Set and Logic Theory

Defining Set: A set is referred to as group, a collection, or a cluster of objects, denoted by capital letters and the objects in the set are called elements and are
enclosed by braces.

Set Descriptions: *Roster Method *Rule Method *Set Builder Notation *Interval Notation
Types of Set: *Finite Set *Infinite Set *Empty Set
*Joint Set *Disjoint Set *Equal Set
*Equivalent Set *Universal Set
Defining Subset: Given two sets A and B, A is a subset of B if every element in A is in B.
Cardinality of a Set: Number of elements the set has.
*Inclusion-Exclusion Principle: | A ∪ B|=| A |+|B|−| A ∩ B|
Power Set: A set that contains all the subsets of a given set.
Remember: *We use 2k where k is the number of elements in the set to determine the number of subsets the given set has.
Operations on Set: *Intersection of Sets *Union of Sets
*Complement of a Set *Difference of Sets
Laws of Set: * Commutative Law
The order in which the sets are written does not affect the set of elements in the union or intersection of two sets.
e.g., A ∩ B = B ∩ A, A∪B=B∪A
*Associative Law
The grouping of sets does not affect the set of elements in the union or intersection of the sets.
e.g., (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C), (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)
*Distributive Law
Given the sets A, B, and C: A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C), A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
Venn Diagram: Pictorial representation of sets. Sets are represented by enclosed areas in a plane
The universal set U is represented by the points in the rectangle.
The other sets are represented by disks lying within the rectangle
Sets & Their Venn Diagram
A ⊆ B Subset Disjoint Sets A∪B

B
A∩B A–B B–A A’

A
A ⊕ B Symmetric Difference (elements in A or B but not in both)

ACTIVITY: Directions: Represents in Venn Diagram the following sets:

U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}; B = {2, 4, 6, 8}; C = {2, 4}; D = {1, 3, 5, 7}

Venn Diagram: Application

Inclusion-Exclusion Formula n (A∪B) = n (A) + n (B) –n (A∩ B)

n (A∪B∪C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C)- n(A∩B) - n(B∩C) - n(C∩A) + n(A∩B∩C)
In case of two elements:

where:
x= number of elements that belong to Set A only
y= number of elements that belong to set B only
z= number of elements that belong to set A and B both (A∪B)
X y z w= number of elements that belong to none of the sets A or B, thus
n(A)= x + z; n(B)= y + z; n(A∩B)= z; n(A∪B)= x + y + z
Total number of elements = x + y + z + w

In case of three elements:

1. In a college, 200 students are randomly selected. 140 like tea, 120 like coffee and 80 like both
tea and coffee.
a. How many students like only tea?
b. How many students like only coffee?
c. How many students like neither tea nor coffee?
d. How many students like neither tea nor coffee?
e. How many students like at least one of the beverages?

2. A veterinarian surveys 26 of his patrons. He discovers that:

14 have dogs; 10 have cats; 8 have both cats and dogs
a. Create a Venn diagram to model the information.
b. How many patrons had dogs and cats?
c. How many patrons had dogs but not cats?
d. How many patrons didn’t have either?
3. In a survey of 20 students in a class:
10 liked pineapple juice; 15 liked orange juice; and 7 like to have both
a. How many pineapple juice or orange juice?
b. How many liked orange juice but not pineapple juice?
c. How many patrons didn’t like either?
4. Out of 40 students: 14 are taking chemistry; 29 are taking English; 5 are taking both
a. How many students are taking Chemistry, but not English?
b. How many are taking Chemistry or English?
c. How many are taking exactly one or two classes?
5. 105 adults were asked whether they had studied French, Spanish, or Japanese in school whereas:
5 are taking all three; 9 have studied both Japanese and French; 24 have studied both Spanish and French
52 have studied French; 63 have studied Spanish; 25 have studied Japanese
a. How many have studied Spanish but not French?
b. How many have studied Japanese but not French?
c. How many have studied both French and Spanish?
d. How many have studied French or Spanish?
e. How many have studied both French and Spanish but not Japanese?
6. 33 cities with large populations were surveyed to determine whether they had a professional basketball team, a professional football team, or a
professional basketball team. It was determined that:
5 had all three teams; 11 had baseball and football; 7 had baseball and basketball;
9 had football and basketball; 16 had basketball; 17 had football; 15 had basketball
a. How many cities had only football?
b. How many cities had baseball or football?
c. How many cities had both baseball and football but not basketball?
d. How many had exactly two teams?
7. 100 students were asked which fast food restaurant they have been to this year. The results of the survey were as follows:
5 have been to all three; 20 have been to both McDonald’s and Jollibee;
25 have been to both Shakey’s and McDonald’s; 15 have been to Jollibee and Shakey’s;
50 have been to McDonald’s; 40 have been to Jollibee; 45 have been to Shakey’s
a. How many did not go to any of the three?
b. How many have been to MCDonald’s or Jollibee?
c. How many have been to McDonald’s or Jollibee, but not Shakey’s?
d. How many have been to exactly two of the three?

