energies

Article
Fast Track Integration of Computational Methods
with Experiments in Small Wind
Turbine Development
Michal Lipian * , Michal Kulak and Malgorzata Stepien
Institute of Turbomachinery, Lodz University of Technology, 90924 Lodz, Poland; michal.kulak@p.lodz.pl (M.K.);
mlg.stepien@gmail.com (M.S.)
* Correspondence: michal.lipian@p.lodz.pl; Tel.: +48-42-631-2454




Received: 26 March 2019; Accepted: 24 April 2019; Published: 29 April 2019


Abstract: In general, standard aerodynamic design is divided into two paths—numerical analysis
and empirical tests. It is crucial to efficiently combine both approaches in order to entirely fulfill the
requirements of the design process as well as the final product. An effective use of computational
analysis is a challenge, however it can significantly improve understanding, exploring and confining
the search for optimal product solutions. The article focuses on a rapid prototyping and testing
procedure proposed and employed at the Institute of Turbomachinery, Lodz University of Technology
(IMP TUL). This so called Fast Track approach combines preparation of numerical models of a wind
turbine rotor, manufacturing of its geometry by means of a 3D printing method and testing it in an
in-house wind tunnel. The idea is to perform the entire procedure in 24 h. The proposed process
allows one to determine the most auspicious sets of rotor blades within a short time. Owing to this, it
significantly reduces the amount of individual subsequent examinations. Having fixed the initial
procedure, it is possible to expand research on the singled-out geometries. The abovementioned
observations and the presented overview of the literature on uses of 3D printing in aerodynamic testing
prove rapid prototyping as an innovative and widely-applicable method, significantly changing our
approach to experimental aerodynamics.

Keywords: small wind turbine (SWT); rapid prototyping; wind tunnel; numerical flow analysis

1. Introduction
Presently, fulfilling the world energy requirements while bearing in mind global climate changes,
is a difficult task. The conventional power sources will be supported or eventually replaced by
sustainable ones. Wind energy, as a renewable and abundant one, presents itself as a promising
solution. Nevertheless, large scale wind turbines, often combined into massive wind farms, can have
a negative influence on the climate and atmosphere [1]. That is why the small scale wind turbines,
scattered and decentralized, show a great scope for valuable power production. They can be sufficient
for domestic needs without altering the weather and environment conditions [2].
It is crucial to understand the small wind turbine characteristics and to be aware of these machines’
limitations and disadvantages. The most often pointed out difficulties include high initial cost,
importance of site assessment (resulting in effective wind turbine placement) [3], awareness of wind
conditions at the site (wind velocity and direction, seasonal changes) [4], country policy and, last but
not least, aero-acoustic noise. On the other hand, when sized properly and operating under optimum
conditions, small wind turbines can be treated as a useful and environmentally-friendly power source.
From the economy point of view, two factors are of importance: initial cost per unit power and the unit
cost per unit energy it produces [2].

Energies 2019, 12, 1625; doi:10.3390/en12091625 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2019, 12, 1625 2 of 13

The student project Generative Urban Small Turbine (GUST), focusing on building a horizontal
axis wind turbine of 2 m2 swept area and nominal power in the range of 750 W, is addressing the
abovementioned requirements. The team has participated in the International Small Wind Turbine
Contest and has been its winner three times in a row (2016–2018). In addition to self-constructed
mechanical components (e.g., hydraulic brake), modifications of the generator (coil switching system),
as well as self-designed control and safety systems, the biggest innovation proposed by GUST
concerns the aerodynamic design of wind turbine blades followed by manufacturing them using 3D
printing methods.
The rapid prototyping, considered by some even an industrial revolution [5], enables transition
from the design phase straight to production. The advantages of application of additive manufacturing
in small wind turbine blade production have been pointed out [6,7], however this approach still needs
more thorough studies. At the IMP TUL, the GUST project incorporated 3D printing technology
into manufacturing of 1:4 wind turbine blades. Later, the scaled models were tested in the in-house
wind tunnel in order to assess the aerodynamic properties of the chosen airfoils. Eventually, the
most promising geometries were manufactured by means of the SLA technology and used in the
full-scale prototype.
The aim of this paper is to present a rapid prototyping and testing procedure, referred to as
Fast Track. It combines preparation of numerical model of wind turbine rotor, manufacturing of its
geometry by means of 3D printing method and testing it in the in-house wind tunnel. The whole
process can be realized in as short time as 24 h.

2. 3D Printing in Aerodynamics
An evaluation of the utility of most common 3D printing techniques for aerodynamic study
was performed by [8]. Four models of the standard NACA0018 airfoil have been created in various
materials and technologies such as Multi-Jet Modelling (MJM), Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) and
Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM). The study showed that rapid prototyping enables a potential
researcher to choose the right technology exactly fitting his needs and fulfilling the requirements of
the planned experiments. Another study comparing different rapid manufacturing techniques also
includes stereolitography (SLA) or laminated object manufacturing (LOM) [9].
Numerous studies have focused on assessing to what degree the resolution, accuracy and
shape representation of 3D printed models influence their aerodynamic performance. These have
included examination of wing-body vehicle models [9,10], missiles [11] or measuring equipment [12].
Furthermore, the effects of a bio-inspired blade platform on the small propeller thrust and energy
consumption were investigated by [13]. The models were manufactured with acrylonitrile butadiene
styrene (ABS-P430) through FDM technology and, after surface treatment, tested experimentally. It
was concluded that the bio-inspired blades seem to have less drag than the rectangular blade with the
same planform area and profile. However, the post-processing of the printing influences the overall
performance to a significant degree.
One should bear in mind that the printed model surface roughness is influenced by the part
building orientation [14] and raster angle. Moreover, these variables have a significant effect on tensile
strength, flexural strength, consumption of support material and printing time [15]. In terms of wind
turbine rotor investigation it can be crucial to choose proper model setting (especially in terms of layer
orientation) to withstand the centrifugal forces acting on blades.
3D printed propellers of micro air vehicles (MAVs) were tested in a wind tunnel study by [16].
The design phase included the blade airfoil modification using the XFOIL software. One of the used
fabrication methods employed PolyJet rapid prototyping, however it was assessed as inferior to
molded carbon fiber composite application.
In the area of wind engineering, rapid prototyping is considered as a quick and effective
tool for manufacturing of scaled, wind tunnel models of turbines of different kinds. For example,
carbon-fiber-reinforced composite materials can be used [17]. The combination of SLS, fiber-reinforced
Energies 2019, 12, 1625 3 of 13

