Advanced Estimation Manual

Advanced Estimation
Annual Maintenance &

Services Offer
2014 - 2015
Advanced Estimation using Studio

RM Training Course Manual
.
Table of Contents
Introduction 4
Objectives 4
Prerequisites 4
Acronyms and Abbreviations 4
Using This Training Manual 4
More information 5
Chapter 1 6
Getting Started: Introduction to Advanced Estimation 6
Principles 6
Univariate and Multivariate Estimation 6
The AE Dialog 7
Exercises 8
Exercise 1: Displaying the AE Dialog 8
Chapter 2 9
Data preparation 9
Setting up a Scenario 9
Description of fields: 9
Exercises 10
Exercise 1: Create and manipulate Scenarios 10
Selecting input samples for estimation 10
Exercises 13
Exercise 1: Load and analyse the data 13
Exercise 2: Selecting samples using the AE Dialog 15
Chapter 3 18
Principles 18
Preparation of Data for Variography 18

Creating Variograms 19
Introduction 1
Exercises 22
Exercise 1: Investigate Anisotropy 22
Exercise 2: Create Variograms 23
Chapter 4 26
Principles 26
Fit Models 26
Automatic fitting of model variograms 29

Field Details: 29
Model Parameters for manual fitting 30

Control Points: 31
Field Details: 31
Sub-Panels 32
Model preparation for estimation 34

Field Details: 34
Estimations 35
Format 35
Field Details: 35
Exercises 36
Exercise 1: Fit Models 36
Additional Exercises 36
Additional Exercise 1: Test… 36
Chapter 5 37
Principles 37
Why do I need KNA? 37
Select locations 38
Select Variogram 38
Define Grid Parameters 39
Select Locations 39
Test grid size around selected locations 39
Optimize 40
Variogram Model 40
Optimizations 40
Optimising Discretization points 41
Optimising Block Size 42
Optimising Search Parameters 43
Introduction 2
Chapter 6 45
Grade Estimation 45
Principles 45
Run Estimation 54
Exercises 55
Exercise 1: Test… 55
Additional Exercises 55
Additional Exercise 1: Test… 55
Introduction 3
INTRODUCTION
Objectives
Your day-to-day activities are geared to maximizing the resource and profit of your operation. This
training course has been designed with the specific goal of teaching you how Studio RM can be used
to assist you in achieving these business objectives.
Prerequisites
It is not essential to have prior experience with Datamine software. However, it is expected that you
are familiar with standard exploration and/or mining practices and have experience with computers
under the Windows™ environment.
The training exercises can be completed using either your own data or a specific set of data that is
distributed with the software.
Acronyms and Abbreviations
The following table includes acronyms and abbreviations used in this document.
Abbreviation Description
DTM Digital Terrain Model
VR Virtual Reality
DSD Data Source Drivers
CAD Computer Aided Drawing
RL Reduced Level
.dm file A Datamine format file
Using This Training Manual
To make information as accessible and as easy to understand as possible each module is divided into
standard sections with each module comprising the following:
 Principles – This section contains background information and outlines the underlying
principles pertaining to the module.
 Exercises – This section contains a number of step-by-step guided exercises using the
tutorial data set supplied with the Studio RM installation.
 Additional exercises – This section contains a number of additional course exercises that
your course instructor may ask you to perform during the course or on your own time.
Introduction 4
The following boxes appear throughout the manual:
 Notes
Notes provide supplementary information to the topic and give you a broader understanding of the
item being discussed.
 Tips
Tips are used to provide hints and suggestions about how best to achieve an end result. Tips will be
used to provide alternative methods, or shortcuts that may be useful.
 Warnings
Warnings are used to highlight potentially destructive actions and raise awareness of how not to use
the application.
More information
Studio RM includes a wide range of online information available from the Help menu.
Further information on Datamine software and services can be obtained from the web site at
www.dataminesoftware.com.
Introduction 5
CHAPTER 1
GETTING STARTED: INTRODUCTION TO ADVANCED ESTIMATION
In this chapter, you will:
 Be introduced to Univariate and Multivariate Estimation
 Be introduced to the Advanced Estimation Dialog
 Access the Advanced Estimation Dialog
Principles
Univariate and Multivariate Estimation
The Advanced Estimation (AE) module provides a range of methods for estimating grades into a block
model including both univariate and multivariate kriging methods. With univariate kriging each block
estimate is calculated from the sample values for a single variable (grade). The multivariate cokriging
method uses values from other grades that are correlated to the grade being estimated
The two main cases where cokriging can improve the estimates (ie reduce the kriging variance
compared to univariate kriging) are:
 A variable is poorly sampled but correlates with a secondary variable that is much better
sampled
 A variable has poor low spatial continuity, but correlates with one that has better continuity.
In both cases the secondary variable(s) should help to improve estimates of the first variable,
particularly in the first case. Cokriging can be used if there is a full set of data for both the primary
and secondary grades, but there is often very little or no improvement in the estimates.
Multivariate estimation requires the variables to be well correlated, either positively or negatively. The
mutual spatial behavior of regionalized variables is known as co-regionalization. Cokriging requires
the same conditions to be satisfied as kriging does, but needs additional variography and modelling
tools which are provided in the AE module.
AE provides many additional features and functions that are can be used for both univariate and
multivariate estimation. These include:
 Guided Workflow: an integrated set of dialogs that lead the user through the steps required
for a univariate or multivariate estimation study. In addition, all the standard Studio
commands are available from the ribbon menu system.
 Scenario Management: create a new estimation scenario, save a copy of the current
scenario or edit a previously saved one.
 Bivariate Data Analysis: to calculate and display bivariate statistics by domain for each pair
of grades.
 3D Variogram Model: create a 3D block model of variogram values and use the new
Variogram specific task view to determine the directions of anisotropy.
 Variogram Calculation: for both variograms and for cross-variograms if cokriging
 Variogram Model Fitting: this includes dynamic lag control and automatic fitting options.

 Kriging Neighborhood Analysis (KNA): to assist in the selection of optimal sample search
volume and estimation parameters.
 Estimation Methods: include ordinary and simple kriging and cokriging, nearest neighbor
and inverse distance methods.
 Worked Example: as well as providing contextual help information for each part of the dialog,
there is also a worked example and description.
All files generated and used in AE are based on Studio RM; the main project file has a .dmproj extension.
The AE Dialog
The dialogs are divided into five main sections

 Scenario
 Scenario Setup: create a new estimation scenario, save a copy, edit or delete an
existing one. At any stage in the estimation process one or more copies of the current
scenario (all inputs and outputs) can be saved. Alternative options can then be
tested on these new scenarios and the effect of the changes analysed.
 Samples:
 Select Samples: choose the sample file and grade/variable field(s). Summary
statistics by zone are provided for the sample file and bivariate statistics for each pair
of grade fields.
 Variography:
 Investigate Anisotropy: create a 3D block model of variogram values and rotate
orthogonal planes through the model displaying the variogram contours. The results
can significantly help to identify the directions of the major, minor and intermediate
axes of anisotropy.
 Create Variograms: calculate both experimental variograms and cross-variograms.
 Fit Models: display and analyse your experimental variograms. Use the dynamic lag
control to identify the optimum lag distance. Variogram models can be fitted
automatically or manually or a combination of both. The models are then saved for
input to the estimation process.
 Kriging Neighbourhood Analysis (KNA)
 Select Locations: define one or more locations in the model volume to create the
test cells to be used for the KNA study.
 Optimize: calculate and display KNA statistics for the test cells and determine the
optimum parameters.
 Estimation:
 Select Prototype: select a previously defined prototype model (e.g. using create-
model-prototype), and display a summary of samples and cells per zone. More...
 Define Estimations: configure new or existing estimation runs. You can define an
estimation by its type, variables, zones and/or many other parameters. You can also
copy estimations to new items in order to adjust existing parameters and assess the
results. If candidate models were provided in the Fit Models panel, you can retrieve
them here also for the purpose of setting up an estimation.
 Review Variograms: view and assign variograms to each estimation defined in the
previous step. If candidate models have been selected, this assignment will be
automatic.

 Select Search Volumes: view, assign and edit search volumes and parameters, and
(optionally) import/export search volumes.
 Run Estimation: the dialog gives a summary of the files, fields and parameters that
have been selected for the run. If any changes need to be made return to the
appropriate dialog and edit as required. Otherwise click the Run Estimation button to
create the block model.
A full description of each of the five main sections on the Dialogs is to be found in the Help feature of the
Dialog box
Exercises
Exercise 1: Displaying the AE Dialog
1. Open Studio RM; make sure you have installed a License key for the AE module. Save the
project file as [Datamine_AE]
2. Using the Estimate Ribbon, open the AE dialog (Estimate | Advanced Estimation)
Figure 1: The Advanced Estimation Ribbon.

3. The Dialog appears as a floating window which can be docked onto a separate screen
Figure 2: The Advanced Estimation dialog.

