Mathematics

in the Modern
World
Chapter 2:
Mathematical
Language and
Symbols
2.3 Elementary Mathematical Logic
 Logic is the basis of all mathematical statements and
arguments. Its basic rules are essential to understand
mathematical statements such as “There exists an
integer 𝑛 such that 𝑛2 = 𝑛”, “If 𝑥 is an integer, then 𝑥 +
1 is also an integer” and “For all real number 𝑥 with 𝑥 <
0, 𝑥 2 > 0”. Artificial intelligence, system specifications,
computer science and allied fields are just some of the
areas where logic is absolutely important.
 A proposition is a declarative sentence that is
either true or false, but not both. The truth or falsity
of a statement is called its truth value. The truth
value of a proposition is true (T), if it is a true
proposition and false (F), otherwise. Letters are
commonly used to denote propositional variables
such as p, q, r, and s.
 Example
Consider the following propositions.
1. Lapasan is one of the barangays in Cagayan de Oro City.
2. Green is a primary color.
3. 3 + 1 = 4
4. 3 + 3 = 9

First and third propositions are true, while second and

fourth propositions are false.
Example
Consider the following sentences.
1. Answer this correctly.
2. What is your name?
3. 3𝑥 + 1 = 𝑦
4. 𝑥 2 > 10

First and second sentences are not in declarative form

and therefore are not propositions. The truth values of
the third and fourth sentences cannot be determined
unless we assign values to each variable. Thus, they are
also not propositions.
Basic Logical Operators
Compound propositions are formed by
combining one or more existing propositions
using logical operators or connectives.

Operator Representation Meaning

Negation ~𝑝 “not p”
Conjunction 𝑝∧𝑞 “p and q”
Disjunction 𝑝∨𝑞 “p or q”
Conditional 𝑝→𝑞 “if p, then q”
Biconditional 𝑝⟷𝑞 “p if and only if q”
Negations
𝑝: It is sunny today.
~𝑝: It is not the case that it is sunny today.
or It is not sunny today.

Conjunctions

p: It is sunny today.
𝑞: I need to go to work.
𝑝 ∧ 𝑞: It is sunny today and I need to go to work.
Disjunctions
𝑝: It is sunny today.
𝑞: I need to go to work.
𝑝 ∨ 𝑞: It is sunny today or I need to go to work.

Conditional Statements
𝑝: It is sunny today.
𝑞: I need to go to work.
𝑝 → 𝑞: If it is sunny today, then I need to go to work.
Biconditional Statements
𝑝: I will graduate on time.
𝑞: I will pass all the subjects this semester.
𝑝 ↔ 𝑞: I will graduate on time if and only if I will pass
all the subjects this semester.
 The truth value of a compound proposition depends on
the truth value/s of its components, and is summarized
below:

𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 𝒑∧𝒒 𝒑∨𝒒 𝒑→𝒒 𝒑⟷𝒒

T T F T T T T
T F F F T F F
F T T F T T F
F F T F F T T
Tautology, Contradiction, and
Contingency

A compound proposition that is always true, no

matter what the truth values are assigned to its
propositions, is called a tautology. A compound
proposition that is always false is called a
contradiction. If a compound proposition is neither a
tautology nor a contradiction, then it is called a
contingency.
Example
Example
Logical Equivalence
Given any compound propositions 𝑝 and 𝑞, 𝑝 is
said to be logically equivalent to 𝑞 if 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 is a
tautology. It is denoted by 𝑝 ≡ 𝑞.

Example: ~(𝒑 ⟷ 𝒒) is logically equivalent to 𝒑 ⟷ ~𝒒

Example 𝒒 ⟷ (𝒑 → 𝒒) ≡ (𝒑 ∧ 𝒒) ⟷ (𝒑 ⟷ 𝒒)
Predicates and Quantifiers

A predicate is a sentence containing variables. For

example, “𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟”, “𝑦 + 2 = 10”, and “𝑥 −
𝑦 > 𝑧” are predicates. Its truth value depends on the
values to be assigned on the variables indicated. A
counterexample is a value assigned to a variable for
which the statement is false. A predicate is also known
as a propositional function usually denoted by P(x),
Q(x,y), R(x,y,z), etc.
Predicates and Quantifiers

Once a value is assigned to variables, the predicate

becomes a proposition with its corresponding truth
value. However, there is another method to transform
predicates to propositions. This is where quantifiers
are introduced. Quantifiers refer to the amount to
which a predicate is true over a particular domain of
discourse or simply, the domain, which is the set of
values for which the statement is defined.
 Types of Quantifiers