composites cladding and Vacuum-Assisted Resin Infusion (VARI) finishing provided a lightweight
construction method. Moreover, experiments showed significantly improved mechanical properties
(e.g., a higher bending strength by up to 500%) with an increase in mass of only 20% [17].
A horizontal-axis wind turbine developed by [18] is characterized i.a. by the use of inclined,
custom-designed blades and shrouding. The authors have chosen the SLA technology to fabricate the
model (diameter 0.51 m), citing high repeatability in manufacturing of the relatively complex object as
the primary advantage.
SLA was also used to manufacture blades for test of cooling of High Pressure (HP) turbines
by [19]. The reason for that choice was the possibility to embed very fine structures (channels) into
the blade. The tapings in resin-made blades were used for measuring the cooling effectiveness by
collecting samples of surface gas.
3D-printing may also come handy in the manufacturing of measuring equipment. Reference [11]
used the MJM technique to produce pressure probe heads. This, as claimed by the authors, permits
one to exactly reproduce the probe geometry designed in CAD software, and offers repeatability
unachievable by the traditional, manual methods. These advantages may permit tailoring the pressure
probes to specific needs.
The use of rapid prototyping in aerodynamic studies is not limited to aerospace or wind engineering.
The automotive industry uses the advantages of 3D printing to a significant degree. As the wind
tunnel testing is essential for the aerodynamic development of e.g., a Formula 1 racecar, additive
manufacturing allows one to produce everything from front wings, brake ducts and suspension covers
to engine covers, internal ducts and hand deflectors [20]. Also, the whole car bodies [21] or the
particular parts such as wheels [22] can be optimized, printed and tested at scale.
A very important role of 3D printing is pointed out by [23]—namely the educational experience
of engineering students. It is concluded that low-cost rapid prototypes of wind tunnel models can
yield satisfactory aerodynamic performance. Savings in acquisition cost and time are other advantages.
These allow incorporating actual testing in the aircraft design process within the framework of a tight
academic budget and schedule [23].
In the above spirit, the GUST team decided to perform the acid test for the rapid prototyping Fast
Track procedure during the three-day workshops for students from De Montfort University, UK. In
this way, the typically scientific approach has been transformed into a science popularizing activity.
This kind of performances is a common challenge for the GUST students, committed to propagating
knowledge on wind energy and small wind turbines. It may be added that the practical realization of
the workshop has met with a common critical acclaim from all involved parties.

3. The Fast Track Procedure

A need for aerodynamic optimization of small wind turbine rotor blades can originate from
different areas, such as adjusting to a site-specific atmospheric conditions, decrease of blade mass,
increase of blade strength, economic aspects (lowering the cost of blade manufacturing) or—in a
majority of cases—an increase of wind turbine efficiency. The possibility of quick assessment of new
designs (at least in terms of a qualitative comparison) can give fast answers—which ideas are promising
and which provide a rather negligible improvement (or even worse performance). The Fast Track
procedure presented in this paper addresses these needs—a combination of rapid prototyping and
wind tunnel test provides quick, yet reliable results.
The overview of the procedure is presented in Figure 1. The axis presents a twenty four hour
cycle, starting and ending at 2 p.m. It allows one to perform a time-consuming process of 3D printing
during the night. A whole cycle length depends on numerous factors (just to mention the technology
of 3D printing and complexity of wind tunnel test procedures). The sequence presented in Figure 1
illustrates the process undertaken at the IMP TUL to study a rotor model (diameter 0.4 m). The
following subsections will discuss each of the steps taken, starting from designing the blade geometry,
Energies 2019, 12, 1625 4 of 13

through CAD model preparation and 3D printer code generation, printing the scaled blades, removal
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 13
of the printed support and model finishing, concluded by the wind tunnel test and results assessment.

Figure 1. Fast Track—24 h design-to-results process for rotor blade study.

