Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

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Pyrolysis of Phoenix Dactylifera and Phyllanthus Emblica seeds to produce

biofuel
Indra Mohan a, Abhishek Arya a, Rahul Singh a, Sachin Kumar a,b,⇑
a
Department of Energy Engineering, Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi 835205, India
b
Centre of Excellence – Green and Efficient Energy Technology (CoE-GEET), Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi 835205, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Renewable biomass has proved to be an important source of energy all over the world while if an
Available online xxxx agriculture-backed economy, like India, is considered, the future awaits the prospects of successfully con-
verting waste biomass materials which are easily available, into different types of fuel. In the present
Keywords: study, proximate analysis, thermogravimetric analysis and pyrolysis of Phoenix Dactylifera and
Phoenix Dactylifera Phyllanthus Emblica seeds were investigated to find out the physical and reactive properties of the selected
Phyllanthus Emblica feed materials. It would also ascertain their ability to be available as a commercially viable fuel. Thermal
Pyrolysis
pyrolysis of Phoenix Dactylifera and Phyllanthus Emblica seeds was performed in a 450–650 °C temperature
Thermogravimetric analysis
Proximate analysis
gradient using a batch reactor keeping the rate of heating at 20 °C/min. Proximate and thermogravimetric
analyses of both raw materials confirmed the presence of minimal moisture and high content of volatile
matter in both biomass feedstock, prerequisites for the selection of feed to produce biofuel. The pyrolysis
of Phoenix Dactylifera and Phyllanthus Emblica seeds showed promising results in terms of bio-oil yield at
45 wt% and 76.4 wt% respectively at an optimum temperature of 650 °C and 600 °C. Thus it was confirmed
that both the waste seeds can certainly be utilized to produce renewable liquid fuel.
Copyright Ó 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 2nd International Con-
ference and Exposition on Advances in Mechanical Engineering.

1. Introduction ucts such as charcoal, liquid, non-condensable gases, acetone,

Renewable energy sources have become a topic of prime impor-
tance because of the rapid decrement in non-renewable or conven-
tional energy sources and the negative effects of using fossil fuels
which also results in global warming. Taking into account all exist-
ing resources of renewable energy, biomass has always been a
long-term sustainable source that is clean and carbon–neutral
because of its capacity to absorb a huge amount of carbon dioxide,
even during its primary or growing phase. There are four methods
through which the conversion of biomass into various energy
forms takes place; biochemical, thermochemical, agrochemical
and direct combustion processes. These thermochemical processes
can further be divided into processes such as direct liquefaction,
supercritical fluid extraction, gasification and pyrolysis. Pyrolysis
can be described as a thermochemical process to heat the biomass
in the presence of no air, transforming biomass into valuable prod-
⇑ Corresponding author at: Department of Energy Engineering, Central University
of Jharkhand, Ranchi 835205, India.
E-mail address: sachin.kumar.01@cuj.ac.in (S. Kumar).
methanol and acetic acid [1].
When compared to other thermochemical processes, pyrolysis
has the advantage to be widely utilized for producing biofuel
because the parameters such as reaction time, temperature etc.
could easily be figured out for optimization in addition to lesser
installation cost and cheaper operation. The biofuel which is
obtained could be also used as transportation fuels after upgrading
them subsequently to further blend with diesel [2,3]. The produc-
tion of biofuels from waste seeds can be a probable solution to the
issue of fuel vs food. There have been many research works that are
primarily focused to produce biofuel from waste seeds. In this pro-
spect, two seeds that are considered to be waste or underutilized
feed are the seeds of Phoenix Dactylifera and Phyllanthus Emblica,
which can prove to be a crucial biomass source to produce biofuels.
Phoenix Dactylifera, also known as the dry dates is one of the most
important sources of nutrients for human consumption. The Phoe-
nix Dactylifera seeds date palm seeds are used in animal feed to
improve their growth while its oil is used for cosmetic purposes.
The seeds of Phoenix Dactylifera (date seed oil) have also been used
to produce biodiesel which showed that the benefits of the

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2022.08.490
2214-7853/Copyright Ó 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 2nd International Conference and Exposition on Advances in Mechanical Engineering.

