Chapter 1:

PRINCIPLES OF LOGIC
Topics:

 Propositions

 Logical operators

 Rules of replacement

 Proofs of validity/invalidity

 Quantifiers

 Quantification rules
* Mathematics work according to the laws
of Logic, which specify how to make valid
deductions. In order to apply the law of
logic to mathematical statements, you
need to understand their logical forms.
Propositions
A PROPOSITION is a
declarative sentence that can be
either TRUE or FALSE, but not Both.
Illustration:
All the following statements are
propositions:
1. Manila is the capital of the
Philippines
2. UNP is in Manila
3. 1+1=2
4. 2+4=5
Illustration:
Consider the following sentences:
1. Is it time?
2. Pay attention to this
3. x+1=2
4. x+y=z

Is the sentences above a

proposition or not?
If a proposition p is TRUE, its truth
value is TRUE, denoted by T. If it is
FALSE, its truth value is FALSE,
denoted by F
Logical Operators
Connectives

A PROPOSITIONAL CONNECTIVE
is an operation that combines
two propositions to yield a new
one whose truth value depends
only on the truth values of the
two original propositions
Compound Propositions

Propositions built up by
combining propositions using
propositional connectives are
called COMPOUND PROPOSITIONS
Propositional
Connectives

 

if then implication
if and only if biconditional
not negation

 
Note: The connective is a symbol for or in the inclusive sense of
“and/or “ while is a symbol for or in the exclusive sense of “either
but not both”
Example:
 Letp and q be the propositions
“Today is Friday” and “It is raining
today”, respectively
Find
Assignment: (1/2 crosswise)

Determine
 
1. which of the following sentences are propositions
and indicate their truth value
a. Legaspi is the capital of Albay
b. 4+4=7
c. x+y=y+x
d. Answer this question
e. Zero is even
2. Let p and q be the propositions:
p: I buy a lotto ticket today
q: I win the 135 million peso jackpot on
Saturday
Express the following propositions as an English sentence

a. q
Truth Tables
TAUTOLOGIES
 TAUTOLOGIE
S

TAUTOLOGIES – is a formula which is "always true" - that

is, it is true for every assignment of truth values to its simple
components. You can think of a tautology as a rule of logic.

 When a statement is a tautology, we also say that the

statement is tautological. In common usage this sometimes
means simply that the statement is convincing. We are using it
for something stronger: the statement is always true, under all
circumstances.
 TAUTOLOGIE
S
List of Tautologies
QUANTIFIERS
 QUANTIFIERS

One way of making sentences out of predicates is by

replacing the individual variables by designators. Another
way is by using QUANTIFIERS.

There are two types of

quantifier: 
 QUANTIFIERS

UNIVERSAL QUANTIFIER

The expression: x P(x), denotes the universal quantification of

the atomic formula P(x). Translated into the English language, the
expression is understood as: "For all x, P(x) holds", "for each x,
P(x) holds" or "for every x, P(x) holds".  is called the universal
quantifier, and x means all the objects x in the universe. If this is
followed by P(x) then the meaning is that P(x) is true for every
object x in the universe.
For example,
"All cars have wheels" could be transformed into the
propositional form, x P(x), where:

P(x) is the predicate denoting: x has wheels, and

the universe of discourse is only populated by cars.
 QUANTIFIERS

EXISTENTIAL QUANTIFIER

The expression:  xP(x), denotes the existential

quantification of P(x). Translated into the English language, the
expression could also be understood as: "There exists an x such
that P(x)" or "There is at least one x such that P(x)"  is called
the existential quantifier, and  x means at least one object x in
the universe. If this is followed by P(x) then the meaning is
that P(x) is true for at least one object x of the universe.
For example,
"Someone loves you" could be transformed into the
propositional form,  x P(x), where:

P(x) is the predicate meaning: x loves you,

The universe of discourse contains (but is not limited
to) all living creatures.