Societal Attitudes Toward Homosexuality - Wikipedia

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Societal
attitudes
toward
homosexuality
Societal attitudes toward homosexuality vary greatly across different

cultures and historical periods, as do attitudes toward sexual desire,
activity and relationships in general. All cultures have their own values
regarding appropriate and inappropriate sexuality; some sanction same-
sex love and sexuality, while others may disapprove of such activities in
part.[1] As with heterosexual behaviour, different sets of prescriptions
and proscriptions may be given to individuals according to their gender,
age, social status or social class.
:
Pew Global Attitudes Project 2019: Should homosexuality be accepted in society?
Percentage of responders that answered that it should be accepted:
0–10%
11–20%
21–30%
31–40%
41–50%
51–60%
61–70%
71–80%
81–90%
91–100%
No data
Many of the world's cultures have, in the past, considered procreative

sex within a recognized relationship to be a sexual norm—sometimes
exclusively so, and sometimes alongside norms of same-sex love,
whether passionate, intimate or sexual. Some sects within some
religions, especially those influenced by the Abrahamic tradition, have
censured homosexual acts and relationships at various times, in some
cases implementing severe punishments.[2] Homophobic attitudes in
society can manifest themselves in the form of anti-LGBT
discrimination, opposition to LGBT rights, anti-LGBT hate speech, and
:
violence against LGBT people.
Since the 1970s, much of the world has become more accepting of
homosexual acts and relationships.[3] Cross-national differences in
acceptance can be explained by three factors: the strength of
democratic institutions, the level of economic development, and the
religious context of the places where people live.[4] The Pew Research
Center's 2013 Global Attitudes Survey "finds broad acceptance of
homosexuality in North America, the European Union, and much of Latin
America, but equally widespread rejection in predominantly Muslim
nations and in Africa, as well as in parts of Asia and in Russia". The
survey also finds "acceptance of homosexuality is particularly
widespread in countries where religion is less central in people's lives.
These are also among the richest countries in the world. In contrast, in
poorer countries with high levels of religiosity, few believe
homosexuality should be accepted by society. Age is also a factor in
several countries, with younger respondents offering far more tolerant
views than older ones. And while gender differences are not prevalent,
in those countries where they are, women are consistently more
accepting of homosexuality than men."[5]
Difficulties in interpreting homosexuality
Contemporary scholars caution against applying modern Western

assumptions about sex and gender to other times and places; what
looks like same-sex sexuality to a Western observer may not be "same-
sex" or "sexual" at all to the people engaging in such behaviour. For
example, in the Bugis cultures of Sulawesi, a female who dresses and
works in a masculine fashion and marries a woman is seen as belonging
to a third gender;[6] to the Bugis, their relationship is not homosexual
(see sexual orientation and gender identity). In the case of 'Sambia' (a
pseudonym) boys in New Guinea who ingest the semen of older males
to aid in their maturation,[7] it is disputed whether this is best
understood as a sexual act at all.[8] Some scholars have argued that
notions of a homosexual and heterosexual identity, as they are currently
:
known in the Western world, only began to emerge in Europe in the mid
to late 19th century,[9][10] though others challenge this.[11][12] Behaviors
that today would be widely regarded as homosexual, at least in the
West, enjoyed a degree of acceptance in around three-quarters of the
cultures surveyed in Patterns of Sexual Behavior (1951).[13]
Measuring attitudes toward homosexuality
Pew Global Attitudes

Project 2019: #1 –
Homosexuality should be
accepted by society, #2 –
Homosexuality should not
be accepted by society"[1]
(https://www.pewresearch.
org/global/2020/06/25/glo
bal-divide-on-homosexuali
ty-persists/)
Country #1 #2
North America
Canada 85% 10%
United States 72% 21%
Europe
Sweden 94% 5%
Netherlands 92% 8%
Spain 89% 10%
Germany 86% 11%
France 86% 11%
United Kingdom 86% 11%
Italy 75% 20%

:
Czech Republic 59% 26%
Greece 53% 40%
Hungary 49% 39%
Poland 47% 42%
Slovakia 44% 46%
Bulgaria 32% 48%
Lithuania 28% 45%
Ukraine 14% 69%
Russia 14% 74%
Middle East
Israel 47% 45%
Turkey 25% 57%
Lebanon 13% 85%
Asia/Pacific
Australia 81% 18%
Philippines 73% 24%
Japan 68% 22%
South Korea 44% 53%
India 37% 37%
Indonesia 9% 80%
Latin America
Argentina 76% 19%
Mexico 69% 24%
Brazil 67% 23%
Africa
South Africa 54% 38%
Kenya 14% 83%

:
Tunisia 9% 72%
Nigeria 7% 91%
From the 1970s, academics have researched attitudes held by

individuals toward lesbians, gay men and bisexuals, and the social and
cultural factors that underlie such attitudes. Numerous studies have
investigated the prevalence of acceptance and disapproval of
homosexuality, and have consistently found correlates with various
demographic, psychological, and social variables. For example, studies
(mainly conducted in the United States) have found that heterosexuals
with positive attitudes towards homosexuality are more likely to be
female, white, young, non-religious, well-educated, politically liberal or
moderate, and have close personal contact with homosexuals who are
out.[14] They are also more likely to have positive attitudes towards
other minority groups[15] and are less likely to support traditional gender
roles.[16] Several studies have also suggested that heterosexual
females' attitudes towards gay men are similar to those towards
lesbians, and some (but not all) have found that heterosexual males
have a more positive attitude toward lesbians.[16][17][18] Herek (1984)
found that heterosexual females tended to exhibit equally positive or
negative attitudes toward gay men and lesbians. The heterosexual
males, however, tended to respond more negatively, or unfavorably, to
gay men than lesbians.[19]
Social psychologists such as Gregory Herek have examined underlying

motivations for homophobia (hostility toward lesbians and gays), and
cultural theorists have noted how portrayals of homosexuality often
center around stigmatized phenomena such as AIDS, pedophilia, and
gender variance. The extent to which such portrayals are stereotypes is
disputed.
Contemporary researchers have measured attitudes held by

heterosexuals toward gay men and lesbians in a number of different
ways.[20]
:
Certain populations are also found to accept homosexuality more than
others. In the United States, African-Americans are generally less
tolerant of homosexuality than European or Hispanic Americans.[21]
However, polls after President Barack Obama's public support of same-
sex marriage showed a shift in attitudes to 59% support among African
Americans, 60% among Latinos and 50 percent among White
Americans.[22] Israelis were found to be the most accepting of
homosexuality among Middle Eastern nations and Israeli laws and
culture reflect that. According to a 2007 poll, a strong majority of Israeli
Jews say they would accept a gay child and go on with life as usual.[23]
A 2013 Haaretz poll found that most of the Arab and Haredi sector saw
homosexuality negatively, while the majority of secular and traditional
Jews say they support equal rights for gay couples.[24]
Much less research has been conducted into societal attitudes toward
bisexuality.[25] What studies do exist suggest that the attitude of
heterosexuals toward bisexuals mirrors their attitude toward
homosexuals,[26] and that bisexuals experience a similar degree of
hostility, discrimination, and violence relating to their sexual orientation
as do homosexuals.[27]
Research (mainly conducted in the United States) show that people

with more permissive attitudes on sexual orientation issues tend to be
younger, well-educated, and politically liberal. Tolerant attitudes toward
homosexuality and bisexuality have been increasing with time. A 2011
Public Policy Polling survey found that 48 percent of voters in the state
of Delaware supported the legalization of same-sex marriage, while 47
were opposed and 5 percent were not sure.[28] 6 March 2011 poll by
Lake Research Partners, showed that 62% in Delaware favor allowing
same-sex couples to form civil unions, while 31% were opposed, and
7% were not sure.[29]
Same-sex marriage …
Opinion polls for same-sex marriage by country
:
Same-sex marriage performed nationwide
Same-sex marriage performed in some parts of the country
Civil unions or registered partnerships nationwide
Same-sex sexual activity is illegal
Country Pollster Year For[a] Against[a] Neither
Institut d'Estudis 70% 19%

