Cultivating The Image of Teachers As Curriculum Makers

Sage Reference
The SAGE Handbook of Curriculum and Instruction
Author: Cheryl J. Craig, Vicki Ross

Pub. Date: 2009
Product: Sage Reference
DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412976572
Keywords: Lee Shulman, teacher education, teaching, teacher knowledge, curriculum, pedagogical content
knowledge, curriculum studies
Disciplines: Curriculum & Content (general), Curriculum & Content, Education
Access Date: May 17, 2023
Publishing Company: SAGE Publications, Inc.
City: Thousand Oaks
Online ISBN: 9781412976572
© 2009 SAGE Publications, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

SAGE Sage Reference
© 2008 by Sage Publications, Inc.
Cultivating the Image of Teachers as Curriculum Makers
Since Schwab's (1969a) first practical paper when he called for a renaissance in curriculum, debate has en-
sued concerning whether the renewal for which he advocated has occurred. Lack of advance in curriculum
studies is attributed to diffused interests and efforts (Cuban, 1995), ongoing crisis in the field (Wraga & Hle-
bowitsh, 2003), tilling of the same theoretical ground (Westbury, 1999), asking of the wrong questions (Eis-
ner, 2002a), and focusing on development rather than on theorizing (Pinar, Reynolds, Slattery, & Taubman,
1995). Likewise, D. Hamilton and McWilliam (2001) argue the moribund state Schwab named in the curricu-
lum field is mirrored in teaching and teacher education. Lack of progress in that field is linked to absences of
well-defined knowledge bases (Murray, 1996), dearth of research concerning program effectiveness (Hous-
ton, Haberman, & Sikula, 1990), paucity of large-scale studies (Feiman-Nemser, Parker, & Zeichner, 1994),
and existence of conflicting philosophical traditions (Tom, 1997). Then, too, there is need for dialogue with
policymakers (Elliott, 1993), shortage of teachers and teacher educators studying their teacher education
programs (Clift, 2004), and their practices (Korthagen & Lunenberg, 2004), and framing of wrong questions
(Floden & Klinzing, 1990). Addressing these matters, some Schwab descendants in the fields of curricu-
lum and teaching—Michael Connelly (and Jean Clandinin), Elliot Eisner, Lee Shulman (with Judy Shulman),
and Seymour Fox, together with other interpreters of his scholarship, notably William Reid and Ian West-
bury—use Schwab's “paradigm of the practical” (Greene, 1994), albeit in different ways, as foundational to
their research enterprises. Aggregated, their work creates a context to understand developments in the af-
termath of Schwab's practical, especially regarding the teacher as curriculum maker image. Their research
agendas, in Schwab's (1969b) vernacular, pertain to “choice[s] and action[s] [whose] methods lead to de-
fensible decisions” (p. 2). Such choices and actions take into account “states of affairs” and are “indefinitely
susceptible to circumstance and … highly liable to unexpected change” (Schwab, 1970, p. 3).
Chapter Methodology
In this chapter, we further develop the image of teacher as curriculum maker by building on Clandinin and
Connelly's 1992 Handbook of Research on Curriculum chapter, which reviews Schwab's scholarship, includ-
ing the recently discovered Camp Ramah audiotapes (Schwab, 1962–1965) as well as a Michigan State Uni-
versity transcript (Schwab, 1976), and which surveys the teacher development literature from 1990 to 2005.
We then limited the search to studies directly quoting Schwab and gave second-order priority to works indi-

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rectly acknowledging him. Finally, we added heft to this review by interviewing and/or emailing such curricu-
lum and teaching authorities as Miriam Ben-Peretz, Jean Clandinin, Michael Connelly, Freema Elbaz, Elliot
Eisner, Bob Floden, Nona Lyons, William Reid, Bill Schubert, Lee Shulman, and Ian Westbury, among many
others.
In defining the term, teacher development, we adopt Schwab's view that human capacities and incapacities
can be developed. Capacities are typically cultivated in situations emphasizing “the experience of moving
toward… understanding” (Schwab, 1954/1978, p. 105) rather than the instrumental use of knowledge. The
notion of educators moving toward “informed and reflective practice” (Schwab, 1959/1978, p. 170) permeates
his work. We hope Schwab's aim of developing understanding through a coalescence of ideas imbues this
review.
The Organization of the Chapter
This chapter centering on the cultivation of the teacher as curriculum maker image in the aftermath of
Schwab's practical is organized in five parts. First is a retelling of Clandinin and Connelly's teacher as curricu-
lum maker essay. Second, a context for understanding knowledge is created. We discuss Schwab's notions
of the practical and commonplaces of curriculum, laying groundwork for further development of the image of
teachers as curriculum makers in the third. Employing Schwab's idea of “moving toward … understanding,”
the fourth part features a many-stranded review of contemporary literature relating to the teacher as curricu-
lum maker image. To conclude, we identify issues, tensions, and areas for further research.
Teacher as Curriculum Maker: A Retelling
Connelly and Clandinin (1992) presented the teacher as curriculum maker image and argued for the inter-
related nature of curriculum means and ends, stating that “designing curricula for teachers to implement for
instructional purposes” was “rather like putting the cart before the horse” (p. 365). Building on both Tyler's
(1949/1969) and Schwab's (1954/1978, 1960/1978) scholarship, Clandinin and Connelly (1992) created a
theoretical frame on which to secure the image of teacher as curriculum maker. In their words, “bringing
Tyler's and Schwab's ideas together provides the makings of an image of the teacher as curriculum maker …
Schwab provided the rationale, which was a kind of reinterpretation of Tyler, and Tyler provided the agency”

