Progress in Organic Coatings 165 (2022) 106768

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Progress in Organic Coatings

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/porgcoat

Review

A review of recent progress in melamine-formaldehyde resin based

nanocomposites as coating materials
Ali Dorieh a, *, Mohammad Farajollah Pour a, Sogand Ghafari Movahed b, Antonio Pizzi c,
Peyman Pouresmaeel Selakjani d, Mohammad Valizadeh Kiamahalleh a, Hamid Hatefnia a,
Mohammad Hassan Shahavi e, Roozbeh Aghaei d
a
Research and Development Division, Arian Saeed Industrial Group, Sari, Iran
b
Department of Organic Chemistry, Payame Noor University, Ramsar, Iran
c
LERMAB-ENSTIB, University of Lorraine, Epinal, France
d
School of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Tehran, Tehran 14176, Iran
e
Faculty of Engineering Modern Technologies, Amol University of Special Modern Technologies (AUSMT), Amol, Iran

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Nanomaterials are receiving global attention due to outstanding high effectiveness and thermal stability, fire
Melamine formaldehyde resin retardancy, excellent physical- mechanical properties, good technological properties, and biocompatibility. In
Nanomaterials this review, a survey of the literature on extending the performance of melamine-formaldehyde resin (MFR)
Coating
based on nanomaterials is presented. The properties-performance relationships for different nanomaterials
Mechanical properties
Thermal stability
modified MFR are closely examined. MFR adhesives are commonly used because they have superior adhesive
Fire retardancy properties and water resistance. Nano-technology has a massive potential to enhance polymer composites with
Formaldehyde emission improved performance. Nanomaterial-improved polymers for adhesives have been progressed to enhance the
properties of wood composites. MFR is one of the most common thermoset resins for coating applications. Based
on nanotechnology, it is possible to design advanced MFR-based polymers for industrial uses such as coatings. In
this critical review, for the first time, it is emphasized the importance of the recent progress on the impact of
nanomaterials to improve the performance of MFR adhesives such as mechanical properties, thermal stability,
fire retardancy and free formaldehyde emission, and various aspects of such engineered polymers are discussed
and accentuated. Using nanoparticles in liquid MFR adhesives has the potential to significantly lower environ­
mental and health hazards. Eventually, based on the above discussion, the challenges and perspectives about
future enhancements emphasizes the necessity of a new vision into the high-level analysis of what happens at the
MFR and nanomaterial studies that are not actually clear in the research on the coating industry. To synthesize
MFR nanocomposites for industrial use, the processing of these nanocomposites must be developed from lab-
scale to industrially appropriate approaches.

1. Introduction melamine impregnated paper foils, through the impregnation proced­

Impregnated papers are manufactured from cellulosic products
which are new-tech engineered decorative papers. These papers are
introduced as the special base print papers to produce decorative films in
gravure printing processes. Currently, due to their resistance to photo-
yellowing, they are extensively applied in laminated board produc­
tion. These decorative papers are impregnated with formaldehyde-based
resins like UFR (urea-formaldehyde resin) and MFR adhesives and they
are converted into technologically sensitive cellulosic composite, like's
ure. The impregnated paper foils are also widely applied as coating
materials for lamination onto chipboard or MDF boards industry [1].
The coating is a thin layer of a substance covering and protecting the
surface of the substrates from exposure to the ambient [2]. MFR is one of
the most used as coating materials.
During the last few decades, bonding technology has become stan­
dard due to its capability of joining different types of materials like
metals, woods, panels, polymeric composites. Adhesive bonding can be
used in many fields such as aerospace, automotive, construction,

