10.

Importance of transport system in complex multicellular organisms

 A large body size has a low total surface area to volume ratio (TSA/V ratio). Hence, rate of
diffusion of substances across the cell is low. 身体表面积太小，体积太大，扩散率低
 Large organisms need more oxygen and more nutrients for cellular activities and more
waste products to be removed. Diffusion alone is too slow to provide the requirements of
cells and to remove waste products. 需要更多氧气和营养供给，扩散太慢
 Cells are located far away from the surface of the body. Exchange of substances difficult to
occur by simple diffusion between the body cells and the environment.
 To survive, multicellular organisms need a specialised structure to obtain nutrients (digestive
system), to obtain oxygen and to remove carbon dioxide (respiratory system) and
nitrogenous waste products (excretory system).

Open Circulatory System Close Circulatory System

Blood is not confined in closed blood vessel.
The blood and the fluid surrounding the cells mix to form haemolymph.
Haemolymph flows from the heart into the body cavity called haemocoel.
Exchange of nutrients and waste products occurs between the
haemolymph and body cells.
Blood flows in continuous closed blood vessel.
Blood then flows back into the heart.
The heart pumps the blood to all the body cells
for exchange of gases and substances.

Single : Blood flows through the heart once in one complete circulation
Double : Blood flows through the heart twice in one complete circulation
Incomplete : Oxygenated blood is mixed with deoxygenated blood in ventricle
Complete : Oxygenated blood does not mixed with deoxygenated blood
Similarities
-Circulatory system is found in all multicellular organisms.
-Consists of heart, blood vessels and blood (insects: haemolymph)
-The heart of all these multicellular organisms has valves

Insect 🐜 Fish 🐟 Frog 🐸 Human 👩‍👩‍👧‍👧

Open circulatory system
No blood circulation
Many cavity segments in
the tube-like heart
Haemolymph
Closed circulatory system
Single
Two (1 atrium , 1 ventricle)
Deoxygenated blood in both
atrium and ventricle
Closed circulatory system
Double
Three (2 atria , 1 ventricle)
-Incomplete
-Deoxygenated blood in the
right atrium, oxygenated
blood in the left atrium
Closed circulatory system
Double
Four (2 atria , 2 ventricles)
-Complete
-Deoxygenated blood in
the right atrium and
ventricle , oxygenated
blood in the left.

10.2 Circulatory System of Humans

 White blood cell (leucocyte)
 Has a nucleus with three or more lobes
 Does not have a fixed shape
 Has a life span of few days

Red blood cell（erythrocyte）

Characteristic : -biconcave disc shape -no nucleus in human RBC -Produced in bone marrow 骨髓
Function : Transport oxygen in the form of oxyhaemoglobin and carbon dioxide in the form of
carbaminohaemoglobin
Adaptation :
- Large total surface area- Provide high TSV/A ratio, hence a high rate of diffusion of gases
- No nucleus – Can contain more haemoglobin, hence can transport more oxygen
Platelets
 Don’t have a nucleus, fragments 碎片 of cell cytoplasm that originate from the bone
marrow
 Involved in the blood clotting mechanism
 Adaptation: Can release enzyme for the blood clotting mechanism
Blood vessel
Arteries Capillaries Veins
Function Transport blood away from the Allow the exchange of gases to Transport blood back into the
heart to the other part of body occur between blood and body cell heart
Blood High Low Low
pressure
Lumen small Very small Large
Wall Thick ,muscular wall Thinnest wall, one cell thick Thinner wall
Structure of heart

Coronary arteries on the surface of the heart : Supply oxygen and nutrients to the cardiac muscle
cells. Coronary veins : Transport deoxygenated blood away from the heart.
Four main chambers of the heart:
(a) Upper chambers
i. Right atrium - Receives deoxygenated blood from the vena cava. It has a pacemaker on the wall to
start the heartbeat and control the beating of the heart
ii. Left atrium - Receives oxygenated blood from the lungs via the pulmonary vein
iii. Both atria have thin walls as they only need to pump blood down to the ventricles.
(b) Lower chambers
i. Right ventricle - Pumps deoxygenated blood out of the heart to the lungs via pulmonary artery
ii. Left ventricle - Pumps oxygenated blood out to all body tissues via aorta
iii. Both ventricles have thick walls as they need to pump blood out of the heart to the lungs and all
body tissues.
iv. The left ventricle wall is thicker than the right ventricle wall because the left ventricle has to pump
blood out of the heart to all the body tissues while the right ventricle only needs to pump blood out
of the heart to the lungs nearby.
v. The right chambers is separated from the left chambers by a muscular wall called septum.
The Heart Valves
A) Tricuspid valve
- The valve between the right atrium and the right ventricle
-Three flaps prevent blood flowing back from the right ventricle to the right atrium
B) Bicuspid valve
-The valve between the left atrium and the left ventricle
-Two flaps prevent blood flowing back from the left ventricle to the left atrium (ventricles contract)
C) Semilunar valves
-The valves at the base of aorta and pulmonary artery
- Prevent blood flowing back into the ventricles when pressure falls during the relaxation of the
ventricles
10.3 Mechanism of heartbeat

Pumping of the heart

1) The sinoatrial node (SA) generates electrical impulses.

2) , impulses spread rapidly in both atria, causing the atria to contract simultaneously. The contraction of atria

helps to pump blood into the ventricles.