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(Clandinin & Connelly, 1992, p. 256). Tyler and Schwab were not the only sources on which Clandinin and
Connelly formed their argument. They searched other areas of study: educational leadership literature; edu-
cational history, specifically concerning stability and change; and Dewey's (1938) philosophy of education to
explore means and ends. Clandinin and Connelly (1992) found curriculum historically conceived as an instru-
ment of school reform, and teachers as mediators between curriculum and student outcomes. Clandinin and
Connelly's study of what goes on in classrooms and schools further prompted their assembly of a literature on
the image of teacher as curriculum maker. Schwab issued this call; Jackson (1968) did, too. Both embraced
Dewey's philosophy, imagining researchers working differently in schools and coming to know how teachers
make curriculum by working alongside teachers and other practitioners. In this way, the image of teacher as
curriculum maker strengthens the view of teachers as knowing and knowledgeable human beings and recon-
figures the relationship between teachers and those in higher education (Schwab, 1983).
Having revisited Clandinin and Connelly's (1992) essay, we now examine how the image of teacher as cur-
riculum maker has since developed. To this end, we return to Schwab, specifically to his curriculum common-
places (Schwab, 1983). However, first, two background matters require explanation: the context shaping un-
derstandings of teachers' knowledge and the nature of their knowledge. Both are instructive because teacher
development is organically related to epistemological claims.
Views of Knowledge
Technical rationalism forms the historical context for examinations of teacher knowledge. Based on the
premise science solves most societal problems, technical rationalism promotes a view of knowledge as
propositional and theoretically based. Thus, some argue (i.e., Pinar et al., 1995) Tyler's (1949/1969) views of
curriculum represent technical rationality, and others (i.e., Pereira, 1992, a former doctoral student of Schwab)
state Schwab's practical curtails extreme forms of technical rationalism (Pereira, 1992, p. 159). Technical ra-
tionalism frames conversations about knowledge in positivistic science and efficiency terms and connects to
modern views of professionalism (Schön, 1983). Many issues in the teacher knowledge field originate in tech-
nical rationalism and the rise of professionalism in education. This knowledge backdrop has two pertinent
features: the first, the relationship between theory and practice and the resultant rise of the process product
type of study dominating education research from the 1950s onward; and the second, the privileging of the-
ory over practice in teachers' professional development, teacher education, and research on teaching and
teacher education.

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In technical rationalism, theory and practice are perceived dualistically: theory, developed through university
or other research-intensive sites, and practice, the application of research findings by practitioners in class-
rooms and schools. Reviews by Munby, Russell and Martin (2001) and Grimmett and MacKinnon (1992) ex-
plain this theory-practice split and its role in understanding teacher knowledge. In education, this separation
is what Goodson (1990), reflecting on Veblan (1962), characterizes as “a devil's bargain” (p. 300). I. Westbury
(personal communication, April 11,2006), views this “wrong path” splitting knowing and action as today's chal-
lenge.
Process product studies, mostly relying on student achievement scores to prove effects of teacher behaviors,
fit within the technical rational framework (Doyle, 1990, p. 12). Tom and Valli (1990) discuss this research
genre and its relationship to teachers' professional knowledge. Today's achievement testing agenda is un-
derstood within this historical context. With passing time, process product research was thought to be too
prescriptive—“at least as transmitted by trainers” (Sprinthall, Reiman, & Thies-Sprinthall, 1996, p. 683)—and
lacking where results were concerned (Richardson & Anders, 1994).
Other research forms overtook process product research in academic literature, however, “unfortunately and
dangerously” (L. Shulman, 1992/2004, p. 377) not in public policy arenas. Studies linking student achieve-
ment test scores to teacher behavior—an error in underlying premise in Tom's (1997) and others' (i.e., Eisner,
2003) estimations—creates the public perception that student test scores monitor school and teacher suc-
cess. Were process product research results communicated with “more modesty,” L. Shulman (as cited in
Brandt, 1992, p. 16) believes demands for student achievement testing and science-based research may not
have escalated to current levels.
The belief that schools and teachers have not provided the services for which they were contracted (Goodlad,
1979) gave rise to accountability demands on schools and teachers as well as the high stakes testing move-
ment. Concerning issues of professionalism and the related theory-practice split engendered by technical ra-
tionalism, Popham (2004) observes that educational specialization has rendered specialists unable to com-
municate within the field, much less across fields and with policymakers and the public. L. Shulman (1992/
2004) explains that this inability may contribute to the continuing influence of process product research in
public policy arenas.
Intertwining technical rationalism and professionalism motivates the establishment of “finished product”
(Barone, Berliner, Blanchard, Casanova, & McGowan, 1996, p. 1108) knowledge bases in teaching and
teacher education, and some see this as a vehicle to increase professionalism and/or remuneration (L. Shul-

