Elementary Logic: Part 1

Elementary logic provides the basic rules for constructing sound, compelling arguments.
The building blocks of logical arguments are logical statements. A logical statement
is a declarative sentence which conveys factual information. If the information is correct
then we say the statement is true; and if the information is incorrect, then we say the
statement is false.

Statements and Negations

All logical statements are formed by combining simple statements.
A simple statement is a logical statement carrying one piece of information.
Example 1.
Each of the following is a simple statement:
(1) The Philippine Post Office delivers mail.
(2) Paris is the capital of Tanzania.
(3) The polynomial 𝑥 2 − 1 factors as (x − 1)(x + 1).
Statements 1 and 3 are true. Statement 2 is false
Not all short sentences are simple statements
Example 2.
(1) Close the window.
This is a command. It does not convey information and is not a logical statement.
(2) The United States Congress is doing an excellent job.
This is a statement of opinion, not a logical statement.

The Negation of a logical statement is a new logical statement which says the opposite of the original
statement. The statement is true exactly when the original statement p is false. To negate a logical
statement means to find the statement’s negation. Various ways to form the negation of a statement
are discussed in the next example.

Example 3. We could negate the statement

The sky is blue
By forming the statement, it is not the case that the sky is blue.
We can negate any statement in this way, but such constructions are clumsy and sometimes unclear

The negation The sky is not blue

is much clearer.
A statement containing a negative can often be negated by removing the negative.
Example 4.

 The negation of
Loitering is not permitted
Here is
Loitering is permitted here.

 The negation of
e-mail is unreliable
Here is
e-mail is reliable
When a logical statement is used to say something about a collection of objects, the statement must
be quantified—that is, we must specify which objects in the collection the statement applies to.

The basic distinctions between applications are reflected in the words all and some.
 If a logical statement applies to all objects in a collection, then it is called a universally quantified
statement.
For example
(1) Every McDonald’s serves French fries.
(2) All math majors study calculus.
A logical statement which applies to some objects in a collection is called an existentially quantified
statement.
For example
(1) Some people attend college.
(2) There are people who believe in UFO’s.
• Universal quantification —If every object in the collection fits the description, then the universally
qualified statement is true.
• Existential quantification —If the existentially quantified statement accurately describes at least one
object in the collection, then it is true.

As illustrated above, an existentially quantified statement asserts that an object of a particular nature exists.
We can contrast universally quantified statements and existentially quantified statements in the following way.
Example 5.
 Some people are female.

This existentially quantified statement applies to the collection of people, and states the existence of a
person with the property of being female. It is clearly a true statement.

 All people are female.

This universally quantified statement applied to the collection of people. Since there are people who
are not female, it is a false statement.

 Every whole multiple of four is even.

This universally quantified statement applies to the collection of all whole multiples of four. It is true
since four is even, and every multiple of an even number is even.
Mathematical knowledge is often expressed with quantified statements:
(1) For all real numbers x and y, x + y = y + x.
(2) Some data is normally distributed.
(3) All right triangles obey the Pythagorean Theorem

Quantification:

The truth value of the given statements cannot be determined and has no meaning without identifying the
values of the variables 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧
Consider the following statements
𝑥 < 5, 𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 6, 𝑥+𝑦 =𝑧
For 𝑥 < 5 to be a proposition either a number is substituted to the variable 𝑥, or it can be changed to
something like “there is a number 𝑥 for which 𝑥 < 5 holds”. In this case, the variable 𝑥 is quantified using a
quantifier.

There are two types of quantifiers:

 Universal quantifier and
 Existential quantifier.
A universally quantified
 Statement is false if it does not apply to at least one object in the collection. So the statement is false if
some number cannot be factored. We know that 7 cannot be factored (with factors > 1), so the statement
is false. The negation of this universally quantified statement is some numbers cannot be factored.
 The universal quantification of a prepositional function is the proposition that asserts that 𝑃 𝑥 is true for
all the values of 𝑥 in the universe of discourse

 “For all” or “ for every:”

 Symbol ∀
Example:
For every object 𝑥 in the universe, 𝑥 < 5.