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ali.dorieh@yahoo.com (A. Dorieh).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.porgcoat.2022.106768
Received 22 September 2021; Received in revised form 25 January 2022; Accepted 3 February 2022
Available online 8 February 2022
0300-9440/© 2022 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
A. Dorieh et al.
electronic systems, and others because the adhesives suitable properties
(their low specific gravity, low cost, adaptability to various curing
conditions) have been the main attraction for the industry to use this
binder [3–5]. Therefore, polymeric adhesives have played, and will
continue to play a crucial role in the efficient utilization of wood re­
sources and the development and rapid growth of the wood-based
composites industry [6]. Generally, formaldehyde-based resins are
thermosetting adhesives widely applied in laminates, surface coatings,
molding compounds, textiles and papers, and wood adhesives [7].
The resins influence all aspects of the composites, from their
physical-mechanical properties to their ability to perform under moist
conditions. The wood composites industry uses almost solely
formaldehyde-based adhesives, like UFR and MUFR (melamine-urea-
formaldehyde resin) adhesives [8–10]. Wood-based panels produced
with UFR adhesives have been identified as a significant resource of
indoor air formaldehyde releases [11]. Meanwhile, the wood has been
shown to also generate some formaldehyde when exposed to the high
temperature conditions used during panels production [12].
In recent decades, to overcome these challenges, many research
works have spent considerable efforts into reducing formaldehyde
emission (FE) in different ways [13–19]. Conversely, end treatments for
particleboard and panel products, which produce an over layer or
coating including laminates, impregnated papers, and finishing foils, are
generally used to improve the water-resistance and to reduce FE. These
surface materials, such as MFR-impregnated paper, can decrease the FE
from wood composites [20]. More than 70% of the surface decorations
of particleboards are coated with MFR-impregnated décor papers [21].
MFR adhesives and its derivatives are used to introduce high strength,
high stiffness, hardness, excellent adhesion performance, and moisture
resistance to cellulose, and easy-to-use processing. They are, therefore,
generally used in the automotive and construction industry, in poly­
meric composites, adhesives, coatings, abrasive cleaners, textiles and
papers, and other materials requiring a boost in their physical-
mechanical performance (Scheme 1) [22–27].
MFR adhesives are used in the engineered wood-based panel
manufacturing industry for binding wood lignocellulosic-based com­
posites such as MDFs and particleboards and surface finishing of such
wood composites via adhesive impregnated paper laminates
[22,28–34].
Compositions of decor paper impregnation and nanocomposite
Scheme 1. Typical industrial applications of melamine-formaldehyde resins.
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Progress in Organic Coatings 165 (2022) 106768
technology are promising ways to modify and improve certain coating
panel's features. Addition of nanomaterials into the polymeric adhesive
systems to enhance panels has attracted significant attention in
academia and industry for their diverse potential applications because of
the improved thermal, fire retardancy, and mechanical behavior ob­
tained [35,36].
Nano-structured materials are the result of engineering at the
nanoscale level and have nanoscale dimensions ranging from 1 to 100
nm. In compounded polymers, excellent physical and chemical proper­
ties are achievable depending on the nanomaterial dispersion
throughout the polymer. Generally, a considerable change in the prop­
erties of adhesive nanocomposites is expected concerning, for, to that of
ordinary adhesive composites, including micro fillers, known as par­
ticulate composites, which is the outcome of excessively enhanced
adhesive-particle interfacial interaction, which are not feasible by using
an individual element [37–39]. The shape, size, and number of nano­
fillers also have their independent or sometimes concurrent effects on
the performance of polymer nanocomposites [40–42]. In case of nano­
material, recognizing the need for proper nanomaterial selection allows
one to achieve more from less. These initiatives have supported the
recent efforts to investigate and improve academic and industrial
research projects toward new applications besides establishing the
critical science of this field [41,43–45].
The composite products are appealing because they combine mate­
rial specifications in such a ways not available naturally. Adding
nanomaterials into the melamine- formaldehyde resin is an effective
way to fabricate advanced materials, which combine the advantages of
both melamine- formaldehyde resin and nanomaterials.
Liquid MFR adhesives are a particular group of polymeric materials
which are commonly formed by condensation reactions between mel­
amine and formaldehyde (CH2O) and cross-linking during the
compression molding or heating procedure (Scheme 2). However, it is
difficult to get the mechanical properties data of the control MFR ad­
hesive as it is brittle and develops wide micro-cracks during resin
hardening [46].
The polycondensation of melamine with formaldehyde occurs in two
stages. First, melamine reacts with formaldehyde, where N–H is effec­
tively added to the C–– O of formaldehyde [47] forming methylol groups.
These methylol moieties can react further in a second condensation step
leading to the formation of methylene and methylene ether linkages
[48–52].
The proportion of these two linkages formed during the resin syn­
thesis depends from the pH of the reaction medium. Therefore, if the pH
is between 7 and 8, methylene linkages predominate, whereas formation
of methylene ether linkages is favored at higher pH (above 9) [53]. The
methylolation step is well studied and includes a substitution reaction in
which formaldehyde reacts with melamine to form methylol melamines.
Then, in the acid condensation step, MFRs are synthesized from meth­
ylol compound of metylolation step via condensation reaction as showed
in Scheme 2.
Nevertheless, previous studies have shown that another reaction is
present resulting in the formation of –CH2– linkages in the final
polymerized product by reaction between the aminomethylol groups
formed in the hydroxymethylation of the melamine. The acid conden­
sation step and the corresponding structure of the MFR adhesives vary
significantly with the synthesis conditions, namely F/M mole ratios of
the raw materials, pH, and temperature trends during adhesive synthesis
[54,55].
Melamine (2,4,6-triamino-1,3,5-triazine) is a considerably more
expensive nitrogenous chemical than urea, thus, this day, these adhe­
sives are sold as MUFR adhesives possessing equal properties as the
older neat MFR adhesives. Two types of resins: (a) MUFR, in which the
amount of melamine incorporated into a UFR adhesives are at least 5%.
This is nothing else than an upgraded interior grade UFR adhesives, this
being also one method of decreasing a UFR HCHO-emission (b) exterior-
and semi-exterior-grade MUFR resins with 30% melamine content [56].
A. Dorieh et al. Progress in Organic Coatings 165 (2022) 106768

Scheme 2. Reaction mechanism of melamine formaldehyde resin.

Fig. 1. The presence of MFR adhesive in the hierarchical structure of wood after impregnation modification [60].