Figure 1. Fast Track—24 h design-to-results process for rotor blade study.
3.1. Blade Design (QBlade Software)
3.1. Blade Design (QBlade Software)
To begin the Fast Track procedure, the basic information on the future rotor geometry is necessary.
To begin
It is defined the principal
by the Fast Track procedure,
dimensions (rotorthediameter,
basic information
hub diameter, on hub
the width),
future mainly
rotor geometry
constrained is
necessary.
by the setupItofiswind
defined by test
tunnel the stand,
principal dimensionsof(rotor
the availability diameter,
mounting systems,hubetc.diameter, hub width),
mainly Theconstrained
design of the by the
bladesetup of windmay
geometry tunnel test stand, the
be performed availability
using simplified of techniques
mounting systems,
(see [24]etc.
for
The design
exhaustive of the blade
explanations geometry may
and examples). be performed
The main advantageusingof thissimplified
approachtechniques (see [24]
is that it enables onefor
to
exhaustive
adapt explanations
and modify and examples).
the designed geometries Thequickly,
main advantage of thisresults
as experimental approach is that
arrive, it enables
without one
the need
to generate
adapt and modifyresource-demanding
detailed, the designed geometries flow quickly,
simulations. as experimental
Thus manifests results
itselfarrive, without the
the integration of
need to generate
numerical detailed, resource-demanding
and experimental methods, as the twoflow simulations.
approaches Thus manifests
are effectively itself the
overlapping inintegration
time, with
of numerical
constant data and experimental
exchange. methods,
This could as the two
be understood as aapproaches are effectively overlapping
form of numerical-experimental in time,
integration for
with constant data exchange. This could be understood as a
further works, such as optimization for particular wind conditions or size/power criteria. form of numerical-experimental
integration
For the for
Fastfurther works, such
Track procedure, IMP asTULoptimization for particular
uses the QBlade softwarewind [25]. conditions
It is an open orsource
size/power
wind
criteria.
turbine calculator application, allowing one to design custom airfoils and estimate their performance.
For thethey
Afterwards FastcanTrack procedure,into
be combined IMP TUL uses
a wind turbine therotor.
QBladeThesoftware
software[25]. It is antools
integrates openforsource wind
e.g., airfoil
turbineand
design calculator application,
evaluation, allowing one to design
Blade Element-Momentum custom
(BEM) airfoils
rotor and estimate
simulation their performance.
and simplified structural
Afterwards
analysis they
of the can be
blade. Thecombined
BEM theory intocombines
a wind turbine rotor. Thetosoftware
two approaches mathematicalintegrates tools forofe.g.,
description the
airfoilturbine
wind designrotor
and performance:
evaluation, BlademomentumElement-Momentum
theory of an ideal (BEM) rotor simulation
disc actuator is coupledand withsimplified
the blade
structural
element analysis
theory. of thegeometry
The blade blade. The BEM theory
is divided combines
into a finite number two approaches
of elements, eachtoisolated
mathematical
by two
description of the wind turbine rotor performance: momentum theory
airfoil planes. The annular area of every rotating element is considered, discretizing the actuator of an ideal disc actuator is
disc.
coupled of
Fraction with
the the
areablade
covered element
by thetheory.
blades isThe blade geometry
described as the rotor dividedσ:into a finite number of
is solidity
elements, each isolated by two airfoil planes. The annular area of every rotating element is
considered, discretizing the actuator disc. σ(r) = c(r) ×ofB/(2πr),
Fraction the area covered by the blades is described(1) as
the rotor solidity σ:
where c is the local chord length, B is the number of blades and r—radial position of the element.
Implementation of the momentum theory σ(r) allows= c(r)
to ×compute
B/(2πr),a relative wind speed for every section, (1)
leading
where cthrough the angle
is the local chordof attackBtoislift
length, theand drag coefficient
number of blades calculations.
and r—radialAfter including
position of thean area of
element.
the particular element,
Implementation the normal and
of the momentum theorytangential
allows to force components
compute a relativecanwind
be figured
speedout.for every section,
leadingEquations
throughdefined
the angleas of
theattack a and
axial to tangential
lift and a’ induction
drag coefficient factors areAfter
calculations. solved iteratively
including by the
an area of
QBlade software:
the particular element, the normal and tangential force components can be figured out.
Equations defined as the axial a = and1/(4 × sin2 Φ/(σ
tangential a’ × Cn) + 1) factors are solved iteratively by the
induction (2)
QBlade software:
a’ = 1/(4 × sinΦ × cosΦ/(σ × Ct) − 1), (3)
a = 1/(4 × sin2Φ/(σ × Cn) + 1) (2)
where Cn and Ct are the normal and tangential force coefficients, respectively. Numerical estimation
starts with the initially assumed induction factors, consecutively disclosing an inflow angle Φ and
a’ = 1/(4 × sinΦ × cosΦ/(σ × Ct) − 1), (3)
an angle of attack α. Lift and drag coefficients are engaged to compute the lift and the drag. Having
where Cn and Ct are the normal and tangential force coefficients, respectively. Numerical estimation
starts with the initially assumed induction factors, consecutively disclosing an inflow angle Φ and an
angle of attack α. Lift and drag coefficients are engaged to compute the lift and the drag. Having
obtained the forces, the new induction factors are evaluated and compared to the initial values. The
iterative process for every succeeding annular element ends basing on the convergence criterion.
 Some simplified assumptions of the Blade Element Momentum theory may result in a visible
inaccuracy of computed results, when compared to the real-life behavior of the rotor. As a
consequence, it is advisable to implement appropriate corrections. While using the software selected
for the Fast Track, one can easily choose from the multiple built-in modifications.
An initial part of the blade design process is the airfoil selection. As an example, the NREL S820
Energies 2019, 12, 1625 5 of 13
and S830 airfoil families are dedicated for small wind turbines [26], therefore they were chosen for
further investigation as a base design. The evaluation of the profiles performance is done in the
QBlade-integrated
obtained the forces,XFoil software,
the new a panel-method-based
induction factors are evaluatedcode
and for analysistoofthe
compared flow around
initial airfoils
values. The
[27]. Subsequent
iterative process for study and
every the validation
succeeding process
annular depends
element ends on dataon
basing acquired from XFoil
the convergence polar plots.
criterion.
Exemplary results areassumptions
Some simplified visible in Figure 2. Blade
of the The plots present
Element Cl/Cd (lift-to-drag
Momentum theory mayratio) versus
result in aangle
visibleof
attack (AoA) and Cl as a function of Cd. The flow was considered as incompressible (Ma
inaccuracy of computed results, when compared to the real-life behavior of the rotor. As a consequence, ≈ 0.05). The
simulations
it is advisablewere performedappropriate
to implement for different ReynoldsWhile
corrections. numbers
usingRe,
thecorresponding
software selectedto local values
for the Fast
observed at different blade stations:
Track, one can easily choose from the multiple built-in modifications.
An initial part of the blade design process Re =iswthe airfoil selection. As an example, the NREL
× c/ν, (4)
S820 and S830 airfoil families are dedicated for small wind turbines [26], therefore they were chosen
where
for w isinvestigation
further the local inflowas a velocity
base design.(i.e., The
vector sum of tangential
evaluation andperformance
of the profiles axial velocityisat the in
done blade
the
station) and ν—kinematic viscosity of medium. Reynolds number has a significant
QBlade-integrated XFoil software, a panel-method-based code for analysis of flow around airfoils [27]. impact on the
airfoil performance,
Subsequent study andas itthe
determines
validation theprocess
laminar-turbulent
depends on transition. It manifests
data acquired fromitself
XFoil in polar
both charts,
plots.
as all presented curves share the similar shape, but the values are shifted
Exemplary results are visible in Figure 2. The plots present Cl/Cd (lift-to-drag ratio) versus one with respect to another
angle
due
of to different
attack (AoA) and behaviour of flow of
Cl as a function around
Cd. The airfoil.
flow wasMoreconsidered
profound as analysis of this aspect
incompressible (Ma ≈under
0.05).
considered flow conditions can be found in e.g., [28].
The simulations were performed for different Reynolds numbers Re, corresponding to local values
Assessment
observed of QBlade-analyzed
at different blade stations: blade design is based on the following criteria:
• increase of maximum Cp, Re = w × c/ν, (4)
• increase of TSR (Tip Speed Ratio) range for which Cp attains relatively high value,
where w is the local inflow velocity (i.e., vector sum of tangential and axial velocity at the blade station)
• improvement of structural properties (e.g., stiffness, strength) of the blade.
and ν—kinematic viscosity of medium. Reynolds number has a significant impact on the airfoil
performance, as it determines
The abovementioned listthe
is laminar-turbulent
not exhaustive—not transition. It manifestsfactors
all of mentioned itself inmust
both(and
charts, as all
can) be
presented
fulfilled bycurves sharegeometry.
the same the similar Theshape,
choicebutofthe values
design are shifted
criteria should one
bewith
donerespect to another
according due to
to individual
different
needs and behaviour of flowofaround
particularities airfoil. More
the considered case.profound analysisthat
It is estimated, of this
the aspect underblade
Fast Track considered
design
flow
shouldconditions can bethan
take no more found
2 h.in e.g., [28].