In symbol: ∀ 𝑥, 𝑥<5

= ∀𝒙, 𝒙 < 𝟓
 Example:
All students are smart

In symbol: ∀ 𝑥 , Let 𝑃 𝑥

= ∀𝒙𝑷 𝒙

Example: All rabbits are faster than all tortoises

All statements involve two predicate variables x and y,

where x has for Domain R = {rabbits}, while y has for Domain T = {tortoises}. The predicate used is P(x, y)
=“Rabbit x is faster than tortoise y”.
In words: For any rabbit x, for any tortoise y, x is faster than y
In logic symbolism, we write “All rabbits are faster than all tortoises”

For any rabbit x, for any tortoise y, x is faster than y

In symbol: ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑅, ∀𝑦 ∈𝑇 𝑃 𝑥, 𝑦
= ∀𝒙 ∈ 𝑹, ∀𝒚 ∈ 𝑻, 𝑷 𝒙, 𝒚
This existentially quantified statement is true with existential quantification, we form a proposition that is true if and
only if 𝑃 𝑥 is true for at least one value of 𝑥 in the universe of discourse

 “There exist’ of “for some”

 Symbol: ∃
Example: There exists an object x in the universe, 𝑥 > 1

In symbol: ∃ 𝑥, 𝑥>1

= ∃𝒙, 𝒙 > 𝟏
Example: For some student.

In symbol: ∃𝑥 Let 𝑃 𝑥

= ∃𝒙, 𝑷 𝒙
Example: Some birds are angry

In symbol ∃𝑥 ∈𝐷 𝑃 𝑥
𝑏𝑖𝑟𝑑𝑠 "𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑟𝑦"
=∃𝒙 ∈ 𝑫, 𝑷 𝒙
 Note: Here is a formal way to say that for some values that a predicate variable x can take in a domain D, the predicate
is true:

Another Example: Every rabbit is faster than some tortoise

In words: For any rabbit x there exist a (some) tortoise y, such that x is faster than y

Here the Domains: 𝑅 = 𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠 , 𝑇 = 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑠

Let 𝑷 𝒙, 𝒚 : 𝑅𝑎𝑏𝑏𝑖𝑡 𝒙 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝒚

In words: For any rabbit x there exist a (some) tortoise y, such that x is faster than y

In symbol: ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑅, ∃𝑦 ∈𝑇 𝑷 𝒙, 𝒚

= ∀𝒙 ∈ 𝑹, ∃𝒚 ∈ 𝑻, 𝑷 𝒙, 𝒚
 The Negation of a for all statement is a some statement.
Example 6. The negation of
All birds can fly
Here is
Some birds cannot fly.

The negation of a some statement is a for all statement.

Example 7. The negation of

There exists an honest man
Here is
All men are dishonest.

Example 8. Consider the statement

All numbers can be factored.

Statement or Proposition
A proposition is a declarative sentence that is either
True (denoted either T or 1) or
False (denoted either F or 0).
Notation: Variables are used to represent propositions. The most common variables used are p, q, and r.
Examples.
 “Drilling for oil caused dinosaurs to become extinct.” is a proposition.
 “Look out!” is not a proposition.
 “How far is it to the next town?” is not a proposition.
 “x + 2 = 2x” is not a proposition.
“x + 2 = 2x when x = −2” is a proposition
Recall a proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true or false.
Here are some further examples of propositions:
 All cows are brown.
 The Earth is further from the sun than Venus.
 There is life on Mars.
 2 × 2 = 5.
Here are some sentences that are not propositions.
 “Do you want to go to the movies?”
Since a question is not a declarative sentence, it fails to be a proposition.
 “Clean up your room.”
Likewise, an imperative is not a declarative sentence; hence, fails to be a proposition.
 “2x = 2 + x.”
This is a declarative sentence, but unless x is assigned a value or is otherwise prescribed, the sentence
neither true nor false, hence, not a proposition.
 “This sentence is false.” What happens if you assume this statement is true? false?
This example is called a paradox and is not a proposition, because it is neither true nor false.

