Sir Zain Notes


Chapter: 4 


Important Features
Properties Of P-Block Elements
Metallurgy Of Aluminum
Allotropy In Carbon
 Allotropy In Sulphur
 Manufacturing Of Nitric Acid
 Manufacturing Of Sulphuric Acid
 Preparation Of Chlorine Gas
 Lead Pigments
 Chemistry of p-Block elements: Al
& Cl2
 Chemistry of compounds of p-
Block elements: H3BO3, Na2B4O7,
HNO3, H2SO4, H2S
 Uses Of Compounds Of P-Block
Elements
 Nomenclature
p-Block Elements
Lecture 1:
Important features of p-Block elements & their periodic
trends:
Instant notes:
p-Block Elements:
 The elements of group III-A, IV-A, V-A, VI-A, VII-A, & VII-A in a periodic table are called p-
block elements. Their valence shell electronic configuration is ns2np1-ns2np6 respectively.
Important Features Of P-Block Elements:
 There are 30 elements in p-block.

 There is 1 liquid (Br), 9 gases & 20 solids contains 10 non-metals.
 They are called typical elements.
 Group VIII-A elements are called inert, because of having complete valence shell.
 Group V-A elements have stable electronic configuration (half-filled E.C.).
Properties Of p Block Elements:
Following are some important properties of p-block elements.
Atomic Radius:
“Half of distance between the nuclei of two similar atoms is called atomic radius”
 Down the group atomic radii increases as number of shell increases.

LECTURE HANDOUT’s Dr. Zain Ul Abdeen
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Chemistry XII Govt. Dehli College
03012220499
 Along the period atomic radii decreases because of increasing number of electron in the
same shell.
Ionic Radius:
“Half of distance between the ions of two similar atoms is called ionic radius”
 The p block elements possess both i.e. anions & cations.

 Anion is greater than its atom & Cation is smaller than its atom.
 Down the group, ionic radius increases because no. of shell increases.
 Along the period ionic radii decreases.
Ionization Potential:
“The amount of energy required to remove an electron completely from an atom is called
ionization potential”
 Down the group, I.P. decreases because atomic radius increases & force of attraction
between nucleus & electrons decreases.
 Along the period, I.P. increases because nuclear charge increases & atomic radius
decreases.
Electronegativity:
“The tendency of an atom to attract shared pair of electron towards it is called electro negativity”
 Down the group electro negativity decreases, because increase in atomic radii.
 Along the period, E.N. increases because nuclear charge increases & atomic radius
decreases.
Electropositivity:
“The tendency of an atom to produce cation (+ve ion) is called electropositivities”
 Down the group, electropositivities (metallic character) increase because atomic radius
increases & I.P. decreases.
 Along the group, metallic character decreases because nuclear charge increases & atomic
radius decreases & I.P. increase.
Melting & boiling points:
 Down the group in IV-A elements MP’s & BP’s decreases.

 Down the group in V-A to VIII-A elements MP’s & BP’s increases.
 MP’s & BP’s depend upon bonding forces & state of element. In IV-A elements binding
(atomic) forces decreases down the group so MP’s & BP’s decreases.
 In V-A to VIII-A elements there is a change in state down the group i.e. from gas to solid
thus binding (intermolecular) forces increases so there is an increases in MP’s & BP’s
down the group.

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DIFFERENCE:
P block Active Elements P block Inactive Elements

Elements of Group III-A, IV-A, V-A, VI-A, VII- Elements of Group VIII-A are p block active
A are p block active elements. elements.
They are reactive. They are inert.
They have incompletely filled valence shell. They have complete filled valence shell.
The general electronic configuration is ns2 The general electronic configuration is ns2
np1-5 np6
REASONS:
Why I.P. increases along the periods?
While moving left to right in periods in periodic table I.P. increases because number of electrons
within the same shell increases because of which forces of attraction between nucleus & valence
electrons (shielding effect) increases and electrons comes closer to the nucleus. Thus, greater
energy is required for the removal of electron.
Why I.P decreases down the group?
While moving down the group in periodic table I.P. decreases because atomic radius increases
and the force of attraction between nucleus & valence electrons (shielding effect) decreases as a
result of which less amount of energy is needed for removal of electron.
Why electropositivities (Metallic character) increase down the group?
While moving down the group in periodic table atomic radius increases and the force of attraction
between nucleus & valence electrons (shielding effect) decreases as a result of which electrons
can easily be removed to form cation. It also depends upon electron population in valence shell
lesser the electron population greater will be metallic character. Down the group electron
population decreases so metallic character increase.
Why Metallic character of Al is greater than B?
The electron population of Al is less than that of B, therefore Metallic character of Al is greater
than B.
Electron population of B (2nd period) = (3:8)

Electron population of Al (3rd period)= (3:18)
Why in-group IV-A M.P. & B.P. decreases down the group?
MP’s & BP’s depend upon bonding forces & state of element. In IV-A elements binding (atomic)
forces decreases down the group so MP’s & BP’s decreases.

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Why in-group V-A to VII-A, M.P. & B.P. decreases down the group?
In V-A to VIII-A elements there is a change in state down the group i.e. from gas to solid thus
binding (intermolecular) forces increases so there is an increases in MP’s & BP’s down the group.
KEY POINTS:
Property Trend Property Trend
group  Period  group  Period 
Atomic Radius increase decrease Electron Affinity decrease Increase
Ionic radius increase decrease Electronegativity decrease Increase
Ionization Potential decrease Increase M.P’s/B.P’s Decreases Increases
Down the group, where matter state changes from gas to solid (eg Cl 2(g) Br2(l)I2(s)) here M.P’s/B.P’s
increases.

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Lecture 2
Metallurgy Of Aluminum:
Instant notes:
Extraction Of Aluminum:
Aluminum is extract from its Bauxite ore Al2O3.n H2O.
It involves following steps,

1. Preparation of pure alumina.
2. Electrolysis of pure alumina.
3. Purification by refining.
>> Preparation Of Pure Alumina:
 Bauxite usually contains impurities like Fe2O3 & SiO2.

 The impurities must be removed in order to get good quality of aluminum.
 For removal of impurities following methods are used.
Hall’s Method. (Fe2O3 & SiO2)

Baeyer’s Method. (Fe2O3)
Serpack’s Method (SiO2)
Hall’s Method:
 This method is used when bauxite contains both Fe2O3 & SiO2 as impurities.
 Bauxite ore is fused with Na2CO3.
 It dissolved to form sodium aluminate.
 The impurities are settle down & removed by filtration methods.
Al 2 O3 .nH 2 O  Na2 CO3 

 2 NaAlO 2  CO2  nH 2 O
 The solution of sodium aluminate is heated at 50-60°C in the presence of H2O & CO2.
 Precipitates of aluminum hydroxide are obtained.
2 NaAlO 2  CO2  3H 2 O 
 2 Al (OH ) 3  Na2 CO3
 This precipitates are washed.

 The precipitates are ignited (heated) to 1500 °C to get pure alumina.

2 Al (OH ) 3 heat  Al 2 O3  3H 2 O
o
1500 C
Baeyer’s Method:
 This method is used when bauxite contains Fe2O3 as an impurity.