CHAPTER 2
DATA PREPARATION
In this chapter, you will learn to:
 Create and Manage your grade estimation scenarios
 Select Samples for Estimation
 Undertake basic data analysis
 Review Univariate and Multivariate statistics
Setting up a Scenario
This panel is part of the Advanced Estimation dialogs, and is used to define a name for an estimation
scenario.
An estimation scenario is a collection of information used to undertake an advanced grade estimation
study and includes items such as the sample data, grade/variable fields, zone definitions, variography
settings and models and estimation configuration(s).
You can also copy an existing scenario for the purpose of experimenting with different settings around
a particular theme, for example if you wish to fit a different variogram model from that used in a previous
study, or wish to assess the impact of defining different search volume parameters.
Using this panel, you can:
 Create a new scenario
 Change the name of an existing scenario
 Copy an existing scenario (which can be subsequently edited if required)
 Load a different scenario
 Delete a scenario
Description of fields:
Create New: adds a new entry (named "New scenario") to the bottom of the list in the Scenario
Selection area. If you are in the process of making changes to an existing scenario, you will be asked
if you wish to commit or discard those changes before creating the new entry. Once added, you can
use the Loaded Scenario group on the right to edit the name of the new scenario.
Scenario Table: this simple table shows, for each scenario, its name, samples file name (for a new
scenario, this will be blank - it is specified on the Select Samples panel) and, if specified, an input
prototype model (again, this will be blank until one is specified using the Select Prototype panel.
Load Selected: access an existing scenario by highlighting it in the list above and clicking this button.
You will be notified of unsaved changes with the current scenario.
Create Copy: make an exact (but editable) copy of the selected scenario, as a new entry in the scenario
list.
Delete: remove a scenario by highlighting it and clicking this button. You will need to confirm this action.
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Scenario Name: an editable field showing the name of the scenario. If you make changes here, you
need to commit them using Save Changes. Otherwise, you can revert back to the previous description
with Revert Changes.
Save Changes: this will save the changes to the project file. However, you will also need to save the
project file before you exit Studio. If you delete the Advanced Estimation window by clicking the X in
the top right corner the scenario will be saved to the project file, but the project file will still need to be
saved when you exit Studio.
Exercises
Exercise 1: Create and manipulate Scenarios
1. In the Scenario Setup panel create a new Scenario by clicking on the Create New... button.
2. Change the Scenario name to EG_1 and Save Changes
3. Create a second Scenario and Name it 3D_1.
4. If you select either of the Scenarios there is an option to Load, Copy and Delete them
5. Check that the Dialog appears as shown below
Figure 3: The Scenario Setup panel after new scenarios are created.
Selecting input samples for estimation
The Samples panel is used to define the sample files and fields for estimation. Sample summary
statistics (several options are available) are shown for each sample/zone combination.
The panel is divided into the following basic areas:
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 Input Samples: this is where select the input sample file. By default, coordinate fields will be
auto-detected, but you can set them yourself if you are using a specific naming convention that
is not recognized.
 Once a sample file has been selected, you should choose one or more grade/variable fields
that will be used for the estimation. This section is also used to select optional field(s) to define
one or two estimation zones (domains) and a hole identification field,
 Sample Summary: once you have defined your fields, a summary table is provided to provide
some basic statistics on the number of samples and distances between samples.
 Sample Statistics: this area provides bivariate statistics between each pair of selected grades.
If one or two zone fields have been selected, you can choose the combination of zones for
which statistics are displayed.
Input Samples: this command group contains the following fields:

 Samples file: specify (or browse for) your samples file.
 X/Y/Z: your application will attempt to map 3D coordinate fields automatically but you can, if
you wish, set them to any numeric data field found in the specified input samples file.
 Select grade/variable fields: select one or more grade/variable fields in the list.
 Zone 1/2: select (optionally) one or two zone (domain) fields in the samples file to define a
single zone field or a combination of two zone fields for which statistics will be calculated.
This will subsequently allow you to define a different variogram model and estimation
parameters for each combination of zones. It will also allow you to select a subset of zones
for the estimation.
 Once selected, each unique zone value in that column will be represented as a distinct Zone
Selection button in the Sample Statistics area, e.g.:
Figure 4: The Scenario Setup panel showing Zonal Control.

If no zone(s) are defined on this panel, subsequent processes will use all sample data for the
estimations.
Hole ID: if your sample set contains borehole identification values, you can specify the field
name here. This allows downhole variograms to be calculated and also allows sample
selection to be restricted by a maximum number of samples per hole.
 From and To: if the FROM and TO fields exist in the samples file they are identified
automatically; otherwise the user can select them. The values are used for calculation the
sample length (TO – FROM) which is reported in the Sample Summary table below.
Sample Summary: this table shows statistics for each combination of zones:
Zone: zone identifier(s) for each combination of zone values. If two zone fields have been selected
then the zone values will be separated by the “/” symbol. The bottom row will be shown as zone
“All”, giving statistics over all zones or in the case where no zones have been selected.
Samples: the total number of samples for the specified zone(s).
No of Holes: if a Hole ID field has been selected above, this column contains the number of holes
for which zone values have been detected.
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Max dist: the maximum distance between sample pairs
Mean dist: the average distance between sample pairs
Min dist: the minimum distance between sample pairs
Mean length: the average sample length, calculated as TO - FROM
Absent length: the number of samples with an absent data From or TO value.
Sample Statistics: this area shows bivariate statistics for each pair of selected grades:
Recalculate sample stats: this button is enabled where a selection has been made for which a
calculated statistic is not yet available. For example, if you introduce a new variable using the
Select grade/variable fields list on the left, for which no existing value exists in memory.
Zone selection: if a ZONE field(s) has been selected and multiple zone values exist, you can
select the zone for which the summary is calculated here (using either the Zone 1, Zone 2 or both
drop-down lists on the left).
If no zone field has been specified, or only one zone exists, statistics will be generated for all the
samples
Statistic: what do you want to see? You can choose from any of the following options:
 Number of pairs: show the total number of sample pairs (which must have non-absent
values) for each of the selected variable/grade field combinations.
o Colour Key – identify missing values
 Orange: zero pairs
 Blue: >0 pairs
 Correlation Coefficient: a measure of the relationship between the nominated sample

variables. The value of the coefficient lies between +1 and -1, where a positive value
indicates a positive linear relationship (both variables increasing or both variables
decreasing together) and a negative value indicates a negative linear relationship (one
variable increasing as the other decreases). A coefficient close to +1 or -1 represents a
very strong relationship and a coefficient close to zero a weak relationship (or in the case
of zero, no relationship).
o Colour Key – see p-value below
 Correlation P-value: the p-value is the probability that you would have found the current
result if the correlation coefficient were in fact zero (the null hypothesis). For example, you
are trying to determine if the relationship between gold and silver is significant; then we
start with the ‘null hypothesis’ which, in this case is the statement that the gold and silver
grade values are unrelated’. The p-value is a number between 0 and 1 representing the
probability that this data could have arisen if the null hypothesis were true. The probability
is shown as value between 0 (0%) and 1 (100%).
o Colour Key – this is based on both the correlation coefficient (cc) and p-value (p)
 Grey on main diagonal
 Blue: if cc ≤ 0.3 or p > 0.05
 Orange: if 0.3 ≤ cc ≤ 0.6 and p ≤ 0.05
 Green: cc > 0.6 and p ≤ 0.05
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 Covariance: the covariance provides a measure of how much two random variables
change together. If the greater values of one variable mainly correspond with the greater
values of the other variable, and the same holds for the lesser values, i.e., the variables
tend to show similar behavior, the covariance is positive. In the opposite case, when the
greater values of one variable mainly correspond to the lesser values of the other, i.e., the
variables tend to show opposite behavior, the covariance is negative. The sign of the
covariance therefore shows the tendency in the linear relationship between the variables.
The magnitude of the covariance is not easy to interpret. The normalized version of the
covariance, the correlation coefficient, and the p-value, shows by their magnitude the
strength of the linear relationship.
The covariance of a grade with itself is the variance of the grade.