Universal Quantifier

Given a predicate P(x), the statement “for all x, P(x)”,

denoted by “∀𝑥, 𝑃(𝑥)”, is the universal quantification of
P(x). The symbol ∀ is the universal quantifier. ∀𝑥, 𝑃(𝑥)
can also be stated as “for every integer x, P(x)”, “for
each x, P(x)”, or “for any x, P(x).”
 Example

Let P(x) be the predicate “2𝑥 > 𝑥.” What is the truth
value of ∀𝑥, 𝑃(𝑥) if the domain is the set of all
positive integers?

Solution: Since "2𝑥 > 𝑥" is true for all positive

integer x, it follows that ∀𝑥, 𝑃(𝑥) is true.
 Example

What is the truth value of ∀𝑥, (𝑥 2 < 𝑥 3 ) if the domain

is the set of all rational numbers?

Solution: "𝑥 2 < 𝑥 3 " is not true for every rational

number x, because (−1)2 < (−1)3 is false. Thus,
∀𝑥, 𝑥 2 < 𝑥 3 is false, and 𝑥 = −1 is a
counterexample.
 Types of Quantifiers
Existential Quantifier

Given a predicate P(x), the proposition “there exists an

element x in the domain such that P(x)” or “for some x,
P(x)”, denoted by “ ∃𝑥, 𝑃(𝑥) ”, is the existential
quantification of P(x). The symbol ∃ is the existential
quantifier. “∃𝑥, 𝑃(𝑥)” can also be stated as “there is an x such
that P(x)”, or “there is at least one x such that P(x).” In the
simplest context, ∃𝑥, 𝑃(𝑥) is true if and only if there is at
least one value of x in the domain that makes P(x) true.
 Example

What is the truth value of ∃𝑥, (2𝑥 3 < 1) if the

domain is the set of all real numbers?

Solution: Since 2𝑥 3 < 1 is sometimes true for the

domain of real numbers, for example, for 𝑥 = 0,
then ∃𝑥, (2𝑥 3 < 1) is true.
 Example

Let Q(x,y) be the predicate “𝑥 2 = 𝑦 3.” What is the

truth value of ∃𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦) if the domain is the set
of all integers and 𝑥 ≠ 𝑦?

Solution: Because there are values in the stated

domain that satisfies 𝑥 2 = 𝑦 3 such that 𝑥 ≠ 𝑦, like
𝑥 = 8 and 𝑦 = 4, we can say that ∃𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦) is
true.
Chapter 3:
Problem Solving
and Reasoning
3.1 Deductive and
Inductive Reasoning
“Mathematics is a language plus reasoning; it is like a
language plus logic. Mathematics is a tool for reasoning.”
― Richard P. Feynman
 An argument in propositional logic is a sequence of
propositions. All but the final proposition in the
argument are called premises and the final proposition
is called the conclusion. The premises contain the
reasons or the evidence and the conclusion contain the
main claim. The two basic types of arguments are
deductive and inductive arguments.
Deductive argument is an inference having conclusion
that proceeds from the premises with absolute
necessity.

Consider the argument below:

All men are rational beings.

John is a man.
Therefore, John is a rational being.
 The first two statements constitute the premises
and the last statement constitutes the conclusion.
There is indeed a consequential relationship of
necessity between the premises and the conclusion.
In other words, the conclusion is necessarily drawn
from the premises and the premises necessarily
support the conclusion.
Validity of Arguments

An argument form in propositional logic is a

sequence of compound propositions involving
propositional variables. An argument form is valid if
no matter which particular propositions are
substituted for the propositional variables in its
premises, the conclusion is true if the premises are all
true.
A deductive argument is evaluated either as valid
or invalid through its logical form and not
through its content. It is valid if and only if it is
impossible for all premises to be true and the
conclusion to be false.

Example

Translate the argument below to its argument form.

If it floods today, then the class is suspended.

