AR2228 History & Theory of Architecture

Final Essay
Genevieve Marie Tan Jia Ling
A0255130U

THE MANIFESTATIONS OF COLONIAL IDEOLOGY

The Fullerton Building as an exemplar of colonial constructs through architecture.

THE FULLERTON BUILDING

LOCATION: Along Collyer Quay, Raffles Civic District [1 Fullerton Square]
ARCHITECT: Major Percy H. Keys, assisted by Frank Dowdeswell
SIZE: 41,100 sqm
CONSTRUCTION: 1924-1928

I. INTRODUCTION

In the early development of Singapore, the island functioned as a trade and

communication hub under the imposition of colonial ideologies. Britain’s access to advanced
technology and resources following the Industrial Revolution enabled them to assert their
economic dominance in Singapore in order to transform it into the efficient trading port it was well
known for, improving trade and communication networks within the region. Located at the mouth
of Collyer Quay stands the Fullerton Building, completed in 1928 by Major. Percy H. Keys, the
architect-in-chief, and assisted by Frank Dowdeswell. Formerly constructed as a multi-purpose
structure, it housed the General Post Office, Chamber of Commerce and Singapore Club, the
building has since evolved. The essay will discuss the political and economical powers imposed
by British colonists through an analysis of the Fullerton's immediate surroundings, appearance
and monumentality, patronage users, as well as its function as a communication hub during the
colonial era.
 In Beamish and Ferguson’s The Making of a City: Period of Transition, the text narrates the
budding growth of Singapore's economy, through transportation and the establishment of
commercial commodities along Collyer Quay1. The text discusses several buildings of colonial
characteristics such as the former Municipal Building, Fullerton Building, and the former Supreme
Court and how the Industrial Revolution led to the evolution of architectural styles as imposed
onto these buildings by the British colonists. Delving into the account focused on the Fullerton,
the text briefly discusses its function as a post-office and its efficient design, and its service to the
patrons of the Singapore’s Club. Due to the cursory narrative of the colonial era expressed in the
text by Beamish and Ferguson, this essay will aim to supplement that narrative by discussing the
impact of the imposed colonial ideologies that were a cardinal point in Singapore’s economic
growth. The discussions posited within the essay will expand on the colonial political and
economical ideologies and impositions established through the use of neoclassical architecture
surrounding the Fullerton Building and how it has worked to develop Singapore’s economical and
political landscape in her post-colonial independence.

II. COLONIAL IMPOSITIONS THROUGH URBAN DICTATION

Before the British colonial governance of Singapore as a free port, the region saw an
economical domination by a variety of European colonists in order to improve and expand the
trade industry, which had eventually evolved the way people communicated across the world.
The colonisation of countries outside the European region meant both economical and political
dominance over other imperial powers and thus sparked a competitive need to colonise the
various indigenous states and countries in the Asia region in order to assert this power and
diversify their various trading empires. Following the 15th Century, as trade began to evolve, the
Portuguese had taken over Malacca in 1511, followed by the Dutch in 1641. The Dutch rule had
held up until the 19th Century when they were challenged by the British2. It was also during this
time that the Industrial Revolution was rapidly expanding in Britain, providing the British with the
resources they needed to develop their trading empire3. The new resources from the boom of the
Industrial Revolution provided Britain with an enormous economical advantage especially in terms
of shipping over the competing Imperial powers. The expansion of the trade industry was a

1
Beamish, Jane, and Jane Ferguson. A History of Singapore Architecture: The Making of a City. Singapore:
Graham Brash, 1985. 124-135.
2
Sharp, Ilsa. Fullerton Heritage Precinct: Where the Past meets The Present. United States: Oro Editions, 2012.
10-11.
3
Calder, Barnabas. 2021. Architecture: From Pre-History to Climate Crisis. London: Pelican books, 227.
catalyst for the colonisation of cities as it represented the power of the Europeans in terms of the
social, cultural, political and economical4.