o Colour Key – see p-value above, except that it is blue on the main diagonal
 F Ratio: the F Ratio test can be used to help determine whether the variances of two sets
of measured values with different numbers of samples are significantly different from each
other. For example if a set of samples are analyzed by two laboratories and you want to
test whether there is a difference between them. The value shown in the matrix should be
compared to a set of standard values available from statistics text books or from the web:
http://www.itl.nist.gov/div898/handbook/eda/section3/eda3673.htm
o Colour Key – main diagonal grey, otherwise blue
 Paired T-Test: the paired t test can be used to help determine whether the means of two
paired sets of measured values are significantly different from each other. For example if a
set of samples are analyzed by two laboratories and you want to test whether there is a
difference between them. For further information see:
http://www.itl.nist.gov/div898/handbook/eda/section3/eda53.htm
o Colour Key: – main diagonal grey, otherwise blue
The lookup table: once you have defined the scope and type of statistical information you want to
view, the color-coded correlation table below will automatically update to indicate the relationship
between variables for that particular context.
Exercises
Exercise 1: Load and analyse the data
In this Exercise you will visualize the sample file and undertake basic statistics. Three grade fields AG,
AU and CU have been selected and the Zone 1 field is “ROCK”. This is the domain field for statistical
and variogram analysis. The coordinate fields have been assigned automatically as have the fields
BHID, FROM and TO.
1. Add the given data to your project file
2. Load the samples file [holes_eg1] onto the 3D Window and visualize. You can optionally,
load the wireframe file [topotr].
3. Create a legend on ROCK and visualize the sample file. There are four values for the ROCK
field, 0, 1, 2 and 3. The view in the East – West section is as shown:
Data preparation 13
Figure 5: Data view of based on ROCK legend.
4. Generate some histograms with Value Field = AU and Key field = ROCK
Figure 6: Histograms of AU based on ROCK field.
Data preparation 14
5. Generate some Scatter plots to understand the multivariate statistics. As an example, the
relationship for AU vs AU, and AG vs AU per rock type would appear as shown below:
Figure 7: Scatter plots of AG vs AU based on Key field = ROCK.
6. Repeat this exercise for AU and CU
Exercise 2: Selecting samples using the AE Dialog
In this exercise you will load and understand the multivariate statistical behaviour by means of the AE
Dialog
1. Activate the AE Dialog and select the EG_1 Scenario
2. In the Samples panel, load the samples file [holes_eg1]
3. Assign the required coordinates and specify Zone 1 = ROCK. The Summary table shows that
there are four values for the ROCK field, 0, 1, 2 and 3. The statistics for distance (Max dist,
Mean dist, Min dist) are for the distances between all pairs of samples for each value of ROCK.
The minimum distance should never be zero as this would indicate coincident samples. This
would cause an error when kriging so would need to be resolved at this stage.
Data preparation 15
Figure 8: Select Samples grade field and summary table
4. On the right of the Select Samples panel, click on Recalculate sample statistics to obtain
statistics for each rock type.
Figure 9: Sample statistics selection for ROCK = 1
Data preparation 16
Zone 1 has been selected in the Sample Statistics area and the Statistic is Number of non-absent pairs.
The matrix shows the number of non- absent sample pairs for each pair of grades. For example, there
are 4058 samples that have non-absent AG values (row AG, column AG) and also 4058 samples for
which both AG and AU are non-absent (row AU, column AG). However, there are only 3136 samples
that have non-absent values for both CU and AG (row CU, column AG).
This matrix shows the number of samples that will be used for calculating each variogram and cross-variogram.
If there are less than 100 samples it is unlikely that even an omni-directional variogram will show a structure that
can be modelled. A minimum of several hundred samples is usually required for defining directional
variograms and cross-variograms.
5. By clicking on the drop down dialog under Statistics, check that the other options are as
shown below
Non-Absent Pairs Correlation Coefficient Correlation P-Value
Covariance F-Ratio Paired t-Test Statistic

Figure 10: Various sample statistics for ROCK = 1
6. Discuss the meaning and significance of the bivariate statistics:

a. Correlation Coefficient
b. Correlation P – Value
c. Covariance
d. F – Ratio
e. Paired t – Test Statistics
Data preparation 17
CHAPTER 3
DATA ANALYSIS AND VARIOGRAPHY
 Review your understanding of Variography
 Investigate anisotropy of Data
 Generate an experimental variogram
 Analyse a variogram
 Model a variogram and cross - variogram
Principles
A variogram is a measure of the spatial dependence (i.e. a measure of increasing variability) of data
over some distance. Variogram analysis involves generating an experimental variogram from the data
and then fitting a best fit line/curve creating a variogram model which is then used during kriging
estimation methods.
Two samples close together often have similar grades. As the distance increases, on average the
sample grades become more different until a distance is reached (usually) beyond which there is no
correlation.
The variogram measures the rate of decrease in correlation between two samples as a function of their
distance apart and the orientation of the vector between the samples.
Preparation of Data for Variography
This panel is part of the Advanced Estimation dialog and is used to create a 3D variogram map. A
good description of Variography is found in the Resource Estimation Manual using Studio RM.
Figure 11: Typical 3D Variogram, map in Studio RM
Data preparation 18
Multiple planes through the map can be viewed to help understand the structure of the variogram and
in particular to identify the directions and strengths of any anisotropy.
One of the views shows the variogram contours for a set of intersecting orthogonal planes. This can
help to determine the three perpendicular directions of anisotropy. It is very similar to creating and
analysing variogram contours in different planes except that it is done in 3D rather than 2D which makes
it significantly more useful and easier to understand.
The first step is to select a grade field and a zone value from the lists that were chosen in the previous
stage. The 3D variogram map is created using the Create 3D Map button and is displayed automatically
in the Variogram window.
The window is split into four sub-windows with three of them showing orthogonal planes through the 3D
map and the fourth showing all three intersecting planes. Each of the planes can be rotated about the
origin point with the plane windows maintaining orthogonal views.
The user should use the View Controller in each of the plane sub-windows and identify the set of
variogram contours that have the longest or shortest axis. Then the coordinate axes should be rotated
so that they align with axes of the contours. When this process is complete the coordinate axes should
all align with the axes of the contours. This then gives the best estimate of the axes of anisotropy for
the variogram model.
Armed with this information, you can then proceed to the next panel in order to create experimental
variograms for the selected grade and zone.
3D map file: the file name is generated automatically; this is a 3D variogram map (block model) file
that will be generated for the grade and zone selected below.
Select zone: if a zone field has been defined for the current estimation scenario, you need to select a
zone value using this drop-down list.
Select variable: select a grade from the drop-down list defined previously on the Select Samples
panel.
Table 1: Description of the four variogram sub-windows
Sub-window View
Top right 3D view of intersecting orthogonal planes
Top left Plan Section
Bottom right West-East Section
Bottom left South-North Section, rotated 90o anticlockwise
The Plan 3D and Plan Section views are identical because the two vertical section planes in the 3D
view are not initially visible.
Creating Variograms
This panel, part of the Advanced Estimation dialog, is used to create one or more experimental
variograms. Variograms are calculated for each zone if a ZONE field has been defined previously on
the Select Samples panel.
Data preparation 19
You can also use this panel to create cross-variograms for multivariate analysis. Once you have
selected your parameters for variogram creation (see below) click Calculate Variograms to generate
the variogram file.
Note that if you create experimental variograms on this panel, they will be automatically loaded into the
Fit Models panel when it is opened. You will also be able to use the Fit Models panel to load any
previously generated variogram file, regardless of the scenario in which it was created.
This panel contains the following areas and fields:

Input Parameters for Variogram Creation
Experimental variogram file: enter the name of the experimental variogram data file you wish to create
(or accept the default).
Select variables for variogram: select variables (grades) for variogram creation.
Calculate downhole variograms: tick the box to create downhole variograms and cross-variograms
Calculate cross-variograms: if you select more than one grade and tick the Calculate cross-
variograms box then cross-variograms will be calculated for all possible pairs of grades
Calculate directional variograms: if this is not ticked only omnidirectional variograms (and cross-
variograms if selected) will be calculated. If this box and the downhole variograms box are ticked, then
directional variograms will be calculated for both the all-samples variograms and the downhole
variograms
If none of the three variogram options (downhole, cross, directional) are selected then only omni-
directional variograms will be calculated.
Select zones: select the zones for which variograms and cross-variograms are required.
Reference Plane Rotation