Andorra 2013 11%
Andorrans (79%) (21%)
Antigua
AmericasBarometer 2017 12% – –
and Barbuda
(another
73% 19% support
Ipsos 2021
Argentina (79%) (21%) some rights)
9% not sure
Pew Research 3% 96%

Armenia 2015 1%
Center (3%) (97%)
Aruba 2021 46%
(another
14%
62% 27% support
Australia Ipsos 2021
(70%) (30%) some rights)
11% not
sure
66% 30%
Austria Eurobarometer 2019 4%
(69%) (31%)

Bahamas
Pew Research 16% 81%

Belarus 2015 3%
Center (16%) (84%)
(another
:
72% 19% 12% support
Belgium Ipsos 2021 some rights)
(79%) (21%)
10% not
sure
Belize AmericasBarometer 2014 8% – –
Bolivia AmericasBarometer 2017 35% 65% –
Bosnia
Pew Research 2015– 13% 84%
and 4%
Center 2016 (14%) (87%)
Herzegovina
(another
14%
55% 32% support
Brazil Ipsos 2021
14% not
sure
16% 74%
Bulgaria Eurobarometer 2019 10%
(18%) (82%)
55% 30%
TNS Cambodia 2015 15%
Cambodia (65%) (35%)
(another
support
75% 15%
Canada Ipsos 2021 some rights)
(83%) (17%)
10% not
sure
Plaza Pública-
2022 82% 16% 2%
Cadem
(another
Chile 17% support
65% 25%
Ipsos 2021 some rights)
(72%) (28%)
11% not
sure
(another
:
20%
43% 39% support
China Ipsos 2021
18% not
sure
INVAMER-POLL 2022 48% 46% 6%

Colombia
Costa
AmericasBarometer 2017 35% 65% –
Rica
39% 55%
Croatia Eurobarometer 2019 6%
(41%) (59%)
Cuba Apretaste 2019 63% 37% –
36% 60%
Cyprus Eurobarometer 2019 4%
(38%) (62%)
Czech
Median agency 2019 67% – –
Republic
89% 8%
Denmark Eurobarometer 2019 3%
(92%) (8%)

Dominica
Dominican AmericasBarometer 2016 27% 73% –

Republic
23% 51%
Ecuador AmericasBarometer 2019 26%
(31%) (69%)
El Universidad
2021 82.5% –
Salvador Francisco Gavidia
41% 51%
Estonia Eurobarometer 2019 8%
(45%) (55%)
76% 21%
Finland Eurobarometer 2019 3%
(78%) (22%)
:
(another
15% support
59% 22%
(73%) (27%)
France 19% not
sure
79% 15%
Eurobarometer 2019 6%
(84%) (16%)
Women’s Initiatives 10% 75%

Georgia 2021 15%
Supporting Group (12%) (88%)
(another
13%
68% 23%
Ipsos 2021 support
(75%) (25%)
Germany some rights)
9% not sure
84% 12%
(88%) (12%)
56% 40%
Greece Kapa Research 2020 4%
(58%) (42%)
Grenada AmericasBarometer 2017 12% 88% –

Guatemala
Guyana AmericasBarometer 2017 21% 79% –
Haiti AmericasBarometer 2017 5% 95% –
17% 75%
CID Gallup 2018 8%
Honduras (18%) (82%)
(another
20%
46% 38% support
Hungary Ipsos 2021
17% not
sure
:
Iceland Gallup 2006 89% 11% –
(another
14%
44% 32% support
Ipsos 2021
India
25% not
sure
24% 62%
Mood of the Nation 2019 14%
(28%) (72%)
79% 13%
Ireland Eurobarometer 2019 8%
(86%) (14%)
Israel Hiddush 2019 55% 45%[51] –
(another
20%
63% 30%
Italy Ipsos 2021 support
(68%) (32%)
some rights)
7% not sure
Jamaica AmericasBarometer 2017 16% 84% –
65% 22%
Asahi Shimbun 2021 13%
(75%) (25%)
(another
29%
Japan
40% 35% support
Ipsos 2021
25% not
sure
Pew Research 7% 89%

2016 4%
Kazakhstan Center (7%) (93%)
24% 70%
Latvia Eurobarometer 2019 6%
(26%) (74%)
Liechtenstein
2021 72% 28% 0%
:
Liechtenstein Institut
30% 63%
Lithuania Eurobarometer 2019 7%
(32%) (68%)
85% 9%
Luxembourg (90%) (10%)
(another
support
8% 73%
Malaysia Ipsos 2021 some rights)
(10%) (90%)
19% not
sure
67% 25%
Malta Eurobarometer 2019 8%
(73%) (27%)
(another
13%
63% 23% support
Mexico Ipsos 2021
14% not
sure
Pew Research 5% 92%

Moldova 2015 3%
Center (5%) (95%)
28% 60%
Mozambique Lambda 2017 12%
(32%) (68%)
(3 cities)
(another
84% 9% support
Ipsos 2021
Netherlands (90%) (10%) some rights)
8% not sure
63% 31%
New Colmar Brunton 2012 5%
(66%) (33%)
Zealand
Herald DigiPoll 2013 50%? 48% 2%?

:
Nicaragua

Norway 2017 9%
Center (79%) (21%)
Panama AmericasBarometer 2017 22% 78% –

Paraguay
(another
33%
35% 51% support
Peru Ipsos 2021
14% not
sure
22% 61%
SWS 2018 16%
Philippines (26%) (73%)
(another
10%
48% 47%
Ipsos 2022 support civil
(50%) (49%)
unions)
4% not sure
Poland (another
38%
29% 60% support
Ipsos 2021
12% not
sure
74% 20%
Portugal Eurobarometer 2019 6%
(79%) (21%)
(another
17% support
Romania ACCEPT Romania 2021 26% 74%
legal
protection)
(another
:
12% support
17% 64%
(21%) (79%)
Russia 20% not
sure
7% 85%
FOM 2019 8%
(8%) (92%)
Saint
Kitts and AmericasBarometer 2017 9% 91% –
Nevis
Saint
Lucia
Saint
Vincent and
the
Grenadines

Serbia 2015 5%
Center (13%) (87%)
27% 60%
IPS 2019 13%
Singapore (31%) (69%)
20% 70%
Slovakia Eurobarometer 2019 10%
(22%) (78%)
62% 35%
Slovenia Eurobarometer 2019 3%
(64%) (36%)
(another
12% support
South 59% 27%
Africa (69%) (31%)
14% not
sure
(another
18%
South 36% 44% support
Ipsos 2021
Korea (45%) (55%) some rights)
:
20% not
sure
(another
support
76% 13%
Spain Ipsos 2021 some rights)
(85%) (15%)
11% not
sure