These colonial ideals had begun to manifest in Singapore’s waters and land. Singapore
was a strategically chosen location as decreed by Sir Stamford Raffles for its prime position as a
safe and easily accessible harbour. From there, the commercial developments within the central
districts were soon established to further the political and economic motivations of the British. In
the urban dictatorship of Singapore by the British that segregated the different communities, the
Singapore River was postulated as the nucleus of the city, where people of all races and
ethnicities would come to relay different forms of communication. The urban planning of
Singapore originated from the Jackson Plan, stipulated in 1828 in which the waterfront of
Singapore River would be designated as a commercial hub housing traders, merchants,
government officials and civic institutions, formulating the Civic District as we know it today5.

Figure 1.0 : The Jackson Plan

4
Tan, Ian Y. H. The Iron Skeleton and the Imperial Skin: Iron and the Construction of Modernity in Colonial Port
Cities. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Hong Kong, 2023. 27
5
Tan, Annette and Koh Yuen Lin. Fullerton Stories: rediscovering Singapore’s heritage. Singapore: Gatehouse
Publishing, 2015. 12, 25, 28.
 Despite the urban impositions of the British, the colonial ideologies continued to manifest
through the architectural construction of monumental scale buildings along the waterfront,
including the Fullerton Building, the former Municipal Building and the former Supreme Court. The
construction of its architecture along the commercial waterfront was a significant indication of the
British’s exhibition of power over Singapore. The postulated urban narrative and waterfront
served as a foreground for the accompanying grand and monumental architecture. It exuded the
visions, plans and motivations of the colonial government, further implying their subjugations and
ideologies imposed onto Singapore. These ideals that were represented through architectural
means, including the development of neoclassical or palladian style architecture, can be seen in
many British colonies6. It was in this that architecture began to acquire a politicised meaning,
encapsulating the power motivations and impositions of the colonists.

III. COLONIAL IDEOLOGIES REPRESENTED THROUGH NEOCLASSICISM

Located at the mouth of Collyer Quay, the Fullerton Building was one of the largest scale
monuments constructed in Singapore at the time, anchoring the entire district7. Despite this, the
Fullerton was not the first post office to exist in Singapore, but rather, was a result of the
expanding needs of its function. In Raymond Quek’s Neoclassical Architecture in the Straits
Settlements, he narrates the origin of the first wave of neoclassical buildings as the original 1862
town hall, which functioned as both a courthouse and post office8. As trade and communications
began to thrive in Singapore, the post office continually outgrew its physical boundaries until the
General Post Office, otherwise known as the Fullerton Building, was commissioned for
construction through the 1920s. The external exhibition of grandeur of the Fullerton Building was
complemented through Palladian architecture. As expressed by The Straits Times in Koh’s
Fullerton Stories: Rediscovering Singapore’s Heritage, “its design represents a happy mean
between beauty and utility, lightness and mass, and ornamentation and dignity” and “a reflection
of the ambition of the British administration”9. The construction of the impressive structure that is

6
Tsvetkova, Polina O. "On the History of the Palladian Architecture in British Colonies. On the Example of the
Singapore Architecture in the First Half of the 19th Century." Scientific and analytical journal Burganov House.
The space of culture 18, no. 5 (October 10, 2022): 23
7
Tan, Annette and Koh Yuen Lin. Fullerton Stories: rediscovering Singapore’s heritage. Singapore: Gatehouse
Publishing, 2015. 29.
8
Quek, Raymond. The Routledge Handbook on the reception of classical architecture: neoclassical architecture
on straits settlements. London: Routledge, 2019. 236-237.
9
Tan, Annette and Koh Yuen Lin. Fullerton Stories: rediscovering Singapore’s heritage. Singapore: Gatehouse
Publishing, 2015. 33.
the Fullerton was a perpetuation of colonial coercion of the political, economic, cultural and
ideological expressed through spatial relations10.

Figure 2.0 : The Master Attendant’s Office, General Post Office and New Exchange Building &
Club, late 1882.