Each proposition can be assigned one of two truth values. We use T or 1 for true and use F or 0 for false.

Combining Logical Statements

We combine logical statements to form new logical statements by joining them with an and or an or. And

The statement p and q is true exactly when both p and q are

true. It is convenient to display this information in the following
chart:
 The chart lists the four possible truth values of the two sentences p and q:

 (1) both are true;

 (2) p is true, but q is false
 (3) p is false, but q is true
 (4) both are false.

In just the first case is the statement p and q true.

Or
“Or” is used in two different ways in English:
• exclusive use: Tea or Coffee?
• inclusive use: Cream or Sugar?
When you are offered “tea or coffee,” it is assumed that you may choose one of the two, but not both. On the other
hand, when offered “cream or sugar,” no eyebrows will be raised if you take them both.
Example .
Determine whether the following uses of or are inclusive or exclusive.
 You can kill a vampire by exposing him to sunlight or driving a wooden stake through his heart.
Suppose you drive a stake through the heart of a vampire at exactly sunrise? Is he still dead?
 You buy a car with a 3 year or 36,000 mile warranty.
If more than 3 years pass and you drive the car more than 36,000 miles, is the warranty still expired?
 A restaurant offers “soup or salad” with their dinner special. Can you order both?

The first two are examples of the inclusive use or Or. The third is an example of the exclusive use. You won’t get
both the soup and the salad without paying an extra charge. In logic we always use “or” in the inclusive sense. In
other words, for us.
The negation of an and statement is an or statement
Example: The negation of

Sam likes green eggs and Sam likes ham

Here is
Sam does not like green eggs or Sam does not like ham.
The negation of an or statement is an and statement.
Example: The negation of
I am going to the movies on Saturday or Sunday
Here is
I am not going on Saturday and I am not going on Sunday.
More complicated logical statements may be formed by further combining statements already joined by and or or.

Example:
Interpret the following nonpunctuated statement was found on a menu.
All dinners include vegetable and soup or salad.
Such a statement can be interpreted in two different ways:
(1) You get the vegetable and you must decide between the soup or the salad.
(2) You can must decide between the vegetable and soup combination or the salad.

Summary:

In these sections, we discussed the following:

 Logical versus not logical
 Negation
 Universal Quantification versus Existential Quantification
 Proposition versus Not proposition
 Combined Logical Statement : and / Or and vice versa
Assignment 8: Template #10
A. Determine which of the statements are Proposition and
which is Not proposition.
1. San Fernando City is the capital of La Union
2. Cielo is beautiful and sexy
3. Where are you going?
4. Please give me some water.
5. Mt. Apo is the tallest mountain in the Philippines.
6. 1 + 1 = 2
7. 𝑥 > 5 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 3
8. Socrates is a man
9. A triangle has three sides
10. Madrid is the capital of Spain
11. Who are you?
12. Run!
13. The king of France is wise
B. What is the negation of the following statements?
1. Some pictures are old and faded.
2. All people are tall and thin
3. Some students eat only pizza
4. Only students eat pizza.
5. Not all CEAT students study hard.
C. Use the statement to express the quantifiers of the following:
1. There exists only one , 𝑃 𝑥 be exactly one
2. Let 𝑅 𝑥 be “rabbit”,𝑇 𝑦 be “tortoise” , 𝑃 𝑥, 𝑦 be “ There is a rabbit which is faster than all
tortoise”
 There is a rabbit which is faster than tortoise.
3. Let 𝑆 𝑥 be “student”, 𝐵 𝑦 be “book”, and 𝑃 𝑥. 𝑦 be “𝑥 has 𝑦”
 Every student has a book
 Some students has all the book