 Bauxite is treated with strong caustic soda NaOH at 150 °C.
 The impurities are settle down & removed by filtration method.

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Al 2 O3 .nH 2 O  2 NaOH 
 2 NaAlO 2  nH 2 O
 The solution of sodium aluminates is heated with H2O.
2 NaAlO 2  2H 2 O 
 2 Al (OH ) 3  NaOH

 The precipitates are ignited (heated) to 1500 °C to get pure alumina.

2 Al (OH ) 3 heat  Al 2 O3  3H 2 O
o
1500 C
Serpeck’s Method:
 This method is used when bauxite contains SiO2 as an impurity.

 The ore is heated with carbon (C) & nitrogen (N) at 1800 °C.
 Aluminum nitride (AlN) is formed.
Al 2 O3 .nH 2 O  3C  N 2 
 2 AlN  3CO  nH 2 O
 Aluminum nitride on hydrolysis with H2O produces precipitates of Al(OH)3.
AlN  3H 2 O 
 2 Al (OH ) 3  NH 3 

 The precipitates are ignited (heat) to 1500 °C to get pure alumina.

2 Al (OH ) 3 heat  Al 2 O3  3H 2 O
o
1500 C
>>Electrolysis Of Pure Alumina:
Electrolysis of pure alumina is carried out in an electrolytic cell.
Structure:
 Cell is composed of steel tank lined with graphite acts as cathode.
 Carbon rods are suspended in molten electrolyte acts as anode.
 The electrolyte consists of alumina (Al2O3) fused in cryolite (Na3AlF6) & fluorspar (BaF2)
 Cryolite lowers the MP to 950 °C & fluorspar increases the fluidity.

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Working:
 Electric current is passed through the cell.
 Aluminum is deposited on cathode.
At cathode:
Al 3  3e  
 Al
 It is obtained at the bottom of the tank.

 It is about 99% pure.
>>Refining Of Aluminum By Hoop’s Method:
The refining of pure aluminum is done by Hoop’s electrolytic method.
Structure:
 The cell is iron tank. The bottom is lined with carbon.
 The cell is consisting of following layers.
(i) Upper Layer:

 It consists of pure aluminum acts as cathode.
(ii) Middle Layer:

 It contains Cryolite & BaF2.
(iii) Bottom Layer:

 It contains impure aluminum acts as anode.
 These layers are separated with each other due to difference of specific gravity.

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Working:
 The current is passed through the cell.
 Al+++ ions from the middle layer (from Na3AlF6) go to top layer (at cathode) & discharge as
pure aluminum.
 At the same time equivalent amount of Al from impurities (bottom layer) are passed into
middle layer.
 Impurities settle down at bottom 99.99% pure aluminum is obtained.
Middle Layer:
NaAlF6   3NaF  AlF3

 Al 3  3F 
AlF3 
At Cathode:
Al 3  3e  
 Al
At Anode:
Al  Al 3  3e 
Overall Reaction:

 Al  Al 3
Al 3  Al 
KEY POINTS:
Al is extracted from Bauxite ore Al2O3.nH2O which contains Fe2O3 & SiO2 as impurities, extraction consist
of 1) Preparation of Alumina (different methods were used based on presence of impurity)
Name of Method Impurity Reagent used for separation
Hall’s Fe2O3 & SiO2 both Na2CO3
Beayer’s Only Fe2O3 NaOH
Serpecks’s Only SiO2 C & N2
2) extraction of Al from Alumina in electrolytic cell
Material of tank Steel Material of electrodes Graphite
Electrolyte Cryolite Na3AlF6+ Alumina Al2O3+ Flourspar BaF2
3) refining of Al in Hoop’s Cell by electrolysis
Material of tank Iron linned with carbon Upper layer Pure Al (cathode)
Middle layer Cryolyte + BaF2 Bottom layer Impure Al (anode)
LECTURE 3
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ALLOTROPY:
INSTANT NOTES:
Allotropy:
“The existence of elements into more than one physical form is known as allotropy”
The different forms are called allotropic forms.
Allotropic Forms Of Carbon:
There are two allotropic forms of carbon.
 Amorphous form
 Crystalline form
Amorphous Form:
There are, many amorphous forms of carbon, some are as,

 Coal
 Coke
 Charcoal
 Lampblack
Crystalline Form:
There are two crystalline forms of carbon.

 Diamond
 Graphite
Diamond:
 The diamond is a crystalline form of carbon.
Properties:
 It is very hard its density is 3.51g/cm3.
 It possess high refractive index is 2.45.
 It is very brilliant.
Structure:
 The diamond possesses tetrahedral shape.
 Each carbon atom is attached with four more carbon atoms, which are covalently bonded
with each other.
 The carbon – carbon bond length is 1.54 °A.
 Each carbon is SP3 hybridized.
Uses:
 It is used as an ornament.
 It is used for glass cutting.
 It is used for drilling & boring of rocks.
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Graphite:
 The graphite is crystalline form of carbon.
Properties:
 It is soft.
 It possess dull luster.
 It is good conductor of electricity.
 It posses high melting & boiling point.
 It is greasy in touch.
 Its density is 2.2g/cm3.
Structure:
 Graphite possesses hexagonal shape.
 Each carbon is SP2 hybridized.
 Each carbon atom is attached with three more carbon atoms, which are covalently bonded
with each other.
 Carbon- carbon bond length is 1.42 °A.
 Inter planer distance between the layers is 3.35 °A.
 It contains one delocalized π bond, which contains one unpaired electron.
Uses:
 It used as lubricants.
 It is used as electrodes.
 It is used in making pencils leads.
 It is used as moderators in nuclear reactions.
Structural Difference between Diamond & Graphite:
Allotropic Forms Of Sulphur:
Following are the allotropic forms of sulphur.
 Crystalline sulphur
 Plastic sulphur

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Crystalline Sulphur:
Following are some crystalline sulphur.
 Rhombic (α) Sulphur

 Monoclinic (β) Sulphur
Rhombic Sulphur:
 It is crystalline form of sulphur.
Properties:
 It is pale yellow crystal.
 It is stable below 95.5 °C.
 The melting point is 112.8 °C.
 Its density is 2.1g/cm3.
 It is bad conductor of heat & electricity.
 It is soluble in benzene, CS2.
Structure:
 It consists of eight-sulphur atoms form puckered ring.
 Each sulphur atom is singly bonded with each other.
 S-S bond angle is 105 °A.
 S-S bond length is 2.12 °A.
 The shape is rhombic.
Monoclinic Sulphur:
 It is crystalline form of sulphur.
Properties:
 It is dark yellow crystal.
 It is stable between 95.5-119.5 °C.
 It is bad conductor of heat & electricity.
 It is soluble in CS2.
Structure:
 It consists of eight-sulphur atoms forms puckered ring.
 Each sulphur atom is singly bond with each other.
 The shape is needle like.
Structural Difference between Rhombic & Monoclinic Sulphur:
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Relation Between Rhombic & Monoclinic Sulphur:
 Rhombic sulphur is stable below 95.5 °C.