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A. Dorieh et al.
In the past decades, these adhesives were produced as semi-exterior-
grade. However, the progress in their resin manufacturing has been so
significant that they can compete well in performance with the more
classical exterior-grade phenolic resin (PFR) adhesives [57–59]. Altgen
et al. [60] investigated the water vapor adsorption under impact of
curing conditions behavior of MFR adhesive and adhesive-improved
wood. When the resin polymerizes within the wood cell wall, it fills
the empty space between the cell wall matrix polymers to maintain the
cell wall in a permanently swollen shape, as illustrated in Fig. 1.
Nanotechnology-based products have created numerous worldwide
opportunities for the bonded composites industry to develop a new
generation of adhesives with better properties [61–63]. Therefore,
resorting to nanotechnology by using nanomaterials into the MFR ad­
hesive can provide highly-effective novel composites that can find
application in many industrial fields.
Nanofillers can belong to organic or inorganic materials. In order to
enhance the mechanical properties, electrical conductivity, thermal
behavior, and fire retardant properties of MFR adhesive, varieties of
nanomaterials and additives including, carbon nanofibers, nano­
celloluse, nanoclay, nano-SiO2, nano-TiO2, zinc oxide and alumina have
been formulated for nanocomposites for MFR adhesive [64–67].
Currently, academic and commercial research projects have shown
wide research interest in nanotechnology-based resin-bonded compos­
ites. Several reviews on nano-based resin exist in the urea-formaldehyde
adhesive [68], epoxy literature, and for other resins [39,69–77]. The
number of publications on MFR nanocomposites in polymer science and
composite journals is lower (lower than100), but the trend is similar.
However, to our knowledge, the application of micro/nanofillers in MFR
composites has not been reported in any individual review. Thus, the
main aim of this review is to summarize the pioneering use of nano­
materials in the formulation of MFR composites to achieve a compre­
hensive understanding of the influence of nanomaterials on the MFR
formulation and their properties. This review article showed that the
addition of nanomaterial to MFR adhesive not only improves the me­
chanical properties of MFR nanocomposites but also improves their
thermal stability, fire retardancy and formaldehyde emission.
2. Melamine formaldehyde resin: advantages and disadvantages
Amino resins have become one of the most popular thermosetting
polymers and are prepared by reacting an aldehyde (especially formal­
dehyde) with a compound containing amino- or amido-groups (NH2)
like melamine, urea, and benzoguanamine. Melamine, when it reacts
with aqueous formaldehyde at a weakly alkaline pH, forms MFR.
A MFR adhesive is a nitrogen-rich amino resin and has a stable
triazine ring structure, the MFR adhesive usually advances thermal
stability, fire retardant, low thermal conductivity, low emission, anti-
water coatings, transparency, non-formation of molten drops, highly
durable, excellent boil resistance, moisture resistance and surface fin­
ishes, which leads MFR to a large range of industrial applications such as
in construction and automotive [78,79].
It has been estimated that more than 90% of globally available
melamine is used in resins preparation. These resins were initially been
applied as wood adhesives and have utilizations in flooring and
impregnation of decorative paper for manufacturing paper-based low-
pressure (LPM) and high pressure laminates (HPL), molding compounds,
textile finishes, coatings, and adhesives [80–83]. Because of MFR
toughness and their relative ease of manufacture, these adhesives are
incorporated in a broad range of products [84,85].
Currently, Xiong et al. prepared MFR adhesives with enhanced
toughness and high fire retardancy. In this work, PVA (Polyvinyl
alcohol), infer high toughness and elasticity, and can be mixed with MFR
adhesives in water and applied to enhance the toughness of MFR ad­
hesive. Nano-silica was modified by 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (KH-
550) and then added into MFR and PVA by ultrasonic dispersion in
water solution to produce MF/nano-SiO2/PVA composite fibers. When
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Progress in Organic Coatings 165 (2022) 106768
the PVA content is 20%, the results showed that improved MFR pre­
polymers with excellent fire retardant, good thermal stability, me­
chanical properties, and improved toughness were produced [86,87].
Melamine-formaldehyde formulations are often referred as amino­
plastic resins, and is one of the most essential aminoplastic resins useful
in decorative laminates, coating materials and the production of panels.
The advantages of MF resins include unique surface properties, excellent
resistance against temperature, scratch, fire retardancy, moisture and
mechanical stress [88,89].
3. The influence of nanoparticles on the properties and
performance of MFR
Polymer nanocomposites are a promising new group of nano­
composites in which polymer serves as the matrix while other material
in the nanoscale serve as the filler. Polymer nanomaterials are standard
composites with the difference that they have at least one phase in the
nanometer area, and this was found to be the key for a remarkable
improvement in their mechanical and physical performance [17,90–92].
In recent years, scientific and industrial interest has focused on
polymer nanocomposites because of their unique performance emerging
from polymer and nanomaterials combination [93,94]. Many reports
have reported the development of nanocomposites [83,85,92,95,96].
However, studies on the evaluation of nanoparticles in the adhesives
industry are limited. As binders play an important role in the wood
composite industry, wood-based composite products' properties and
performance primarily depend on their adhesive bonding quality.
Nowadays, nanotechnology is a rapidly emerging technology that
creates unique materials with excellent properties and produces new
and improved products for many industrial fields [97–99]. It is a real
industrial challenge to develop high-valued wood-polymer nano­
composites (W-PNC) [100].
The addition of nanomaterials into MFR is a practical approach to
develop multifunctional structural MFR nanocomposites. As shown in
Table 1, based on their source, type, size, content, and shape, nano­
particles can reinforce various properties of the substrate MFR.
Therefore, nanomaterials can affect MFR nanocomposites' final
properties such as mechanical properties, curing behavior, formalde­
hyde emission, and flame retardancy even at low addition levels. The
addition of nanomaterials into the MFR matrix can provide excellent-
properties novel materials that have great potential to be applied in
many industrial environments. Alternately the nanofillers used are clay
minerals (e.g. montmorillonite nano clay, silica, kaolinite), different
oxides (e.g. TiO2, SiO2, alumina oxide), carbon based nanomaterials (e.
g. carbon nanotubes (CNT), graphite, cellulose nanofiber), metals and
metal alloys (e.g. Al, Fe).
To reinforce the properties of impregnated paper, additives are
commonly added to the adhesive. The type and amount of the adhesive
and the additive as well as the production process parameters influence
the final properties of the resin coated papers [101]. The use of materials
at the nanoscale for manufacturing decorative papers is a new way
which leads to an appropriate distribution of the adhesive in the surface
and the core of the paper. Nano-materials can improve the physico-
mechanical performances of the adhesives used. In general, raising the
amount of micro/nano sized materials boosts the strength of the matrix
but conversely, stress concentration caused by the agglomerated mate­
rials reduces the ductility and sometimes the affect strength. Adding
nano-materials with a great dispersion in the adhesive matrix can
decline stress concentration, improve mechanical performance and
maintain or even enhance flexibility.
Chen et al. [102] reported polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and benzoguan­
amine (BG) addition to MFR adhesive as successful modifiers, and the
structure of the improved MFR adhesives was confirmed by spectro­
scopic analyses (FTIR and 13C NMR). The tensile strength, anti-fouling
properties as well as the thermal stability and char structure and
morphology of modified MFR laminates were studied.
A. Dorieh et al. Progress in Organic Coatings 165 (2022) 106768

Table 1
Common nanomaterials and their performance of MFR polymers.
Type of nanomaterials Properties References