(a) (b)
Figure Cl/Cd(AoA) (a)
2. S826 aerofoil polar plots: Cl/Cd(AoA)
Figure 2. and Cl(Cd)
(a) and Cl(Cd) (b).
(b).

Assessment
3.2. CAD of QBlade-analyzed blade design is based on the following criteria:
Model Preparation
• Having of
increase themaximum
blade geometry
Cp, chosen, it is necessary to enrich the model with an appropriate
•mounting feature/lock
increase of TSR (Tipand thusRatio)
Speed provide fixed
range for connection with the
which Cp attains hub. The
relatively solution
high value, (dubbed “fir-
•lock”improvement
due to resemblance to thisproperties
of structural conifer) used
(e.g.,by the authors
stiffness, is presented
strength) in Figure 3. It is important
of the blade.
to confirm the proper orientation of the blade with respect to the hub, as well as take into account the
The abovementioned list is not exhaustive—not all of mentioned factors must (and can) be fulfilled
by the same geometry. The choice of design criteria should be done according to individual needs and
particularities of the considered case. It is estimated, that the Fast Track blade design should take no
more than 2 h.
Energies 2019, 12, 1625 6 of 13

3.2. CAD Model Preparation

Having the blade geometry chosen, it is necessary to enrich the model with an appropriate
mounting feature/lock and thus provide fixed connection with the hub. The solution (dubbed “fir-lock”
due to resemblance to this conifer) used by the authors is presented in Figure 3. It is important
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 13
to
confirm the proper orientation
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW of the blade with respect to the hub, as well as take into account
6 of 13the
lock fitting.
lock fitting.Based
Basedon onexperience
experienceone one should
should be able able toto estimate
estimatethetheproper
propertolerance
tolerancebetween
between twotwo
lock fitting.3D
interlocking
interlocking Based
3Dprintedon experience
printed elements. one should some
elements.Otherwise,
Otherwise, be able toprintings
test
test estimate should
printings the proper
should tolerance
bebetaken
taken into
into between two
consideration.
consideration.
Theinterlocking
The final
final model3Dof
model printed
ofblade
bladeelements.
(seeFigure
(see Otherwise,
Figure 4) is
4) some test
is exported
exported to printings
to aa CAD
CADfile should
file be taken
container,
container, suchinto
such consideration.
asasanan
.stl.stl
format.
format.
The
Adequate finalmodel
Adequate model of blade (see
modelconversion
conversion Figure 4) isas
isisnecessary,
necessary, exported
as lowtoresolution
too low
too a CAD file
resolution may
maycontainer,
lead such
leadtotopoor as an .stl
poorquality
qualityofof format.
printed
printed
Adequate model conversion is necessary, as too low resolution may lead
surfaces. Depending on the complexity of the lock, the CAD model preparation and exporting ititas
surfaces. Depending on the complexity of the lock, the CAD model to
preparationpoor quality
and of
exporting printedasan
surfaces.
an input
input for 3D Depending
forprinter
3D printer on the complexity
software
software shouldshould of
taketake the
about lock,
about the
2 h.2 h. CAD model preparation and exporting it as
an input for 3D printer software should take about 2 h.