You can use this area to set a reference plane and the variograms will then be created relative to this
plane. By default all three angles are set to zero so the reference plane is horizontal. If you have used
the Investigate Anisotropy option then you can read the current rotations directly from the Variogram
Window by clicking the Read from 3D map window button. If you prefer you can set the rotation angles
yourself by entering the rotations in the Angle boxes. You can also also set the order of the axes.
All variograms and cross-variograms will be calculated relative to the rotation plane. This means that
a direction along the Y axis of the rotation plane will have DIP and AZI angles of zero. The perpendicular
direction in the rotation plane, the X axis, will have a DIP of zero and an AZI of 90 o. The DIP and AZI
angle for each experimental variogram is reported in the Fit Models panel together with the WDIP and
WAZI values. These are the directions of the variograms in the World coordinate system ie relative to
a horizontal plane.
In the descriptions below for Horizontal and Vertical directions the definition for horizontal and vertical
applies to the reference plane after it has been rotated. This means that after rotation the reference
plane becomes the horizontal plane
Horizontal Directions
If the number of directions is an even number then the set of directions will always include pairs of
orthogonal directions. Although this is not essential it is often useful to make it even so that if the fitted
variogram model includes two directions in the reference plane there will always be an experimental
variogram for at least two directions of anisotropy. This will make it easier to validate the fitted model
visually.
Data preparation 20
Although the default Tolerance angle is half the incremental angle, the user can reset it if required.
Making the angle greater than the default means that there will be an overlap between adjacent
Tolerance areas. Pairs of samples lying in the overlap area will then contribute to the variogram
directions on either side. This means there will be some degree of averaging between adjacent
directions which can sometimes be helpful in smoothing the variograms and making it easier to identify
anisotropies particularly if there is a limited amount of data. Making the Tolerance angle less than half
the incremental angle will reduce the number of pairs of samples and in general will make it more difficult
to interpret any anisotropy.
Vertical Directions
No. of directions: this defines the number of dips for which variograms and cross-variograms are
calculated. The dips are measured relative to the reference plane with the default reference plane
being horizontal.
Other parameters for the vertical directions are identical to those described above for the horizontal
direction except that the angles are measured in the vertical plane.
Output
Depending on the complexity of the input sample set, it can take time to generate all of the experimental
variograms required for your scenario. Progress information is written to the Command window.
On completion the experimental variograms are written to the file defined at the top of the panel. This
can be viewed in the Table Editor and the variograms can be displayed graphically in the Fit Models
panel.
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Exercises
Exercise 1: Investigate Anisotropy
In this exercise, you investigate anisotropy for the AU grade in Zone Rock = 1
1. In the AE Dialog, navigate to the Variography Panel. The 3D map file will already have been
populated as [holes_eg1_v3dmap]. You can change the name is you wish.
2. Leave the Create surfaces box ticked. Sect Zone = 1 and variable = AU as shown below:
Figure 12: Anisotropy investigation for ROCK = 1
3. Click on the Create 3D Map button; check the Command Control Bar to monitor the progress
of the 3D Map creation. A new Variogram Window with 4 individual split sub-windows,
appears. Three of the windows are locked, while the fourth (Top-right) remains unlocked. The
corresponding view in the sub-windows is as shown:
Figure 13: Anisotropy as displayed in the 3D Map
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4. The challenge is to align each of the 3D maps on the horizontal axis. Use the outer circle (cyan)
of the View Controller to rotate each of the three section plane views so that the horizontal and
vertical axes align with the axes of the contour ellipses. The rotations of these axes will then
give a good estimate of the required model variogram. The view should appear similar to below:
Figure 14: Suggested anisotropy directions in the 3D Map
Exercise 2: Create Variograms
1. Move to the Create Variograms view, and in the top right click on Read from 3D map window.
This should populate the Reference Plane Rotation as shown below:
Figure 15: Rotation angles read from the 3D Map
The default sequence of axes is Z, then X, then Z. In the above example the first rotation is by 15.3 o around the Z
axis, then 32.1o around X, and finally 15.7o around Z.
2. On the left, select all the Variables (AG, AU and CU) and check Downhole and directional
variograms. To the right, populate the Horizontal Driections as shown below:
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Figure 16: Horizontal directions for Variogram creation
No. of directions: this defines the number of directions for which variograms and cross-variograms are calculated.
The directions all lie in the reference plane with the default reference plane being horizontal.
The incremental angle, in degrees, between adjacent directions is calculated as the Range angle (default 180o)
divided by the number of directions. For example, if the number of directions is specified as 8 then the
incremental angle between adjacent directions will be 22.5 o (180/8).
The Tolerance angle is measured in the horizontal plane either side of variogram direction and defines an arc
within which the vector connecting a pair of samples must lie in order to be assigned to that direction. The
default Tolerance angle is half the incremental angle. In the example graphic this is calculated as 11.25o. This
means that if the vector connecting two samples has a horizontal angle (azimuth) within the interval 0 o ± 11.25o
then the grades will contribute to the variogram with a 0o azimuth.
3. Populate the the Vorizontal Driections as shown below:
Figure 17: Vertical directions for Variogram creation
No. of directions: this defines the number of dips for which variograms and cross-variograms are calculated. The
dips are measured relative to the reference plane with the default reference plane being horizontal.
Other parameters for the vertical directions are identical to those described above for the horizontal direction
except that the angles are measured in the vertical plane.
4. Once you are satisfied with the settings, click on the Calculate Variograms button. The output
experimental variogram file name is vgrams_holes_eg1a.
Depending on the complexity of the input sample set, it can take time to generate all of the experimental
variograms required for your scenario. Progress information is written to the Command window.
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Figure 18: The Create Variograms Display
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CHAPTER 4
VARIOGRAPHY – MODELLING
 Model variograms
 Automatically fit model variograms
 Manually fit model variograms
 Manage Loaded variogram models
Principles
The output from variogram calculation is an experimental variogram. This needs to be modelled (‘fitting
a variogram), to produce a variogram model file. Frequently, the downhole and horizontal variograms
are modelled simultaneously. While the experimental variogram is ‘jagged’, the modelled variogram is
‘smooth’ as shown below:
Figure 19: Experimental and fitted variogram example
Fit Models
The Fit Models panel is used to load and view the experimental variograms created on the Create
Variograms panel and then apply the automatic fitting option to fit a model variogram set. The model
variograms can then be edited manually if required.
A model variogram set may include more than one model. If the multivariate model option is selected,
then the set will include a model variogram for each variable and a model cross-variogram for each pair
of variables. The variograms and cross-variograms will have the same rotations, number of structures,
structure type and ranges. If the model set is univariate then it will include just a model for each variable.
Although it is possible to have univariate models for more than one variable in a model set the estimation
process is more flexible if you keep to a single univariate model for one variable in each model set.
Using the Fit Models panel you can:
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 select the grades and experimental variograms to be displayed and analysed
 automatically fit 3D variogram models, both univariate and multivariate
 adjust model parameters through the graphical interface
 load external variogram models for comparison and modification
The resulting variogram models can then be used, optionally, in the Kriging Neighbourhood Analysis
(KNA) panel in order to optimise some of the estimation parameters. Finally, the Estimation panels are
used to select a full set of estimation parameters, including the variogram models, so that grades can
be estimated into a block model.
Experimental Variogram File: if variograms have been created using the Create Variograms panel,
the name specified there will be shown in this field. You can also access any previously-generated file
using the browse button.
Zone selection: if you specified a ZONE field on the Select Samples panel, you will be able to switch
between zonal variograms using the buttons in this section. If you did not select any zones an "All
zones" button will be displayed.
Select perpendicular variograms: if this option is selected then when you select a variogram other
variograms that are perpendicular to the selected variogram will be selected automatically.
Display downhole: if this box is ticked the table below will show only downhole variograms for
selection. If it is not ticked the table will show all variograms except downhole.
Variogram/Cross-Variogram grid: you can view variograms and cross-variograms for any
combination of variables (as defined on the Select Samples panel). Using this grid, you can select or
deselect variables for variogram model fitting. Select each required variable by clicking in the boxes of
the first column. Each pair of selected variables is then shown by the green grid squares. Click a green
grid square to display a set of variograms or cross-variograms.
Figure 20: Cross-variogram grid
The Variogram View: the central area of this panel is reserved for the display of variogram charts
and thumbnails. There are three distinct areas:
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Figure 21: Variogram view interface
Area (1) is a simple toolbar that allows you to (from left to right): save, copy (to clipboard), print, print
preview, toggle 3D mode and show/hide the chart legend.
Area (2) is the display area for the main chart - using this view you can adjust the lag distance in real-
time using the slider bar provided, and if a model has been fitted, you can manually edit the model
anchor points (optionally restricting the editing based on settings found in the Model Parameters tab.
When adjusting the lag distance, you need to ensure that the distance set is supported by the selected
experimental variogram, i.e. the variogram must have sufficient resolution.
Area (3) shows a thumbnail view of the variograms for all selected directions variograms for the selected
variable or variable pair. Both this area and the main chart area are updated automatically as a result
of changes made in other parts of the panel, for example, the Variogram Grid selection settings.
Click on the thumbnail view to load the variogram into the display area. Use the Control key to select
multiple variograms for display.
Automatic Fitting tab: this tab is used to control the actual model fitting process. It is here that you
define variogram model structures, types and extents.
Model Parameters tab: the variogram model parameter values can be restricted using the options
found on this panel. This area also gives you access to summary information and review rotation,
nugget and structural parameters.
Save Models tab: this tab displays a list of all candidate models. Fitted variogram models will be
automatically saved to the list shown in this tab. This area is also used to define estimation runs for
grade interpolation.
Format tab: this tab provides access to general visual formatting options for the Fit Models panel.
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Automatic fitting of model variograms
This panel, part of the Fit Models menu, is used to fit a model to the currently selected variogram. Both
univariate and multivariate model fitting is supported, and you can restrict model parameter values using
a range of controls, including the ability to add/remove model structures of varying types.
Figure 22: Variogram formatting tab
Field Details:
Run auto-fitting: launch the auto-fitting process - an attempt will be made to fit a model to the variogram
directions that are ticked for display and are shown as thumbnails on the bottom row of the panel.
Fit multivariate model: where multiple properties are available, this check box will be enabled to allow
a multivariate model to be fitted to the selected variogram. If disabled, the univariate instance will be
assumed.
Set total sill to variance: if this box is ticked the total sill of the model will be set equal to the statistical
variance of the samples. If the box is not ticked the total sill will be calculated from the experimental
variogram(s).
Minimum nugget %: define the minimum nugget variance as a percentage of the total sill. Setting it to
zero will allow a zero nugget variance to be calculated.
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Minimum sill % per structure: the sill of each individual structure must exceed the defined minimum
percentage of the total sill. This prevents small structures being introduced that have little influence on
the total model.
Maximum Structures: enter the maximum number of structures to be included in the variogram model.
Available Structures: a table showing the currently defined model structures is displayed together with
tools to Add, Remove or Constrain structures.
Each structure is defined as one of three Structure types: Spherical, Exponential or Gaussian. Min
and Max range values can be specified to constrain the range of each structure.
To edit an existing structure, highlight it in the list, select the required values for Structure type, min and
max, and then Apply the values.
To add a new structure, make sure none of the existing structures are highlighted, select the required
values for Structure type, min and max, and then Apply the values.
Use nugget from file: use the file browser to import nugget values from an external file. The file must
contain at least the two fields NUGGET and GRADE for univariate models and also the field GRADE2
for a multivariate model. A standard model variogram file is therefore acceptable. The imported values
are displayed in the panel.
Figure 23: Variogram nugget option
Model Parameters for manual fitting
This panel, part of the Fit Models menu, is used to define manual model fitting parameters for fitting a
model to the currently selected variogram.
The variogram model parameter values can be restricted using the options on this panel, and you can
also access summary information contained in various expanding tabs, as explained below. The upper
section of the panel - Manual Fitting - allows you to define controls when manually positioning model
line anchor points.
Figure 24: Schematic view of manual variogram model fitting
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The variogram model control points can be moved interactively using click-and-drag actions; the cursor
changes to indicate the permitted movement direction(s). (NOT YET) These depend on the type of
model control that has been selected and the defined model fitting settings, and change the parameters
as described below.
Control Points:
 Nugget Variance point: move the point vertically up/down to increase/decrease the value, if
permitted.
 Spatial Variance/Range points: move the point(s) vertically up/down to increase/decrease the
spatial variance value(s), if permitted.
 Spatial Variance/Range points: move the point(s) horizontally right/left to increase/decrease
the range value(s), if permitted.
These permitted model point movements i.e. horizontal, vertical or both, are further restricted by the
options available on this panel.
Field Details:
These four fields provide constraints on the movement of the control points.
Figure 25: Manual variogram model fitting options
Lock total sill: select this to fix the upper sill of the model at its current level. Moving the control point
for the highest structure will then only change the range. Moving control points for other structures (if
any) will change the spatial variances (Ci values).
Lock sill/nugget values: select this option to lock all variance values. Moving control points will then
only change the ranges.
Lock ranges: select this to keep the current range values. Moving control points will then only change
the spatial variances.
Constrain to positive-definite: the sill for every structure should be positive so that the variogram
model value will always increase as the distance increases. This ensures that there is a unique solution
when solving the kriging matrix. This option should always be selected.
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Sub-Panels
The selection of sub-panels displayed depends on whether a univariate or multivariate model set has
been created:
Table 2: Options for variogram model types
Sub-Panel Univariate Multivariate

