units, each being rated at 2 000 kVA criminate tightening of windings from the top of a transformer,
33/11 kV. Due to a fault on the associated 11-kV switchgear, to take up insulation shrinkage, is almost certain to reduce the
both units were subjected to three short-circuits which caused ability of the windings to withstand short-circuit forces. It is
both mechanical and electrical failure of the 11-kV winding, dis- therefore essential with older transformers to remove cores and
placement of the 33-kV winding, and distortion of the clamping windings from the tanks to adjust the clamps properly. With
structure. The short-circuit current was approximately 15 times modern transformers the insulation should be fully shrunk at the
the normal full-load value. works, and the clamping does not need to be adjusted on site.