Set Theory

Properties of Real Numbers

Closure Property : If a and b belong to the set of real numbers, then a+b and ab are real numbers.
Commutative Property of Addition : The order of the numbers in a sum does not affect the result. (a + b = b + a)
Commutative Property of Multiplication : The order of the numbers in a product does not affect the result (ab = ba)
Associative Property of Addition : The grouping of the numbers in a sum does not affect the results (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
Associative Property of Multiplication : The grouping of the numbers in a product does not affect the results (ab) c = a (bc)
Distributive Property : Multiplication distributes over addition and subtraction; a (b + c) = ab + ac
Additive Identity Property : Zero preserves identities under addition; a+0=a
Multiplicative Identity Property : The number 1 preserves the identities under multiplicationa (1) = a
Additive Inverse Property : The sum of two opposite numbers is 0; a + (-a) = 0
Multiplicative Inverse Property : The product of any number and its reciprocal is 1; a (a-1) = 1
Multiplication Property of Zero : The product of zero and any number is zero; a (0) = 0

Exercise:
Identify what property was being applied.
a. 19(0)= 0 b. 6(1/6)= 1 c. -5 + (+5)= 0 d. 1(x)= x e. x + 0= x
f. (a – 2)5= 5a – 10 g. (3a)(5)= 3 (a5) h. 2 + (1 + 3)= (2 + 1) + 3 i. 3x= x3 j. 4 + 5= 5 + 4

The Real Number System

REAL
NUMBERS

Note: Integers & Non-integers

RATIONAL IRRATIONAL
NUMBERS NUMBERS
Rational Numbers: Can be classified into integers or non-
integers.
NON-
Numbers that can be expressed as ratio of
INTEGERS
INTEGERS two integers.
Have a/b form where b is not equal to 0. e.g., 1, ½, 2/3,
5/1, 0
POSITIVE
ZERO
NEGATIVE Real Numbers: Combination of the set of Rational
INTEGERS INTEGERS
and Irrational Numbers.

Inequality & Absolute Value

Order

• Let a and b be real numbers. Whereas a < b is true if:

a.) the difference of b and a is positive
b.) a lies to the left of b on the number line
Inequality

A Mathematical statement indicating that two quantities are not equal.

Let a and b be real numbers, then:
1.) a > b is read as a is greater than b
2.) a < b is read as a is less than b
3.) a ≥ b is read as a is greater than or equal to b
4.) a ≤ b is read as a is less than or equal to b
5.) a ≠ b is read as a is not equal to b
Properties
Let a, b, and c be real numbers, then:
a.) a = b, b = b, and c = c
b.) if a ≤ b and b ≤ a, then a = b
c.) if a ≤ b and b ≤ c, then a ≤ c
For any real number a and b, exactly one of these is true:
a.) a<b
b.) a>b
c.) a=b
Let a, b, and c be real numbers such that a ≤ b, then:
a.) a + c ≤ b + c (IF you add or subtract the same number of both sides of the inequality, the inequality remains true)
b.) ac ≤ bc when c > 0; but
ac ≥ bc when c < 0
(if you multiply or divide both sides of an inequality by a negative number, then the inequality is no longer true.) thus, the inequality symbol must be reversed.
Solving some simple inequalities:
a) x+3>3 b) 4x+6 > 3x+7 c) 3x-5≤ 3-x d) -2x>4 e) 5x+3 > 3x+1 f)12-3x<4x-2

Absolute Value Inequality (inequalities with a modulus symbol)

Examples: a) |x|<2 b) |x|≥5 c) |x−4|< 3 d) |5 x−8|≤ 1 2
Function & Relations

What is a Function?
Function = a rule that assigns each input number (x) exactly one output number (y).

Types of Function
 a) b) c)

Functional Notation

Usually, the letters ƒ, g, h, F, G is used to represent the function rules. Example: y = x + 2 can be written as ƒ(x)
= x + 2, where ƒ(x) is the output for the function ƒ with x as the input. Therefore, the output ƒ(x) is equal to y (that is : y = ƒ(x))
Ex: Find the value f(3) for the function f(x)=2x-1
Find f (x)= x2+ 3x whereas f (x)- f(x+2)
Domain and Range
Domain : set consist of all valid input (x) for a given function
Range : set consist of all valid output (y) for a given function (produce by the values in the domain)
 Differentiating Relation and Function

Relations: Have set of domains as inputs and range as outputs.

Function: Every member the domain is mapped once to the range.
Ex: Relation and Function. Relation but not a function Relation but not a function

Note: All Functions are relations but not all relations

are functions.