 Monoclinic sulphur is stable above 95.5 °C to 119.5 °C.
 At 95.5°C, both rhombic & monoclinic sulphur is in equilibrium the temperature is called
transition temperature.
R hom bic.Sulphur 95

  Monoclinic .Sulphur
o
.5 C
Plastic Sulphur:
 It is also called as γ sulphur.
Preparation:
 It is prepared by boiling the sulphur & than poured it in to cold water.
 It turns into elastic material called plastic sulphur.
Properties:
 It is soft.
 It is rubber like.
 It is soluble in CS2.
Structure:
 It is composed of long chains of sulphur if irregular shape.

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DIFFERENCE:
Diamond Graphite
It is very hard It is soft.
It is very brilliant. It possess dull luster.
It is bad conductor of electricity. It is good conductor of electricity.

Its density is 3.51g/cm3. Its density is 2.2g/cm3.
The diamond possesses tetrahedral shape. The graphite possesses hexagonal shape.
REASON:
Why plastic sulphur is elastic in nature?
Plastic sulphur is elastic in nature because it is prepared by rapid cooling of boiling sulphur
therefore atoms of sulphur are arrange in irregular manner in the form of chains which allow
coiling & uncoiling of “S” chains.
Key points:
Allotropy is the existence of elements in more than physical one form

Allotropic forms of carbon Crystalline Amorphous
e.g. Diamond, Graphite e.g. coal, Charcoal, Coke, lampblack
Allotropic forms of sulphur Crystalline Amorphous
e.g. Rhombic, Monoclinic sulphur e.g.plastic sulphur

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Lecture 4
Manufacturing Of Nitric Acid:
Instant notes:
Manufacturing Of Nitric Acid (HNO3) By Ostwald’s Method:
 HNO3 commercially prepared by Ostwald’s process.

 In this process, Ammonia oxidized by oxygen in the presence of catalyst to produce Nitric
acid.
The process consists of following steps.
 Oxidation of ammonia.
 Oxidation of NO to NO2.
 Formation of HNO3.
Oxidation Of Ammonia:
 Ammonia & air mixed in ratio 1:8 by volume.
 The mixture is allowed to enter the converter, containing platinum gauze catalyst, which
is heated to 600 °C.
 95% of ammonia is oxidized into NO.
4 NH 3  5O2 Pt/ 600

 c  4 NO  6H 2 O
o
Oxidation Of NO to NO2:
 The mixture of hot NO & air is passed through the large, empty oxidation chamber.
 Here temperature of mixture is lowered to 50 °C.
 NO is oxidized to NO2.
2 NO  O2 
Pt
2 NO2
550oC
Formation Of HNO3:
 NO2 gas from oxidation is passed through absorption tower packed with acid proof stones.
 The water is sprayed from the top.
 Water absorbs NO2 gas forming dilute nitric acid.
 It is recycled to absorb more NO2 for attaining maximum saturation.
2 NO2  H 2 O 
 2HNO3  NO

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Flow Chart For Process:
REASON:
Why nitric acid is strong oxidizing agent?
Nitric acid is strong oxidizing agent because molecule of nitric acid is instable & N in nitric acid is
present in highest oxidation state “+5” therefore this O.S. may vary from +5 to -3 depending upon
reaction conditions.
Key points:
Nitric acid is prepared by Ostwald process from ammonia. The process involves,
4 NH 3  5O2 Pt/ 600
 c  4 NO  6H 2 O
o
Oxidation of ammonia.
Oxidation of NO to NO2. 2 NO  O2 
Pt
2 NO2
550oC
Formation of HNO3. 2 NO2  H 2 O 

 2HNO3  NO

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Lecture 5
Manufacturing Of SULPHURIC Acid:
Instant notes:
Manufacturing Of Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4) By Contact Process:
 Sulphuric acid prepared by contact process.
The process consists of following steps.
 Preparation of SO2
 Purification of SO2
 Catalytic conversion of SO2 to SO3
 Absorption of SO3
 Absorption of H2O
Preparation Of SO2:
 SO2 is produce by burning sulphur in air.
S  O2 
 SO2
 It may also produced by burning iron pyrites in air.
4FeS 2  11O2 
 2Fe 2 O3  8SO2
Purification Of SO2:
 SO2 contains impurities, which are removed by passing it into various chambers.
 First SO2 & air is passed through special filters where dust is removed.
 Then SO2 is washed in a washing tower.
 It is then dried in drying tower.
 By these methods, most of the impurities are removed.
Catalytic Conversion Of SO2 to SO3:

 The purified SO2 is passed through contact tower.
 The catalyst Vanadium pent oxide (V2O5) is used.
 The temperature maintained between 450-500 °C.
 Pressure is kept between 1.5-1.7 atm
 Here SO2 converted into SO3.
V2O5 / 450500 C / 1.51.7 atm

o
2SO2  O2   2SO3
Absorption Of SO3:
 SO3 is absorbed by H2SO4 in order to avoid fog formation.
 Oleum is obtained.

SO3  H 2 SO4 
 H 2 S 2 O7

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 Now calculated amount of water is added to Oleum to get sulphuric acid.
H 2 S 2 O7  H 2 O 
 2H 2 SO4
Flow Chart For Process:
REASONS:
Why boiling point & viscosity of sulphuric acid is high?
The boiling point & viscosity of sulphuric acid is high because molecules of sulphuric acid are
linked intermolecular hydrogen bonding which increase the forces of attraction between the
molecules by bringing them closer.
Why sulphuric acid is known as “oil of vitriol”?
sulphuric acid is known as “oil of vitriol” because concentrated sulphuric acid has oily appearance
& its viscosity is similar to that of oil.
Why sulphuric acid is known as “king of compounds”?
Sulphuric acid is known as “king of compounds” because it is industrially important compound &
manufacturing of various important compounds such as detergents, fertilizers, nylons & various
organic compounds etc are prepared using it.
Key points:
Sulphuric acid is prepared by Contact’s process involves,

Preparation of SO2 S  O2 
 SO2
Purification of SO2 dust filtration  washing  drying
V2O5 / 450500 C / 1.51.7 atm
o
Catalytic conversion of SO2 to SO3 2SO2  O2     2SO3
Absorption of SO3 SO3  H 2 SO4 
 H 2 S 2 O7
Absorption of H2O H 2 S 2 O7  H 2 O 
 2H 2 SO4