Please cite this article as: I. Mohan, A. Arya, R. Singh et al., Pyrolysis of Phoenix Dactylifera and Phyllanthus Emblica seeds to produce biofuel, Materials
Today: Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2022.08.490
I. Mohan, A. Arya, R. Singh et al.
obtained biodiesel of high cetane number, found to be 60.3 and low
viscosity at 3.84 mm2/s [4].
Phyllanthus Emblica, also known as Indian Gooseberry or Amla,
on the other hand, is a tropical and subtropical plant commonly
found in Asia. The extracts of Phyllanthus Emblica contain lots of
nutrition such as vitamin c, b-carotene, calcium, phosphorus, pro-
tein, fat, carbohydrate and phytochemicals. The fruit of Phyllanthus
Emblica has traditionally been used for various diseases such as
diabetes, diarrhoea, and diuretic, the leaves are used for fever
and anti-inflammation, and the root is used in dental problems
while the bark is one of the remedies for gonorrhoea. However,
the seeds have not yet been utilized to produce biofuels for promi-
nent issues such as transportation. Phyllanthus Emblica has also
been used to check for the anti-oxidative properties to stabilize
the oxidation in biodiesel [5].
There have been various seeds that have been used to obtain bio-
fuel through pyrolysis. There have been successful selections of
seeds that yielded a good quantity of oil. In this process, Alagu
et al pyrolyzed the neem seeds to produce bio-oil at 400 °C temper-
ature using a reactor (fixed bed type) obtaining the maximum
amount of oil at 60 wt% [6]. Nayan et al used Pongamia glabra (Kar-
anja) seeds to obtain biofuel at an optimized temperature of 550 °C.
The total biofuel obtained was 57 wt% using a semi-batch reactor.
Additionally, the obtained char was 13.41 % of the total feed weight
[7]. Beis et al used the safflower seeds to produce biofuel. The opti-
mized temperature of 500 °C was found to produce 44 wt% in a fixed
bed reactor [8]. In a similar attempt by Nayan et al to obtain pyro-
lyze neem seeds at 475 °C temperature using a semi-batch reactor,
which gained a total of 37 wt% bio-oil [9].
In an experimental study, Onay et al used a fixed bed reactor to
pyrolyze safflower seeds keeping the temperature at 600 °C. The
total bio-oil obtained was found at 54 wt% [10]. A different type
of reactor was used by Beis et al to pyrolyze Laurus nobilis L.
(daphne) seeds. The optimum temperature of 500 °C was selected
in the Heinze reactor and the maximum bio-oil obtained was
34.4 wt% [11]. Duman et al utilized the kernels and shells of cherry
to produce bio-oil. It was found that at 500 °C (optimum tempera-
ture), a total of 44 wt% liquid product was obtained [12]. In the lat-
est experimental work carried out by Pandey et al, it was found that
when the Argemone Mexicana seeds were thermally pyrolyzed at
550 °C (optimum temperature), the obtained bio-oil was 52 wt%.
The heating rate was kept at 20 °C/min while the range of temper-
atures assigned was from 400 to 600 °C using a batch reactor [13].
The above study shows that different types of seeds can be used to
produce biofuels. Thus, considering the need to continue this pro-
cess, new waste seeds were selected to obtain the bio-oil. Addition-
ally, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first time that Phoenix
Dactylifera and Phyllanthus Emblica seeds have been used to pro-
duce renewable liquid fuel through the thermal pyrolysis method.
The current work discusses biofuel production from the Phoenix
Dactylifera and Phyllanthus Emblica seeds in a batch reactor by ther-
mal pyrolysis in an inert atmosphere at a heating rate of 20 °C/min.
The temperature range was selected to be 450–650 °C to find out
the optimized temperature to obtain the maximum quantity of liq-
uid fuel yield. In addition to this, the proximate and thermogravi-
metric analyses of both raw feedstocks were also performed in
order to check for the potential and compatibility of the selected
seeds at par with a biofuel.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Raw materials
Phoenix Dactylifera and Phyllanthus Emblica seeds were obtained
from the village area of Brambe locality, nearby the Central Univer-
2
Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
sity of Jharkhand, Ranchi (India). Fruits were also collected in large