Mineral nanoparticles Clay Low cost, mechanical reinforcement, flame retardant, thermal resistance, [36,37,40,73,80,107]
Na-montmorillonite (Na- Reduce formaldehyde emissions, improvement of bonding strength
(MMT))
Bio-based additive Carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) Mechanical strength, [61,69,71,80,91]
Cellulose nanofiber Thermal conductivity,
Cellulose nanocrystals (NCC) Reduce formaldehyde emissions, improvement of bonding strength accelerated of
Micro fibrillated cellulose curing time
(MFC)
Hemp Flour
Metal-based Ag Anitimicrobial properties [114,115,124]
nanoparticles Ni Enhanced electrochemical/capacitive performance
Oxides nanoparticles TiO2 Mechanical and thermal reinforcement, [93,103,106,110,123,137]
SiO2 Reduce formaldehyde emissions
Alumina Fire retardancy

The results of tensile tests indicated that the MFR improved with BG
and PVA enhanced the tensile strength of the melamine-impregnated
paper. The anti-fouling test showed that improved MFR laminates had
no evident change while the MFR laminate was coated. Conversely,
there isn't any change of the thermal degradation behavior of MFR by
the addition of BG and PVA, but an additional carbonaceous residue was
produced at higher temperatures. The improved MFR laminates showed
good fire-retardant properties through the analysis of its LOI (limiting
oxygen index) method, CONE calorimetry test compared to unmodified
MFR laminates. Besides, when laminates were prepared with aramid
paper as core material, fire retardancy was further improved.
3.1. Mechanical and antimicrobial properties of MFR nanocomposites
Nowadays, worldwide attention has been paid to the synthesis of
MFR nanocomposites to enhance MFR mechanical performance. Such
MFR nanocomposites present highly improved physical, mechanical,
and engineering properties compared to conventional polymers.
Ozcifci et al. [103] showed the effect of the addition of Nano-TiO2
and Nano-SiO2 on bonding performance and structural properties of
MUFR (melamine-urea-formaldehyde resin) polymers at a rate of 2%,
4%, 6%, 8% addition within the MUFR polymer. The results indicated
that the 8% rate gave a higher bond strength than the other percentages
tested. It has been determined that the use of Nano (TiO2 and SiO2) in a
MUFR polymer enhances the bond strength of wood composites by 30%.
Other researchers reported that nanoclays enhance mechanical
properties. For instance, Hazarika et al. investigated the properties of
WPNC impregnated with a MF-furfuryl alcohol (MFFA) copolymer and
nano-clay. They reported that the wood-polymer nanocomposites
enhanced the dimensional stability, improved greatly the chemical
resistance, and flame-retardancy as well as imparting excellent
mechanical properties [104–106].
In other work Chen et al. [107] prepared impregnated paper which
was coated with a blend of TiO2-SiO2 nanocomposite and MFR polymer
(Fig. 2). A three-dimensional network structure including macropores
and mesopores of considerable size is observed, further confirming the
analysis results of pore size distribution. The result showed that massive
mesoporous in these nanocomposite result to a high-surface-area for
formaldehyde scavenging. Furthermore, the porous structure of these
nanocomposites can capture hazardous volatile organic compound from
wood combustion and thus reduce the CO and CO2 emission level by
56% and 33%, respectively.
Recently, Zhao et al. [108] reported Si/carbon nanotubes@MFR (Si/
CNTs@MFR) polymer based carbon (Si/CNTs@carbon) composites and
their enhanced energy storage performances. The result indicated that
the uniformly dispersed CNTs in Si/CNTs@C composites can act as a
rapid ionic and electronic conductive transmission network during
charge–discharge processes, and MFR polymer-based carbon coating
can ensure the great contact between nano-silica and CNTs and improve
the integrity of Si/CNTs@carbon nanocomposites. However, Si/
CNTs@carbon nano-composites exhibit enhanced energy storage (high-
rate and cycling) performances than silica fillers. Thus, the reasonable
structure is of great significance for improving the electrochemical
properties of Silica-based nanocomposites.
The schematic diagram of the preparation of Si/CNTs@C composites
is shown in Fig. 3. Besides, the EDS element mappings images of Si, C,
and N elements are shown in Fig. 4. The elements distribution also in­
dicates that Si particles are coated by MFR-based carbon and twist CNTs,
which is consistent with the results of SEM (Fig. 5).
In recent years a new insight of using micro/nano cellulose as a
modifier for adhesives has been increasingly investigated. Currently
Kawalerczyk et al. [109] studied the effect of the possibility of using

Fig. 2. Characterization of TiO2-SiO2 nanocomposite aerogel: (a) SEM picture at a magnification of 15,000, (b) TEM image [107].