Suriname
(another
10%
79% 13%
Sweden Ipsos 2021 support
(86%) (14%)
some rights)
8% not sure
82% 17%
gfs-zürich 2020 1%
Switzerland (83%) (17%)
Department of
Taiwan Gender Quality 2021 60.4%
(DGE)
59% 35%
Thailand NIDA Poll 2015 6%
(63%) (37%)
Trinidad
and Tobago
(another
20%
24% 45% support
Turkey Ipsos 2021
32% not
sure
Kyiv International 27% 42%

Ukraine Institute of 2022 (39%) (61%) 31%
Sociology
:
(another
14%
United 68% 21% support
Ipsos 2021
Kingdom (76%) (24%) some rights)
11% not
sure
(another
13%
59% 28% support
Ipsos 2021
United (68%) (32%) some rights)
States 13% not
sure
70% 29%
Gallup 2021 1%
(71%) (29%)
Uruguay AmericasBarometer 2017 75% 25% –

Venezuela
34% 53%
Vietnam iSEE 2014 13%
(39%) (61%)
Adoption …
Indicates the country/territory has legalized same-sex adoption
nationwide
Indicates that same-sex adoption is legal in certain parts of the
country
Indicates that the country has step-child adoption or partner-
guardianship
:
Opinion polls for same-sex adoption in Africa
Don't
Country Pollster Year For Against Know/Neutral/No
answer/Other
South
Ipsos 2021 69%[69] 23% 8%
Africa

nationwide
country
guardianship
Opinion polls for same-sex adoption in Asia

Don't
answer/Other
China Ipsos 2021 66%[70] 30% 4%
India Ipsos 2021 66%[70] 21% 13%
Midgam
Israel 2017 60%[71] - -
Institute
Japan Ipsos 2021 68%[70] 20% 13%
Ipsos 2021 24%[70] 65% 11%

Malaysia
Russia Ipsos 2021 23%[70] 67% 10%
South
Ipsos 2021 46%[70] 45% 9%
Korea
Turkey Ipsos 2021 39%[70] 44% 18%

nationwide
:
country
guardianship
Opinion polls for same-sex adoption in Americas

Don't
answer/Other
Ipsos 2021 73%[70] 21% 6%

Argentina
Brazil Ipsos 2021 69%[70] 25% 7%
Ipsos 2021 81%[70] 13% 6%

Canada
Chile CADEM 2022 70%[72] 28% 2%
Ipsos 2021 46%[70] 44% 8%

Colombia
Ipsos 2021 59%[70] 34% 7%

Mexico
Peru Ipsos 2021 41%[70] 52% 7%
US Ipsos 2021 72%[70] 22% 6%
Equipos 52%
2013 [73]
39% 9%
Uruguay Consultores

nationwide
country
guardianship
Opinion polls for same-sex adoption in Europe

Don't
:
answer/Other
Austria IMAS 2015 46%[74] 48%[74] 6%
Belgium Ipsos 2021 72%[70] 21% 7%
Bulgaria Eurobarometer 2006 12%[75] 68%[75] 20%[75]
Cyprus Eurobarometer 2006 10%[75] 86%[75] 4%[75]
Czech
CVVM 2019 47%[76] 47% 6%
Republic
Pew Research
2017 75%[77] - -
Denmark Center
Estonia HumanrightsEE 2021 40%[78] 49%[78] 11%[78]
Finland Taloustutkimus 2013 51%[79] 42%[79] 7%[79]
France Ipsos 2021 62%[70] 29% 10%
Ipsos 2021 69%[70] 24% 6%

Germany
KAPA
Greece 2020 40%[80] 57%[80] 3%[80]
Research
59%
Hungary Ipsos 2021 [70]
36% 5%
Ireland Red C Poll 2011 60%[81] - -
59%
Italy Ipsos 2021 [82]
36% 5%
Latvia Eurobarometer 2006 8%[75] 89%[75] 3%[75]
Eurobarometer 2006 12%[75] 82%[75] 6%[75]

Lithuania
Politmonitor 2013 55%[83] 44%[83] 1%[83]

Luxembourg
Malta Misco 2014 20%[84] 80%[84] -
Ipsos 2021 83%[70] 12% 5%

Netherlands
:
Norway YouGov 2012 54%[85] 34%[85] 12%[85]
Poland Ipsos 2021 33%[70] 58% 10%
Pew Research
Portugal 2017 59%[86] 28%[86] 13%[86]
Center
Romania Eurobarometer 2006 8%[75] 82%[75] 10%[75]
Russia Ipsos 2021 23%[70] 67% 10%
Equal Rights
Serbia 2018 - 90%[87] -
Association
Slovakia Eurobarometer 2006 12%[75] 84%[75] 4%[75]
Slovenia Delo Stik 2015 38%[88] 55%[88] 7%[88]
Spain Ipsos 2021 77%[70] 17% 6%
Sweden Ipsos 2021 79%[70] 17% 4%
Pink Cross 2020 67%[89] 30%[89] 3%[89]

Switzerland
12%
Gay Alliance of
Ukraine 2013 7%[90] 68%[90] 13% would allow
Ukraine
some exceptions
United
Ipsos 2021 72%[70] 19% 9%
Kingdom

nationwide
country
guardianship
:
Opinion polls for same-sex adoption in Oceania
Don't
answer/Other
Ipsos 2021 71%[91] 21% 8%

Australia
Research
New
New 2012 64%[92] 31% 5%
Zealand
Zealand
Law
The legal status of homosexuality varies greatly around the world.

Homosexual acts between consenting adults are known to be illegal in
about 70 out of the 195 countries of the world.
Homosexual sex acts may be illegal, especially under sodomy laws, and
where they are legal, the age of consent often differs from country to
country. In some cases, homosexuals are prosecuted under vaguely
worded "public decency" or morality laws. Some countries have special
laws preventing certain public expressions of homosexuality.[93] Nations
or subnational entities may have anti-discrimination legislation in place
to protect against discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation in the
workplace, housing, health services and education. Some give
exemptions, allowing employers to discriminate if they are a religious
organisation, or if the employee works with children.
:
v t
e (https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:World_laws_pertaining_t
o_homosexual_relationships_and_expression&action=edit)
Worldwide laws regarding same-sex intercourse, unions and expression
Same-sex intercourse illegal. Penalties:

Death Prison; death not enforced
Death under militias Prison, w/ arrests or detention
Prison, not enforced1
Same-sex intercourse legal. Recognition of unions:
Marriage Extraterritorial marriage2
Civil unions Limited domestic
Limited foreign Optional certification
None Restrictions of expression
Rings indicate local or case-by-case application.