Throughout the 19th century Industrial Revolution, classical architecture and iterations of
its style remained a reigning success, and was used to define statutes of wealth and commercial
success. Palladianism in England, a principle developed by Andrea Palladio, was a representation
of humanistic transformation in society, especially in colonies where it translated into impositions
of power6. The intrinsic design of the Fullerton Building was an anthropomorphic representation of
political and economical dominance of the colonial administration. The elaborate ornamentation
of the Palladian architecture, imposed by European sculptors Ruedi Wening and Cavalieri Rudolfo

10
Yeoh, Brenda. 2003. Contesting Space in Colonial Singapore: Power Relations and the Built Environment.
Singapore: NUS Press, 11.
Nolli reflected the ubiquitous colonial influence of the period. The imposing and grand design of its
facades and entrances emanated the pride and power of the British. Ironically, the classic style
implemented did not originate from the British but was developed through studies of architecture
from its European counterparts, the Romans and the Greeks, a style in which was established
within architects of the region through specialised training11. This style continued as iterations in
England during the Industrial Revolution, adapted to suit new functions and technologies. The
classical style of architecture maintained an impression of wealth statutes and remained prevalent
in the region, an ideology which continued to be perpetuated in colonies as a depiction of power.
(CITE CALDER)

Figure 3.0 : View of the Fullerton Building along Collyer Quay, 1950.

In their enterprise to transform Collyer Quay into a replication of the success of the
Industrial Revolution residing in Liverpool12, the colonial influence of classical architecture was
reiterated onto buildings along the Singapore River, including that of the Fullerton. Accompanying
the landscape of municipal grandeur, was the King Edward VII College of Medicine, which also
conveyed the impositions of the Municipal government through neoclassical architecture13. The

11
Gordon, A. 1930. “The Old Order Changeth.” Journal of the Singapore Society of Architects Incorporated 3 (6):
2.
12
Quek, Raymond. The Routledge Handbook on the reception of classical architecture: neoclassical architecture
on straits settlements. London: Routledge, 2019. 239.
13
Beamish, Jane, and Jane Ferguson. A History of Singapore Architecture: The Making of a
Fullerton Building and King Edward VII College of Medicine were designed by Keys and
Dowdeswell, both of whom had contributed to a variety of neoclassical architecture in Singapore
and Malaysia. While their main architectural influence remains unclear, an early influence of Key’s
design was neo-classical. His prior experience in post office design won him the commission for
the Fullerton Building and other Government Buildings within Singapore. It was herein that the
pair were known as the “post office architects". Over time, the design influence of Keys and
Dowdeswell shifted from contemporary to neo classical to modernism. However, they were not
the only neoclassical influence in the district. The equally imposing facade of the Municipal
Offices and former Supreme Court was just as perfunctory. It featured fluted Corinthian columns
and was constructed using artificial pre-cast stone. The design by Alexander Gordon was a
replication of the designs of Rudolfo Nolli14. The colonial imposition of their aspirations and ideals
were largely expressed through the ornamented dispositions of the neoclassical facades of many
Municipal Buildings, including the Fullerton Building, King Edward VII College of Medicine and
Municipal Offices, which permeated the private and public domains of the landscape15. Their
imposing facades remained as physical manifestations of the colonial ideologies being subtly
indoctrinated and left impressionistic perspectives on the colonised.

Figure 4.0 : View of Collyer Quay from the Sea, 1932.

City. Singapore: Graham Brash, 1985. 126-130.

14
Quek, Raymond. The Routledge Handbook on the reception of classical architecture: neoclassical architecture
on straits settlements. London: Routledge, 2019. 240.
15
Yeoh, Brenda. 2003. Contesting Space in Colonial Singapore: Power Relations and the Built Environment.
Singapore: NUS Press, 12.
 Despite its grandeur, the construction of the structure remained practical. The overall
Palladian design was adapted to suit the tropical climate, with its sturdy walls and high ceilings.
Despite the use of simple and accessible materials such as reinforced concrete, the ornamented
design was rendered through the use of cement plaster in order to replicate stonework16. In this
revelation, it remains that the ornamentation of the facade remains a superficial ideal by the
colonists in order to establish colonial rule. The cosmetic iteration of granite stonework served to
elevate the detailed and grand exterior, contributing to the overall grandeur of the Fullerton. The
elaborate yet distinct features of the facade served as a political-economical power protectorate,
further demonstrating the hierarchy established by the British. The construction of the Fullerton
was also representative of the Industrial Revolution in England. It represented technologies and
materials that were made possible through the Industrial Revolution and heightened the leverage
and dominance of the British17. It essentially represented the economic success within England,
which allowed Britain the means to expand their trading empire resulting in the colonisation of
land outside the European region. As such, this newfound economical dominance was used in
the urban development of colonies to project their ideologies and culture on the colonised18. In
the colonial race against other European states, the construction of neoclassical architecture was
used as an expression and exertion of dominance on colonised land and a characterisation of the
power held by the British not only over the colonised, but also over other Imperial powers.