Activity:

1. Use the function below to perform the following

operations:
f(x)=2x; g(x)= x-2; h(x)=x2; k(X) =x/2
a. k(x) (f(x)) b. g(x)-h(x) c. f(x)/k(x)
2. Find each value if f(x) =-5x+2 and g(x)=-2x+3.
a. f(3) b. g(-6) c. f(m-2) d. g(f(x))

Number Sequence and Patterns

Sequence: A Sequence is a list of things (usually numbers) that are in order.

Patterns are repetitive sequences and can be found in nature, shapes, events, sets of numbers and almost everywhere you care to look. For example, seeds in a
sunflower, snowflakes, geometric designs on quilts or tiles, the number sequence 0;4;8;12;16;....

Note: When the sequence goes on forever it is called an infinite sequence, otherwise it is a finite sequence
Sequence is an Special kind of function (E.g. list of letters of a word), Unlike set, it takes order into account

Remember: The nth term is denoted by An. We call n in the function A(n) as the index of the sequence

Arithmetic Sequences
In an Arithmetic Sequence the difference between one term and the next is a constant. Example: 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, 22, 25, ... Rule: xn = 3n-2;
arithmetic sequence like this: {a, a+d, a+2d, a+3d, ... }; the rule: xn = a + d(n-1)

Geometric Sequences
In a Geometric Sequence each term is found by multiplying the previous term by a constant.
Example: 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, ... Its Rule is xn = 2n Geometric sequence like this: {a, ar, ar2, ar3, ... }
 the rule is: xn = ar(n-1)

Triangular Numbers
The Triangular Number Sequence is generated from a pattern of dots which form a triangle.
Ex- 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, 36, 45, ... Rule:- xn = n(n+1)/2

Square Numbers 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, ... xn = n2

Cube Numbers 1, 8, 27, 64, 125, 216, 343, 512, 729, ... xn = n3
Fibonacci Sequence 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, ... xn = xn-1 + xn-2

Mathematical Logic

- Disagreement lies on not being able to prevent sound arguments based on facts or failure to convince the contending party using logical statements;
logic asserts truth in statements.
* a statement is an assertion which can be regarded as true or false.
- A simple sentence- is a single statement which does not contain other statements as parts.
- A compound statement-contains two or more statements.
- A logical connective- combine simple sentences into compound statements
 PROPOSITIONS (made in people’s statements)- is a statement which is either true (T) or false (F).
 Ex: The senior citizens may claim that the best movie they ever saw is Sound of Music, a movie that was produced in 1965. This statement is a
proposition that is either T or F and cannot be both.
Ex: Each of the following statements is a proposition. Some are true and some are false. Can you tell which are true, and which are false? If it is false,
state why.
a. 9 is a prime number b. 5+3=8 c. x2+y2≥0 d. 10<-3

 An argument is a collection of propositions related to one another such that some propositions are considered premises and some are
conclusions.
 Given an argument whose form isn’t obvious:
 Decompose the argument into assertions
 Connect the assertions according to the argument
 Check to see that the inferences are valid.
 Example argument:
If a baby is hungry then it cries.
If a baby is not mad, then it doesn’t cry.
If a baby is mad, then it has a red face.
Therefore, if a baby is hungry, it has a red face.

The following is not an argument:

(p)Manila is very far from Tuguegarao.

(q)Tomatoes are becoming expensive.

The Truth Table – is a table that shows the truth value of a compound statement for all positive truth values of the simple statements.
Negation – a statement in a negation of another if the word is not introduced in the negative statement. Let P be a proposition. The negation of P is
“not P” or ¬P.
Ex:
P ¬P
T F
F T
Ex: What is the negation of the following statements?
a. P: √2 is a rational number b. R: 6 is an odd number
Logical Connectives (Let P & Q be propositions)A logical connective is the mathematical equivalent of a conjunction in English. The most common
conjunctions in mathematics are “and” and “or”, which are denoted by ∧∧∨, respectively.

Connectives Propositional Logic Symbols Example Read

Not Negation ∼, ¬ ∼P or ¬P Not p, (p is false)
And/but Conjunction ∧ p∧q p and q (both p and q are true)
Or Disjunction ∨ p∨q p or q (either p is true or q is true or both are true
Implies Conditional → p→q If p then q
If and only if Biconditional ↔ p↔q p implies q and q implies p
p is and only if q
EX: Consider the following statements:
h: Harry is not happy
v: Harry is going o watch a volleyball game.
r: It is going to rain.
s: Today is Sunday
- Write the following compound statements in symbolic form.
a. Today is Sunday and Harry is not happy.
b. Today is Sunday and Harry is not going to watch a volleyball game.
c. If it is going to rain, then Harry is not going to watch a volleyball game.
d. Harry is going to watch a volleyball game if and only if he is happy.
e. Harry is happy only if it is not going to rain.
f. Harry is going to watch a volleyball game or it is going to rain.
Ex 2: Convert the following symbolic statements into words given the following propositions.
p: Gian plays volleyball q: Lanz plays basketball.
a. ¬p b. p∧q c. p→ ¬v d. p∨ (¬p→q)
Ex 3: Consider the following statements.
p: Adele is a singer. q: Adele is a songwriter. r: Adele is an actress.
a. Write (p∧q) → ¬r into words.
b. Write “If Adele is an actress, then Adele is not a singer and Adele is not a songwriter” in symbolic form.
Ex4: Given s: A polygon has three sides. ; t: A polygon is a triangle.
Write the given statement in symbolic form –“ A polygon having three sides is a necessary and sufficient condition for a polygon to be a triangle”.