1No imprisonment in the past three years or moratorium on law.
2Marriage not available locally. Some jurisdictions may perform other types of
partnerships.
Legal recognition of same-sex relationships also varies greatly. Legal

privileges pertaining to different-sex relationships that may be extended
to same-sex couples include parenting, adoption and access to
reproductive technologies; immigration; spousal benefits for employees
such as pensions, health funds and other services; family leave; medical
rights, including hospital visitation, notification and power of attorney;
inheritance when a partner dies without leaving a will; and social
:
security and tax benefits. Same-sex couples without legal recognition
may also lack access to domestic violence services, as well as
mediation and arbitration over custody and property when relationships
end. Some regions have laws specifically excluding same-sex couples
from particular rights such as adoption.
In 2001, the Netherlands became the first country to recognize same-

sex marriage. Since then same-sex marriages were subsequently
recognized in Belgium (2003), Spain (2005), Canada (2005), South
Africa (2006), Norway (2009), Sweden (2009), Portugal (2010), Iceland
(2010), Argentina (2010), Denmark (2012), Brazil (2013), France (2013),
Uruguay (2013), New Zealand (2013), Luxembourg (2015), Ireland
(2015), the United States (2015), Colombia (2016), Finland (2017),
Germany (2017), Australia (2017), Austria (2019), Taiwan (2019),
Ecuador (2019), United Kingdom (2020), Costa Rica (2020), Chile
(2022), Switzerland (2022), Slovenia (2022), Cuba (2022) and Mexico
(2022). Israel, legally recognizes same-sex marriages, but do not allow
such marriages to be performed within the country.
Islamic law …
On the other end of the spectrum, several countries impose the death
penalty for homosexual acts, per the application of some interpretations
of Shari'a law. As of 2022, these include Afghanistan, Mauritania, Iran,
Saudi Arabia, Yemen and northern Nigeria.[94][95]
In Saudi Arabia, the maximum punishment for homosexuality is public

execution. However, the government will use other punishments – e.g.,
fines, jail time, and whipping – as alternatives, unless it feels that
homosexuals are challenging state authority by engaging in LGBT social
movements.[96]
Most international human rights organizations, such as Human Rights

Watch and Amnesty International, condemn laws that make homosexual
relations between consenting adults a crime. Since 1994, the United
Nations Human Rights Committee has also ruled that such laws violate
:
the right to privacy guaranteed in the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.
Of the nations with a majority of Muslim inhabitants, many, even those

with secular constitutions, continue to outlaw homosexuality, though
only in a minority (Yemen[97] and Afghanistan[98]) is it punishable by
death. Of the countries where homosexuality is illegal, only Lebanon has
an internal effort to legalize it.[99] Muslim-majority countries where
homosexuality is not criminalized include Albania, Azerbaijan, Bosnia
and Herzegovina, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkey, Kosovo and others.
Religion
As with social attitudes in general, religious attitudes towards

homosexuality vary between and among religions and their adherents.
Traditionalists among the world's major religions generally disapprove
of homosexuality, and prominent opponents of social acceptance of
homosexuality often cite religious arguments to support their views.
Liberal currents also exist within most religions, and modern lesbian and
gay scholars of religion sometimes point to a place for homosexuality
among historical traditions and scriptures, and emphasise religious
teachings of compassion and love.
Abrahamic religions such as Judaism, Islam, and various denominations

of Christianity traditionally forbid sexual relations between people of the
same sex and teach that such behaviour is sinful. Religious authorities
point to passages in the Qur'an,[100] the Old Testament[101] and the New
Testament[102] for scriptural justification of these beliefs.
Among Indic religions (also known as Dharmic religions), including

Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism, teachings regarding
homosexuality are less clear. Unlike in western religions, homosexuality
is rarely discussed. However, most contemporary religious authorities in
the various Dharmic traditions view homosexuality negatively, and when
it is discussed, it is discouraged or actively forbidden.[103] Ancient
:
religious texts such as the Vedas often refer to people of a third gender,
who are neither female nor male. Some see this third gender as an
ancient parallel to modern western lesbian, gay, transgender and
intersex identities. However, this third sex is usually negatively valued as
a pariah class in ancient texts.[104] Ancient Hindu law books, from the
first century onward, categorize non-vaginal sex (ayoni) as impure.[105]
Same-sex sexuality and gender transformations are common among the
Hindu pantheon of deities.
Among the Sinic religions of East Asia, including Confucianism, Chinese

folk religion and Taoism, passionate homosexual expression is usually
discouraged because it is believed to not lead to human fulfillment.[106]
Corporate attitudes
In some capitalist countries, large private sector firms often lead the
way in the equal treatment of gay men and lesbians. For instance, more
than half of the Fortune 500 offer domestic partnership benefits and 49
of the Fortune 50 companies include sexual orientation in their non-
discrimination policies (only ExxonMobil does not).[107][108] At the same
time, studies show that many private firms engage in significant
employment discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation. In one
study, for example, two fictitious but realistic resumes were sent to
roughly 1,700 entry-level job openings. The two resumes were very
similar in terms of the applicant's qualifications, but one resume for
each opening mentioned that the applicant had been part of a gay
organization in college. The results showed that applicants without the
gay signal had an 11.5 percent chance of being called for an interview;
openly gay applicants had only a 7.2 percent chance. The callback gap
varied widely according to the location of the job. Most of the overall
gap detected in the study was driven by the Southern and Midwestern
states in the sample—Texas, Florida, and Ohio. The Western and
Northeastern states in the sample (California, Nevada, Pennsylvania,
and New York) had only small and statistically insignificant callback
gaps.[109]
:
In the Western world, in particular the United States and the United
Kingdom, the corporatisation of LGBT pride parades has been criticised
by some.[110][111]
Anti-homosexual attitudes
Protesters at a 2006 gay pride event. San Francisco, United States.
Conservatism …
Conservatism is a term broadly used for people who are inclined to

traditional values.
While conservatism includes people of many views, a significant

proportion of its adherents consider homosexuals, and especially the
efforts of homosexuals to achieve certain rights and recognition, to be a
threat to valued traditions, institutions and freedoms. Such attitudes are
generally tied in with opposition to what some conservatives call the
"homosexual agenda".[112]
The finding that attitudes to alternative sexualities correlate strongly

with nature of contact and with personal beliefs is stated in a variety of
research over a substantial time period, and conservative men and
women stand out in their views specifically.
:
Thus Herek, who established the Attitudes Toward Lesbians and Gay
Men Scale in psychology, states:[113]
The ATLG and its subscales are consistently correlated

with other theoretically relevant constructs. Higher scores
(more negative attitudes) correlate significantly with high
religiosity, lack of contact with gay men and lesbians,
adherence to traditional sex-role attitudes, belief in a
traditional family ideology, and high levels of dogmatism
and that:[114]
The strongest predictor of positive attitudes toward

homosexuals was that the interviewee knew a gay man or
lesbian. The correlation held across each demographic
subset represented in the survey—sex, education level, age
—bar one: political persuasion.
An example of conservative views can also be found in the discussion of

what conservatives call "homosexual recruitment", within a document
released by the conservative Christian organization Alliance Defense
Fund states:[115]
The homosexual activist movement are driving an agenda

that will severely limit the ability to live and practice the
Gospel, whether it is in the boardroom, the classroom,
halls of government, private organizations, and even in
places of worship. In their relentless attempts to obtain
special rights, that no other special interest group has,
they are in the process of redefining the family,
demanding not only 'tolerance' ... but 'acceptance', and
ultimately seeking to marginalize, censor, and punish
those individuals who stand in the way of their multiple
:
goals.
As this statement illustrates, those who believe that a disapproving

attitude toward homosexuality is a tenet of their religion can see efforts
to abolish such attitudes as an attack on their religious freedom. Those
who regard homosexuality as a sin or perversion can believe that
acceptance of homosexual parents and same-sex marriage will redefine
and diminish the institutions of family and marriage.
More generally, conservatives—by definition—prefer that institutions,

traditions and values remain unchanged, and this has put many of them
in opposition to efforts designed to increase the cultural acceptance
and legal rights of homosexuals.
Psychology and sexual orientation …
In 1973, the American Psychiatric Association's board of trustees voted