Variogram Summary  
Parameters 
Rotation 
Nugget Matrix 
Structures 
Univariate
Variogram Summary Parameters
Figure 26: Univariate variogram model parameters

Variogram Summary: this sub-panel shows the variables used in the currently selected univariate
variogram set and a table of rotation angles and nugget variance for each variable. Note that the
rotations may be different for each variable.
Parameters: click on one of the grades and the sub-panel will show details of the model parameters.
The values change dynamically as the control points are dragged in the main graphics area
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Multivariate
Variogram Summary Rotation
Nugget Matrix Structures
Figure 27: Multivariate variogram model parameters

Variogram Summary: this sub-panel shows the variables used in the currently selected multivariate
variogram set. A green square shows that a valid model has been generated for the corresponding
grades; a red square indicates a problem with that model. If it has not been possible to generate a
multivariate variogram with the parameters specified, a message will be displayed in this panel.
Rotation: this sub-panel shows the rotations for the anisotropy axes. Note that in the multivariate case
all rotations and ranges will be the same.
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Nugget Matrix: this sub-panel shows the nugget variances for each combination of variables. If the
model is edited graphically by dragging the control points, then the nugget value in the grid will be
updated automatically.
Structures: this sub-panel shows ranges for each structure and the sill matrix. If the model is edited
graphically by dragging the control points, then the range values in the panel will be updated
automatically.
Model preparation for estimation
Each time a new variogram model set is created it is saved and its description is displayed in the
Candidate Model Set area on the Save Models tab.
The functions of the panel are to:
 save variogram model sets so they can be used for estimation
 import, export or delete a variogram model set
 add or remove a model set in the graphical display
Figure 28: Saving a variogram model
Field Details:
Candidate Model Sets - Descriptions: the description includes:

 Ref: a reference number so it can be easily identified
 In use: Y (yes) or N (no) to identify if it has been saved for use in the estimation process
 Variables: the grades for which variogram models have been created
 Zone: the domain(s), if any, to which the models apply
 Multivar: shows whether the models are multivariate (Yes) or univariate (No)
 Fitting: Auto if the model has been created automatically or Mix if there has been any manual
editing
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Candidate Model Sets - Operations: the operations includes:
 Save Model for estimation: highlight the model(s) and click the Create estimation(s) from
selected model(s) button. A summary is displayed in the Estimations area.
 Import: click the Import button and browse for a variogram model file that is in Studio format.
 Export: highlight the model set to be exported, click the Export button and select a folder and
file name. Note that the model set may contain more than one model. You may need change
the VREFNUM values depending on what the file is being used for.
 Delete Model Set: highlight the model set and press the Delete key. Note that if you delete
any set apart from the one in the last row, then the reference numbers will change to create a
new ordered sequence starting from 1.
 Display: double click a model set to display it in the graphics area. In order for a model to be
displayed the model set must contain the same variable as the experimental variogram that is
already being displayed.
 Remove Model: to remove the model from the graphics display double click an empty row in
the Candidate Model Sets area.
Estimations
The variables to be estimated, the zone(s) selection and the variogram models are copied from the
Variogram Model Set to an Estimation Set. This then forms the basis of a set of estimates to which
other parameters such as search volumes and estimation method will be added from the Estimation
panels. Multiple sets of estimations can be defined and run as a single process.
Create Estimation Set: highlight one or more rows in the Candidate Model Sets area and click the
Create estimation(s) from selected model button. A summary of the parameters is added to the
Estimations area. Multiple sets are chosen by holding down the Ctrl key while selecting with the mouse.
Delete Estimation Set: highlight the Estimation set to be deleted and click the X button.
Format
This panel, part of the Fit Models menu, can be used to format the visual properties of your variogram,
as displayed in the centre of the panel.
The options shown in the Annotation and Axes areas apply to all charts whereas the colour selection
in the Series area is selected for each variogram direction.
Field Details:
Title: the main variogram chart title is automatically generated by default, using the syntax
"Variogram(s) for #Property Name#". You can edit it to whatever you wish by replacing the default text.
You can also edit the font size (in points) using the up and down arrow on the right.
X-axis, Y-Axis: enter a description for your X- and/or Y-axis here. As above, you can also edit the font
size.
Axes: this group of controls allows you to define the range for the vertical and horizontal axis. By default,
all values are included, and the axes are scaled accordingly, but you can edit the values for each axis
independently by disabling the Auto check box and entering a different maximum value you want (this
may be useful. You can also define the interval spacing between grid lines.
Options: tick the box to display the number of samples pairs for each variogram point in the main
graphics area
Series: this lists the available charts in the current series using the format Azimuth/Dip. To change the
colour of a particular series highlight the Azimuth/Dip identifier and select a new colour.
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Figure 29: Saving a variogram model
Exercises
Exercise 1: Fit Models
Additional Exercises
Additional Exercise 1: Test…
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CHAPTER 5
KRIGING NEIGHBOURHOOD ANALYSIS
 Key concepts of Kriging Neighbourhood Analysis
 Understand what parameters are fit for purpose when running an estimation
 How to choose an optimal number of discretization points
 How to pick a suitable block size
 How to set the size and number of samples in your search neighbourhood
Principles
Kriging Neighbourhood Analysis (KNA) is an established technique to assist in the choice of