IV. COLONIAL MOTIVATIONS THROUGH MONUMENTALITY

The Fullerton Building conveyed the power structure of the colonists through its
monumental scale as well. After its completion in 1928, the Fullerton Building was the largest
structure in Singapore19. The prime locale of the monumental classical architecture that lined the
harbour was a strategic manoeuvre in the facilitation of colonial power structures in order to
express their aspirations and ideals in an urban domain. The disposition of such grand and
ornamented architecture lining the harbour was an inadvertent economic and political strategy to
display the power and prestige of the colonists while enhancing the flow of trade and
communications along the Quay20. It stipulated colonial control over the political and economical

16
Quek, Raymond. The Routledge Handbook on the reception of classical architecture: neoclassical architecture
on straits settlements. London: Routledge, 2019. 240.
17
Calder, Barnabas. 2021. Architecture: From Prehistory to Climate Crisis. London: Pelican books, 233-234.
18
Tan, Ian Y. H. The Iron Skeleton and the Imperial Skin: Iron and the Construction of Modernity in Colonial Port
Cities. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Hong Kong, 2023. 27-28.
19
Tan, Annette and Koh Yuen Lin. Fullerton Stories: rediscovering Singapore’s heritage. Singapore: Gatehouse
Publishing, 2015. 29.
20
Yeoh, Brenda. 2003. Contesting Space in Colonial Singapore: Power Relations and the Built Environment.
Singapore: NUS Press, 12-16.
activities happening within the district, wherein the monumental structure implied great
authoritative power over the state. As such, trade and communication in and surrounding the
General Post Office within the Fullerton building continued to thrive. The economical function of
the Fullerton were situated within the first three storeys of the massive structure to cater to the
fast-paced needs of international communication, and included an sub-ground tunnel that ran
along Fullerton Road to the Post Office Pier in order to facilitate the efficiency of incoming and
outgoing mail in and around the district and region.

Figure 5.0 : The Fullerton Building under construction, 1927

The facade of the Fullerton Building was defined by the elegant yet imposing doric
colonnade. The resultant facade was a neoclassical frontage that extended to the edge of the
river. This monumentality was akin to the design of the Tempietto in Rome, whose large columns
and entablature framed the spaces within, amplifying the grand atmosphere21. That is to say, the
design and scale of the details that form the geometries of the facade of the Fullerton was
characterised by architecture already constructed in Rome. However, it is important to note the
differing functions of each structure – while the Tempietto was a monument to the church, the
Fullerton Building was an embodiment of the colonial authority imposed onto the landscape of
Singapore. The grand monumentality of the design was a translated personification of the colonial

21
Lotz, Wolfgang. 1996. Architecture in Italy, 1500-1600. Translated by Mary Hottinger. New Haven: Yale
University Press, 11-12.
hierarchy established by the colonists through the use of spatial relations22. The scale of the
Fullerton was meant to permeate the urban domain of Singapore’s landscape to further the
economical and political agendas of the Municipal Government. It is both the literal and figurative
manifestation of colonial ideals, deliberately imposed to disrupt and change the course of the
existing urban landscape, a process which would allow the British an upper-hand in the
development and colonisation of Singapore.

Figure 6.0 : Longitudinal section, survey drawing of existing Fullerton Building

That is not to say the monumental scale of the structure was entirely superficial. Its
construction was necessary in the expansion of the economy in terms of trade and
communications, and its monumental structure was designed to cater to the ever expanding
economical needs of the district23. The monumentality of the structure was an establishment of
the economical power of the British and was representative of the colonial success of the
Municipal government’s influence on Singapore’s economy. The physical manifestation of such
monumental structures can actually be epitomised as a humanistic principle of Palladio’s
architectural system24, of which proportion, symmetry and classical orders may be used as
manifestations of intangible ideologies, as expressed by the British. Palladio’s principle of