5
A. Dorieh et al.
Fig. 3. Diagram showing the synthesis of Si/CNTs@ carbon composites. CNTs, carbon nanotubes; CTAB, cetyltrimethyl ammonium bromide; MFR, MFR; Si, silicom;
Si@C, silicon@carbon; Si/CNTs@C, Si/carbon nanotubes@MFR-based carbon; SDBD, sodium dodecylbenzene sulphonate [108].
NCC (nano cellulose) as a filler for MUF adhesives on the wood-based
composite performance. On the basis of the results obtained the addi­
tion of nanocellulose led to the enhancement in mechanical properties
like MOE (modulus of elasticity) and IB (bonding strength). Conversely,
the resin modification with NCC allowed a decrease in the level of
formaldehyde release, and eventually the addition of NCC caused the
reduction in adhesive consumption by approximately 30%.
In another interesting work, Karagiannidis et al. [110] reported the
influence of the use of Micro-Fibrillated Cellulose (MFC) into UF and
MUF resins. The micro-fibrillated cellulose was investigated either
during the condensation step of adhesive synthesis or as an additive
blended together with other chemicals with the already prepared ad­
hesive, the mixture being finally sprayed onto fibers or spread onto
wood veneers, depending on the composite panel type. The result
showed that the MFC not only improves the mechanical properties and
reduces the formaldehyde emission of the final composite panels but
also acts as a rheology modifier of the adhesive, modifying its distri­
bution on the fibers, enabling it to cover a higher-surface-area of wood,
and hindering its penetration into the wood substrate. Besides, it was
demonstrated that when MFC is used in the adhesive polymer system,
there is a possibility of decreasing adhesive consumption, while main­
taining the composite properties. As shown in Scheme 3. Wen et al.
reported a facile route for the preparation of uniform MFR colloidal
particles. The MFR colloids (MFR/silver composite microspheres)
showed they could reduce silver (Ag) ions into silver nanomaterials,
resulting in MFR/Ag nanocomposites without addition of reductants or
pre-surface activation (Fig. 6) [111]. These MFR/Ag composite micro­
spheres can be used as the surface-modified Raman scattering (SERS)
active substrates for the trace detection of organic compounds. More­
over, these MFR/Ag composite microspheres also displayed great anti­
bacterial activities against both Escherichia coli (E. coli, gram-negative
bacteria) and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus, gram-positive bacteria).
In other work, Deng et al. [112] reported a new method to prepare
hierarchical superhydrophobic MFR/silver nanocomposite array sub­
strates, applicable for surface-improved Raman scattering (SERS)
detection of highly dilute analytic biomolecules up to femtomolar levels
(Fig. 7). This work has shown that these superior SERS-active substrates
can confine analyte molecules within the localized sensing areas, thus as
to effectively function as a barrier to the random emission of analyte
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Progress in Organic Coatings 165 (2022) 106768
molecules.
3.2. Thermal behavior of modified MFR nanocomposites
One of the most important variables affecting the performance of
MFR polymers is the degree of cure. MFR polymers are cross-linked by
polycondensation throughout the curing process resulting in remarkable
changes in mechanical and physical properties. Thermal stability was
investigated to determine the degree of cure by spectroscopic and
chromatographic techniques and by non-isothermal thermogravimetry,
including DSC (Differential Scanning Calorimeter) and TGA (thermog­
ravimetric analysis) [51].
Fillers are often added to MFR adhesives formulation to enhance
their properties final further [113]. Inorganic-filled melamine-based
compositions give superior electrical behavior and heat resistance
property and this enables the use of MFR products for extensively
applications.
The addition of inorganic fillers delivers hard and heat resistant
composites. High filler amount is often required to achieve the desired
properties while using the microsized fillers. In these circumstances,
processing difficulties as well as degradation of the mechanical prop­
erties are the limiting factors.
On the other hand, nanofillers are verified as a hopeful technology
for improving the thermal, electrical and mechanical characteristics of
the MFR. The most popular preparing methods for MFR nanocomposite
is in situ polymerization for increasing the distribution of the nanofiller
within the substrate The layer-by-layer self-assembly of MFR/graphene
nanocomposites and their thermal behavior was studied. The nano­
composites were prepared by adding graphene oxide (GO) to the MFR
adhesive by in situ polymerization. The sandwich structure composite
was formed by the layer-by-layer self-assembly of GO along with MFR
adhesive. Eventually, the nanocomposites showed enhanced thermal
stability and conductivity [114].
In another work [115], the mechanical, thermal and electrical per­
formance of melamine/graphite nanocomposites were determined.
Thermally treated graphite oxide was added into the MFR by an in situ
process in order to prepare the nanographite (NG). The interlayer
spacing of the graphite layers was enhanced due to the intercalation of
oxygen-carrying groups. An interconnecting network structure was
A. Dorieh et al.
Fig. 4. Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) mapping pictures of Si, C, and N in Si/CNTs@C composites. EDS, energy-dispersive X-ray spectra; Si, silicon; Si/
CNTs@C, Si/carbon nanotubes@MFR-based carbon [108].
created by uniform dispersion of the nanofiller.
Maximum flexural strength and flexural modulus of approximately
12 MPa and 2500 MPa, respectively were observed by adding 1.0–1.5 wt
% nanographite to the MFR. 30 wt% addition of wooden filler is required
for obtaining the same strength and modulus. As compared to the pure
MFR, the nanocomposites displayed an increase in thermal stability in
the 200 ◦ C to 300 ◦ C temperature range. In addition, a higher level of
electrical conductivity was measured for the nanocomposites. Besides,
conductive nanocomposites based on graphene nanosheets (GNS) and
MFR were also mentioned [116]. Electrically conductive MFR was
synthesized by the addition of GNS using in situ polymerization at a
temperature of about 165 ◦ C. Lateral size of 5 mm and a thickness about
100–400 nm was observed for nanofiller GNS along with the uniform
distribution of the nanofiller in the MFR substrate. GNS improved the
thermal stability of the MFR, this being shown by an alteration in the
onset of its degradation temperature.
Li et al. [117] explored the properties of graphene/hollow MFR-
based carbon spheres (HMCS) composites. GNS was added in HMCS
and led to a unique three-dimensional (3D) network structure. The
HMCS/graphene nanocomposites were introduced as an ideal and active
electrode material for supercapacitors, due to excellent electrochemical
performance after annealing at a temperature of 600 ◦ C. Fig. 8a shows
the MFR adhesive spheres are solid before carbonization. The heat-
treated carbonized MFR adhesive spheres become hollow and the shell
thickness of the spheres is thinner with the increase of the carbonization
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Progress in Organic Coatings 165 (2022) 106768
temperature in Fig. 8b, c, d and e. Fascinatingly, the carbon spheres in
Fig. 8f are solid which shows the hollow sphere structure of the HMCS/
GN composite are caused by PVA because the preparing process of
HMCS/GN-600 is identical to that of the SMCS/GN-600 except for the
addition of PVA.
Chen et al. [118] reported a novel kind of graphene oxide/melamine-
formaldehyde resins which was prepared as the wall material of mi­
crocapsules to mainly improve the thermal conductivity of microcap­
sules containing phase change materials. The temperature of the phase
changing peak and latent heat of the microcapsules containing phase
change materials with 1% of graphene oxide are 26.40 ◦ C and 125.2 J/g,
respectively. The TCA results indicates that the thermal conductivity of
graphene oxide/microcapsules containing phase change materials can
be greatly increased by incorporating graphene oxide, compared with
that of microcapsules containing phase change materials without gra­
phene oxide. The results confirmed that the graphene oxide/microcap­
sules containing phase change materials so prepared with high phase
change latent heat and greatly improved thermal conductivity have
great potential application for thermal energy storage.
Cai et al. [119] investigated the curing and viscoelastic character­
istics of melamine–urea–formaldehyde resin (MUFR) for wood impreg­
nation in the presence of aluminum silicate nanoclays, using differential
scanning calorimetry and dynamic mechanical thermal analysis.
Therefore, two kind of silicate nanofillers, hydrophobic and hydrophilic,
respectively, were studied in this work. When the mixed the MUFR with
A. Dorieh et al.
Fig. 5. SEM pictures of (a, b) pure Si particles and (c, d) Si/CNTs@C composites. SEM, scanning electron microscopy; Si, silicon; Si/CNTs@C, Si/carbon
nanotubes@MFR-based carbon [108].
Scheme 3. Diagram illustrating the formation of MF/Ag nanocomposite [111].
nanoclay, the apparent activation energy was lower for the initial exo­
therm, while it increased for the second exotherm at higher curing
temperature. With addition of alike nanofillers into the MUFR adhesive,
the chemical molecular movements in the early step of lower degree of
conversion and diffusion of the polymers in the gel or crosslinking state
(with higher degree of conversion) will be hindered significantly, a
process very much similar to an increase in viscosity.
Wang et al. [120] investigated the influence of nano-
montmorillonite (MMT) on MFR. The results obtained showed that the
thermal properties and chemical resistance of the two MFR nano­
composites tested (acidified montmorillonite and organic modified
montmorillonite) were also significantly enhanced compared to neat
MFR. The difference of acidities of those three clays may be the key
reason. It could be concluded from Fig 9 that resin chains have entered
in the matrix, and in the intercalated structure formed in that
nanocomposites.
Rashid et al. [121] synthesized in two stages a new kind of nickel/
8
Progress in Organic Coatings 165 (2022) 106768
melamine-formaldehyde resin/polyaniline nanocomposites with
different MFR/nano-polyaniline composite to nickel weight ratios. The
medium-sizes of MFR/polyaniline/nickel nanocomposites synthesized
at the weight ratios of 1/0.1, 1/0.3 and 1/0.5 are 1.56, 1.60 and 1.73
μm, respectively. The first-stage, micron-sized electro-conducting MFR/
polyaniline nanocomposites were synthesized by in-situ chemical
oxidative polymerization of aniline in presence of mesoporous MFR
composites, in the second-stage, the surface of MFR/polyaniline nano­
composite were doped-decorated with nickel fillers by the in-situ
chemical reduction of nickel (II) salts under alkaline environments.
The preparation figure of MFR/polyaniline/nickel nanocomposites is
shown in Fig. 10. The results indicated that the surface of MFR/PAni
nanocomposites are best doped/decorated with nickel fillers when the
MFR/PAni to nickel weight ratio was 1/0.1. An increase in nickel value
resulted in higher agglomeration and produced some free nickel fillers,
and that nickel value played a key role in the capacitive behavior.
The crosslinking reaction of MFR occurs under acid conditions,
A. Dorieh et al. Progress in Organic Coatings 165 (2022) 106768