amounts along with the seeds which were used for consumption
purposes. The Phoenix Dactylifera seeds were obtained using the
segregation process with water while the Phyllanthus Emblica seeds
were obtained after directly peeling off the fruit. After the segrega-
tion and peeling processes, the seeds were dried initially for 24 h in
sunlight. After this, the seeds were kept for 24 h at 60 °C temper-
ature in a hot air oven. The dried seeds were then cut into small
pieces of approximately 5 mm before being ground to powder form
to be used for the pyrolysis experimental process. A reactor-
furnace system was used for the pyrolysis experiments in which
a PID controller was attached for maintaining the temperature.
2.2. Characterizations of raw materials
Basic characteristics of the Phoenix Dactylifera and Phyllanthus
Emblica seeds were investigated to determine the characteristic
variation in both materials as an outcome of the pyrolysis process.
2.2.1. Proximate analysis of raw materials
There are four different tests in the proximate analysis namely
the moisture content test, volatile matter content, ash content test,
and the fixed carbon content test. Proximate analysis was deter-
mined through the ASTM D3172-07a method. Firstly, the prepared
samples of both seeds were kept in the hot air oven in a silica cru-
cible at 110 °C for 1 h to determine the amount of moisture in the
samples. If there is a high moisture content in the biomass raw
material, it results in an increment in the transportation cost while
at the same time there is a decrement in the calorific value. For the
volatile matter test, the prepared biomass sample was kept inside
the muffle furnace at a temperature of 925 °C for 7 min keeping a
10 °C/min heating rate. Higher volatile matter content denotes the
biomass to be more volatile compared to solid fuels while there
should be less loss in the amount of fixed carbon during pyrolysis.
The samples were placed inside the Muffle furnace at 700 °C tem-
perature for 25 min keeping the heating rate the same at 10 °C/min
to determine the ash content. A higher ash content has a negative
impact on the heating value of biomass.
2.3. Thermogravimetric analysis
Pyrolysis is the method to heat the biomass material at a partic-
ular temperature in an inert atmosphere (presence of no oxygen).
Thus, for efficient pyrolysis, it was required to determine the tem-
perature of Phoenix Dactylifera and Phyllanthus Emblica. Aiming
this, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) of both samples was done
with the help of a DTG60 instrument. Both samples (approximately
20–30 mg) were heated to a maximum of 900 °C temperature
while also allowing a residence time at 900 °C temperature of
1 min. The heating rate was kept at 20 °C/min to perform the
TGA in the presence of air. The Thermogravimetric weight loss pat-
terns were illustrated with respect to different temperatures which
determines the temperature ranges at which the maximum ther-
mal degradation occurs for both the seeds.
2.4. Experimental procedure
Experiments on pyrolysis were carried out using a furnace &
reactor system while the furnace temperature was regulated using
a PID controller. The outgoing vapours were condensed with the
help of a condenser which was attached to the reactor outlet and
a collecting beaker was kept at the outlet of the condenser for
the collection of condensed liquid. The feed seeds were packed in
the reactor having a capacity of 300 ml and kept inside the furnace
keeping constant temperature. At the start of the reaction, the
vapours come out through the outlet of the reactor into the con-
I. Mohan, A. Arya, R. Singh et al.
denser shown in Fig. 1. A pump is used to circulate water (cooling
medium) inside the condenser. The condensed vapours are accu-
mulated in the beaker in liquid form while the little amount of
gas (non-condensable) is eliminated away from consideration.
The accumulated condensed liquid produced comprises bio-oil
with oily water. Oily water or aqueous condensate is generally
water having some amount of dissolved hydrocarbons. The bio-
oil is then separated from the aqueous condensate using their den-
sity difference.
2.5. Sample pyrolysis runs
After establishing the temperature gradient, separate pyrolysis
runs were carried out for both sample seeds with 30 gm of each