to declassify homosexuality as a mental disorder in the Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM).[116] Though some
criticized this as a political decision, the social and political impetus for
change was supported by scientific evidence.[117] In fact, the research
of Evelyn Hooker and other psychologists and psychiatrists helped to
end the notion that homosexuality was in and of itself a mental illness.
Homosexuality in and of itself was removed from the DSM in 1974, but a
diagnosis of distress related to one's sexual orientation remained in the
manual until 2013 (DSM-5). In parallel fashion, the World Health
Organization removed homosexuality from the International
Classification of Diseases (ICD) in the tenth edition of that manual in
1992 (ICD-10), but retained a diagnosis of distress related to one's
sexual orientation until 2019 (ICD-11). Diagnosing a person with a
medical or mental health condition on the basis of sexual orientation is
no longer allowable under either of these leading diagnostic manuals.
Many religious groups and other advocates, like National Association for
Research and Therapy of Homosexuality (NARTH), believe that they can
:
"heal" or "cure" homosexuality through conversion therapy or other
methods to change sexual orientation. In a survey of 882 people who
were undergoing conversion therapy, attending "ex-gay" groups or "ex-
gay" conferences, 22.9% reported they had not undergone any
changes, 42.7% reported some changes, and 34.3% reported much
change in sexual orientation.[118] Many Western health and mental
health professional organizations believe sexual orientation develops
across a person's lifetime,[119] but that this therapy is unnecessary,
potentially harmful, and the effectiveness has not been rigorously and
scientifically proven. Much attention was given to the dissent from this
opinion by Dr. Robert Spitzer, but he later realized that his research was
flawed and apologized for the damage it may have done.[120] Another
study refuting the claims of conversion therapy proponents was done in
2001 by Dr. Ariel Shidlo and Dr. Michael Schroeder, which showed only
3% of the participants claiming to have completely changed their
orientation from gay to straight.[121]
In many non-Western post-colonial countries, homosexual orientation is

still considered to be a mental disorder and illness. In Muslim areas, this
position is ascribed to the earlier adoption of European Victorian
attitudes by the westernized elite, in areas where previously native
traditions embraced same-sex relations.[122]
Blame for plagues and disasters …
The destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah as takes place in the Bible is

sometimes attributed to attempted homosexual rape, but this is
disputed[123] and differs from earlier beliefs. Early Jewish belief (and
some Jews today)[124] variously attributed the destruction to turning a
blind eye to social injustice or lack of hospitality.[124]
Since the Middle Ages, sodomites were blamed for "bringing down the
wrath of God" upon the land, and their pleasures blamed for the
periodic epidemics of disease which decimated the population. This
"pollution" was thought to be cleansed by fire, as a result of which
:
countless individuals were burned at the stake or run through with
white-hot iron rods.
Since the end of the 1980s similar accusations have been made,
inspired by the HIV/AIDS epidemic, with preachers such as Jerry Falwell
blaming both the victim and a supposedly tolerant societal view of
homosexuality.[125] Recent researches indicate that in the years since,
the epidemic has spread and now has many more heterosexual victims
than homosexual.[126]
Association with child sexual abuse and pedophilia …
Some people fear exposing their children to homosexuals in

unsupervised settings because they believe the children might be
molested, raped, or "recruited" to be homosexuals
themselves.[127][128][129] The publicity surrounding the Roman Catholic
sex abuse cases has heightened these concerns.[130] Many
organizations focus on these concerns, drawing connections between
homosexuality and pedophilia. According to the John Jay Report, a
study commissioned by the United States Conference of Catholic
Bishops[131] under the auspices of the John Jay College of Criminal
Justice and an all-lay review board headed by Illinois Appellate Court
Justice Anne M. Burke, "81% of the reported victims of child sexual
abuse by Catholic clergy were boys." The review board went on to
conclude that, "the crisis was characterized by homosexual behavior",
and in light of this, "the current crisis cannot be addressed without
consideration of issues related to homosexuality." According to
Margaret Smith, one of John Jay's researchers, however, it is "an
unwarranted conclusion" to assert that the majority of priests who
abused male victims are gay. Though "the majority of the abusive acts
were homosexual in nature ... participation in homosexual acts is not the
same as sexual identity as a gay man."[132] Psychology professor
Gregory Herek also analyzed a number of studies and found no
relationship between sexual orientation and molestation.[133] One of her
fellow researchers, Louis Schlesinger, argued that the main problem
:
was pedophilia or ephebophilia, not sexual orientation and said that
some men who are married to adult women are attracted to adolescent
males.[134]
Small-scale studies by Dr. Carole Jenny, Dr. A.W. Richard Sipe, and
others have not found evidence that homosexuals are more likely to
molest children than heterosexuals.[135][136][137] Based on the
responses of a sample of thousands of admitted child molesters, one
study found that 70% of the sex offenders who targeted boys rated
themselves as predominantly or exclusively heterosexual in adult
orientation on the Kinsey scale, and only 8% as exclusively
homosexual.[138] Phallometric testing on community males shows that
men with a preference for adult males (often called "androphiles" in
these studies) are no more attracted to adolescent or younger boys
than are men with a preference for adult females (or
"gynephiles").[139][140][141] Conversely, sex offenders targeting boys—
especially prepubescent boys—may be heterosexual, while others lack
attraction to adults of either sex.[142] Dr. Kurt Freund, analyzing sex
offender samples, concluded that only rarely does a sex offender
against male children have a preference for adult males;[140] Frenzel
and Lang (1989) also noticed a lack of androphiles in their phallometric
analysis of 144 child sex offenders, which included 25 men who
offended against underage boys.[143] A study involving 21 adult sex
offenders against boys found that two thirds of them had a sexual
preference for women over men, as measured by the penile
plethysmograph, with the larger, "heterosexual" subgroup targeting
younger boys than the "homosexual" group.[144] A more recent survey,
which asked self-identified pedophiles in online communities to rate
their sexual attraction to males and females from age 1 to age 18, found
that those men disclosed very low levels of attraction towards more
mature males, with the authors concluding that, "[i]ntense sexual
attraction to male children is distinct from, and not generally compatible
with, intense sexual attraction to men."[145]
Johns Hopkins University psychiatrist Dr. Frederick Berlin, who runs a

:
treatment program for offenders, says it's flawed to assume that men
who molest young boys are attracted to adult men; Berlin defines
attraction to children as a separate orientation of its own.[146]
Psychotherapist Dr. A. W. Richard Sipe also argues that the sexual
deprivation that occurs in the priesthood could lead one to turn to
children and that boys are more accessible to priests and other male
authority figures than girls.[136] A study by Dr. A. Nicholas Groth found
that nearly half of the child sex offenders in his small sample were
exclusively attracted to children. The other half regressed to children
after finding trouble in adult relationships. No one in his sample was
primarily attracted to same-sex adults.[147]
The empirical research shows that sexual orientation does not affect the
likelihood that people will abuse children.[148][149][150] Many child
molesters cannot be characterized as having an adult sexual orientation
at all; they are fixated on children.[148]
Lawmakers and social commentators have sometimes expressed a

concern that normalizing homosexuality would also lead to normalizing
pedophilia, if it were determined that pedophilia too were a sexual
orientation.[151]
International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association
Opposition to "promotion of homosexuality" …
"Promotion of homosexuality"[152] is a group of behaviors believed by

some gay-rights opponents to be carried out in the mass media,[153]
public places,[154] etc. The term gay propaganda may be used by others
to allege similar behaviors, especially in relation to false accusations of
homosexual recruitment and an alleged "gay agenda".
In the United Kingdom, Section 28 of the 1988 Local Government Act