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man, 2004; Wise, 1993). For others (i.e., Donmoyer, 1996), creating lists of competencies encourages testing
of preservice and inservice teachers' development and sets the context for observational judgments of teach-
ing performance (Kelchtermans, 2005). Kleibard (1993) queries, “What is a knowledge base and who would
want to use it if we had one?” (p. 295), calling into question its substance and use. Carter and Doyle (1996)
consider knowledge bases as means for university-based researchers and/or policymakers controlling teach-
ers and teaching.
Process product research and underlying technical rational framework are linked to extreme versions of the
training metaphor. Much research created by process product methods is funneled into schools through staff
development programs with the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD), for exam-
ple, acting as a clearinghouse estranged from many researchers in curriculum studies and teaching (Pinar,
1978). Process product research findings also shaped teacher education programs, becoming core content
(Tom, 1997).
In academia, the movement “against technical rationality and the remote control of teachers” (Carter & Doyle,
1996, p. 122) through policy and management of practice shifted attention to other research agendas. Shul-
man (1992/2004) believes case study research, using individual teachers as units of analysis, is a response to
the process-product movement, which sought generalizable teacher knowledge derived from large data sets.
As Kleibard (1993; based upon Wang, Haertel, & Walberg's, 1993, review of 91 meta-analyses, 179 chapters,
and 61 experts in the area of teachers' propositional knowledge) argued,
The failure of [this] kind of research to affect practice is not a matter of obstinacy, ignorance, or
malfeasance on the part of teachers, or for that matter a failure on the part of researchers to employ
sophisticated research techniques, or to amass large enough data bases. It is failure on the part of
the research establishment generally to take seriously enough the conditions of teaching as well as
the perspective of teaching professionals.
(p. 301)
Research agendas shifted, and qualitative research overtook process product research in the scholarly arena,
but not in funded research and evaluation projects. Despite many scholars' preference for qualitative re-
search approaches, the public and policymakers demand quantitative results. Hence, the theory-practice di-
vide Schwab described has escalated into a complex theory-practice-policy split.

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A Return to Schwab
Schwab's vision of the practical revolutionized the field of curriculum. Some claim Schwab fired the “first vol-
ley” (Pinar, 1988, p. 2) and “created the first fissure in the wall of the ideological world of Bobbitt and Tyler”
(Westbury, 2005, p. 90). Others attributed Schwab's practical with “changing the field forever” (E. W. Eis-
ner, personal communication, April, 22, 2006). Schwab's views on the practical confronted those engaged in
“flights from the field” (Schwab, 1970, pp. 17–18) and placed his scholarship on a trajectory different from that
of his theory-driven counterparts (see Reid, 1993). His practical called for an epistemologically and empiri-
cally different starting place: It was “built around the forms of thought that address choice and action in the
reality of ongoing experience” (Westbury, 2005, p. 94). Stated differently, the particularities of human experi-
ence—and by association, practical knowledge—formed the core of Schwab's practical.
Through theorizing on the practical, Schwab contributed to “the humanization of educational inquiry” (Eisner,
1984, p. 24). As Eisner (1984) explains,
[Schwab's] articles provide[d] a theoretical justification of the virtue and complexity of practical in-
quiry … They explained … why eclecticism was not a practical liability but a necessary feature of
the deliberative process and why deliberation—the exercise of the human's highest intellectual pow-
ers—was necessary in making decisions that always must suit changing contexts riddled with idio-
syncrasies.
(p. 24)
Thus, Schwab laid groundwork for Schön's (1983) ideas about reflective practice (see Doll, 1988) even as
Schwab participated in face-to-face discussions with Thomas Kuhn (1962/1996) while Kuhn formulated his
treatise on paradigm shifts (I. Westbury, personal communication, April 11, 2006). Schwab also envisioned
professors and educators in schools working together, encouraging researchers to surrender “the vice of ab-
straction” (Schwab, 1970, p. 25), and learning to conduct research consistent with the Greek root of empirical:
empeira (experience).
The Commonplaces of Curriculum as Bodies of Experience
Schwab's commonplaces of teacher, learner, subject matter, and milieu were foundational to his notion of the
practical and the “bodies of experience” (Schwab, 1977) he deemed necessary for curriculum making. For