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Lecture 6
Manufacturing Of CHLORINE GAS:
Instant notes:
Preparation Of Chlorine Gas (Cl2) In Nelson Cell:
Chlorine gas can be prepared by the electrolysis of NaCl in Nelson cell.
Structure:
 The cell consists of U-shaped perforated vessel.
 This perforated steel vessel acts as a cathode.
 The carbon rod is present in the cell which acts as anode.
 Asbestos layer separates both electrodes.
 Solution of NaCl used as electrolyte.
Working:
 Electric current is passed through the solution.
 The electrolyte is breaks Na+ & Cl- ions.
 Na+ ions move towards cathode discharge as neutral particle Na, which on reaction with
water gives NaOH & H2.
 Cl- ions moves towards anode & liberated as chlorine gas.
Reactions:
 Na   Cl 
NaCl 
2Cl  
 Cl 2  2e  (atAnode )
Preparation Of Chlorine Gas (Cl2) In Castner Kellner’s Cell:
Chlorine gas can be prepared by the electrolysis of NaCl in Castner Kellner’s cell.
Structure:
 The cell contains layer of mercury at the bottom, which acts as cathode.
 The series of graphite rods acts as anode.
 The graphite rods are dipped in NaCl used as electrolyte.
 The flow of mercury & NaCl in the cell is same.
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Working:
 The electric current is passed through the solution.
 The electrolyte is breaks Na+ & Cl- ions.
 Na+ ions move towards cathode discharge as neutral particles Na, which dissolve in
mercury forming amalgam.
 Cl- ions moves towards anode & liberated as chlorine gas.
Reactions:
 Na   Cl 
NaCl 
2Cl  
 Cl 2  2e  (atAnode )
Key points:
Items Nelson’s cell Caster Kellner’s cell

Material of cell Steel
Cathode Perforated Steel (U shaped) Hg (bottom layer)
Anode Graphite Graphite
Special arrangement U shaped perforated asbestose Moving Hg through eccentric
for separation of NaOH wheel

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Lecture 7
Lead pigments:
Instant notes:
Lead Pigments:
Lead pigments are used to give proper colors to the paints.
Some of the common lead pigments are,
 White lead pigments

 Red lead pigments
 Chrome yellow pigments
 Chrome red pigments
 Turner’s yellow pigments
>>White Lead Pigment:
 It is known as basic lead carbonate.
Composition:
 Its composition is 2PbCO3. [Pb(OH)2].
Preparation:
 It can be prepared by following methods.
By Chamber Or Duch Process:
 The lead sheets are corroded by passing the mixture of vapors of acetic acid & steam into
a chamber containing lead.
 fter this, mixture of vapors of acetic acid & CO2 is passed through the corroded lead.
 The white layer form on its surface, which is called white lead.
2Pb  CH 3COOH  2H 2 O 
[ Pb(CH 3COO) 2 .Pb(OH ) 2 ]  2H 2
[ Pb(CH 3COO) 2 .Pb(OH ) 2 ]  2H 2 O  2CO2 

 2PbCO3 .[ Pb(OH ) 2 ]  6CH 3COOH
From Lead Oxide:

 CO2 is passed through the aqueous suspension of lead oxide containing lead acetate in
little quantity.
2PbO2  2H 2 O  2CO2  Pb(CH 3COO) 2 

 2PbCO3 .[ Pb(OH ) 2 ]  2CH 3COOH  O2
Uses:
 It is used as white color pigment for paints.

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>>Red Lead Pigment:
 It is known as Sandhur.
Composition:
 Its composition is Pb3O4 or (2PbO.PbO2)
Preparation:
 Heating lead monoxide (litharge) in excess of air at 450 °C gives red lead pigment.
6PbO  O2 
 2Pb3O4
Uses:
 It is used as red color pigment for paints.
 It is used as oxidizing agents.
 It is used in making match sticks.
>>Chrome Yellow Pigments:
 It is known as lead chromate.
Composition:
 Its composition is PbCrO4
Preparation:
 It can be obtained by adding solution of potassium chromate into lead nitrate.
Pb( NO3 ) 2  K 2 CrO4 

 PbCrO4  KNO3
 It can also be prepared by adding solution of lead acetate into potassium chromate.
Pb(CH 3COO) 2  K 2 CrO4 

 PbCrO4  2CH 3COOK
Uses:
 It is used as dark yellow color pigment for paints.
>>Chrome Red Pigment:
 It is known as basic lead chromate.
Composition:
 It‘s composition is PbCrO4.PbO or Pb2CrO5
Preparation:
 It is prepared by digesting lead chromate with NaOH
2PbCrO4  2 NaOH 
 Pb2 CrO5  Na2 CrO4  H 2 O
Uses:
 It is used as dark red color pigment for paint.
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>>Turner’s Yellow Pigment:
Composition:
 Its composition is PbCl2.4PbO
Preparation:
 It is prepared by boiling the solution of NaCl with PbO
5PbO  2 NaCl  H 2 O 
 2 NaOH  PbCl 2 .4PbO
Uses:
 It is used as yellow color pigment for paints.
KEYPOINTS:
Lead pigment Basic name formula

White Lead Pigment basic lead carbonate 2PbCO3. [Pb(OH)2].
Red Lead Pigment Sandhur Pb3O4 or (2PbO.PbO2)
Chrome Yellow Pigments lead chromate PbCrO4
Chrome Red Pigment basic lead chromate PbCrO4.PbO or Pb2CrO5
Turner’s Yellow Pigment basic lead chloride PbCl2.4PbO

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LECTURE 8
CHEMISTRY OF p BLOCK ELEMENTS:
Instant notes:
8A CHEMISTRY OF ALUMINIUM:
EXTRACTION:
Aluminium is extracted economically from Bauxite ore as discussed in LECTURE 2
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
Some chemical properties of Al are as follow,
 Action of air:
Al remains unaffected by dry air but on exposure to moist air film of oxide form on its surface
which acts as protective layer (self protective layer) to prevent further oxidation, complete
oxidation required strong heating in air.
4 Al  3O2 
 2 Al 2 O3
 Action of acids:
Aluminium metal get dissolve in dilute acid on liberation of H2
2 Al  6HCl 
 2 AlCl 3  3H 2
2 Al  3H 2 SO4 
dil
Al 2 (SO4 ) 3  3H 2
Aluminium metal reacts with concentrated hot sulphuric acid with liberation of SO2
2 Al  6H 2 SO4 conc

 Al 2 (SO4 ) 3  3SO2  6H 2 O
 Action of halogens:
Aluminium on heating with halogens from halides.
2 Al  3Cl 2 
 2 AlCl 3
2 Al  3Br2 
 2 AlBr3
 Action of alkalis:
Aluminates are formed with liberation of H2 on treatment of aluminium with alkalis.
2 Al  2 NaOH  2H 2 O 
 2 NaAlO 2  3H 2
 Action of nitrogen:
Heating upto 700oC, aluminium reacts with nitrogen formed aluminium nitride.
2 Al  N 2 
 2 AlN

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 Action of carbon:
Heating upto 2000oC, aluminium reacts with carbon formed aluminium carbide.
4 Al  3C 
 Al 4 C3
 As a reducing agent Thermite process:

Aluminum acts as a power reducing agents for oxides of transition metals like Fe, Mn , Cr etc, the
reaction is highly exothermic which produces temperature around 3500oC. Thus, this process is
used for welding applications & known as Thermite process.
2 Al  Fe2 O3 
 Al 2 O3  2Fe
8B Chemistry of Chlorine:
PREPARATIONS:
It can be prepared by the electrolysis of NaCl in Nelson’s & Caster Kellner’s Cell as discussed in
LECTURE 6
Following are some chemical properties of Cl2
Oxidation Reactions:
Cl2 is active oxidant for metals & non metals except C, N2 & O2 as it can easily gain electron from
other substances.
Zn  Cl 2 
 ZnCl 2
Cu  Cl 2  CuCl 2
2P  5Cl 2 
 2PCl 5
H 2  Cl 2 
 2HCl
 Addition reactions:
Chlorine on direction combination with unsaturated & some specific compounds formed addition
product.
CH 2  CH 2  Cl 2 
 C 2 H 4 Cl 2
SO2  Cl 2 
 SO2 Cl 2
sulfuryl chloride
CO  Cl 2 
 COCl 2
phosgene
 Substitution reactions:
Cl2 gives substitution reactions,
H 2 S  Cl 2 
 2HCl  S
2KI  Cl 2  2KCl  I 2
CH 4  Cl 2 sunlight
 CH 3 Cl  HCl
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 Auto oxidation-reduction reaction:
Cl2 reacts with water forming hydrochloric acid (HCl) and hypochlorous acid (HOCl). In this
reaction Cl2 undergoes oxidation for formation of HOCl while reduction in the formation of HCl.
Thus, this reaction is said to be self or auto oxidation-reduction reaction.
0 1 1
Cl 2  H 2 O 
 H Cl  HO Cl
REASON:
Why Aluminum is made passive by nitric acid?
Aluminum is made passive (non reacting) by nitric acid. Aluminum is passive towards nitric acids
due to formation of protective layer of oxide. This protective layer resists the contact of aluminum
with water or oxygen that is why aluminum is passive towards nitric acid.

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Lecture 9
CHEMISTRY OF COMPOUNDS OF p BLOCK ELEMENTS:
Instant notes:
9A: CHEMISTRY OF Boric Acid: H3BO3:
PREPARATIONS:
From following methods boric acid can be prepared,
 From Borax:
Action of sulphuric acid on borax produced boric acid.
Na 2 B4 O7  H 2 SO4  5H 2 O  4H 3 BO3  Na 2 SO4
 From Boron Nitride:

Super heated water on reaction with boron nitride yields boric acid.
BN  3H 2 O 
 H 3 BO3  NH 3
Some chemical properties of boric acid are as under,
 Hydrolysis:
On action of water , boric acid donates H+ ions, thus acts as weak mono basic acid.

 B(OH ) 4  H 
B(OH ) 3  H 2 O 
 Action of heat on boric acid:

Boric acid, when heated to 100oC, releases water formed meta boric acid HBO2, on further heating
to 140oC, removal of water molecules take place forming pyroboric acid H2B4O7, heating upto
240oC amd above formed boric oxide B2O3 on removal of water molecule.
H 3 BO3 100
  HBO2  H 2 O
o
C
4HBO2 140
  H 2 B4 O7  H 2 O
o
C
H 2 B4 O7 above
240 
  2B2 O3  H 2 O
o
C
9B CHEMISTRY OF BORAX: Na2B4O7:
PREPARATIONS:
Borax can be prepared by following methods:
 From Boric acid:

Action of NaOH & Na2CO3 on boric acid gives borax

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4H 3 BO3  2 NaOH 
 Na 2 B4 O7  7 H 2 O
4H 3 BO3  Na 2 CO3 
 Na 2 B4 O7  6H 2 O  CO2
 From Colemanite Ca2B6O11.5H2O:

Boiling colemanite with sodium carbonate gives borax
Ca 2 B6 O11  2 Na 2 CO3 
 Na 2 B4 O7  2CaCO3  2 NaBO2
Borax possess following properties,
 Hydrolysis:
Borax of hydrolysis gives alkaline solution,
Na 2 B4 O7  7 H 2 O 
 2 NaOH  4H 3 BO3
 Action of acid:
Action of sulphuric acid on borax produced boric acid.
Na 2 B4 O7  H 2 SO4  5H 2 O  4H 3 BO3  Na 2 SO4
9c: Chemistry of Nitric Acid: HNO3
PREPARATION:
It is prepared by Ostwald’s process as discussed on LECTURE 4:
Following are the chemical properties of nitric acid
 As An Acid:
Nitric acid is an strong acid as it provides H+ ions in aqueous medium, it is monoprotic acid as it
donates only 1 protons.

 H 3O   NO3
HNO3  H 2 O 
It neutralizes base,
HNO3  NaOH   NaNO3  H 2 O
 As An Oxidizing Agent:
Nitric acid is strong oxidizing agent due to highest oxidation state of “N” that is +5 therefore it
oxidizes other species by accepting electrons because of which oxidation number of specie
increases and its oxidation number decreases, N can change its oxidation number from +5 to -3.
o 5 2 4
Cu  4H N O3 conc

 Cu( NO3 ) 2  2 N O2  2H 2 O

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o 5 2 2
Cu  8H N O3 dilute
  3 Cu ( NO3 ) 2  2 N O  4H 2 O
 As Nitrating Agent:
Nitric acid is nitrating agent that is it introduces nitro group in a compound on replacement of H
in organic compounds.
C6 H 6  HNO3 H  C6 H 5 .NO2  H 2 O

2 SO4
 As A constituent of Aqua Regia:

Aqua Regia is a mixture of HCl (concentrated) & HNO3 (concentrated) containing 1 part of HNO3
& 3 parts of HCl. The mixture is called as aqua regia because it dissolves noble metals such as gold.
The dissolution of gold is due to the liberation of Cl2 that result in the formation of soluble complex
of gold (Hydro-auric chloride).
HNO3  3HCl   NOCl  2Cl  2H 2 O
nitrosylchloride
Au  3Cl 
 AuCl 3
 H  [ AuCl 4 ]
AuCl 3  HCl 
hydroauricchloride
 Variable oxidizing ability of HNO3:

Variable oxidizing ability of HNO3 is due to instability of HNO3 molecules and presence of highest
oxidation state of “N” i.e +5 in HNO3 which can vary from +5  -3 depending upon its
concentration & reactivity of combining elements.
Concentrated HNO3 reduced to NO2 with less active metal (eg. Cu)
Cu  HNO3 conc

 Cu( NO3 ) 2  2 NO2  2H 2 O
Dilute HNO3 is reduced to NO with less active metal (eg. Cu)

3Cu  8HNO3 
dil
2Cu( NO3 ) 2  2 NO  4H 2 O
Dilute HNO3 is reduced to N2O with more active metal (eg. Mg)
4Mg  10HNO3  4Mg ( NO3 )2  N2O  5H 2O
very dil
Very dilute HNO3 is reduced to NH4NO3 with more active metal (eg. Zn)
4Zn  10HNO3 very
 dil
 4Zn( NO3 ) 2  NH 4 NO3  3H 2 O
HNO3 reduced to NO2 with non metals

S  6HNO3 
 H 2 SO4  6 NO2  2H 2 O
P  5HNO3 
 H 3 PO4  5NO2  H 2 O
Si  4HNO3 
 SiO2  4 NO2  2H 2 O

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9D: Chemistry of Sulphuric Acid: H2SO4:
PREPARATION:
It is prepared by Contact process as discussed in LECTURE 5:
Following are the chemical properties of sulphuric acid
 As An Acid:
Sulphuric acid is an strong acid as it provides H+ ions in aqueous medium, it is diprotic acid as it
donates 2 protons.