banned "promotion of homosexuality as a pretended family
relationship" by local government employees in the course of their
duties. The act was aimed to prevent the "promotion of homosexuality"
:
in schools. Prosecutions increased following the act.[155] Section 28
was later repealed in Scotland on 21 June 2000 as one of the first
pieces of legislation enacted by the new Scottish Parliament, and on 18
November 2003 in England and Wales by section 122 of the Local
Government Act 2003, with the Labour government also issuing an
apology to LGBT people for the act.[156] ()
Lithuania put in place a similar such ban 16 June 2009 amid protests by
gay rights groups. LGBT rights groups stated that it would be taken to
the European Court of Human Rights for violation of European Human
rights laws.[159] Several Russian territories had implemented similar laws
restricting the distribution of "propaganda" promoting homosexuality to
minors, including Ryazan, Arkhangelsk, and Saint Petersburg.[160] In
June 2013, a federal bill was passed in Russia that made the distribution
of materials promoting "non-traditional sexual relationships" among
minors a criminal offence; the bill's author Yelena Mizulina argued that
the law was intended to help protect "traditional family values".[161][162]
As of October 2014, Kyrgyzstan was in the process of adopting a law

which would "mandate jail terms for gay-rights activists and others,
including journalists, who create 'a positive attitude toward non-
traditional sexual relations'".[163]
Violence …
Gay people have been the target of violence for their sexuality in various
cultures throughout history. During the Holocaust, 100,000 gay men
were arrested, and between 5,000–15,000 gay men perished in Nazi
concentration camps.[164] Violence against LGBT people continues to
occur today, fueled by anti-gay rhetoric,[165] usually by teenage boys
and young men who are very hostile to LGBT people and men who do
not conform to traditional gender roles.
Homophobic rhetoric …
:
Regions and historical periods
Societal attitudes toward homosexuality vary greatly in different

cultures and different historical periods, as do attitudes toward sexual
desire, activity and relationships in general. All cultures have their own
values regarding appropriate and inappropriate sexuality; some sanction
same-sex love and sexuality, while others disapprove of such
activities.[166] As with heterosexual behaviour, different sets of
prescriptions and proscriptions may be given to individuals according to
their gender, age, social status or class. For example, among the
samurai class of pre-modern Japan, it was recommended for a teenage
novice to enter into an erotic relationship with an older warrior (see
Shudo), but sexual relations between the two became inappropriate
once the boy came of age.[167]
Ancient India …
Ancient Greece …
Male couple (erastes and eromenos) kissing (Attic red-figured cup, ca. 480 BC)
In Ancient Greece homoerotic practices were widely present, and

:
integrated into the religion, education, philosophy and military
culture.[168] The sexualized form of these relationships was the topic of
vigorous debate. In particular, anal intercourse was condemned by
many, including Plato, as a form of hubris and faulted for dishonoring
and feminizing the boys. Relations between adult males were generally
ridiculed. Plato also believed that the chaste form of the relationship
was the mark of an enlightened society, while only barbarians
condemned it.[169]
The extent to which the Greeks engaged in and tolerated homosexual

relations is open to some debate. In Sparta and Thebes, there appeared
to be a particularly strong emphasis on these relationships, and it was
considered an important part of a youth's education.[170]
Ancient Rome …
"Homosexual" and "heterosexual" were not categories of Roman

sexuality, and Latin lacks words that would translate these concepts
exactly.[171] The primary dichotomy of Roman sexuality was
active/dominant/masculine and passive/submissive/"feminized". The
masculinity of an adult male citizen was defined sexually by his taking
the penetrative role, whether his partner was female or a male of lower
status.[172] A Roman citizen's political liberty (libertas) was defined in
part by the right to preserve his body from physical compulsion or use
by others;[173] for the male citizen to use his body to give pleasure was
considered servile and subversive of the social hierarchy.[174]
It was acceptable for a man to be attracted to a beautiful young

male,[175] but the bodies of citizen youths were strictly off-limits.[176]
Acceptable male partners were slaves, male prostitutes, or others who
lacked social standing (the infames). Same-sex relations among male
citizens of equal status, including soldiers, were disparaged, and in
some circumstances penalized harshly.[177] In political rhetoric, a man
might be attacked for effeminacy or playing the passive role in sex acts,
but not for performing penetrative sex on a socially acceptable male
:
partner.[178] Threats of anal or oral rape against another man were
forms of masculine braggadocio.[179]
Homosexual behaviors were regulated in so far as they threatened or

impinged on an ideal of liberty for the dominant male, who retained his
masculinity by not being penetrated.[180] The Lex Scantinia imposed
penalties on those who committed a sex crime (stuprum) against a
freeborn male minor; it may also have been used to prosecute adult
male citizens who willingly took the "passive" role.[181] Children who
were born into slavery or became enslaved had no legal protections
against sexual abuse; a good-looking and graceful slave-boy might be
chosen and groomed as his owner's sexual favorite.[182] Pederasty in
ancient Rome thus differed from pederastic practice in ancient Greece,
where by custom the couple were both freeborn males of equal social
status.
Although Roman law did not recognize marriage between men, and in
general Romans regarded marriage as a heterosexual union with the
primary purpose of producing children, in the early Imperial period
some male couples were celebrating traditional marriage rites. Juvenal
remarks that his friends often attended such ceremonies.[183] The
emperor Nero had two marriages to men, once as the bride (with a
freedman Pythagoras) and once as the groom. He had his pederastic
lover Sporus castrated, and during their marriage, Sporus appeared in
public as Nero's wife wearing the regalia that was customary for Roman
empresses.[184]
Same-sex relations among women are infrequently documented during

the Republic and Principate, but better attested during the Empire.[185]
An early reference to homosexual women as "lesbians" is found in the
Roman-era Greek writer Lucian (2nd century AD): "They say there are
women like that in Lesbos, masculine-looking, but they don't want to
give it up for men. Instead, they consort with women, just like men."[186]
Since male writers thought a sex act required an active or dominant
partner who was "phallic", they imagined that in lesbian sex one of the
women would use a dildo or have an exceptionally large clitoris for
:
penetration, and that she would be the one experiencing pleasure.[187]
The poet Martial describes lesbians as having outsized sexual appetites
and performing penetrative sex on both women and boys.[188] Satiric
portrayals of women who sodomize boys, drink and eat like men, and
engage in vigorous physical regimens, may reflect cultural anxieties
about the growing independence of Roman women.[189]
Ancient China …
Some early Chinese emperors are speculated to have had homosexual

relationships, accompanied by heterosexual ones.[190] Same-sex
practices have been documented there since the "Spring and Autumn
Annals" period (parallel with Classical Greece) and its roots are found in
the legend of China's origin, the reign of the Yellow Emperor, who,
among his many inventions, is credited with being the first to take male
bedmates.
Opposition to homosexuality in China originates in the medieval Tang