typically by adding an acid-generating hardening catalyst. Recently,

MFR appeared to be catalyzed during their synthesis by TiO2-mica Ag
white pigments, the presence of small proportions of these advancing
considerably the MFR during its synthesis under the same conditions.
According to the peak temperatures measured by DSC, the MFR cata­
lyzed by TiO2 (2% addition level by weight) yielded the highest catalytic
activity several different possible reasons for this result have been pre­
sented, this being probably related to the catalytic impact caused by
TiO2-promoted coordination complexes, the impact of acceleration
being because by the Ti charge being stronger than that of H+, and the
complex formed being unstable, therefore not preventing the advances
of the reaction process. It could be concluded that Tio2 in the compo­
sition could also display like a catalytic activity and accelerate the
polymerization reaction of the MFR [122].
Currently, Feng Li et al. [123] synthesized nano-silica modified MFR.
They reported that adding 0.42% nano SiO2 into a MFR enhanced its
curing behavior. Incorporation of SiO2 reduced the glass transition
temperature of the MFR by 29.4 ◦ C, while the TG spectrum showed that
the presence of nano-SiO2 hardly affected the MFR thermal stability,
with a same mass loss between the nano SiO2 -incorporated and control
sample.

3.3. Fire reterdancy of MFR (nano)composites

To date, a good number of methods have been used to develop sys­

Fig. 6. SEM pictures of (a) MFR colloidal particles and (c) MFR/Ag nano­
composite [111].
tems that improve the fire retardancy of intumescent fire retardant.
More recently, microencapsulation technology has been used as an
effective strategy to modify the fire retardant while playing a good
protective role in flame retardancy [124–126]. Many researchers have
reported the use of silane coupling agents, bio-based macromolecules,
ionic liquids and melamine-formaldehyde resins for the modification of
flame retardant additives and achieved good results [127–130].
The MFR adhesives have aroused much interest in both industry and
in research due to their excellent fire retardancy. In recent years, in

Fig. 7. Diagram studying principle of SERS improvement by applying hierarchical superior MFR/silver nanocomposite array substrate (a); SEM pictures of substrates
before (b) and improved perfluorodecanethiol (c) [112].