Figure 3. Connection between blade and hub (“fir lock”).

Figure3.3.Connection
Figure Connection between bladeand
between blade andhub
hub(“fir
(“firlock”).
lock”).

Figure 4. Views of the blade CAD model.

Figure 4. Views of the blade CAD model.
Figure 4. Views of the blade CAD model.
3.3. Preparing Code for 3D Printer, Printing Process
3.3. Preparing Code for 3D Printer, Printing Process
3.3.The methodCode
Preparing of printing used in
for 3D Printer, the performed
Printing Process Fast Track is known as Fused Deposition Modelling
The method of printing used in the performed Fast Track is known as Fused Deposition
(FDM). The plastic material (PLA, ABS, see Table 1) is supplied to the printer in a form of filament
The method
Modelling (FDM). ofTheprinting used in (PLA,
plastic material the performed Fast 1)
ABS, see Table Track is known
is supplied to theas printer
Fused inDeposition
a form of
(1.75 mm diameter)
Modelling (FDM). andplastic
then melted in a hot-end at Table
the temperature around 280 ◦ C.
inThe printer
filament (1.75 mmThe diameter) material
and then(PLA,
melted ABS,
in asee
hot-end 1) is
at thesupplied to thearound
temperature printer 280a °C.
form of
The
head distributes
filament (1.75 the
mm material
diameter) layer
and by layer,
then basing
melted in aon the
hot-endearlier
at theprepared
temperaturecode. There
around
printer head distributes the material layer by layer, basing on the earlier prepared code. There are
are
280 numerous
°C. The
software
printer
numerous(both
head commercial
distributes
software and
(boththe freeware)
material
commercial andwhich
layer enable
by layer,
freeware) “slicing”
basing
which on theof
enable the CAD
earlier of model
prepared
“slicing” and
code.
the CAD generating
There
model are
and
codes for
numerous 3D printers.
generatingsoftware As
codes for(both the printer
commercial
3D printers. As theused in the
andprinter
freeware) described
usedwhich procedure
in theenable is
“slicing”
described a Zortrax
of theisCAD
procedure M200
model
a Zortrax (Zortrax,
and
M200
generating codes for
(Zortrax, Olsztyn, 3D printers.
Poland), As the printer
the original, usedsoftware
dedicated in the described procedure
named Z-Suite wasisused.
a Zortrax
ThereM200
is a
(Zortrax, Olsztyn, Poland), the original, dedicated
number of settings which needs to be carefully tweaked: software named Z-Suite was used. There is a
number of settings which needs to be carefully tweaked:
• definition of extrusion and platform temperature according to the chosen material,
• definition of extrusion
layer thickness and
(defining platform
the quality temperature
of printing inaccording to the chosen material,
vertical direction),
• layer thickness (defining the quality of printing in vertical direction),
type and density of the infill (determining the amount of material in usage),
Energies 2019, 12, 1625 7 of 13

Olsztyn, Poland), the original, dedicated software named Z-Suite was used. There is a number of
settings which needs to be carefully tweaked:
• definition of extrusion and platform temperature according to the chosen material,
• layer thickness (defining the quality of printing in vertical direction),
• type and density of the infill (determining the amount of material in usage),
• type2019,
Energies of support,
12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 13
• cooling (fan speed)—especially important in case of printing large objects.
• type of support,
• cooling (fan speed)—especially important in case of printing large objects.
Table 1. Selected properties of the acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) used [29].
The combination of all the factors listed above influences the time of printing and expected mass
1030 3
of the final object (relatedSpecific Gravity amount of plastic
to the required kg/m
filament). It is also vital to assess the blade
Tensile Strength 44 MPa
shape obtained via numerical simulation in terms of the actual possibility of manufacturing. One
Strain at Break 9 %
should take special careTensile
in areas of proper dimensioning2000
Modulus and orienting theMPa model (twist angle with
respect to axis of rotation), adequate
Impact Strengthfitting of locks connecting
36 blades with kJ/m2hub. What is more, in
the
terms of not only quality of model
Melting shape but also the blade
Temperature 245 ± strength,
10 ◦C
the orientation and placement
of the virtual model on the printer bed is of great importance.
The combination of all the factors listed above influences the time of printing and expected mass
Table 1. Selected properties of the acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) used [29].
of the final object (related to the required amount of plastic filament). It is also vital to assess the blade
shape obtained via numerical simulation Specific Gravity
in terms of the kg/m
1030actual 3
possibility of manufacturing. One
Tensile Strength 44 MPa
should take special care in areas of proper dimensioning and orienting the model (twist angle with
Strain at Break 9 %
respect to axis of rotation), adequate fitting of locks connecting blades with the hub. What is more, in
Tensile Modulus 2000 MPa
terms of not only quality of model shape Impactbut also the blade
Strength 36 strength,
kJ/m2 the orientation and placement of
the virtual model on the printer bed is of great importance.
Melting Temperature 245 ± 10 °C
Properties listed in Table 1 hold for an isotropic material. Meanwhile, the FDM-manufactured
objects Properties listed in
are characterized byTable 1 hold structure,
anisotropic for an isotropic
whichmaterial. Meanwhile,
alters their mechanical theproperties.
FDM-manufactured
A dedicated
testing campaign was performed beforehand to evaluate the fitness of a 3D-printed blade fromAthe
objects are characterized by anisotropic structure, which alters their mechanical properties.
dedicated
point of viewtesting
of suchcampaign
factors aswas performedunder
deformation beforehand to evaluate
predicted theresistance
loads and fitness of ato3D-printed blade
fatigue loads. The
from
tests the point
proved thatoftheview of such factors
3D-printed blade as deformation
withstands under
static predicted
loads exceedingloads(byand resistance
as much as 10totimes)
fatiguethe
loads. The
maximum testsanticipated
loads proved thatatthe 3D-printed
design bladewithout
conditions, withstandsanystatic loads
plastic exceeding (by
deformation. Theasresistance
much as to
10 times) the maximum loads anticipated at design conditions, without any plastic
fatigue fracture was also deemed satisfactory, with blade operation time exceeding the time necessarydeformation. The
resistance to fatigue fracture was also deemed satisfactory, with blade operation time exceeding the
for multiple test runs. The axial blade deformation (tip deflection) under static load corresponding to
time necessary for multiple test runs. The axial blade deformation (tip deflection) under static load
the design conditions was estimated to be of the order of 5% of rotor diameter. However, high-speed
corresponding to the design conditions was estimated to be of the order of 5% of rotor diameter.
photography of rotor in operation proved that this deformation is much lower (1–2%) when the
However, high-speed photography of rotor in operation proved that this deformation is much lower
centrifugal force comes into action (see Figure 5).
(1–2%) when the centrifugal force comes into action (see Figure 5).