Dynasty, attributed to the rising influence of Christian and Islamic
values,[191] but did not become fully established until the late Qing
Dynasty and the Republic of China.[192] The Chinese Psychiatrists'
Association removed homosexuality from the list of mental illnesses in
April 2001.[193][194] However, as openly gay scriptwriter and teacher Cui
Zi'en points out, "In the West, it's frowned on to criticize homosexuals
and even more to make them feel different", says Cui Zi'en, contrasting
it with Chinese society which, "is changing, but there'll always be
people who'll feel disgust".[195]
Ancient Israel …
In the book of Leviticus, intercourse between males was condemned as

an 'abomination' (Leviticus 18:22, 22:13), and required the death
penalty for those men who "lie with a man as with a woman".[196]
:
Early Christianity …
Many contend that from its earliest days, Christianity followed the
Hebrew tradition of condemnation of male sexual intercourse and
certain forms of sexual relations between men and women, labeling
both as sodomy. Some contemporary Christian scholars dispute this
however. The teachings of Jesus Christ encouraged a turning away from
and forgiveness of sin, including those sins of sexual impurity, although
Jesus never referred to homosexuality specifically. Jesus was known as
a defender of those whose sexual sins were condemned by the
Pharisees. At the same time, Jesus strongly upheld the Ten
Commandments and urged those whose sexual sins were forgiven to,
"go, and sin no more".[197]
Saint Paul was even more explicit in his condemnation of sinful behavior,
including sodomy, saying, "Know you not that the unjust shall not
possess the kingdom of God? Do not err: neither fornicators, nor
idolaters, nor adulterers, nor the effeminate, nor liers with mankind, nor
thieves, nor covetous, nor drunkards, nor railers, nor extortioners, shall
possess the kingdom of God."[198] However, the exact meanings of two
of the ancient Greek words that Paul used that supposedly refer to
homosexuality are disputed among scholars. In the Septuagint
translation of the Old Testament, however, the relevant words employed
in 1 Corinthians and 1 Timothy are the same words employed in
Leviticus 18 to denote gay men.
Christian Roman Empire / Byzantine Empire …
After the emperor Constantine ended the persecution of Christians

throughout the Roman Empire and Theodosius made Christianity the
official state religion in the 4th century, Christian attitudes toward
sexual behavior were soon incorporated into Roman Law. In the year
528, the emperor Justinian I, responding to an outbreak of pederasty
among the Christian clergy, issued a law which made castration the
punishment for sodomy.[199]
:
Medieval Europe …
In medieval Europe, homosexuality was considered sodomy and was

punishable by death. Persecutions reached their height during the
Medieval Inquisitions, when the sects of Cathars and Waldensians were
accused of fornication and sodomy, alongside accusations of Satanism.
In 1307, accusations of sodomy and homosexuality were major charges
leveled during the Trial of the Knights Templar.[200] The theologian
Thomas Aquinas was influential in linking condemnations of
homosexuality with the idea of natural law, arguing that "special sins are
against nature, as, for instance, those that run counter to the
intercourse of male and female natural to animals, and so are peculiarly
qualified as unnatural vices".[201]
New Guinea …
The Bedamini people of New Guinea believe that semen is the main
source of masculinity and strength. In consequence, the sharing of
semen between men, particularly when there is an age gap, is seen as
promoting growth throughout nature, while excessive heterosexual
activities are seen as leading to decay and death.[202]
Russia …
A survey run by the Levada Centre in Russia in July 2010 concluded that
"homophobia is widespread in Russian society". It draws this conclusion
from the following findings. 74% of respondents believed that gays and
lesbians are immoral or psychologically disturbed people. Only 15%
responded that homosexuality is as legitimate as traditionally conceived
sexual orientation. 39% consider that they should be compulsorily
treated or alternatively isolated from society. 4% considered that it is
necessary to liquidate people of a non-traditional sexual orientation.
On the other hand, many Russians (45%) were in favour of the equality
of homosexuals with other citizens (41% against, 15% undecided). Most
:
supported the introduction in Russia of laws forbidding discrimination
on the grounds of sexual orientation and incitement of hatred for gays
and lesbians (31% against, 28% undecided).
The Levada Centre reached the following conclusions on the

distribution of these view in different groups of society. "In Russian
society, homophobia is most often encountered among men, older
respondents (over 55), and people with an average level of education
and low income... Women, young Russians (18–39), and well educated
and comfortably off respondents showed more tolerance for people of a
non-traditional sexual orientation, and more understanding of related
issues. Respondents over 40, people of average or lower education or
low incomes, and rural people—the sectors retaining the inertia of
Soviet thinking—are more likely to believe that homosexuality is a
disease requiring treatment, and that homosexuals must be isolated
from society".[203]
Arab world …
Men who have sex with other men in Arab societies do not commonly
refer to each other as homosexuals. Laurens Buijs, Gert Hekma, and Jan
Willem Duyvendak, authors of the 2011 article "'As long as they keep
away from me': The paradox of antigay violence in a gay-friendly
country", said "This might explain why they are more likely to condemn
men who explicitly claim a homosexual identity."[204] In the 2011 article
they said that among men in Arab countries who do not identify as
homosexual anal sexual intercourse is "often said to be common" and
that the men's "masculine gender role is not at stake as long as they
take up the active role".[204]
Netherlands …
Laurens Buijs, Gert Hekma, and Jan Willem Duyvendak, authors of the
2011 article "'As long as they keep away from me': The paradox of
antigay violence in a gay-friendly country", said that the Netherlands
:
has a "tolerant and gay-friendly image",[205] and that Dutch people,
according to cross-national survey research, exhibit more acceptance
of homosexuality than "most other European peoples".[206] They also
stated that Dutch people exhibit support for equal rights for and non-
discrimination of homosexuals.[206] They explained "Amsterdam, in
particular is often associated with gay emancipation, as it provided the
setting for the world's first legally recognized 'gay marriage' in 2001,
and hosts the famous gay parade with festively decorated boats floating
through the city's picturesque canals each year."[206] According to the
article, despite this reputation, the aspects of attempts of men to
seduce other men, anal sex, behavior perceived as "feminine" from
males, and public displays of affection among homosexuals are likely to
trigger homophobia in the Netherlands.[207]
They argued that "antigay violence is a remarkably grave problem" in

that country.[205] They explained that members of five ethnic groups,
Dutch-Antilleans, Dutch-Greeks, Dutch-Moroccans, Dutch-Serbs,
Dutch-Turks, "are less accepting towards homosexuality, also when
controlled for gender, age, level of education and religiosity".[208] They
also stated that the culture in the Armed Forces of the Netherlands "is
notoriously masculine and intolerant towards homosexuality".[208] Until
the year 2000, right wing politicians in the Netherlands generally
opposed homosexuality, but as of 2011 show support of homosexuality
and oppose anti-gay attitudes in immigrant groups, stating that the
country has a "Dutch tradition of tolerance" for homosexuality.[205]
United States …
McCarthy era
…
:
Senator Joseph McCarthy
In the 1950s in the United States, open homosexuality was taboo.