It floods today.
Therefore, the class is suspended.
Solution:

Let
p- it floods today
q- the class is suspended

argument form:
𝑝→𝑞
𝑝
∴𝑞
Rule of Inference Name
𝑝 →𝑞 Modus Ponens
𝑝
∴𝑞

𝑝→𝑞 Modus Tolens

~𝑞
∴ ~𝑝

𝑝→𝑞 Hypothetical
𝑞→𝑟 Syllogism
∴𝑝→𝑟
Rule of Inference Name
𝑝 ∨𝑞 Disjunctive
∼𝑝 Syllogism
∴𝑞

𝑝 Addition
∴𝑝 ∨𝑞

𝑝∧𝑞 Simplification
∴𝑝
Rule of Inference Name
𝑝 Conjunction
𝑞
∴𝑝∧𝑞

𝑝 ∨𝑞 Resolution
∼𝑝∨𝑟
∴𝑞∨𝑟
Example

Show that the premises

“It is not sunny this afternoon and it is colder than

yesterday,” “We will
go swimming only if it is sunny,” “If we do not go
swimming, then we will take a boat trip,” and “If we
take a boat trip, then we will be home by sunset”
lead to the conclusion “We will be home by sunset.”
Solution: Let
p:“It is sunny this afternoon,”
q:“It is colder than yesterday,”
r:“We will go swimming,”
s:“We will take a boat trip,”
t:“We will be home by sunset.”
Then the premises become
~p ∧ q, r → p,~r → s, and s → t .
The conclusion is simply t .

We need to give a valid argument with premises ~p ∧ q,

r → p, ~r → s, and s → t and conclusion t .
We construct an argument to show that our premises
lead to the desired conclusion as follows:

Step Reason
1.~p^q Premise
2.~p Simplification using (1)
3.r  p Premise
4.~r Modus tollens using (2) and (3)
5.~r  s Premise
6.S Modus ponens using (4) and (5)
7.st Premise
8.t Modus ponens using (6) and (7)
Inductive argument is an inference having conclusion
that proceeds from the premises only with probability.

Consider the argument below:

John is a man and is a rational being.

Peter is a man and is a rational being.
Mark is a man and is a rational being.
Probably, all men are rational beings.
The premises in the above argument are the first three
statements while the conclusion is the last statement.
The conclusion does not follow with absolute necessity
from premises. The degree of probability of the
inductive arguments depends on the number of
premises. The greater the number of the premises, the
stronger is the degree of probability of the conclusion.
The conclusion which is arrived by inductive reasoning
is also called conjecture.
 An inductive argument has no touch of
validity or invalidity. Inasmuch as conclusion of
this type of argument is only a matter of
probability, it is proper to label them as good or
bad, strong or weak, or better or worse
arguments. It all depends on the strength of the
supporting premises.
 Types of Inductive arguments
1. Generalization
A generalization (more accurately, an inductive generalization) proceeds
from a premise about a sample to a conclusion about the population.

2. Statistical Syllogism
A statistical syllogism proceeds from a generalization to a conclusion
about an individual.

3. Simple induction
Simple induction proceeds from a premise about a sample group
to a conclusion about another individual.
 Counterexamples

A counterexample is a specific case which shows that

a conjecture is false.

Example

Consider the following

22 + 1 =5
42 + 1 = 17
62 + 1= 37
 We might generalize that the square of an even
number plus one is a prime number, but a specific
case will make it false, say for instance, 82 + 1= 65 ,
which is not a prime number. Thus, 82 + 1= 65 is
called a counterexample of the statement the sum of
square of an even number and one is a prime number.
 Table: Difference between deductive and
inductive arguments

Deductive argument Inductive argument

Conclusion necessarily follows Conclusion follows from premises
from the premises
Supporting premises may come
Supporting premises are from from information outside the
within the argument itself argument itself.

Argument is evaluated as valid Evaluated as good or bad, weak

or invalid or strong, better or worse
3.2 Problem Solving with Patterns
Pattern is everything around in this digital world. A pattern
can either be seen physically or it can be observed
mathematically by applying algorithms. The importance of
patterns in mathematics can be seen from the work of W. W.
Sawyer entitled "Mathematics is the classification and study
of patterns".

Pattern recognition is the process of recognizing patterns by

using machine learning algorithm. It can be defined as the
classification of data based on knowledge already gained or
on statistical information extracted from patterns and/or
their representation. Pattern recognition permits
relationships to be determined from the given data.
Formulas are then used to summarize or generalize the
relationships. So, in this section, we focus on looking for a
pattern from a given sequence of numbers/ objects.
Sequences

An ordered list of objects (usually numbers) such

as

4, 9, 14, 19, 24, 29, …

is called a sequence. The numbers in a sequence that

are separated by commas are the terms of the
sequence.
Infinite or Finite
A sequence is said to be a finite sequence if it is possible to
write down a complete lists of all its terms. Otherwise, it is
called an infinite sequence.