parameters that define your Kriging neighbourhood. The choice of parameters includes, but are not
limited to, the number of discretization points, the size and shape of search volume and number of
samples.
Having an ill-defined Kriging neighbourhood can affect the outcome and quality of a Kriging estimate.
The choice of each parameter affects your estimate differently, and the purpose of your estimate may
affect which parameters should be optimised. The parameters should be fit for purpose. Key
parameter will be discussed in this training module.
Similarly, for Ordinary or Simple Kriging, KNA is also useful when choosing suitable parameters for
non-linear estimation methods like conditional simulation and uniform conditioning.
Suggested further reading on KNA:
Vann. J, Jackson. S and Bertoli. O, 2003. Quantitative Kriging Neighbourhood Analysis for the
Mining Geologist – A Description of the Method With Worked Case Examples, 5th
International Mining Geology Conference.
Rivoirard. J, 1987. Teacher’s Aid Two Key Parameters When Choosing the Kriging
Neighbourhood, Mathematical Geology, Vol 19, No 8.
Why do I need KNA?
The results of the Kriging depend on modelled variogram, the geometry of your samples and the Kriging
Neighbourhood. The Kriging neighbourhood is made up of a number of parameters, which affect the
weights are assigned to the samples. The weights are used to determine the weighted average grade
of the samples.
The variogram model and the geometry of the samples are based on the data, but a user must choose
the parameters that make up the Kriging neighbourhood. The KNA provides the relevant information in
an easy format, so that you can choose the Kriging neighbourhood parameters to make a better
estimate.
For example, including a very large number samples in your neighbourhood may lead to the Kriged
results being closer to the grade average of the domain, but the results may not show sufficient local
variability. Conversely, having a very small number of samples could cause possible over and under-
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estimations of grade, as nearby samples could have too much influence lead to conditional biases in
your result.
Select locations
This panel is used to define the parameters and locations to be used for the KNA optimization. The
KNA process allows the user to select optimum values for parameters to be used in the estimation,
such as the number of discretisation points, the block size and the search volume.
This is achieved by selecting up to three areas with different sampling densities, evaluating a set of
statistics for a grid of model blocks in each area and displaying a scatter or line plot for each statistic
and estimation parameter value. The chosen areas represent a well-informed area, a moderately
informed area and an area with spare sampling density. The sensitivity of each statistic to changes in
estimation parameter values can then be identified and the optimum values selected.
Adding more points to the test grid will test more blocks around the selected test block. This reduces
the location sensitivity of picking a single block for testing, and so repeats the KNA testing on a grid of
blocks. For each test, average and variance of the grid block result is reported.
Figure 30: Selecting locations for KNA
Select Variogram
The first step is to choose a modelled variogram, by double clicking on a variogram in the required
row in the table. The list of variograms are all of the variograms that were modelled in the previous
panel, Variogram | Fit Models.
If you would like to run KNA with a variogram that is not in the list, it may be loaded using Variography
| Fit Models | Save Model | Import. This new variogram model will then appear in the list, and may be
selected.
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Define Grid Parameters
The model block grid to be used for the analyses can be defined either by ticking the Define from
prototype box and selecting an existing prototype model or by leaving the box unticked and entering
the origin, initial block size and grid rotation parameters into the appropriate text boxes X/Y/Z: your
application will attempt to map 3D coordinate fields automatically but you can, if you wish, set them to
any numeric data field found in the specified input samples file. The initial block size is used to define
the default base block size for subsequent optimizations.
If you are unsure of the block size, this may be left blank at this stage.
If you are using a rotated block model, you should always select the proto model here to ensure that the test
blocks are correctly aligned with your rotation.
Select Locations
The user can select up to three areas for which the KNA analysis is undertaken. As can be seen on
the Select Locations panel these are described as Well Informed, Moderately informed and Sparse.
The analyses can be presented separately for each area or averaged over all areas. The names
describe areas with different sampling densities.
 Well informed: Choose a location where there are densest number of samples, including
some samples inside the block
 Moderately informed: Choose a location area with fewer samples, but with some samples
around the block.
 Sparse: Choose a location without samples in all directions or on all on the edges of a domain
In order to be able to choose representative areas it is best if the drill hole data is first displayed in the
3D window. To define a location, first highlight a description, then click the Select in 3D window arrow
and finally select a point in the 3D window. The coordinates of the point will be displayed in the
Select Locations table. Repeat the procedure for each area required.
When picking locations for KNA, always snap to sample data in the 3D window by right clicking. If the data is
in 3-dimensional, check that the Z-coordinate falls in the range of the sample data. If the data is 2-dimensional,
make sure you snap to the plane of sample (i.e. all KNA Z-coordinates match the samples).
Test grid size around selected locations
The process calculates the cell within which the location point lies and then creates a grid of cells
around it based on the values in the X, Y and Z text boxes. By running KNA on a grid of blocks, we
can remove any bias caused by testing a single block.
By default, the test grid size is set to 3 in X, 3 in Y and 3 in Z. If your data is 2-dimensional, the 3rd
dimension (Usually Z) should always be reduced to 1.
By default, the test grid size is set to 3 in X, 3 in Y and 3 in Z. If your data is 2-dimensional, the 3rd dimension
(Usually Z) should always be reduced to 1.
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Optimize
To access this dialog, open the Advanced Estimation dialog, select Optimize from the left-hand
menu system. The optimize window is where the KNA tests are carried out. There are 3 sets of
parameters which may be optimized, and the results of the test plotted in the associated charts.
The tests should be run iteratively, switching between the Optimise Discretization, Optimise Block
Size or Optimise Search Parameters subpanels.
Variogram Model
A summary of the variogram model set that was chosen previously from the Select Locations panel is
shown in the top left corner of this panel. If the model set includes models for the multivariate case
then this option can be selected by ticking the cokriging box. Otherwise a variable should be selected
from the Select variable dropdown for a univariate optimization.
Optimizations
The inputs to each set of optimizations are defined in subpanels on the left of the main panel. The
three subpanels are for optimizing:
 Discretization points
 Block size
 Search parameters
When you run a test on any of the panels, the base value from the other panels will be used in that
test. Each subpanel has a series of inputs that are specified in an identical manner by five numbers
that define a range of values for each input. For example.
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 Base: this value is used when the estimation parameters for one of the other subpanels are
being tested.
 Min: the minimum value of the current input
 Max: the maximum value of the current input. This is calculated automatically by the process.
 No. of intervals: the number of values to be used for the current input
 Increment: the increment or step size between successive values for the current input.
The values used for X in the above example are therefore 1, 2, 3 until 20.
To run an optimization on a single input, set the “No of intervals” of the other inputs to 0.
For each optimization there are multiple inputs that can have multiple values so the number of
possible combinations can be large. For example the Optimize Discretization subpanel has three
inputs, to define the number of points in X, Y and Z. If X has 10 values, Y has 8 and Z has 6 then
there will be a total of 10*8*6 = 480 combinations.
There is an option to run with a reduced number of combinations. In this case each input is run with
just the Base value for the other inputs in the same optimization set as well as the Base values for the
inputs in the other optimization sets. In the previous example this would give just 10+8+6 = 24
combinations.
The number of combinations in the above examples is for a single location. These figures would be
increased by a factor of three if all three locations were calculated.
Optimising Discretization points
Discretization points are a grid of points inside an estimated block. Each point is estimated (as a point
estimate), and the average of these points makes up the grade of block estimate. Having more
discretization points will improve the quality of the estimate (i.e. have a lower block variance will result
in a lower Kriging error) up to point.
Of course, having more discretization points will be take slightly longer to for the estimate to complete.
This is why it’s best of pick the optimal number of discretization points as it provides an accurate
estimate in the quickest time.
In the example below, the discretization points in X is tested from 1 to 20m. The Y and Z block sizes
are excluded from this test. The resulting graph shows that as the number of discretization points
increases, the block variance decreases. In this case, having 5 discretization points is significantly
better than 2 discretization points. However, having 6 or more discretization is not much of an
improvement on having 5 discretization points. In this situation, an optimal number of discretion points
is 5.
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Below the data has been plotted for the Y direction. In this case 5 discretization points is optimal.
In the downhole direction (for vertical boreholes this is Z) the number of discretion points must equal
the number of composites that fit into a block. For example, if your block size is 10m in Z, and you
have 2m composites, you will have 5 discretization points in Z.
If your data set is 2-dimensional, you will have only 1 discretization point in the flat dimension (e.g. for
a model in XY, the Z discretization would be set as 1.
Before testing discretization points, ensure that the base values for block sizes are reasonable and base
values for search parameters are not too restrictive. If your block covariance-discretization points graph is
showing an erratic trend (not smooth), it is probably due to too few optimal samples, search ellipses that are
too small or a block sizes that are too small. This should be resolved and then repeat the test.
Optimising Block Size
The block size if often determined by the mining method, how much you expect to sample
during grade control, the geology of the deposit and the sample data (including the variogram
Data preparation 42
model). The block size has a significant impact on the estimated result. Having a very small
blocks size may be desirable, but this is compromising the accuracy of the estimate.
A rule of them is that block size should be half the average sample spacing (Vann, 2003). In
general, there is more nugget, the block sizes should be larger. Conversely, when your
variogram has good continuity, a smaller block size may be used. If a small block size shows
high slopes of regression, then this is appropriate.
A larger the block size the more accurate the result (higher slopes of regression, up to a point).
Although block sizes that are too big are also not very useful as they do not reflect the local
variations in grade and may not respect the geology. Usually a compromise can be reached by
balancing parameters.
Optimising Search Parameters
An overly restrictive search will lead to a conditional bias, while a search that is too large could
lead to grades being overly averaged. The optimal search parameters depend on the variogram
model, and the variogram should always be reviewed when selecting the parameters that make
up the search neighbourhood. A rule of thumb is that you should not have less than 10 samples
in a neighbourhood (Vann, 2003).
If your variogram model has a high nugget effect with short range structures, it is advisable to
use a large search neighbourhood which will result in block estimates being closer to the domain
average. Conversely, if you have a continuous variogram with a long range structures, a
smaller neighbourhood is advisable as samples closer to an estimated block have a larger
influence on the block estimate. In the case of pure nugget, you would include all the domain
samples in an estimate.
Slope of regression is an indicator of conditional bias. Too few samples will lead to a conditional
bias (i.e. the systematic under and over-estimating local areas). Adding more samples and
increasing the size of your neighbourhood will yield higher slopes of regression. However, if
you had too many samples, you might get a result that is “too averaged”.
Data preparation 43
When looking at the size of a neighbourhood, consider the following parameters:
 Slope of regression: Indicates if your neighbourhood is large enough. A low slope of