Ex5: Consider the following statements.

 P: Pres Duterte is a good president. Q: Government officials are corrupt. R: People are happy.
- Write the following compound statements in symbolic form.
a. If Pres. Duterte is a good president, then government officials are not corrupt.
b. If government officials are not corrupt, then the people are happy.
c. If Pres. Duterte is a good president and people are happy, then government officials are not corrupt.
d. Pres. Duterte is not a good president if and only if government officials are corrupt and the people are not happy.
Converse, Inverse, Contrapositive – Suppose P and Q are propositions. Given the implication P→Q . Its converse is Q→P, its inverse is (¬Q
→ ¬P), and its contrapositive is ¬Q→ ¬P. That is,
Given: If P then Q.
Inverse: If not P then not Q.
Converse: If Q then P.
Contrapositive: If not Q then not P.
Ex1: Given the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of the following implications:
a. If this movie is interesting, then I am watching it.
b. If p is a prime number, then it is odd.
Ex2: Write the inverse, converse and contrapositive of the given.
a. She is allowed to join the volleyball team, then she knows how to receive the ball.
b. Every rectangle is a parallelogram.

TRUTH TABLES (truth value: either T or F)

A. Conjunction b. Disjunction c. Conditional d. Bi conditional

p q p∧q p q p∨ q p q p→q p q p↔q

T T T T T T T T T T T T
T F F T F T T F F T F F
F T F F T T F T T F T F
F F F F F F F F T F F T
e. inverse, converse and contrapositive

¬p→ ¬q q→p ¬q→ ¬p

T T T
F F T
T T F
T T T
Compound Statements and their Truth Tables (compound statements are complex statements built up on 2 simple statements by using connectives)
Ex: Construct the truth table for the compound statement:
a. (p∨q)∧ ¬p
Solution

p Q p∨q ¬p (p∨q)∧ ¬p

T T
T F
F T
f F
b. ¬p∨¿ q→p)
Solution

p q ¬p ¬q ¬q→p ¬p∨¿ q→p)

T T
T F
F T
f F

Quantifiers (are used to describe the variable(S) in a statement.

a. Universal (for all or for every)
b. existential (there exist or for some)

Logical equivalence ( if they have the same truth value or tautology)

Ex: Verify whether p→q and ¬p∨q
Solutions:

p q ¬p p →q ¬p∨ q
T T
T F
F T
 f F

Exercises#1
Name:________________________________________________
1. Formalize the given statements using the following propositions:
P: Paul is happy. ;Q: Queenie is happy. ; R: Paul plays the guitar
a. Both Paul and Queenie are happy.
b. Paul plays the guitar provided that he is happy.
c. If Paul is happy and plays the guitar, then Queenie is not happy.
2. Let M: Mark is English and L: Lem is German. Translate the following logic symbols into words.
a. M∨L b. ¬L c. M→ ¬L d. M∨ (¬M→L)
3. Write the statement in if-ten form.
a. The product of two even integers is an even number.
b. The square of a number is nonnegative.
4. Construct the truth values for the given compound statements.
a. p∧ (¬q) b. [p∧ (¬q)] ∨ [¬p∨ q)] c. ¬ (p∨¬q)∨p
5. If p is false and q is true, what are the truth values of the given statements?
a. (p∨ q ¿ b. ¿p)∧ (¬q)
6. Determine whether each pair of statement is logically equivalent.
a. p∨ (q∧r) and (p∨q) ∧ (p ∨r) b. ¬ (¬p → q) and p → ¬q
7.Write the converse, inverse and contrapositive of the given statements.
a. If a quadrilateral is not a rectangle, then it is not a square.
b. If yesterday is not Wednesday, then tomorrow is not Friday.
8. Given: H: Harry smokes. L: Liam drinks alcohol.
Translate the logic symbols into words.
a. H∧ (¬L) b. H∨ (¬H→ L)
9. Given: P: The sun is shining. ; Q: It is raining. ; R: The ground is wet.
Write the following in symbolic form:
a. If it is raining, then the sun is not shining.
b.The ground is wet if and only if it is raining and the sun is shining.