Figure 5. High-speed photography of a 3D-printed rotor deformed under operation at 3200 rpm.
Figure 5. High-speed photography of a 3D-printed rotor deformed under operation at 3200 rpm.

The printing of set of three blades (which are printed all at once) usually takes between 10 to 12
h. Therefore, it is suggested that this stage should be performed overnight.
Energies 2019, 12, 1625 8 of 13

The printing of set of three blades (which are printed all at once) usually takes between 10 to 12 h.
Therefore,
Energies 2019,it12,
isxsuggested that this stage should be performed overnight.
FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 13

3.4. Model Finishing

3.4. Model Finishing
All models manufactured by the FDM method require a finishing touch. The positioning of model
All models manufactured by the FDM method require a finishing touch. The positioning of
on the printer table determines the amount of supports, which need to be manually removed once the
model on the printer table determines the amount of supports, which need to be manually removed
printing process is finished. This process demands a careful approach, as it is relatively easy to damage
once the printing process is finished. This process demands a careful approach, as it is relatively easy
the printed object itself. Afterwards, the printing surface needs to be smoothened and all irregularities
to damage the printed object itself. Afterwards, the printing surface needs to be smoothened and all
must be removed—this can be done by sandpaper, file finishing or chemical treatment with acetone
irregularities must be removed—this can be done by sandpaper, file finishing or chemical treatment
vapour. Depending on the desired surface roughness, one could also apply any additional coating
with acetone vapour. Depending on the desired surface roughness, one could also apply any
(e.g., spray painting). This, however, extends significantly this part of procedure due to additional
additional coating (e.g., spray painting). This, however, extends significantly this part of procedure
time necessary for drying. Also, it is necessary to preserve the repeatability of used methods of surface
due to additional time necessary for drying. Also, it is necessary to preserve the repeatability of used
treatment, so that all three blades from one set will have similar surface properties and quality. A view
methods of surface treatment, so that all three blades from one set will have similar surface properties
of the blade before and after treatment is visible in Figure 6.
and quality. A view of the blade before and after treatment is visible in Figure 6.

A blade
Figure 6. A blade before
before (bottom)
(bottom) and
and after
after (top) surface treatment by filling, fine grinding and
lacquering; scale in centimeters.
lacquering; scale in centimeters.

The
The whole
whole finishing
finishing process
process should
should take
take from
from 22 to
to 33 h. It should
h. It should be
be noted
noted that
that some
some of
of that
that time
time
might be used for wind tunnel warm-up, as the latter is usually required to stabilise the conditions
might be used for wind tunnel warm-up, as the latter is usually required to stabilise the conditions in
the testtest
in the section.
section.
3.5. Wind Tunnel Test
3.5. Wind Tunnel Test
The experimental exploration of scaled models of small wind turbines is conducted at the
The experimental exploration of scaled models of small wind turbines is conducted at the
subsonic, open-test section wind tunnel located at the IMP TUL. The reference wind velocity value is
subsonic, open-test section wind tunnel located at the IMP TUL. The reference wind velocity value is
determined by pneumatic measurements. Dynamic pressure is measured at the outlet of the tunnel
determined by pneumatic measurements. Dynamic pressure is measured at the outlet of the tunnel
by a Prandtl-type Pitot tube, as difference between total and static pressure. Air density is computed
by a Prandtl-type Pitot tube, as difference between total and static pressure. Air density is computed
basing on monitored ambient temperature, atmospheric pressure and humidity. A motor-generator
basing on monitored ambient temperature, atmospheric pressure and humidity. A motor-generator
with connected microcontroller allows one to precisely and actively control the rotational velocity of
with connected microcontroller allows one to precisely and actively control the rotational velocity of
wind turbine rotor. The torque on the attached shaft is measured (by means of a torquemeter), what
wind turbine rotor. The torque on the attached shaft is measured (by means of a torquemeter), what
eventually allows one to assess the rotor aerodynamic performance. To sum up, the experimental
eventually allows one to assess the rotor aerodynamic performance. To sum up, the experimental
procedure aims at evaluating the power coefficient Cp (being a measure of efficiency) as a function of
procedure aims at evaluating the power coefficient Cp (being a measure of efficiency) as a function
wind turbine rotational velocity and wind speed (TSR).
of wind turbine rotational velocity and wind speed (TSR).
A view of measuring equipment and the test stand with mounted turbine is shown in
A view of measuring equipment and the test stand with mounted turbine is shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7. Referring to the annotations, the measurement setup consists of: 1—rotational speed meter,
Referring to the annotations, the measurement setup consists of: 1—rotational speed meter,
2—analogue-to-digital converter and data acquisition module, 3—differential pressure sensor,
2—analogue-to-digital converter and data acquisition module, 3—differential pressure sensor,
4—temperature-relative humidity sensor, 5—reference pressure sensor, 6—rotor, 7—torquemeter,
4—temperature-relative humidity sensor, 5—reference pressure sensor, 6—rotor, 7—torquemeter,
8—motor/generator, 9—motor controller, 10—Prandtl-type Pitot tube. The data is collected from all
8—motor/generator, 9—motor controller, 10—Prandtl-type Pitot tube. The data is collected from all
transducers (temperature T, humidity RH, dynamic pressure pd , atmospheric pressure pa , turbine shaft
transducers (temperature T, humidity RH, dynamic pressure pd, atmospheric pressure pa, turbine
torque M and angular velocity ω) and converted in module 2 into a digital signal comprehensible for
shaft torque M and angular velocity ω) and converted in module 2 into a digital signal
the workstation.
comprehensible for the workstation.
Flow velocity is computed as:
v = √[(2 × pd)/ρ], (5)
 P = M × ω. (6)
Dimensionless parameters— TSR and Cp—are computed as:
TSR = (ω × R)/v, (7)
Energies 2019, 12, 1625 9 of 13
Cp = P / (pd × v × π × R2) (8)