22
Yeoh, Brenda. 2003. Contesting Space in Colonial Singapore: Power Relations and the Built Environment.
Singapore: NUS Press, 2-3.
23
Tan, Annette and Koh Yuen Lin. Fullerton Stories: rediscovering Singapore’s heritage. Singapore: Gatehouse
Publishing, 2015. 23, 24.
24
Tsvetkova, Polina O. "On the History of the Palladian Architecture in British Colonies. On the Example of the
Singapore Architecture in the First Half of the 19th Century." Scientific and analytical journal Burganov House.
The space of culture 18, no. 5 (October 10, 2022): 25
architectural planning posits an authority over the rules of classic style architecture25. The
establishment of this authority within the realm of architecture is exploited to extend its figurative
power to the urban realm. Despite the clear impositions of the colonial ideologies upon the urban
landscape of Singapore, there was no doubt that the British played a cataclysmic role in
establishing Singapore as a pivotal state in the region. The continued development and expansion
of the colonial empire residing in Singapore allowed her economic successes to grow and
transform into the international trade and communication hub of the region.

The aforementioned six-storey building was constructed as a multi-purpose hub that not
only functioned as a post office, but also catered to the departmental needs of the Municipal
Government. The building housed various Municipal Departments, including the Governor of
Singapore, the High Commissioner of the Federation of the Malay States, Port Health office, the
Imports and Exports Office, and other government departments. The Fullerton Building also
housed the Singapore Club, which was dominated by wealthy and patriarchal colonists26. Despite
the practical functions residing within the monumental structure, the building remained a literal
manifestation of colonial power. The inhabitation of colonial governments and authorities
occupying the upper floors of the Fullerton Building were not only practical, but was also a
personification of the spatial and social hierarchy established within the colossal structure. The
power structures established in and around the neoclassical building continued past the
independence of Singapore, and remained a physical manifestation of power27. Although its
strategic spatial organisation allowed the British a front-row seat and role in the expanding
economy of Singapore, the architectural dispositions and hierarchical manifestations within it can
be easily interpreted as a colonial imposition of power.

V. CONCLUSION

As so eloquently narrated by William Lim in Asian Ethical Urbanism, the establishment of

urban planning demonstrated the ideological impositions of the colonial authorities, formulating a
stark asymmetry between the colonists and colonised. Their socialist utopian ideologies were the
driving force in their political and economical agendas, resulting in the iteration and construction

25
Wittkower, Rudolf. Principles of Palladio’s Architecture. Chicago: The University of Chicago press. 108.
26
Roots. “Former Fullerton Building”. Last modified July 1, 2022.
https://www.roots.gov.sg/en/places/places-landing/Places/national-monuments/former-fullerton-building
27
Zaccheus, Faith Melody. Monumental treasures: Singapore’s Heritage icons. Singapore: Straits Times Press,
2018. 214.
of neoclassical architecture, which were physical manifestations of that power28. However, their
contributions to Singapore’s political and economical landscapes have not gone unprecedented.
Despite their colonial impositions, the establishment of the urban strategies and planning
implemented by the Municipal Government remained a cornerstone for Singapore’s evolution into
a First World country. The Fullerton Building, loosely defined as the epitome of colonial ruling, was
representative of that evolution. Before its iconic transformation into the Fullerton Hotel as we
know it today, the General Post Office Fullerton Building was a stepping stone for many
Singaporean government officials. Monumental Treasures documents Prime Minister Lee’s
memories and experiences of political parties and lunchtime rallies held on the grounds of the
Fullerton29. The inhabitation of the Municipal Authority within the Fullerton Building during the
colonial period also led to the residual housing of Singaporean governmental departments such
as the Ministry of Finance. In the consideration of these aspects, the permeation of colonial
power structures as established by the British had shifted to Singaporean authority past
Singapore’s independence. While the colonial period can be viewed in large part as domineering,
there is no doubt that it played a significant and cataclysmic role in transforming Singapore into
the bustling hub it is so iconically known as today.