seed in the defined interval ranges to find out the optimized tem-
perature that would yield the maximum liquid product. Different
data like the reaction time, char yield, and liquid product yield
were also observed during the sample runs. Variations in the
obtained product such as liquid, char, and volatile gas yields are
also plotted with respect to variations in temperature. Fig. 2 shows
the process flow of the processing of the Phoenix Dactylifera seeds.
It can be observed that the seeds were ground to a fine powder to
be used as feed for the pyrolysis experiment after peeling and cut-
ting. Also, the ground seeds were heated in the hot-air oven for 1 h
at 100 °C temperature before being used for the pyrolysis process.
This ensured the removal of all the excess moisture from the feed.
Similarly, Fig. 3 shows the process flow for the seeds of Phyllan-
thus Emblica. The same procedure was followed for the preparation
of feedstock to produce liquid fuel through pyrolysis.
3. Results and discussion
In the following sections, the findings acquired through the
proximate analysis, thermogravimetric analysis and pyrolysis of
Phoenix Dactylifera and Phyllanthus Emblica seeds will be discussed
in details.
3.1. Characterization of Phoenix Dactylifera and Phyllanthus Emblica
seeds
Proximate analysis has been the quickest, most reliable and an
effective way to assess the fuel quality obtained from raw biomass
materials.
Fig. 1. Experimental set-up.
3
Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
It can be determined from Table 1 that both the seeds possess a
high amount of volatile matter, found to be 84.47 % and 81.46 %
respectively. Because of a higher amount of volatile matter, the
fixed carbon content of the materials lower substantially, deter-
mined to be at 9.17 % and 10.93 % respectively for both seeds, as
validated through calculation. When the characteristics of both
seeds are compared, it can be determined that the Phoenix Dactylif-
era seeds contain more volatile matter in comparison to Phyllan-
thus Emblica seeds however, the latter possesses the advantage of
having lesser ash content than the prior which adds an advantage
to the yield of bio-oil. However, a large amount of volatile matter
ensures more output of the biofuel which is an advantage of both
the selected seeds to cope with the already existing seeds for the
extraction of bio-oil from the feedstock as discussed earlier.
3.2. Thermogravimetric analysis
Fig. 4 shows the TGA curve observing the maximum thermal
degradation of Phoenix Dactylifera and Phyllanthus Emblica seeds.
It is clear from the plot that as the temperature increases, there
is an increment in the weight loss. The first decomposition stage
occurs between temperature ranges of 70–200 °C, consisting of
the process of moisture removal from the feed. The maximum
decomposition occurred during the second stage at 200–450 °C
temperature ranges indicating the formation of volatile com-
pounds. The volatiles formed during this temperature range could
be accumulated in the condensed liquid form to be further used as
fuel or other valuable chemicals. In the pyrolytic temperature zone
of 250–500 °C for both samples, the weight loss observed was
81.36 % and 82.47 % respectively for Phoenix Dactylifera and Phyl-
lanthus Emblica seeds. During this stage, breaking of the weaker
chemical bonds, intermolecular association and side aliphatic
chains takes place while the formation of gaseous molecules takes
place due to a lower temperature. During the third temperature
gradient stage of 450–600 °C, a constant profile was depicted after
the slow decomposition process. The temperature gradient of 650–
900 °C was discarded because it would not contribute to the incre-
ment of the desired liquid product yield. It is due to the fact the
vapours acquired in this phase are mostly non-condensable due
to higher hydrocarbon chains. However, it can be found that in
the 250–650 °C temperature range, both the seeds stay there for
a longer time indicating the presence of volatiles, helpful in the
production of biofuels. A similar temperature range for thermal
I. Mohan, A. Arya, R. Singh et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 2. Process flow diagram for pyrolysis of Phoenix Dactylifera seeds.