Figure
Figure 7. Wind
7. Wind turbine
turbine testtest bench
bench ininIMP
IMPTUL
TUL wind
wind tunnel
tunnel(system
(systempartially disassembled
partially for better
disassembled for better
visibility).
visibility).

FlowThe measurement
velocity procedure
is computed as: consists of fixing the wind speed at a certain value of v, then
√ the rotor characteristic. In certain cases it may be
modifying the angular velocity ω, so as to trace
v = [(2 × pd )/ρ], (5)
interesting to collect data over several wind velocities in order to evaluate the influence of Reynolds
with number on theρresults,
flow density especially
corrected for theatthermodynamic
very low v. properties of flow using the Buck equation [30].
Rotor power is computed as:
3.6. Results Postprocessing and Analysis
P = M × ω. (6)
In this section the discussion is based on a performance of exemplary, enhanced rotor geometry,
Dimensionless
which was designedparameters— TSR and
and manufactured Cp—aretocomputed
according as:Fast Track procedure. Later it was
the described
tested in the IMP TUL wind tunnel and compared with original, initial rotor design (Figure 8).
It can be noticed that the experimental TSR = (ω ×TSR
optimal R)/v,
is very well predicted by the simulation for (7)
the enhanced geometry. In both designs the estimated value of Tip Speed Ratio is slightly below 5,
which was set as design TSR. In caseCp = P / geometry
of initial (pd × v × one R2 )observe a slight difference in optimal (8)
π ×can
TSR between experiment (TSR ≈ 4) and simulation (TSR ≈ 4.5). There is a good agreement between
The measurement procedure consists of fixing the wind speed at a certain value of v, then
numerical and experimental approaches for TSR lower than optimal. However, the significant
modifying the angular velocity ω, so as to trace the rotor characteristic. In certain cases it may be
interesting to collect data over several wind velocities in order to evaluate the influence of Reynolds
number on the results, especially at very low v.

3.6. Results Postprocessing and Analysis

In this section the discussion is based on a performance of exemplary, enhanced rotor geometry,
which was designed and manufactured according to the described Fast Track procedure. Later it was
tested in the IMP TUL wind tunnel and compared with original, initial rotor design (Figure 8).
It can be noticed that the experimental optimal TSR is very well predicted by the simulation
for the enhanced geometry. In both designs the estimated value of Tip Speed Ratio is slightly below
5, which was set as design TSR. In case of initial geometry one can observe a slight difference in
optimal TSR between experiment (TSR ≈ 4) and simulation (TSR ≈ 4.5). There is a good agreement
Energies 2019, 12, 1625 10 of 13

Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 13

between numerical and experimental approaches for TSR lower than optimal. However, the significant
dissimilarities
dissimilarities inin TSR
TSR region
region above
above optimal
optimal appear.
appear. Also, maximum value of Cp is overestimated
Also, the maximum overestimated
in
in simulation
simulation by by about
about 10%.
10%. The reason for the above mentioned discrepancies
discrepancies might
might be
be the
the fact
fact that
that
the
the quality
quality of
ofmodel
modelrepresentation
representationdirectly
directlydepends
dependsonon the printing
the printingresolution.
resolution.This cancan
This be be
crucial in
crucial
regions with small geometrical features such as the blade trailing edge or tip. Here, the
in regions with small geometrical features such as the blade trailing edge or tip. Here, the rigidity of rigidity of
the
the blade
blade is decreased
decreased (as (as there
there is
is relatively
relatively small
small amount
amount ofof material).
material). For increased Tip
Tip Speed
Speed Ratio
Ratio
(higher
(higher than
than 5)
5) itit results
results in
in significant
significantdrop
dropof
ofperformance,
performance,due duetotoblade
bladedeformation.
deformation.

Figure 8. Cp
Figure 8. vs TSR
Cp vs TSR results—simulation
results—simulation and
and experiment.
experiment.