Word count: 2970

28
Lim, William. 2005. Asian ethical urbanism: a radical postmodern perspective. Singapore: World Scientific
Publishing Co. 137-141
29
Zaccheus, Faith Melody. Monumental treasures: Singapore’s Heritage icons. Singapore: Straits Times Press,
2018. 214.
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

SECONDARY SOURCES
1. Beamish, Jane, and Jane Ferguson. A History of Singapore Architecture: The Making of a
City. Singapore: Graham Brash, 1985. 124-135.
2. Calder, Barnabas. 2021. Architecture: From Prehistory to Climate Crisis. London: Pelican
books, 227-246 & 260-289
3. Gordon, A. 1930. “The Old Order Changeth.” Journal of the Singapore Society of
Architects Incorporated 3 (6): 1–2.
4. Lim, William. 2005. Asian ethical urbanism: a radical postmodern perspective. Singapore:
World Scientific Publishing Co. 133-152
5. Lotz, Wolfgang. 1996. Architecture in Italy, 1500-1600. Translated by Mary Hottinger. New
Haven: Yale University Press, 11-13, 17-20, 23-25, 98-101.
6. Quek, Raymond. The Routledge Handbook on the reception of classical architecture:
neoclassical architecture on straits settlements. London: Routledge, 2019.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315171104
7. Sharp, Ilsa. Fullerton Heritage Precinct: Where the Past meets The Present. United States:
Oro Editions, 2012. 10-30.
8. Tan, Annette and Koh Yuen Lin. Fullerton Stories: rediscovering Singapore’s heritage.
Singapore: Gatehouse Publishing, 2015.
9. Tan, Ian Y. H. The Iron Skeleton and the Imperial Skin: Iron and the Construction of
Modernity in Colonial Port Cities. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Hong Kong, 2023.
10. Tsvetkova, Polina O. "On the History of the Palladian Architecture in British Colonies. On
the Example of the Singapore Architecture in the First Half of the 19th Century." Scientific
and analytical journal Burganov House. The space of culture 18, no. 5 (October 10, 2022):
22–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.36340/2071-6818-2022-18-5-22-28.
11. Wittkower, Rudolf. Principles of Palladio’s Architecture. Chicago: The University of
Chicago press. 102-122.
12. Yeoh, Brenda. 2003. Contesting Space in Colonial Singapore: Power Relations and the
Built Environment. Singapore: NUS Press, 1-18, 28-30, 48-69.
13. Zaccheus, Faith Melody. Monumental treasures: Singapore’s Heritage icons. Singapore:
Straits Times Press, 2018. 212-215.

CONTEMPORARY SOURCES
1. Cornelius, Vernon. “Fullerton Building”. Last modified 2015.
https://www.nlb.gov.sg/main/article-detail?cmsuuid=2c606685-ad0c-424a-9bd3-3cfb72a
82704
2. Roots. “Former Fullerton Building”. Last modified July 1, 2022.
https://www.roots.gov.sg/en/places/places-landing/Places/national-monuments/former-fu
llerton-building

FIGURES
1. The Jackson Plan.
 Jackson, Lieutenant Phillip. (1828). Plan of the Town of Singapore [cartographic material].
Southeast Asia Historical Maps.
https://historicalmaps.yale-nus.edu.sg/catalog/nlb-050000128
2. The Master Attendant’s Office, General Post Office and New Exchange Building & Club,
late 1800s.
Quek, Raymond. (1882). 1882 photograph showing the Master Attendant’s Office, 1872
Post Office, and New Exchange Building and Club [photograph]. The Routledge Handbook
on the reception of classical architecture: neoclassical architecture on straits settlements.
3. View of the Fullerton Building along Collyer Quay, 1950.
R. Browne. (1950). View of the Fullerton Building, Singapore [photograph]. National
Archive of Singapore.
https://www.nas.gov.sg/archivesonline/photographs/record-details/b00b3f36-1161-11e3-83
d5-0050568939ad
4. View of Collyer Quay from the Sea, 1932
Lee, Kip Lin. (1932). Collyer Quay, Singapore [photograph]. National Archives of
Singapore.
https://www.nas.gov.sg/archivesonline/photographs/record-details/e447f7c4-1161-11e3-83d
5-0050568939ad
5. Longitudinal section, survey drawing of existing Fullerton Building.
Tan, Annette and Koh Yuen Lin. (2015). Fullerton Stories: rediscovering Singapore’s
heritage [section drawing]. Singapore: Gatehouse Publishing, 119.
6. The Fullerton Building Under Construction, 1927.
Tan, Annette and Koh Yuen Lin. (2015). Fullerton Stories: rediscovering Singapore’s
heritage [photograph]. Singapore: Gatehouse Publishing, 30-31.