Example

Consider the following sequences.

a. 1, 2, 3, 4, ... is a very simple sequence and it is an infinite sequence.

b. f, r, e, d is the finite sequence of letters in the name "fred".
c. 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, ... is an infinite sequence where every term doubles.
d. a, b, c, d, e is the finite sequence of the first 5 letters alphabetically.
e. 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, … ,𝐹𝑛 , … where 𝐹𝑛 = 𝐹𝑛−2 + 𝐹𝑛−1 is called the Fibonacci
sequence and is an infinite sequence.
A Rule
A sequence usually has a rule, which is a way to find the value
of each term.

Example

The sequence 3, 5, 7, 9, ... starts at 3 and add 2 every time:

+2 +2 +2 +2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
nth Term Formula for a Sequence

Example

In the sequence 3, 5, 7, 9, … saying "starts at 3 and add 2

every time" is fine, but it doesn't help us calculate the:
20th term, 1000th term, or nth term, where n could be
any number we want. So, we want a formula with "n"
in it (where n is any number).

What can a rule for the sequence be?

Solution:
Observe that the sequence goes up 2 every time, so we
can guess that a rule is something like "2 times n". To find a
rule for the sequence, we can make a table to see a pattern
as shown below.

𝑛 𝑎𝑛 Test Rule: 2𝑛 + 1

1 3 2(1) + 1 = 3
2 5 2(2) + 1 = 5
3 7 2(3) + 1 = 7
4 9 2(4)+1=9
 It can be seen that the rule 2𝑛 + 1 works! So instead
of saying "starts at 3 and add 2 every time" we
write 𝑎𝑛 = 2𝑛 + 1 .

Now we can calculate, for example, the 1000th

term:

𝑎1000 = 2 1000 + 1 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟏.

Problem Solving Strategy

Polya’s steps are used to solve math problems and

was created by mathematician George Polya.
According to Lee Chun-Yi (2015), Polya’s method
centered on the teacher whose goal is to support the
students to explain the problem-solving ideas related
to the lessons. The simple Polya’s steps and the clear
problem-solving phase make the Polya’s steps
effective to solve math problems.
Polya’s Four Step Process

Step 1: Understand the problem.

Step 2: Devise a plan (translate)

Step 3: Carry out the plan (solve)

Step 4: Look back (check and interpret).

Example

Twice the difference of a number and 1 is 4 more than

that number. Find the number.

Step 1: Understand the problem

Make sure that you read the question carefully several

times. Since we are looking for a number, we will let
x = the number
Step 2: Devise a plan (translate)

Twice the difference of a number and 1 is 4 more than

that number
2 (𝑥 − 1) = 𝑥 + 4

Step 3: Carry out the plan (solve)

2 𝑥 − 1 = 𝑥 + 4 2𝑥 − 2 = 𝑥 + 4 * Remove parenthesis by using distributive property

2𝑥 − 2 − 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 4 − 𝑥 * Get all the x terms on one side
𝑥−2 =4
𝑥−2+2 =4+2 * Additive inverse
𝑥=6
Step 4: Look back (check and interpret)

To check if our answer is correct, we substitute 𝑥 = 6 to the equation

in Step 2.
?
2 (6 − 1) = 6 + 4
?
2 (5) = 10

10 = 10

FINAL ANSWER: The number is 6.

Example

You purchased a new mobile phone at a local electronics store

for Php 15,400.00, which includes the tax. If the tax rate is
8.25%, find the price of the mobile phone before the tax was
added.
Step 1:
Let x = price of the mobile phone before tax was added

Step 2:
The original price plus 8.25% tax will give you the
purchasing cost of 15,400.00.
𝑥 + 0.0825𝑥 = 15,400.00
Step 3:
𝑥 + 0.0825𝑥 = 15,400.00
1.0825𝑥 = 15,400.00 *Add similar terms.
1.0825𝑥 15,400.00
= *Multiplicative inverse
1.0825 1.0825
𝑥= 14,226.33

Step 4:
Php 14,226.33 x 0.0825 tax rate = 1,173.77
Price of cellphone (with added tax): 14,226.33 + 1,173.77 = Php 15,400

FINAL ANSWER: The price of the mobile phone

before the tax was added is Php 𝟏𝟒, 𝟐𝟐𝟔. 𝟑𝟑.