It
It is
is important
important to to underline
underline thethe noticeable
noticeable gain
gain inin performance
performance of of the
the enhanced
enhanced blade
blade when
when
compared to the initial one. In described Fast Track procedure QBlade is treated as the
compared to the initial one. In described Fast Track procedure QBlade is treated as the principal tool principal tool for
rotor design. Although the initial, optimal value of TSR is only slightly increased, the
for rotor design. Although the initial, optimal value of TSR is only slightly increased, the enhanced enhanced rotor
performance
rotor performance is raisedis by moreby
raised than 10%than
more (in terms
10% of
(insimulation) and 25% (in and
terms of simulation) terms25%of experimental
(in terms of
investigation). Design criteria mentioned in Section 2 were realized at satisfactory
experimental investigation). Design criteria mentioned in Section 2 were realized at satisfactory level, notably in
level,
terms of wind turbine performance (maximum
notably in terms of wind turbine performance (maximum Cp). Cp).

4. Conclusions and Comments

4. Conclusions and Comments
The paper discusses a procedure for quick design, manufacturing and testing of scaled small wind
The paper discusses a procedure for quick design, manufacturing and testing of scaled small
turbine rotors aiming at search for promising solutions/geometries in terms of improved efficiency.
wind turbine rotors aiming at search for promising solutions/geometries in terms of improved
The so-called Fast Track approach allows one to perform whole campaign in time of 24 h. The blade
efficiency. The so-called Fast Track approach allows one to perform whole campaign in time of 24 h.
design stage is performed with the use of QBlade software. Later, the rapid manufacturing method is
The blade design stage is performed with the use of QBlade software. Later, the rapid manufacturing
incorporated—the blades are 3D printed with the use of FDM technology. Afterwards, the rotor is
method is incorporated—the blades are 3D printed with the use of FDM technology. Afterwards, the
tested in controlled conditions in the in-house wind tunnel.
rotor is tested in controlled conditions in the in-house wind tunnel.
An applicability of rapid manufacturing in the area of wind turbine blade production is already
An applicability of rapid manufacturing in the area of wind turbine blade production is already
pointed out as an important and game-changing innovation [5–7]. It is even more important and
pointed out as an important and game-changing innovation [5–7]. It is even more important and
beneficial in terms of preparation of scaled models for wind tunnel testing. A relatively short time
beneficial in terms of preparation of scaled models for wind tunnel testing. A relatively short time
between proposal of a new design and assessment of its performance in experimental conditions is the
between proposal of a new design and assessment of its performance in experimental conditions is
main advantage of the described approach. The dedicated software—QBlade—is proved to be a useful
the main advantage of the described approach. The dedicated software—QBlade—is proved to be a
tool for assessment of existing rotor blade results. However, in order to perform a more thorough study
useful tool for assessment of existing rotor blade results. However, in order to perform a more
it is advisable to supplement it with an experimental, independent analysis method. Here, the 3D
thorough study it is advisable to supplement it with an experimental, independent analysis method.
printing presents itself as a perfect tool for quick (overnight) production of test-ready rotor geometries.
Here, the 3D printing presents itself as a perfect tool for quick (overnight) production of test-ready
The criteria following which the blade is designed should be defined according to targets of
rotor geometries.
particular case studies. The Fast Track approach may be considered especially useful for educational
The criteria following which the blade is designed should be defined according to targets of
purposes (workshops, academic courses, science popularization events). Relatively quick and
particular case studies. The Fast Track approach may be considered especially useful for educational
economically affordable, it can serve as a supplementary research phase or standalone part of the
purposes (workshops, academic courses, science popularization events). Relatively quick and
economically affordable, it can serve as a supplementary research phase or standalone part of the
aerodynamic design. Depending on the available time and resources, the whole procedure can be
Energies 2019, 12, 1625 11 of 13

aerodynamic design. Depending on the available time and resources, the whole procedure can be
expanded by additional elements. This may include introduction of additional numerical tools (e.g.,
mechanical properties assessment—Simple Load Model), blade reinforcement, additional experimental
methods, etc. Such a development can expand the area of investigation towards, for example, the
analysis of flow fields or fluid-structure interaction.

Author Contributions: Investigation, M.L., M.K. and M.S.; Writing–original draft, M.L. and M.K.
Funding: This research was funded by the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education program “Najlepsi z
Najlepszych 3.0!” (grant number I10/502/11-10-10-00100101).
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to appreciate the application of the developed Fast Track procedure
in the works of students team GUST (Generative Urban Small Turbine) from IMP TUL in their research activities.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature
ABS Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene
BEM Blade Element-Momentum
CAD Computer-Aided Design
FDM Fused Deposition Modeling
HP High Pressure
IMP TUL Institute of Turbomachinery, Lodz University of Technology
GUST Generative Urban Small Turbine
LOM Laminated Object Manufacturing
MAV Micro Air Vehicle
MJM Multi-Jet Modelling
NREL National Renewable Energy Laboratory
PLA Polylactic Acid
SLS Selective Laser Sintering
SLA Stereolitography
VARI Vacuum Assisted Resin Infusion
AoA ◦ Angle of attack
B - Number of blades
Cl - Lift coefficient
Cd - Drag coefficient
Cn - Normal force coefficient
Cp - Power coefficient
M Nm Torque
Ma - Mach number
P W Power
R m Rotor radius
Re - Reynolds number
RH % Relative humidity
T K Temperature
TSR - Tip Speed Ratio
c m Chord length
pa Pa Atmospheric pressure
pd Pa Dynamic pressure
r m Radial position of the control volume
v m/s Flow velocity
w m/s Inflow velocity
ν m2 /s Kinematic viscosity
ρ kg/m3 Density
σ - Rotor solidity
ω rad/s Rotational velocity
Energies 2019, 12, 1625 12 of 13

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