3)The electrical impulses reach the atrioventricular node (AV)
4) The electrical impulses spread from the apex to the whole ventricle wall. As a result, ventricles
contract to pump blood out to the lungs and body
Contraction of Skeletal muscles around the veins
-The contraction of the skeletal muscles around the veins of the limbs enable the blood flow
upwards against the pull of gravity towards the heart and circulate round the body

10.4 Mechanism of blood clotting

Importance of blood clotting mechanism
-To prevent serious blood loss
-To prevent the entry of microorganisms and foreign particles into the body
-To maintain blood pressure and circulation of blood

Thrombosis
-Caused by the formation of a blood clot inside the blood vessels
a) Venous thrombosis – The blood clot in veins
b) Arterial thrombosis – The blood clot in arteries
i. Saturated fats and cholesterol deposited in the artery wall
ii. The blood flow restricted. This cause platelets clump together and start the blood clotting
mechanism in the arteries, leading to the formation of blood clot called thrombus.
iii. If the blood clot formed in the coronary artery, it will lead to heart attack.
iv. Thrombosis that occur in arteries that supply blood to the brain will cause stroke.
Embolism
-Embolus is a small blood clot moving in the blood vessels
-This causes a blockage in the smaller blood vessel called embolism

Haemophilia
-A hereditary bleeding disorder due to the lack of blood clotting factor called factor VIII in the blood

10.5 Blood Groups of Humans

Pregnancy and Rhesus factor

-Mother blood is Rh-negative (no antigen D)
-Foetus blood is Rh-positive
1)During late pregnancy, blood cells from the foetus enter mother blood circulation
2)Antigen D in the blood cells of foetus causes the mother blood produce anti-D antibody
3)Anti-D antibody from the mother blood can enter the foetus blood and react with the antigen D.
4)This causes agglutination of the blood in the foetus leading to the death of the foetus
-First pregnancy, the foetus no harmed because anti-D antibody not enough to effect the foetus.
-Can be avoid by treating the affected mother with anti-Rhesus globulin.

10.6 Health issues

Atherosclerosis 动脉粥样硬化
-Is blockage of artery due to deposit of saturated fat and cholesterol (plaque)
-Plaque that is formed causes the lumen of the artery become small, thus restricting blood flow
-If the blockage occurs at the coronary artery of the heart, it can cause angina (chest pain) which can
lead to myocardial infarction (heart attack).
-Stunt with balloon angioplasty 通球仔
 Arteriosclerosis
-Occurs when calcium is deposited on the plaque
-Calcium hardens the artery causes the artery wall to become hard and inelastic.
Hypertension
-When there is a blockage of the artery, the restricted flow of blood through the artery will cause the
heart to pump faster to increase the blood flow. This causing high blood pressure.
-Factors : smoking, too much alcohol and high salt diets
-If this occurs in the blood vessels that supply blood to the brain, it can cause stroke.

10.7 Human Lymphatic System

The formation of tissue fluid and lymph

1) As blood flows from the arteriole into the smaller capillaries, a high hydrostatic pressure occur.
2) The high hydrostatic pressure force blood plasma out of the blood capillaries into the intercellular
space. This process called ultrafiltration.
3) The fluid fills the intercellular space called tissue fluid. It contain all the dissolved substances
except RBC, platelets and plasma protein because these substance are too large to diffuse out of
the blood capillaries.
4) Tissue fluid allows the exchange of materials in the blood and cells to occur. Nutrients and
oxygen diffuse from the tissue fluid into the body cells. Carbon dioxide and waste products diffuse
out from the body cells into the tissue fluid.
5) As the tissue fluid flows toward the capillaries on the venule side where pressure is low, about 85-
90% of the fluid returned back into the blood capillaries.
6) 10% of the tissue fluid diffuses into the lymphatic capillaries and form lymph
7) The lymph returned to the circulatory system by the right lymphatic duct and thoracic duct via
the right and left subclavian veins.

Similarities
All are watery liquid
All transport gases, nutrients and waste products
Blood Tissue fluid Lymph
Inside the blood vessels In the intercellular spaces Inside the lymphatic vessels
Leucocytes mainly phagocytes and Leucocytes mainly phagocytes Leucocytes mainly lymphocytes
lymphocytes
Oxygenated blood Oxygenated blood Deoxygenated blood
✅Erythrocytes, plasma protein, ❌ Erythrocytes, plasma protein, ❌ Erythrocytes, plasma protein,
platelets platelets platelets
Less lipid content Less lipid content More lipid content

Components of the Lymphatic System

a) Lymphatic vessel – Carry lymph throughout the body, have valve to prevent backflow of lymph
–Two main lymphatic vessels: thoracic duct, right lymphatic duct
b) Lymph nodes – Contain phagocytes to filter out bacteria by phagocytosis
c) Lymphatic capillaries – one cell thick wall , located around body cells and function to collect drain
away the tissue fluid in the intercellular space
d) Lymphatic organs – Spleen, tonsils, thymus gland, appendix and bone marrow

Importance of lymphatic system

1) Complements 辅助 the blood circulatory system
2)Transport fat-soluble substances
3) Involved in body defence

10.8 Health issue related to the human lymphatic system

Oedema
 Excessive accumulation of tissue fluid in the spaces between the cells
 Result in the swelling of the body tissue
Causes:
-Pregnancy
 The pressure from the foetus in the womb prevents the blood in the veins in the leg from
flowing back to the heart
-Parasitic 寄生虫 infection
 Wchereria sp. And Brugia sp. are parasites lives in the lymphatic vessels and obstruct the
flow of lymph
 The patient is said to be infected with lymphatic filariasis 橡皮病
 The diseases is spread from one person to another person through mosquito bites
 Prevent ways:
mosquito netting, wear long-sleeved clothes and long pants, use mosquito repellents
-Plasma protein deficiency
  Low level of the plasma protein (albumin) in the blood
-Prolonged bedridden patients 长期卧床不起的病人
 A patient is immobile and lying down, gravity will pull the blood to accumulate on the dorsal
part of the body