UNIT 4.

​NUTRITION: THE CIRCULATORY AND EXCRETORY

SYSTEMS
1. ​THE INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT AND BLOOD
1.1. ​Internal environment
Internal environment is those that provides all cells with all the nutrients they need. The internal
environment in human beings is formed by:
✓ Interstitial plasma. It is a liquid substance that fills the existing spaces between cells. Interstitial
plasma needs to be renewed continuously, because new nutrients need to be provided and waste
products can’t be allowed to accumulate and must be released. Blood renews interstitial plasma
given that it circulates around the whole organism.
✓ Blood.
✓ Lymph.
Homeostasis is the ability or tendency of a living organism to keep the conditions of the internal
environment.
1.2. ​Blood composition
Blood has two components:
a. Blood plasma. ​It is made up of:

- Water with minerals (90%)

- Nutrients: glucose, amino acids, vitamins…
- Waste products: urea, uric acid, CO​2​…
- Proteins.
- Dissolved hormones.

b. Blood cells. ​The three types of blood cells are:

- Erythrocytes or red blood cells​.

o They are the most numerous blood cells.

o They are disk shaped and don’t have nucleus.
o They contain haemoglobin, a red pigment that carries oxygen.

- Leukocytes or white blood cells​.

o All leukocytes have a nucleus.

o There are three different types: Granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils),
monocytes and linfocytes.
o They participate in the defense of organism against infections.

- Thrombocytes or platelets​.

o They are fragments of cells.

o They contain substances that allow blood to coagulate to stop haemorrhages.
1.2.1. ​Blood groups and the Rh factor
There are different types of blood groups, which are determined by the presence of certain proteins
in the blood. The most well-known grouping system is the ​AB0 system​.

Erythrocytes have another specific protein that determines the ​Rh factor​. If a person has this protein, they
are Rh positive (Rh+). If they don’t have the protein, they are Rh negative (Rh-).
1.3. ​Functions of the blood
✓ It transports nutrients and oxygen to all the cells and collects waste products produced by cell
metabolism.
✓ It contributes to the regulation of body temperature.
✓ It plays a role in the fight against infections.

2. ​BLOOD CIRCULATION
Our ​cardiovascular system shares nutrients and oxygen between cells and collects waste products
that the cells produce during metabolism. It is formed by blood, blood vessels and the heart.
2.1. ​Blood vessels
Blood vessels are responsible for carrying blood around the body. There are three different types:
a. Arteries.
- They carry blood from the heart to other organs.
- They have wide and elastic muscular walls.
- As arteries get further away from the heart, the branch out and become thinner (​arterioles​).

b. Veins.
- They carry blood from tissues to the heart.
- They have thinner walls than arteries, and they have valves that stop blood from going
backwards.
- They are formed where many ​venules​ join together.

c. Capillaries.
- They are microscopic blood vessels located in all the tissues.
- They are formed by walls that only have one layer of flat cells (endothelia).
- They connect arterioles and venules.

2.2. ​The heart

The ​heart is a hollow muscular organ divided into two parts, the left (oxygenated blood) and right
(deoxygenated blood), which are completely separated.
The heart is formed by a thick wall of muscle tissue called ​myocardium and it is covered by a double
membrane named ​pericardium​. It has a thin layer of cells, ​endocardium​.

Each half of the heart, the left and right, is subdivided into two chambers: an upper smaller chamber, the
atrium​, and a larger lower chamber, the ​ventricle​.

In between the atrium and ventricle of each half there is an ​atrioventricular valve ​that allows blood to pass
from the atrium into the ventricle, but not the other way around:

- Tricuspid valve​: in between the right atrium and ventricle.

- Bicuspid ​or ​mitral valve​: in between the left atrium and ventricle.

Several ​veins​ arrive at both atriums:

- Two ​venae cavae​ to the right atrium.

- Four ​pulmonary veins​ to the left atrium.

Two ​arteries​ originate from the ventricles:

- The ​pulmonary artery​ from the right ventricle.

- The ​aorta artery​ from the left ventricle.

At the start of those two arteries there are ​sigmoid valves that stop blood from coming back into the heart
once it has been pumped out.
2.2.1. ​Heartbeat

A ​heartbeat is a constant movement performed by the heart that pumps blood from the veins into
the atriums, and from there it goes into the ventricles and is finally released into the arteries.

● Heart rate​ is the number of times the heart beats per unit of time.
● Cardiac output​ is the volume of blood the heart pumps in one minute.

The different phases of heartbeat are:

1. ​Atrial systole.

a. The atriums contract, so blood is propelled into the ventricles.

b. The atrioventricular valves (mitral and tricuspid) are opened to allow
the blood enters into the ventricles.
c. The sigmoid valves are closed.

2. Ventricular systole.

a. The ventricles contract, so blood is propelled into the pulmonary artery

and the aorta.
b. The sigmoid valves are opened to allow the blood enters into the arteries.
c. The atrioventricular valves (mitral and tricuspid) are closed to stop blood
from coming back into the atriums.

3. Diastole.

a. The heart relaxes and sucks blood coming from the cava and pulmonary
veins into the atriums.
b. The sigmoid valves are closed to stop blood from coming back into the
heart.
c. The atrioventricular valves (mitral and tricuspid) are closed.

The pressure applied by blood on the artery walls is known as ​blood pressure​. During the ventricular
systole, the aorta dilates due to the inflow of blood coming from the heart. This process produces a wave,
called a ​pulse​, which is transmitted throughout the arterial system.