regression indicates conditional bias.
 Kriging efficiency: Indicates smoothing of an estimate.
 Weight if the mean (Lagrange parameter): Indicates how sparse samples are, when
there are no negative weights (Rivorard, 1987). If the weight of the mean is small, a
neighbourhood as for simple kriging (a restrictive/small neighbourhood) is sufficient. If
the weight of the mean is larger, then a larger neighbourhood is required.
 Sum of negative weights (or conversely, sum of positive weights). Negative weights
occur when there are too many samples in the neighbourhood, and may lead to
negative grades. A small amount of negative weights (<5%) is acceptable.
Data preparation 44
CHAPTER 6
GRADE ESTIMATION
In this chapter, you will learn about:
 Selecting a prototype
 Defining Estimation Parameters
 Reviewing Variography
 Defining Search Volume
 Running Estimation
Principles
The Advanced Estimation module provides a different interface from the traditional ESTIMATE
dialogue to help set up your grade estimations. The new estimation window takes advantage of
familiar concepts while adding an easy-to-understand workflow for setting up your prototype,
variography, search ellipses, and grade estimations.
Select Prototype
The first section within the Estimation section is the Select Prototype option. Here the user will be
able to:
 Select an existing input geological model
 Select a name for the output model containing the estimation data.
 Review a summary, by zone if previously selected, of the number of samples and the number
of model cells.
 Optionally select the rotation fields required for the dynamic anisotropy estimation method
Grade Estimation 45
The Select Prototype window is broken into three sections:
 Geological Model: The Geological Model section is used to define the input and output
model files. The input model can be either a constrained or unconstrained block model and
can have numerous different zone codes and fields. The output model will be the name of the
grade model.
 Summary: As can be seen in the graphic above, the Summary table shows the number of
samples for each Zone. Column 3 shows the number of parent cells in the model and column
4 the number of parent cells plus subcells in the model. The difference between the last two
columns is therefore the number of subcells. If there are zero samples or cells for any zone,
the number 0 will be shown in red. If there are zero samples but non-zero cells, then the cells
cannot be estimated. The table is for information only.
 Dynamic Anisotropy Fields: Dynamic Anisotropy is an estimation option that allows the
rotation angles for the search volume and variogram model to be defined individually for each
cell in the input geological model. This means that the search volume and variogram model
can be oriented to follow the trend of the mineralization. The method provides an easy to use
and fast way of improving the accuracy of grade estimation and is particularly suited to gently
folded and rolling orebodies. The method requires a set of up to three angles to be defined
for both the search volume and variogram model. Although the method allows for different
orientations for search volume and variogram model the two sets of angles will often be the
same. In this case the same field will be selected for each. All three angles must have
corresponding fields in the input model file. If only two angles have been calculated, then the
third field must still be created in the model and be given a value of 0. To assign Dynamic
Anisotropy fields, tick the box and select the field names from the input model. However, in
order to use these fields, you must also tick the appropriate check boxes in the Estimation
Setup area of the Define Estimations panel.
Define Estimations
This panel is used to define grade estimation parameters for the current scenario. Estimations that
use the same parameters (estimation type, discretisation level, output level, search volume) can be
grouped together and given an Estimation Case name. The case parameters can then be assigned
to a single grade or to multiple grades in multiple zones
An Estimation Case can be created automatically from the Save Models tab on the Fit Models panel.
This is the recommended method if the co-kriging option has been selected. Alternatively, a new
case can be created and parameters defined for any combination(s) of grade and zone.
An Estimation Group can be copied to a new group and its parameters edited. The results for both
groups will be written to the output model so it is then easy to compare the estimates, for example
ordinary kriging and simple kriging.
The area on the left of the panel represents the Estimation Manager, which allows you to add, delete,
copy and paste an estimation case. The icons at the top of this area allow you to create a new case
or delete an existing case. You can copy a case by highlighting it and selecting Copy from the right
click menu. Use the right click menu again to paste the copy of the case. You can edit the name of
the case in the Description box in the Estimation Setup view. The up and down arrow icons allow you
to reorder the cases displayed in this area. You can also clear the list using the Clear All Estimations
button.
Grade Estimation 46
There are two views available in the central area of the panel:
 Estimation Setup: to define the core parameters for the estimation case
 Output Field Names: a summary of the fields that will be created in the output model file
The Available Variables and Available Zones areas on the right of the panel allow you to add grades
and zones to the current case. When a new grade or zone is selected the value appears in the
corresponding area in the lower central portion of the panel under the Estimation Setup view.
There are several different options to customize under Estimation Setup:
 Description: the description of the case can be edited at any time.
 Estimation Type: the choice of estimation method, Ordinary Kriging, Simple Kriging, Nearest
Neighbour or Inverse Distance is selected using the radio buttons.
 Estimation Options: if two or more variables have been selected for the current case and all
combinations of variogram and cross-variogram models are available, then selecting the
Multivariate option will enable co-kriging to be used; otherwise it will be univariate estimation.
 If Simple Kriging has been selected, then you can choose the method for calculating
the local mean grade to be used for the estimation. If you want the process to
calculate the local mean automatically from the data in the search volume, then leave
the Use Local Mean Field check box unchecked. If you have previously created a
field in the input model file to be used for the local mean, then check the box. You
must then select the required field from the Local Mean Field dropdown list lower
down the panel.
 If Inverse Distance has been selected, then you should specify the weighting power.
 Cell Discretization: this defines the number of discretisation points for each cell in the X, Y
and Z directions. The optimum number of points can be determined using the options
described in Kriging Neighbourhood Analysis.
Grade Estimation 47
 Output Data: all estimation results are saved in fields in the output model file. Three levels of
fields are available (see chart for explanation):
 Estimates and variance
 Standard statistics
 All kriging statistics
Suffix Description Estimates Standard All

and Statistics Kriging
Variance Statistics
_K Estimate   
_V Kriging variance   
_N Number of samples used  
_WM Weight assigned to the local mean  
_WP Sum of the positive weights  
CRZ Corr(Z, Z*). Correlation between actual and 
estimate
CVZ Cov(Z, Z*). Covariance between actual and 
estimate
CZ1 Cov(Z1*, Z*). Covariance between two estimates 
– multivariate case only
_SR Slope of regression Z/Z*. Actual on estimate 
VZS Variance of estimates 
_KE Kriging efficiency 
_LG Lagrange parameter 
_SI Search volume index used for estimate  
Additionally, other field information to be input includes:

 Sample Variable: this gives a dropdown list of variables as shown in the Variables to be
estimated table below. Select a variable from this list in order to associate it with an Output
Prefix and a Local Mean Field.
 Output Prefix (max 5 chars): in order to associate output fields with their sample variable
you can define up to five characters that will be used as the first characters in the output field
name. The process automatically creates the full output field name by adding an additional
two or three characters. For example, _N for the number of samples used for the estimate
and _WP for the sum of the positive weights. Details of all suffixes are given in the Output
Field Names view. If you do not define a prefix the system will assign one automatically
based on the input variable name.
 Local Mean Field: if the Estimation Type has been selected as Simple Kriging, and Use
Local Mean Field has been selected in the Estimation Options, then you must select the Local
Mean Field from the dropdown list.
 Apply: when an Output Prefix and/or a Local Mean Field have been entered, the Apply button
should be used to confirm the values.
 Remove: this button will remove the sample variable and associated values. It will reappear
in the Available Variables table.
Grade Estimation 48
 Variables to be estimated: these variables have been selected for estimation from the initial
Available Variables table at the top of the right hand column.
 Zones: these zone values have been selected for estimation from the initial Available Zones
table at the bottom of the right hand column
To the right of the Estimation Setup are two different additional parameters:
 Available Variables: initially this table will contain a list of all variables in the Estimation set.
They can be selected for estimation by highlighting the variable and clicking the Add Variable
button. When a variable has been added it will be removed from the table.
 Available Zones: initially this table will contain a list of all zones in the sample data file. They
can be selected for estimation by highlighting the zone and clicking the Add Zone or Add All
Zones button. When a zone has been added it will be removed from the table.
Review Variograms
To perform grade interpolation using Kriging, an appropriate variogram model is needed. If co-kriging
is used, a multivariate variogram model set is required which has the same ranges for all models. If
zones are specified on the Select Samples panel, then a variogram model set is required for each
zone. If one of the non-Kriging estimation methods has been selected (nearest neighbour, inverse
distance) then a variogram model is not required. Usually the variogram models will have been fitted
or imported at the Fit Models stage. However, it is also possible to import or export a model on the
Confirm Variograms panel. The Confirm Variograms panel allows the user to review the selected
model or select a different model.
There are three distinct parts to this panel to allow you to choose the required variogram model for the
selected estimation run:
 Estimation picker: the estimations you have selected on the Define Estimations panel are
displayed in the area on the left area, together with the grade and zone values. For kriging
estimates the default variogram model reference number will also be shown. Highlight one of
the estimation runs and use the central panel to review the variogram parameters for that run
and select an alternative model if required.
 Variogram picker: a list of available variogram model sets is displayed in the central area
showing the grades, zone if appropriate, univariate or multivariate and how the fitting was
Grade Estimation 49
performed - manually, automatically, or a "mix". Highlight one of the models to display its
parameters in the area on the right. To apply a different model to the selected estimation run,
highlight the new model and click the Apply variogram mode button.
Using this panel, you can also:
 Import a previously generated experimental variogram file (as saved using the
Create Variograms panel)
 Export the current selected variogram to an independent variogram file
 Clear list - clear all variograms from the list, ready for the import of another file
 Variogram Details: this section allows you to view the parameters attributed to the currently
selected variogram (as selected in the Variogram Picker area). The information available is
divided into four subpanels as described for the Fit Models | Model Parameters panel. All five
subpanels are used for multivariate models but only Variogram Summary and Parameters for
univariate models. The selected models are validated and warning messages displayed as
appropriate.
Define Search Volumes