Fig. 3. Process flow diagram for pyrolysis of Phyllanthus Emblica seeds.

Table 1 mesua ferrea non edible oilseeds in the previous experimental

Proximate analysis of Phoenix Dactylifera and Phyllanthus Emblica seeds. works [14–16].
Characteristics (wt %) Phoenix Dactylifera Phyllanthus Emblica
Amount of Moisture 1.08 2.78
3.3. Sample pyrolysis runs
Amount of Ash 5.28 4.83
Amount of Volatile matter 84.47 81.46
Amount of Fixed carbon 9.17 10.93 It is evident from the plot in Fig. 5 between the bio-oil, char and
gas yield along with the change in the temperature that as the tem-
perature rises, there is also an increment in the liquid product
degradation has also been observed through the TGA analysis of yield. The increment in the amount of bio-oil obtained was found
argemone mexicana, pongamia pinnata, sapindus emarginatus and to be around 13 % with the first increment in temperature from
4
I. Mohan, A. Arya, R. Singh et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 4. TGA plot of Phoenix Dactylifera and Phyllanthus Emblica seeds.

Fig. 6. Temperature vs Reaction time of Phoenix Dactylifera seeds.

450 °C to 500 °C. As the temperature of pyrolysis was further

enhanced, an increment in the amount of bio-oil obtained was cal-
culated to be 4.4 % and 2.5 % respectively at 550 °C and 600 °C. It is
also evident that as the temperature is raised beyond 600 °C, the
amount of bio-oil yield decreases firstly at 625 °C, however, at
the temperature of 650 °C, the optimum yield of bio-oil was found
to be at 45 wt%. At 625 °C, it was also found that the amount of
non-condensable gases obtained was substantially more as com-
pared to the lower temperatures, resulting in a lower yield of oil.
Thus it was determined that for the pyrolysis of Phoenix Dactylifera
seeds, the optimum temperature is 650 °C while also the percent-
age yield of the obtained bio-oil is at par with other seeds previ-
ously used for pyrolysis as discussed in the earlier section. It was
also observed that the hardness of the seed led to an increment
in the temperature to obtain the maximum quantity of bio-oil.
It can also be observed from Fig. 6 in the plot between the reac-
tion time and temperature variation that as the temperature
increases, there is a decrement in the total time of the reaction.
As the reaction temperature increases from the lowest to the high-
est, there is a difference of about 17 min which would multiple
Fig. 7. Temperature vs Yield for Phyllanthus Emblica seeds.
itself to lower the total time for producing a high quantity of
bio-oil repeatedly. This also deduces that at the optimum temper-

ature, there would be a significant reduction in the total reaction

time for the pyrolysis of Phoenix Dactylifera seeds in case of mass
production.
On the other hand, the seeds of Phyllanthus Emblica showed
great signs in terms of high quantity bio-oil yield. It can be
observed from the plot between the amount of bio-oil, char and
non-condensable gases yield with that to the change in tempera-
ture in Fig. 7 that a similar trend is followed as of the previous sam-
ple result. As the temperature rises, there is an increment of 8.17 %
in the obtained bio-oil from 500 °C to 550 °C temperature, how-
ever, as the temperature is increased from 550 °C to 600 °C, an
increment of 16.75 % in the output of bio-oil was observed. It
was also observed that an increment in the temperature from
600 °C to 650 °C resulted in a decrement in the amount of bio-oil
obtained which confirms that the optimum temperature for pyrol-
ysis of Phoenix Dactylifera seeds is 600 °C. At the optimum temper-
ature of 650 °C, the liquid product obtained was calculated to be
76.4 wt%, completely proving its worth as a biomass feedstock.
At lower temperatures, the feed showed greasy char depicting
the presence of oil inside it. Also at high temperature, the char
obtained became more powdery in texture with no amount of oil
Fig. 5. Temperature vs Yield for Phoenix Dactylifera seeds. present in it. Thus, since both the seeds possess hard structures
5
I. Mohan, A. Arya, R. Singh et al.
Fig. 8. Temperature vs Reaction time of Phyllanthus Emblica seeds.
from the outside and inside, high temperature ensures the extrac-
tion of maximum biofuel from the feeds along with the non-greasy,
powdery char usable for different applications.
Considering the reaction time, it can be depicted from Fig. 8 that
as the temperature rises towards the optimum, the reaction time of
the pyrolysis decreases significantly. When the total difference
between the lowest and the highest temperature is calculated, it
is found that the higher temperature would save approximately
11 min during each pyrolysis reaction, especially when there is a
requirement to perform mass production of bio-oil from the seeds
of Phyllanthus Emblica.
4. Conclusions
Thermal pyrolysis of Phoenix Dactylifera and Phyllanthus Emblica
seeds was performed in a stainless steel batch reactor in the 450 °C
to 650 °C temperature range and at a 20 °C/min heating rate. The
maximum yield of bio-oil accumulated from Phoenix Dactylifera
seeds at 650 °C temperature was 45 wt%. On the other hand, the
optimum bio-oil amount obtained from the Phyllanthus Emblica
seeds was 76.4 wt% at an optimized temperature of 600 °C.
The characteristics of Phoenix Dactylifera and Phyllanthus
Emblica seeds determined through proximate and thermogravi-
metric analysis confirmed that the raw material could be utilized
in the pyrolysis process as a feedstock to produce biofuel in the
range of other raw feedstock materials and waste seeds. The pres-
ence of less moisture and high volatile matter confirmed utilizable
calorific value as a biofuel, while the char could also be used as an
organic fertilizer. Therefore, after the upgrade and proper treat-
ment, the produced pyrolytic oil from the above-mentioned waste
seeds could well be explored as a sustainable transportation fuel to
reduce the dependence and usage of fossil fuels.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Indra Mohan: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investiga-
tion, Methodology, Software, Visualization, Data curation, Writing
– original draft. Abhishek Arya: Data curation, Supervision, Writ-
ing – review & editing. Rahul Singh: Data curation, Supervision,
Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
Writing – review & editing. Sachin Kumar: Supervision, Project
administration, Validation, Resources, Writing – review & editing.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
We are thankful to Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi for
providing facilities for experiments and analysis.
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