Legislatures in every state had passed laws against homosexual
behavior well before this, most notably anti-sodomy laws. Many
politicians treated the homosexual as a symbol of antinationalism,
construing masculinity as patriotism and marking the "unmasculine"
homosexual as a threat to national security. This perceived connection
between homosexuality and antinationalism was present in Nazi
Germany and Soviet Russia[209] as well, and appears in contemporary
politics to this day.[210][211]
Senator Joseph McCarthy used accusations of homosexuality as a

smear tactic in his anti-Communist crusade, often combining the
Second Red Scare with the Lavender Scare. On one occasion, he went
so far as to announce to reporters, "If you want to be against McCarthy,
boys, you've got to be either a Communist or a cocksucker."[212]
Senator Kenneth Wherry likewise attempted to invoke some connection

between homosexuality and antinationalism as, for example, when he
said in an interview with Max Lerner that "You can't hardly separate
homosexuals from subversives." Later in that same interview he draws
the line between patriotic Americans and gay men: "But look Lerner,
we're both Americans, aren't we? I say, let's get these fellows [closeted
:
gay men in government positions] out of the government."[213]
CC
10:13
The film Boys Beware (1961)
There were other perceived connections between homosexuality and

Communism. Wherry publicized fears that Joseph Stalin had obtained a
list of closeted homosexuals in positions of power from Adolf Hitler,
which he believed Stalin intended to use to blackmail these men into
working against the U.S. for the Soviet regime.[214] The 1950 Senate
subcommittee Hoey Report "Employment of Homosexuals and Other
Sex Perverts in Government" said that "the pervert is easy prey to the
blackmailer.... It is an accepted fact among intelligence agencies that
espionage organizations the world over consider sex perverts who are
in possession of or have access to confidential material to be prime
targets where pressure can be exerted." Along with that security-based
concern, the report found homosexuals unsuitable for government
employment because "those who engage in overt acts of perversion
lack the emotional stability of normal persons. In addition there is an
abundance of evidence to sustain the conclusion that indulgence in
acts of sex perversion weakens the moral fiber of an individual to a
degree that he is not suitable for a position of responsibility."[215]
McCarthy and Roy Cohn used the secrets of closeted gay American
politicians as tools for blackmail more often than did foreign
powers.[216]
:
LGBT civil rights movement
…
Beginning in the 20th century, LGBT rights movements have led to
changes in social acceptance and in the media portrayal of same-
gender relationships. The legalization of same-sex marriage, a major
goal of gay rights supporters, was achieved across all fifty states during
the period from 2004 to 2015. (See also LGBT rights organization.)
Attitudes toward homosexuality have changed in developed societies in

the latter part of the 20th century, accompanied by a greater
acceptance of gay people into both secular and religious institutions.
Some opponents of the movement say the term LGBT civil rights is a
misnomer and an attempt to piggyback on the civil rights movement.
Rev. Jesse Lee Peterson, for example, called the comparison of the civil
rights movement to the "gay rights movement" a "disgrace to a black
American". He said that "homosexuality is not a civil right. What we
have is a bunch of radical homosexuals trying to attach their agenda to
the struggles of the 1960s,"[217] while Jesse Jackson has said "Gays
were never called three-fifths human in the Constitution." Gene Rivers, a
Boston minister, has accused gays of "pimping" the civil rights
movement.[218]
In contrast, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored

People (NAACP), a leading organization during the civil rights
movement, has made clear their support for LGBT rights and equate it
with other human rights and civil rights movements.[219]
Statistics
…
73% of the general public in the United States in 2001 stated that they
knew someone who is gay, lesbian, or bisexual.[220] This is the result of
a steady increase from 1983 when there were 24%, 43% in 1993, 55%
in 1998, or 62% in 2000. The percentage of the general public who say
there is more acceptance of LGB people in 2001 than before was 64%.
Acceptance was measured on many different levels—87% of the
general public would shop at a store owned by someone who is gay or
:
lesbian but only 46% of the general public would attend a church or
synagogue where a minister or rabbi is openly gay or lesbian. A 2011
survey by the Pew Research Center showed that 60% of U.S. adults
think homosexuality should be accepted.[221] Males and people over 65
years old are more likely to think it is wrong. Among people who do not
know someone who is LGB, 61% think the behavior is wrong. Broken
down by religion, 60% of evangelical Christians think that it is wrong,
whereas 11% with no religious affiliation are against it. 57% of the
general public think that gays and lesbians experience a lot of prejudice
and discrimination, making it the group most believed to experience
prejudice and discrimination. African Americans come in second at
42%.[222]
In terms of support of public policies, according to the same 2001

study, 76% of the general public thought that there should be laws to
protect gay and lesbian people from job discrimination, 74% from
housing discrimination, 73% for inheritance rights, 70% support health
and other employee benefits for domestic partners, 68% supported
social security benefits, and 56% supported GL people openly serving
in the military. 73% favored sexual orientation being included in the hate
crimes statutes. 39% supported same-sex marriage, while 47%
supported civil unions, and 46% supported adoption rights. A poll
conducted in 2013 showed a record high of 58% of the American
people supporting legal recognition for same-sex marriage.[223][224]
The American public's acceptance of homosexuality over time.

:
A separate study shows that, in the United States, the younger
generation is more supportive of gay rights than average, and that there
is growing support for LBGT rights. In 2011, for the first time, a majority
of Americans supported the legalization of same-sex marriage.[225] In
2012, President Barack Obama voiced support for gay marriage, and in
the November elections, three states voted to legalize gay marriage at
the ballot box for the first time in history[226] while an attempt to restrict
same-sex marriage was rejected. In 2016, 55% of U.S. citizens
supported same sex marriage and 37% opposed.[227]
See also
Biphobia
Gay bashing
Heterosexism
Homosexuality in society
LGBT stereotypes
Liberal homophobia
Media portrayal of bisexuality
Structural abuse
Sociology of gender
Status of same-sex marriage
Further reading
David Ekstam. 2021. "The Liberalization of American Attitudes to

Homosexuality and the Impact of Age, Period, and Cohort Effects."
Social Forces.
Notes
:
a. Because some polls do not report 'neither', those that do are listed with
simple yes/no percentages in parentheses, so their figures can be
compared.
b. Comprises: Neutral; Don't know; No answer; Other; Refused.
c. [+ more urban/educated than representative]
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Societal attitudes toward homosexuality vary greatly across different

Many of the world's cultures have, in the past, considered procreative

Difficulties in interpreting homosexuality

Contemporary scholars caution against applying modern Western

Measuring attitudes toward homosexuality

Pew Global Attitudes

Canada 85% 10%

United States 72% 21%

Spain 89% 10%

Germany 86% 11%

France 86% 11%

United Kingdom 86% 11%

Italy 75% 20%

Greece 53% 40%

Hungary 49% 39%

Poland 47% 42%

Slovakia 44% 46%

Bulgaria 32% 48%

Lithuania 28% 45%

Ukraine 14% 69%

Russia 14% 74%

Israel 47% 45%

Turkey 25% 57%

Lebanon 13% 85%

Australia 81% 18%

Philippines 73% 24%

Japan 68% 22%

South Korea 44% 53%

India 37% 37%

Argentina 76% 19%

Mexico 69% 24%

Brazil 67% 23%

South Africa 54% 38%

Kenya 14% 83%

From the 1970s, academics have researched attitudes held by

Social psychologists such as Gregory Herek have examined underlying

Contemporary researchers have measured attitudes held by

Research (mainly conducted in the United States) show that people

Country Pollster Year For[a] Against[a] Neither

Institut d'Estudis 70% 19%

Pew Research 3% 96%

Aruba 2021 46%

AmericasBarometer 2015 11% – –

Pew Research 16% 81%

Belize AmericasBarometer 2014 8% – –

Bolivia AmericasBarometer 2017 35% 65% –

INVAMER-POLL 2022 48% 46% 6%

Cuba Apretaste 2019 63% 37% –

AmericasBarometer 2017 10% 90% –

Dominican AmericasBarometer 2016 27% 73% –

Women’s Initiatives 10% 75%

Grenada AmericasBarometer 2017 12% 88% –

AmericasBarometer 2017 23% 77% –

Guyana AmericasBarometer 2017 21% 79% –

Haiti AmericasBarometer 2017 5% 95% –

Israel Hiddush 2019 55% 45%[51] –

Jamaica AmericasBarometer 2017 16% 84% –

Pew Research 7% 89%

Pew Research 5% 92%

AmericasBarometer 2017 25% 75% –

Pew Research 72% 19%