2.3. ​Blood circuits

Blood circulation in human beings has the following characteristics:
● Circulation is closed​. The blood never leaves the blood vessels.
● Circulation is complete​. Oxygenated blood proceeding from the lungs never mixes with
deoxygenated blood coming from the rest of the body.
● Circulation is double​. Blood has to travel twice through the heart in order to complete the whole
circuit. Our cardiovascular system goes through 2 separate circuits: systemic and pulmonary.
The systemic circuit.
Left ventricle ​→​ aorta artery ​→​ arterioles ​→​ capillaries (reaching all the tissues and organs except the
lungs) ​→​ the blood provides cells with nutrients and oxygen and ​removes waste products and carbon
dioxide ​→​ venules ​→​ cava veins ​→​ right atrium ​→​ right ventricle
The pulmonary circuit.
Right ventricle ​→​ pulmonary artery ​→​ arterioles ​→​ capillaries (reaching pulmonary alveoli in both lungs)
→​ gas ​exchange ​→​ venules ​→​ pulmonary veins ​→​ left atrium ​→​ left ventricle

3. ​THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

The ​lymphatic system ​is composed of ​lymph​, ​lymphatic vessels​, ​lymphatic organs​, ​lymphatic
tissues​ and ​lymph nodes​.

a. The ​lymph is a transparent liquid composed of lymphocytes and interstitial plasma that is formed
when blood plasma is filtered as it travels to the tissues. This plasma is carried to the blood by
lymphatic veins.
b. The ​lymphatic vessels are closed at one end. Lymphatic capillaries are found in tissues and they
join into bigger conducts known as lymphatic veins that end when they reach blood veins.
c. The ​lymphatic organs and tissues perform several functions, such as producing and maturing
lymphocytes and purifying blood. The most important lymphatic organs are the spleen and the
thymus, and one example of lymphatic tissues are the tonsils.
d. The ​lymph nodes ​are made of lymphatic tissue located in specific areas of some lymphatic vessels.
They make lymphocytes and release lymph plasma.
3.1. ​Functions of the lymphatic system
● It maintains a balance in the internal environment (homeostasis).
● It plays a role in protecting the body.
● It collects products from the fat digestion in the small intestine using lacteals.

4. ​EXCRETORY SYSTEM
The ​excretory system ​is the group of organs and systems that facilitate the ​elimination of waste
products produced by cells after cell metabolism​.
In addition, the excretory system contributes to the adequate functioning of the body’s vital signs by
regulating: the quantity of water in tissues, the concentration of minerals, and the body’s pH levels. So, ​it
participates in the body’s homeostasis​.

The organs and systems involved in the excretion process and the waste products they eliminate appear in
the table below:

Organ/System Waste products

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Carbon dioxide
SWEAT GLANDS Waste products that accumulate in sweat
- Products resulting from the destruction of
haemoglobin found in old red blood cells.
These products make up part of the bile.
LIVER - A small quantity of cholesterol.
- Certain toxic substances, such as alcohol,
drugs or medicines.

Waste products, such as urea and uric acid (they are

URINARY SYSTEM produced when the body breaks down proteins and
nucleic acids) through the urine.

4.1. ​Urinary system

The ​urinary system​ is formed by the ​kidneys​ and the ​urinary tracts​.

4.1.1. ​Kidneys

The ​kidneys are two bean-shaped organs that are located

behind the abdomen, one each side of the spine. Each one of them
has 3 parts:

● Renal cortex​. It is the most external section.

● Renal medulla​. It is the internal section.
● Renal pelvis​. It is a cavity located in the centre of the
kidneys.
Nephrons are the structural and functional units of the kidneys. They are responsible for filtering blood and
forming urine. Nephrons are divided into different parts:

In addition, kidneys perform other physiological functions:

● They actively intervene in the regulation of the internal environment.

● They secrete substances that stimulate the production of red blood cells and substances that regulate
blood pressure.

4.1.2. ​Urinary tracts

Urinary tracts are the exit channels for urine that connect the kidneys
with the exterior. They are:

● Ureters. ​They are thin tubes that start from each kidney and end
in the ​bladder​. The bladder is an elastic bag in which urine
accumulates before being released to the exterior. When the
bladder contains a large quantity of urine, it produces a nervous
reflex (it can be controlled voluntarily) that makes the bladder
contract and results in the release of urine into the urethra.
● Urethra. ​It is the duct that connects with the exterior. At its end
it has a sphincter that remains closed except for when the
nervous reflex occurs. Women’s urethras are independent from
their reproductive system. Man’s urethra is connected with a
duct of the reproductive system and, in addition to carrying
urine, it can also release semen.
4.2. ​Urine formation

Urine is a liquid obtained from blood composed of water, minerals and diverse waste products,
mostly urea and uric acid.

The process of urine formation has two stages:

1. Glomerular filtration​. It consists of the passage of certain substances from the blood contained in the
MAlpighian glomerulus to the interior of Bowman’s capsule. As a result, water, waste products (urea
and uric acid) and useful substances (glucose, vitamins…) are filtered. The filtered liquid that passes
to Bowman’s capsule is similar to blood plasma but doesn’t contain proteins.

2. Tubular reabsorption​. As filtered substances travel through the nephron’s tubule, they are
reabsorbed, returning to the capillaries that surround them.

a. Reabsorption of water is carried out in the loop of Henle.

b. Other substances are in the distal tube.

Waste products are not reabsorbed.