 H 3O   HSO4
H 2 SO4  H 2 O 
 2
 H 3O   SO4
HSO4  H 2 O 
It neutralizes base,
H 2 SO4  2 NaOH 
( Na) 2 SO4  H 2 O
 As An Oxidizing Agent:
Sulphuric acid is an oxidizing agent that is oxidizes other species by accepting electrons because
of which oxidation number of specie increases.
o 2
Zn H 2 SO4 
 Zn SO4  H 2
 As De-hydrating Agent:
Sulphuric acid (concentrated) is de-hydrating agent that is it extract (absorbs) water from a
compound.
C12 H 22O11  12C  11H 2O

H 2 SO4
H 2 C 2 O4 H  CO  CO2  H 2 O
2 SO4
HCOOH H  CO  H 2 O
2 SO4
 As Sulphonating Agent:
Sulphuric acid is sulphonating agent that is it introduces sulphonic acid group in a compound on
replacement of H in organic compounds.
C6 H 6  H 2 SO4 
 C6 H 5 .OSO3 H  H 2 O
 Variable oxidizing ability of HNO3:
H2SO4 oxidizes metals high in ECS, in dilute form on liberation of H2

o 2
Zn H 2 SO4 
dil
Zn SO4  H 2
H2SO4 oxidizes metals low in ECS, in concentrated form on liberation of SO2

Cu  2H 2 SO4 conc

 CuSO4  SO2  H 2 O

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H2SO4 oxidizes metals high in ECS, in concentrated form on liberation of H2S
4Zn  5H 2 SO4 conc

 4ZnSO4  H 2 S  4H 2 O
H2SO4 oxidizes non-metals on liberation of SO2

C  H 2 SO4 conc

 CO2  2SO2  2H 2 O
S  H 2 SO4 conc

 3SO2  2H 2 O
9E: Chemistry of hydrogen sulphide: H2S:
PREPARATIONS:
It can be produced by following methods,
 From Sulphur:
Heating sulphur with hydrogen to 650oC gives H2S
H 2 S heat

 H2S
 From Stibnite Sb2S3:

Antimony trisulphide “stibnite” on heating with concentrated HCl produces H2S
Sb2 S 3  6HCl 
 2SbCl 3  3H 2 S
 From Zinc sulphide:

Action of HCl on ZnS gives H2S
ZnS  2HCl 
 ZnCl 2  H 2 S
 Laboratory preparation:
In lab, H2S is prepared in Kipp’s apparatus, from iron sulphides FeS by the action of concentrated
HCl or H2SO4
FeS  2HCl 
 FeCl 2  H 2 S
FeS  H 2 SO4 
 FeSO 4  H 2 S
Chemical properties are as under,
 As an acid:
In water it produces hydronium ions
 HS   H 3O 
H 2 S  H 2O 
HS   H 2 O 
 S 2  H 3 O 
 Oxidation:
On combustion with O2 of air with blue flame produces SO2
2H 2 S  3O2 
 2SO2  2H 2 O

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 As a reducing agent:
Its acts as reducing agent on losing electron thus reduces other substances
H 2 S  Br2 
 2HBr  S
2FeCl 3  H 2 S 
 2FeCl 2  S  2HCl
2HNO3  H 2 S 
 2 NO2  S  2H 2 O
H 2 SO4  H 2 S 
 SO2  S  2H 2 O
REASONS:
Why Boric acid is soft having greasy touch?
Molecules of Boric acid are linked together by hydrogen bonding to form infinite layers. These
layers are held together by vanderwaals forces. Thus, they can slide over each other due to which
it is soft & feel greasy.

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Self study:
Uses Of Important Compounds of p-block elements:
Nitric Acid:
 It is used as strong acid.

 It is used in the manufacturing of fertilizers.
 It is used in the preparation of nitro compounds e.g. nitro glycerin, nitro benzene.
 It is used in making smoke less gunpowder.
 It is used in the preparation of Aqua Regia.
 It is used as oxidizing agent.
Sulphuric Acid:
 It is used as strong acid.

 It is used in the manufacturing of fertilizers.
 It is used in the preparation of plastic & rayon.
 It is used in the preparation of HCl & HF.
 It is used in the preparation of detergents.
 It is used as sulphonating agent.
 It is used as dehydrating agent.
Chlorine Gas:
 It is used in making chloro organic compounds e.g. CCl4, chloro benzene.

 It is used in the manufacturing of plastics.
 It is used in the preparation of insecticides e.g. DDT.
 It is used in the preparation of rubber.
 It is used as bleaching agent. Bleaching action was due to formation of HOCl in aqueous
solution which oxidizes colored compounds
 It is used in sterilizing of water.
 It is used as disinfecting agent for drainage purposes.
It is used in laboratory for layer test in detection of Br & I, undergoing substitution
reaction.

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Some Important Compounds With Chemical Formulas:
Compound formula Compound formula

Borax or Suhaga or Na2B4O7 Meta Boric Acid HBO2
Tincal
Boric acid H3BO3 or B(OH)3 Pyroboric Acid H2B4O7
Colemanite Ca2B6O11.5H2O Cryolite Na3AlF6
White lead 2PbCO3.Pb(OH)2 Chrome yellow PbCrO4
Chrome red Pb2CrO5 Litharge or PbO
Murda sang
Sandhur or red lead Pb3O4 or PbO.PbO2 Nitrosyl chloride NOCl
Oleum H2S2O7 Oil of Vitriol H2SO4
Hypo Chlorous Acid HOCl Thionyl chloride SOCl2
Stibnite Sb2S3 Fluorspar CaF2
Sulfuryl chloride SO2Cl2 Phosgene COCl2
Boric oxide B2O3
kaolin Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O Potash felspar K2O.Al2O3.6SiO2
Potash-mica K2O.Al2O3.6SiO2.2H2O Alunite K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.4Al(OH)3
Bauxite Al2O3.nH2O Corundum or Al2O3
Alumina
Diaspore Al2O3.H2O Gibbisite Al2O3.3H2O
Potash Alum or K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O Brunt alum or K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3
Phitkari Phul-phitkri
SELF ASSESMENT:
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS:
1. __________ of the following is non-metal. (Boron, Aluminum, Indium, Thallium)

2. __________ of the following was isolated by electrolysis of moist boric acid. (Boron, Indium,
Aluminum, Gallium)
3. __________ of the following is chemically inert. (Boron, Indium, Aluminum, Gallium)
4. __________ is not the member of group IIIA. (B, In, C, Al)
5. The oxides of Boron are __________ in nature. (Acidic, Basic, Neutral, None of these)
6. __________ forms the most acidic oxide. (B, Al, Ga, In)
7. Boron bursts into flame at __________. (600°C, 700°C, 800°C, None of these)
8. B3+ cannot exist in aqueous solution because of its __________. (Strong reducing ability,
large size and small charge, small size and large charge, strong oxidizing ability)
9. Orthoboric acid on heating to about 100°C loses a water molecule to form __________.
(Metaboric acid, Pyroboric Acid, Metaboric and Pyroboric acid, none of these)
10. Baeyer’s Process is used for the purification of __________. (Alum stone, Cryolite, Bauxite,
none of these)
11. Hall’s Process is based on electrolysis of __________. (Alumina, Gypsum, Borax, none of
these)
12. __________ is a better conductor of heat. (Fe, Sn, Al, none of these)