9
A. Dorieh et al.
Fig. 8. Typical TEM pictures of MFR/GO (a), HMCS/GNS-500 (b), HMCS/GNS-600 (c), HMCS/GNS-700 (d), HMCS/GNS-800 (e), SMCS/GNS-600 (f) [117].
order to prevent the increase in financial and personal losses caused by
fires around the world, the demand for continuous improvement of fire-
resistant materials has been on the agenda of researchers.
Xiong et al. [86] synthesized MFR adhesive modified by function­
alized nano-SiO2 and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) with oustanding fire
retardancy and high thermal stability. In this study, polyvinyl alcohol, a
water-soluble polymer with great toughness and elasticity, and which
can be well blended with MFR in hot water, was used to improve the
toughness of MFR. Nano- SiO2 particles modified by 3-aminopropyltrie­
thoxysilane were used to improve the compatibility between MFR and
PVA. The results showed that in comparison with MFR and MFR/3-
aminopropyltriethoxysilane modified nano-SiO2/PVA composite,
MFR/3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane modified nano-SiO2 composite
shows good fire retardancy and thermal resistance due to the high
thermal resistance of SiO2.
Liu et al. [131] prepared high-performance composites with a highly
hydrophilic solid filler content by blending MFR with micro­
encapsulated ammonium polyphosphate. The microencapsulation of an
intumescent fire retardant system has been extensively applied in many
areas, including plastics, rubber, and wood composites. The length of
time that the fire-retardant coating resisted a fire before and after the
static immersion test were investigated by TGA (thermogravimetric
technique). The result showed that by adding microencapsulation of
ammonium polyphosphate into the melamine formaldehyde, fire-
resistant time and thermal stability of the waterborne intumescent
fire-retardant coatings were remarkably improved.
In a similar study, Corcione et al. [132] investigated and evaluated
the influence of two fire retardants, mono-ammonium phosphate, and
aluminum trihydrate on the fire resistance of the organic fraction of
municipal solid waste-based panels bonded with a melamine-
formaldehyde resin. Cone calorimetry results showed that the addition
of only 1% mass fraction of monoammonium phosphate allowed to
prevent ignition in the cone calorimeter at an external heat flux of 50
kW/m2 but that this was not observed for aluminum trihydrate. Even­
tually, the panels containing mono-ammonium phosphate at a mass
fraction of 1% offered the best balance of fire resistance, durability, and
mechanical performance within the formulations explored in this work.
In another study, Lin et al. [133] successfully prepared a leach-
resistant fire-retardant-treated wood by in situ polymerization of a
melamine formaldehyde resin. Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) sapwood
was impregnated with MFR adhesive and hydrophilic fire-retardant
10
Progress in Organic Coatings 165 (2022) 106768
guanyl-urea phosphate/boric acid by a vacuum-pressure treatment. As
shown in Fig. 11, the results of SEM, EDS and TGA all showed evidence
of the incorporation of melamine formaldehyde into the wood structure
to enhance the water leaching resistance of hydrophilic fire retardants.
An increase in the thermal stability of modified wood with flame re­
tardants was confirmed by TGA. The outstanding fire properties of FR-
modified wood after leaching was verified by the limiting oxygen
index (LOI) and cone calorimeter tests.
Yan et al. [134] showed the influence of nano-silica on the fire
retardancy and smoke suppression properties of transparent intumes­
cent fire-retardant coatings by various methods such as cabinet method
test, tunnel method test, cone calorimeter test, smoke density test,
thermo-gravimetric analysis (TG), and SEM-EDS analysis. In this work, a
phosphate ester acid was synthesized by the reaction of polyphosphoric
acid, pentaerythritol and n-butyl alcohol. Afterwards, nano-SiO2 was
introduced into the structure of the phosphate ester acid to obtain a
silica-modified cyclic polyphosphate with different nano-SiO2 contents.
A series of fire retardant coatings applied on the surface of plywood
panels were then prepared by mixing of a melamine formaldehyde resin
with the phosphate ester acid and the silica-modified cyclic poly­
phosphate. The results indicated that the coatings with nano-SiO2 dis­
plaid a significant decreases in the weight loss, char index, fire spread
rating, heat release rate and total heat release during the combustion
process, showing the improvements in fire retardancy. Besides, the
values of smoke production rate, total smoke release and specific optical
density of the coatings obviously decrease with addition of nano-SiO2,
showing an improvement in smoke suppression properties. TG analysis
results indicate that the SiO2 nanoparticles can enhance the thermal
stability and residual weight of the coatings. The coatings obtained from
phosphate ester acid and silica-modified cyclic polyphosphate (SPEA)
SPEA1-SPEA4 were marked as MSPE0 and MSPE1- MSPE4, respectively.
The digital images of char residues from the coatings after cone calo­
rimeter test are shown in Fig. 12. Generally, nano-SiO2 displays
outstanding synergistic fire retardant and smoke suppression properties
in transparent fire-retardant coatings.
Yang et al. [135] prepared fire-retardant leather from wet blue
leather treated with the MFR adhesive. The result showed that the MFR
adhesive can improve the thermal stability and fire-retardant property
of collagen fibers owing to the mechanism of gas-phase flame retarding.
In another work, Huo et al. [136] fabricated an intumescent fire-
retardant coating with excellence fire resistance and water tolerance
A. Dorieh et al.
Fig. 9. TEM picture of MFR/MMT nanocomposites (MFR/sodium montmorillonite), (a) low magnification, (b) high magnification; MFR/octadecyldiethanolamine
montmorillonite, (c) low magnification, (d) high magnification [120].
via the introduction of microcapsules of ammonium polyphosphate and
microcapsules of zinc borate in the MFR adhesive. The coating so pre­
pared displayed good fire resistance and smoke suppression. The
improved properties portfolio was mostly due to the synergistic effects
of ammonium polyphosphate, pentaerythritol, melamine, and zinc
borate, and the hydrophobicity of MFR adhesive.