This panel automatically creates a set of search parameters for each estimation that has an
associated variogram model. The dimensions of the search volume are set equal to the maximum
range in each directions and the search ellipsoid is assigned the model variogram rotation angles and
axes. The same default set of sample numbers and sector parameters are assigned to all search
volumes. The user can then edit the default values for each search volume.
There are three parts to this panel to allow you to choose and edit the required search parameters for
each estimation.
Grade Estimation 50
Estimation Area
Each Estimation, as chosen in the Define Estimations panel, is shown in the area on the left of this
panel. The summary information for each Estimation includes:
 Estimation number
 Summary description
 Grade
 Zone
 Search volume reference number
 Search volume dimensions
 Minimum number of samples
 Optimum number of samples per sector
If the estimation method is Inverse Distance or Nearest Neighbour, then search parameters will not be
defined automatically. In this case a new search volume can be created as described in the Available
Search Volumes section below.
 Create search volumes from variograms: if the default set of search volumes has been
cleared (Clear list button at the bottom of the central area) then a new set can be generated
using the Create search volumes from variograms button at the bottom of the left area.
 Apply to estimations: if this box is ticked then the search volumes will automatically be
assigned to the Estimation from which the search volume has been derived.
Available Search Volumes

The initial set of search volumes will be generated from the variogram models associated with the
Estimations in the left area of the panel. Additional search volumes can be created by right clicking in
the blank area below the last search volume and selecting Add New Search Parameters from the
dropdown menu.
In order to edit any of the search volume parameters, select the required search volume in the centre
area and then use the panel to the right as described in the Edit Search Parameters section below.
When the editing is complete you should make sure that the correct search volume is highlighted in
the left area of the panel and then select the Apply Search Volume to Estimation … button at the
bottom of the centre area.
 Import: click this button to copy a set of search volume parameters from a DM file. The best
way to create the required fields is to export a file first and then load it into the table editor and
delete all the records
 Export: click this button to save the current search volume parameters to a DM file.
 Import: click this button to save the current search volume parameters to a DM file.
 Clear list: click this button to delete the list of Available Search Volumes. A new list can be
recreated from the available model variogram models as described in the Estimation Area
section above.
Search Volume Parameters

The parameters are divided into three subpanels – Shape, Sample Number Limits and Sectors.
 Edit search parameters (Ref ): In order to activate input to the subpanels, make sure the
appropriate Available Search Volume is selected in the centre area and then click the Edit
search parameters (Ref ) button at the bottom of the right area. The text on the button will
Grade Estimation 51
then change to Finish editing. When you have finished editing all subpanels click the button to
save the changes.
 Ref: the search volume reference number is shown here. This cannot be edited.
 Desc: initially the default Description is blank. A description of up to 32 characters can be
entered.
 Ellipse Size: the lengths of each of the three axes of the search volume.
 Ellipse Rotation: up to three rotation angles and the axis about which each rotation is
defined are specified here.
 Display Ellipsoid: The X, Y and Z text boxes define the coordinates of the centre of the
wireframe representing the search ellipsoid to be displayed in the 3D window. The values
can be entered either using the keyboard or by clicking the arrow button and then selecting a
point in the 3D window using the mouse. Click the View ellipsoid button to create the
ellipsoid in the 3D window.
Sample Number Limits

The parameters specified in the Shape subpanel described above define the dimensions of the base
search volume. The parameters specified here in the Sample Number Limits subpanel describe the
minimum and optimum number of samples and also a set of size factors to increase the base search
volume if the number of samples does not reach the minimum.
Grade Estimation 52
 Ellipse size factor: this is the multiplying factor for the search volume dimensions. All three
dimensions of the base search volume are multiplied by this value to define a larger volume
that will be applied if there are insufficient samples in the previous search volume. The first
search volume will always have a size factor of 1. Subsequent size factors must always be
greater than the previous size factor.
 Minimum samples: the number of samples lying within the total search volume must always
be greater than or equal to this minimum before an estimate can be made.
 Optimum samples per sector: sectors can be defined as described in the Sectors subpanel
below. The method divides the search ellipsoid into smaller equal volumes (sectors) and the
optimum number of samples is then described in terms of the number of samples per sector.
The optimum number of samples is also the maximum.
 Apply / Add: the label on this button depends on whether or not a set of parameters has
been selected in the table at the top of the subpanel. If a row has been highlighted, then the
parameters in the row will also be displayed in the three text boxes below which can be
edited. The button will then display Apply: clicking it will update the values in the table.
 In order to create a new set of parameters click in the empty space below the bottom row in
the table. The button will now display Add and the three text boxes will be empty. Enter
values into the text boxes and click Add. A new row will be appended to the table.
 Remove: to remove a row from the table highlight the row and click the button.
 Samples per Hole ID – BHID: the Optimum and Maximum number of samples per hole can
be defined. The name of the Hole ID field (usually BHID) can be set in the Select Samples
panel.
Sectors
The Sector method divides the search ellipsoid into smaller volumes that are similar to orange
segments. All sectors have the same angle measured in the horizontal plane through the centre of
the ellipsoid before any rotation is applied. Each angle will be 360/n where n is the number of
sectors. The graphic shows the case where the search volume is a sphere.
Grade Estimation 53
 Enable sector method: check the box to use the sector method. If the sector method is not
selected, then all references to sectors will apply to the total search volume.
 Number of vertical sectors: select the number of vertical sectors.
 Split sectors horizontally: check the box to split each vertical sector in half at the horizontal
plane.
 Total sectors: if the sectors are not split horizontally this will equal the number of sectors;
otherwise it will be twice the number of sectors.
 Maximum empty sectors: if the number of sectors without any samples is greater than this
maximum then the grade will not be estimated for this search volume. The next search
volume size factor, if defined, will be applied and the number retested.
 Search constraints for co-kriging: if co-kriging has been selected then one of the following
options will be applied:
 No constraints
 Each sector must contain at least one sample for all variables
 Each sample must contain values for all variables
Run Estimation
The panel gives a summary of all the inputs to the estimation process. If any of the inputs are
incorrect you must return to the appropriate panel to change them. The process validates the input
before running the estimation. If any problems are identified they will be reported in the box in the
bottom left corner of the panel.
Grade Estimation 54
Field Details
The Display Results area at the bottom of the panel allows you to select a subset of the results and
generate a set of statistics. The Display button will load the output model and display it in the 3D
Window.
Exercises
Exercise 1: Test…
1.
Additional Exercises
Additional Exercise 1: Test…
Grade Estimation 55
Grade Estimation 56

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Advanced Estimation

Annual Maintenance &

Advanced Estimation using Studio

Acronyms and Abbreviations 4

Using This Training Manual 4

Getting Started: Introduction to Advanced Estimation 6

Preparation of Data for Variography 18

Automatic fitting of model variograms 29

Model Parameters for manual fitting 30

Model preparation for estimation 34

Why do I need KNA? 37

Acronyms and Abbreviations

DTM Digital Terrain Model

DSD Data Source Drivers

CAD Computer Aided Drawing

.dm file A Datamine format file

Using This Training Manual

 Be introduced to Univariate and Multivariate Estimation

 Be introduced to the Advanced Estimation Dialog

 Access the Advanced Estimation Dialog

Univariate and Multivariate Estimation

Getting Started: Introduction to Advanced Estimation 6

The dialogs are divided into five main sections

Getting Started: Introduction to Advanced Estimation 7

Exercise 1: Displaying the AE Dialog

Figure 1: The Advanced Estimation Ribbon.

Figure 2: The Advanced Estimation dialog.

Getting Started: Introduction to Advanced Estimation 8

 Create and Manage your grade estimation scenarios

 Select Samples for Estimation

 Undertake basic data analysis

 Review Univariate and Multivariate statistics

Exercise 1: Create and manipulate Scenarios

Selecting input samples for estimation

Input Samples: this command group contains the following fields:

Figure 4: The Scenario Setup panel showing Zonal Control.

 Correlation Coefficient: a measure of the relationship between the nominated sample

The covariance of a grade with itself is the variance of the grade.

Exercise 1: Load and analyse the data

Figure 6: Histograms of AU based on ROCK field.

Figure 7: Scatter plots of AG vs AU based on Key field = ROCK.

6. Repeat this exercise for AU and CU

Exercise 2: Selecting samples using the AE Dialog

Figure 9: Sample statistics selection for ROCK = 1

Non-Absent Pairs Correlation Coefficient Correlation P-Value

Covariance F-Ratio Paired t-Test Statistic

6. Discuss the meaning and significance of the bivariate statistics:

 Review your understanding of Variography

 Investigate anisotropy of Data

 Generate an experimental variogram

 Model a variogram and cross - variogram

Preparation of Data for Variography

Figure 11: Typical 3D Variogram, map in Studio RM

Table 1: Description of the four variogram sub-windows

Top right 3D view of intersecting orthogonal planes

Top left Plan Section

Bottom right West-East Section

Bottom left South-North Section, rotated 90o anticlockwise

This panel contains the following areas and fields:

Reference Plane Rotation

Exercise 1: Investigate Anisotropy

Figure 12: Anisotropy investigation for ROCK = 1

Figure 13: Anisotropy as displayed in the 3D Map