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13. Al2O3 formation involves evolution of a larger quantity of heat, which makes its use in
__________. (Deoxidizer, confectionary, indoor photography, thermite welding)
14. A mixture of iron oxide and aluminum is called __________. (Thermite, Bauxite, Alum, none
of these)
15. Aluminum is used in __________. (X-ray welding, Spot welding, Thermite welding, none of
these)
16. __________ metal is used in photoflash bulbs. (Ca, Na, W, Al)
17. The alloy of aluminum, which contains small quantities of manganese, copper and
magnesium, is called __________. (duralumin, Magnesium, Alnico, none of these)
18. The alloy of aluminum with small percentage of magnesium is called __________.
(Duralumin, Magnesium, Alnico, none of these)
19. The aluminum, which contains 20% nickel, 20% aluminum, 50% iron and 10% cobalt is
called __________. (Duralumin, Magnesium, Alnico, none of these)
20. An alloy of aluminum made by alloying 5-15% aluminum and has a golden luster is called
__________. (duralumin, Magnesium, Aluminum Bronze, none of these)
21. All the alums crystallize to yield __________. (Octahedral crystal, Tetrahedral crystal,
Trigonal crystal, Linear crystal)
22. The process of permanent dyeing is called __________. (Mordanting, Painting, Calination,
none of these)
23. The solvent used in the extraction of aluminum from its ore is __________. (Cryolite, Bauxite,
Molten sodium chloride, Water)
24. The group IV-A of the periodic table consists of __________ elements. (three, four, five, six)
25. In group IV-A the metallic character down the group __________. (Increases, Decreases,
remains constant, none of these)
26. __________ does not contain aluminum. (Felsper, Cryolite, Kaolin, Anhydrite)
27. Carbon differs from other members of its group due to the absence of __________ electrons.
(s, p, d, none of these)
28. Elements, which exist in two or more physical or molecular forms, are called __________.
(Isotopes, Allotropes, Isobars, none of these)
29. Out of the following elements of group IV A of the periodic table the higher density is for
the element __________. (C, Si, Ge, Pb)
30. Diamond is a __________ conductor of electricity and heat. (Poor, Good, None, none of these)
31. __________ is used as a lubricant for machinery and also as a moderator in nuclear reactors.
(Diamond, Graphite, Epsom, Gypsum)
32. Highest melting and boiling point is for __________. (C, Ge, Si, Pb)
33. PbO behaves as a/an __________. (Amphoteric oxide, basic oxide, super oxide, sub oxide)
34. White lead is prepared by __________. (Dutch process, Solvay’s Process, Down’s Process,
none of these)
35. __________ member of the group V-A show several oxidation states such as –1, +2, +3, +4
and +5. (P, As, Sb, N)
36. __________ member of the group V-A forms multiple bonds.(P, Bi, As, N
37. __________ member of group V-A does not show allotropy. (P, Sb, N, As)
38. In __________ solution glass is soluble. (HNO3, HCl, HF, H2CO3)
39. On industrial scale Nitric acid is prepared by __________. (Dutch Process, Birkland-Eyde’s
Process, Solvay’s Process, Ostwald’s Process)
40. In Ostwald’s Process the substance used to oxidize ammonia is __________. (Zn, Pt, CO, none
of these)
41. Copper reacts with dilute nitric acid to form __________. (Nitric oxide, nitrogen peroxide,
nitrous oxide, none of these)
42. Nitric acid is a strong __________.(reducing agent, bleaching agent, oxidizing agent, none of
these)

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43. A mixture consisting of one volume of concentrated HNO3 and three volumes of
concentrated HCl is called __________. (Aqua regia, Meta stannic acid, Alum, Sandhur)
44. Tetra ethyl lead is used as __________. (Fire extinguisher, Pain Killer, Mosquito repellent,
Petroleum Additive)
45. Nitric acid is used in the manufacture of __________. (Cellulose, Varnishes, T.N.T, all of
these)
46. __________ allotropic form of coal is hard. (Peat, Lignite, Anthracite, Graphite)
47. __________ molecule is paramagnetic nature. (O, S, Se, Po)
48. __________ element exhibits the largest number of allotropic forms amongst the elements.
(C, Si, S, P)
49. __________ element is the most abundant element in earth’s crust. (Ca, Si, C, O)
50. There are __________ rings in unit cell of Rhombic sulphur. (8, 12, 16, 20)
51. Graphite is used in nuclear reactor as __________. (A Lubricant, A fuel, for lining the inside
of reactor as an insulator, for reducing the velocity of neutrons)
52. In its unit cell, monoclinic sulphur possesses how many S8 rings. (12, 6, 3, 0)
53. H2S is a good __________. (reducing agent, oxidizing agent, bleaching agent, none of these)
54. In the aqueous solution H2S ionizes to produce __________ ions and behaves as a weak acid.
(H+, H-, OH-, none of these)
55. H2S reduces halogens to __________. (hydrides, halides, halogens, none of these
56. By __________ process the H2SO4 produced is pure and can be produced of any desired
strength. (Lead Chamber Process, Contact Process, Down’s Cell, none of these)
57. __________ gas is responsible for rising of bread. (CO, CO2, NH3, O2)
58. Concentrated sulphuric acid acts as a __________. (Reducing agent, Oxidizing agent,
Dehydrating agent, None of these)
59. __________ charcoal is used to decolorize brown sugar solution. (Wood, Coconut, Animal,
Sugar)
60. Hot concentrated sulphuric acid acts as an __________ usually itself reduced to sulphur
dioxide. (Dehydrating, Oxidizing, Reducing, none of these)
61. __________ is the two elements that find wide application in transistor industry. (Silicon
and Germanium, Carbon and Platinum, Iridium and Germanium, Tungsten and Platinum)
62. In the manufacture of certain explosives such as nitroglycerine, trinitrotoluene and gun
cotton etc. Sulphuric acid is used as a __________. (Oxidizing agent, Reducing agent,
Dehydrating agent, none of these)
63. Chlorine is obtained by reacting concentrated HCl with __________ agent, such as MnO2,
KClO3, KMnO4. (Reducing, oxidizing, dehydrating, none of these)
64. Electrolysis of Brine produces __________. (Chlorine, Hydrogen, H2S, Nitrogen)
65. H2S solution in water is __________. (Neutral, Acidic, Basic)
66. Chlorine gas is __________ in color. (Yellow, Greenish Yellow, Violet, Blue)
67. __________ produces inflammation of the nose and throat when breathed in considerable
quantities. (Nitrogen, Carbon dioxide, Chlorine, Hydrogen Sulphide)
68. To kill bacteria, most of the drinking water is treated with __________. (Nitrogen, Carbon
dioxide, Chlorine, Hydrogen Sulphide)
69. Chlorine is used in the preparation of poisonous gases of warfare, such as __________.
(COCl2, H2S, HCl, none of these)
70. The oxide formed by AI is __________. (Acidic, Amphoteric, Basic)
71. The compound formed between an element A of group IIIA and an element B of group
VIA has the formula __________. (AB, A2, AB3, A2B3)
72. Phosgene is the common name of __________. (Carbon dioxide and Phosphene, Phosphoryle
chloride, Carbonyl Chloride, Carbon Tetrachloride)
73. When boric acid (H3BO3) is heated of 140°C, it forms __________. (Boric Acid, Pyroboric acid,
Metaboric acid)