Moreover, Zhang et al. [137] prepared a novel melamine-formalde­
hyde-Fe3O4 foam from a mixture including a melamine-ethanolamine-
formaldehyde resin, a melamine-glycol-formaldehyde resin and nano-
Fe3O4 by a microwave foaming method. The result indicated that the
addition of nano- Fe3O4 can enhance the toughness and flame retardant
properties and make the foam present magnetic properties.
11
Progress in Organic Coatings 165 (2022) 106768
3.4. Formaldehyde emission of modified MFR nanocomposites
MFR polymers are extensively used in many fields, but there are still
several disadvantages in their performance such as low storage stability,
high hardness and brittleness and formaldehyde emission (FE) from the
boards. The FE of wood-based composites is one of the main concerns of
industry because of the formaldehyde negative effect on both human
and environmental health. FE must be controlled in wood composites
and MFR adhesives by altering their synthesis conditions and by adding
various materials.
Liu et al. investigated, particleboards coated with melamine-
impregnated papers (Melamine-urea- formaldehyde resin mixed with
Nano-TiO2-MMT). By increasing nano TiO2 the FE from particleboard
coatings decreased to 22–36% lower than that of other wood-based
panels. The results show that adding TiO2/MMT nanoparticles to MUF
A. Dorieh et al.
Fig. 10. SEM pictures of (A) MFR seed and (B) MFR/PAni composites synthesis at the core/shell (w/w) ratios of 1/0.5 (a, c, e) and 1/1.0 (b, d, f) in presence of
stabilizers: CTAB (a, b), SDS (c, d) and PVA (e, f) [121].
resin considerably enhanced the mechanical properties and physical
properties of the coated boards with formaldehyde emissions
decreasing.
Other work, by Kim et al. [138] discovered that PVC (polyvinyl ac­
etate) had a good function in decreasing the FE level of MFR adhesives.
In this work, the impact of adding PVC, for reducing the FE amount, on
the adhesion properties of MFR adhesive for veneer and plywood in
engineered flooring was studied. The result showed that the FE amount
decreased with increased additions of PVC as replacement for the MFR
adhesive. At a PVC replacement ratio of about 30%, the FE emission of
the coated sample was lower than the E1 class limit.
Recently, Ping Lan et al. [139] impregnated papers with a mixture of
caprolactam and MFR. The result showed that the caprolactam reduced
the formaldehyde emission of the MFR. Furthermore, the caprolactam
can scavenge the formaldehyde from MFR resin.
Kawalerczyk et al. [140] introduced hemp flour (HF) as a filler into
the MUF adhesive. The result indicated that adding HF to the MUF resin
significantly accelerated curing time and slight increased the non-
volatile solids content. Moreover, HF as formaldehyde catcher led to a
significant reduction of FE because of its high protein content. In sum­
mary, the content of added HF had a remarkable impact on the me­
chanical properties such as IB (Internal bond) strength, bonding quality,
and modulus of elasticity of the boards prepared. Producing 20 and 25
pbw (parts by weight) of solid content of MUF adhesive resulted in
obtaining favorable yields, which were equally good as the reference
sample.
In another work, Liu et al. [141] reported the impact of nano fillers
(nano-TiO2 and nano-MMT) and loading level (0.5%, 1%) on FE from
wood-based product with melamine-decorative papers. The results ac­
quired in this study indicated that formaldehyde emissions from coating
composites were major impacted by nano fillers. Different nano fillers
type (Nano TiO2 or nano MMT) indicated similar reductions in FE
emission. Compared with control samples, FE from MDF panel's paper
coated with improved 0.5% nanomaterials decreased slightly. With the
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Progress in Organic Coatings 165 (2022) 106768
raising of loading level, the FE decreased to a slightly small amount,
which were 22%–36% lower than that of neat samples.
4. Conclusion
This review addresses the recent developments of processing mel­
amine formaldehyde resins midified with nanomaterials as nano­
composites. During the last few years, MFR nanocomposites have seen
marked enhancement thanks to the remarkable attempts in the prepa­
ration of MFR and their derivatives, as well as the vast availability of
nanostructures that impart excellent physical, thermal and mechanical
properties. It has been clearly concluded that incorporation of a low
level of micro/nanoscale fillers into MFR leads to improvements in their
mechanical, physical and thermal performance, curing behavior, and
low formaldehyde emission.
Therefore, in summary, it is believed that this process-based review
can provide comprehensive information for the design MFR nano­
composites of excellent properties from the three aspects of processing,
characterization and properties. The nanoparticle-based MFR have
shown a remarkably good potential to reduce FE from wood-based
composites. Because MFR nanocomposites possess many advantages,
such as low cost, easy industrialization, low FE, good water resistance,
nanomaterials can be applied as a promising addition for enhancing
MFR.
Accordingly, the properties improvements of MFR composites based
on nanofillers mainly depend on several parameters which are as fol­
lows: a) the inherent properties of nanofillers, b) the improved disper­
sion of nanofillers, and c) the interaction between nanofillers and the
MFR. Nevertheless, further research and advancement are still required
to know how to improve the interaction between nanofillers and the
MFR, the orientation of nanofillers in MFR and some natural resources
commercialization.
The use of nanomaterials as fillers into MFR has become the new
trend for improving the MFR properties and enhancing the protection of
A. Dorieh et al. Progress in Organic Coatings 165 (2022) 106768

Fig. 11. Cross-sectional SEM images and the corresponding EDX spectra of 8-0MF and 8-30MF specimens after water leaching (a–d) and optical microscopy images
of BA reagent-colored 8-0MF and 8-30MF wood before and after water leaching (e) [133].

Fig. 12. Digital images for fire residues of transparent fire-retardant coatings and the underlying structures of plywood boards after cone colorimeter test at a heat
flux of 50 kW/m2 [134].

13
A. Dorieh et al. Progress in Organic Coatings 165 (2022) 106768

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