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03012220499
74. Aqua regia is mixture of one part of __________ by volume and three parts of __________.
(H2SO4, H3PO4, HNO3, HCl)
75. On the basis of available data of the structure of monoclinic sulphur, it probably consists
of __________ chains. (S6, S2, S4, S8)
76. Rhombic sulphur consists of __________. (S8 chains, S2 chains, S4 rings, S8 rings)
77. The form of sulphur, which is stable at room temperature and normal atmospheric
pressure, is __________. (orthorhombic, hexagonal, mono clinic, amorphous)
78. When H2S gas is dissolved in aqua regia, the function of HCl in the mixture is to __________.
(oxidize the sulphur, oxidize the mercury, complex the sulphur, complex the mercury)
79. The synthesis of ethers from alcohol depends on the fact that sulphuric acid is a good
__________. (oxidizing agent, reducing agent, complexing agent, dehydrating agent)
80. __________ of the following has the highest catenation capability. (Oxygen, Sulphur,
Selenium, Tellurium)
81. Hydro fluoride acid is __________. (a powerful oxidizing agent, a weak acid, a strong acid, a
good reducing agent)
82. __________ of the following is most powerful oxidizing agent. (F2, Cl2, Br2, I2)
83. __________ of the following exhibits the largest electrical conductivity in the liquid state.
(F2, Cl2, Br2, I2)
84. __________ of the following exhibits the highest bond energy. (F2, Cl2, Br2, I2)
85. The color of I2 solution can be discharged by shaking a aqueous solution of __________.
(Sulphur dioxide, sodium thiosulphate, sodium sulphite, sodium sulphate)
86. Bleaching powder is obtained by the interaction of Cl2 and __________. (a dilute solution of
Ca(OH)2, conc. Solution of Ca(OH)2, dries CaO, dry slaked lime.
Equations:
Auto oxidation and reduction of Cl2

Litharge is heated with conc. H2SO4
Litharge (PbO) with sodium chloride
Action of conc. H2SO4 on sucrose
Action of hot & conc. HNO3 on copper.
Action of dilute HNO3 on copper.
Action of Aqua Regia on gold.
When carbon monoxide is treated with Cl2
Boiling of colemanite (Ca2B6O11) with washing soda.
When rhombic sulphur is heated to 95.5 oC.
Chrome yellow with caustic soda
Ferric oxide with Al (Thermite process)
Al reacts with aqueous NaOH
Working of aqua regia
P + HNO3 (conc) 
Zn + HNO3 (dil) 
Zn + H2SO4 (conc) 
Zn + H2SO4 (dil) 
H2S + H2SO4 
Na2B4O7 + H2SO4 
BN + H2O 
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03012220499
Na2B4O7 + H2O 
HCOOH + H2SO4 (conc) 
Si + HNO3 (conc)
Cu + HNO3 (dil) 
Cu + HNO3 (conc) 
Al + H2SO4 (dil) 
Al + H2SO4 (conc) 
H3BO3+ NaOH 
SO2+Cl2 
H2S + Br2 
Al + NaOH 
Iron sulphide reacts with acid
Oxidation of iron pyrite
Boric acid as weak acid
Borax as base
Oxidation of ammonia
Action of acid on stibnite
Action o NaOH on chrome yellow
Boiling litharge with NaCl
Dehydration of oxalic acid
Decomposition of cryolite
Action of Na2CO3 on alumina
Action of heat on boric acid

Page 37
03012220499

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

Important Features Of P-Block Elements:

 There are 30 elements in p-block.

Properties Of p Block Elements:

Following are some important properties of p-block elements.

 Down the group atomic radii increases as number of shell increases.

 The p block elements possess both i.e. anions & cations.

“The tendency of an atom to produce cation (+ve ion) is called electropositivities”

Melting & boiling points:

 Down the group in IV-A elements MP’s & BP’s decreases.

LECTURE HANDOUT’s Dr. Zain Ul Abdeen

P block Active Elements P block Inactive Elements

They are reactive. They are inert.

Why I.P. increases along the periods?

Why I.P decreases down the group?

Why electropositivities (Metallic character) increase down the group?

Why Metallic character of Al is greater than B?

Electron population of B (2nd period) = (3:8)

LECTURE HANDOUT’s Dr. Zain Ul Abdeen

LECTURE HANDOUT’s Dr. Zain Ul Abdeen

Aluminum is extract from its Bauxite ore Al2O3.n H2O.

It involves following steps,

>> Preparation Of Pure Alumina:

 Bauxite usually contains impurities like Fe2O3 & SiO2.

Hall’s Method. (Fe2O3 & SiO2)

Al 2 O3 .nH 2 O  Na2 CO3 

 This precipitates are washed.

 This method is used when bauxite contains Fe2O3 as an impurity.

LECTURE HANDOUT’s Dr. Zain Ul Abdeen

 The solution of sodium aluminates is heated with H2O.

 This precipitates are washed.

 This method is used when bauxite contains SiO2 as an impurity.

 Aluminum nitride on hydrolysis with H2O produces precipitates of Al(OH)3.

 This precipitates are washed.

>>Electrolysis Of Pure Alumina:

Electrolysis of pure alumina is carried out in an electrolytic cell.

LECTURE HANDOUT’s Dr. Zain Ul Abdeen

 It is obtained at the bottom of the tank.

>>Refining Of Aluminum By Hoop’s Method:

The refining of pure aluminum is done by Hoop’s electrolytic method.

(i) Upper Layer:

(ii) Middle Layer:

(iii) Bottom Layer:

LECTURE HANDOUT’s Dr. Zain Ul Abdeen

Allotropic Forms Of Carbon:

There are two allotropic forms of carbon.

There are, many amorphous forms of carbon, some are as,

There are two crystalline forms of carbon.

 The diamond is a crystalline form of carbon.

 The graphite is crystalline form of carbon.

Structural Difference between Diamond & Graphite:

Allotropic Forms Of Sulphur:

Following are the allotropic forms of sulphur.

LECTURE HANDOUT’s Dr. Zain Ul Abdeen

Following are some crystalline sulphur.

 Rhombic (α) Sulphur

 It is crystalline form of sulphur.

 It is crystalline form of sulphur.

 Rhombic sulphur is stable below 95.5 °C.

R hom bic.Sulphur 95

 It is also called as γ sulphur.

LECTURE HANDOUT’s Dr. Zain Ul Abdeen

It is very brilliant. It possess dull luster.