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Schwab, more than one commonplace could be held and expressed in one person's experience. For exam-
ple, the teacher holds his or her teaching body of experience and also may be knowledgeable about subject
matter, students, and milieu. Considering the teacher—and using Schwab's commonplaces—Clandinin and
Connelly (1992) and others (i.e., Clarke & G. Erickson, 2004a; Zeichner & Liston, 1987) narrowed historical
gaps between curriculum studies, teaching, and teacher education; arguing curriculum, in the Schwabian tra-
dition, necessarily includes the teacher and is a “multistoried process” (Olson, 2000).
Development of the Teacher as Curriculum Maker Image in the Aftermath of

“the Practical”
In summarizing the continuity of Schwab's scholarship in teaching and teacher development through several
intellectual descendents, we first acknowledge contributions of William Reid and Ian Westbury whose respec-
tive work concerning curriculum as institution and curriculum approached through the subject matter com-
monplace enlarges our understanding of the image of teacher as curriculum maker and enhances our com-
prehension of complexities underlying Schwab's research enterprise (W. A. Reid, personal communication,
November 14,2005; I. Westbury, personal communication, April 11, 2006). If fifty modern thinkers were to be
recognized for making significant contribution to education (as has been the case; see Palmer, 2001), Schwab
(Westbury & Osborne, 2001) would be among them. If five influential figures in curriculum studies were iden-
tified, Schwab would be named (Reid, 1999a). Yet Schwab's practical did not take the form of a taxonomy
like Bloom's. Schwab feared the impact that tools others could use as rhetoric of conclusions would have on
practice (F. M. Connelly, personal communication, April 6, 2006; L. Shulman, personal communication, April
8,2006).
Because Schwab's contributions were not formulaic or replicable, the import of his work has risked being
passed over due to perceived “reasonableness” (Wankowski & Reid, 1982, p. 129) and lack of application to
specific contexts (Westbury & Wilkof, 1978, p. 2). Together, Westbury and Reid work to ameliorate these chal-
lenges and inform the debate concerning Schwab's contributions. For both, the Journal of Curriculum Studies
is one such forum. Westbury is the general editor, and Reid served a 6-year term on its editorial advisory
board. Westbury (Westbury & Wilkof, 1978) also made Schwab's essays “readily available to those with the
time and inclination to ‘do the hermeneutics’ on them” (Reid, 1999b, p. 385). Additionally, Westbury is quick
to detect “blinkered readings” (Westbury, 2005, p. 89) of Schwab, while acknowledging that many practicals
exist in Schwab's work. Reid responded to Jackson's (1992) query concerning whether Schwab improved on
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Tyler (Reid, 1993) by detailing differences between Tyler and Schwab. Also, Reid shared his correspondence
with Schwab (Reid, 1999b). In these exchanges, we learn many things, one being Schwab's recognition that
his students would leave the University of Chicago with a “mix of ideas and … ferment” (Schwab as cited in
Reid, 1999b, p. 390).
Drawing on Westbury's belief in the possibility of more than one practical—even for Schwab—and Reid's un-
derstanding that Schwab felt students would leave his tutelage with different mixtures of ideas and varying
degrees of ferment, we present developments based on Schwab's practical where curriculum and teaching
meet. We begin with Eisner, follow with Fox, continue with L. Shulman, and conclude with Connelly. Then, we
trace the contributions of the practical on related lines of inquiry in the development of the teacher as curricu-
lum maker image.
Elliot Eisner: Reimagining Schools through Arts-Based Approaches
Through Schwab, Eisner was introduced to Aristotle's Physics and the idea that some things exist by nature
and others by culture (E. W Eisner, personal communication, April 22, 2006). This notion added to his “grow-
ing realization that science… has no monopoly on knowledge” (Eisner, 2002b, p. 380), an idea integral to
Eisner's reimagination of schools through artistic means. It also contributed to his developing theory of teach-
ing as a kind of artistry that “requires sensibility, imagination, technique, and the ability to make judgments
about the feel and significance of the particular” (Eisner, 2005, p. 201).
Schwab's practical influenced Eisner because it provided a framework within which to situate his curriculum
theorizing:
With the advent of Schwab's (1969) important essay on the practical, the ground shifted. Those
interested in curriculum matters and working with teachers began to recognize that the conditions
teachers addressed were each distinctive. As a result, abstract theory would be of limited value.
Each child needed to be known individually … each situation … was unique. It was a grasp of these
distinctive features that the teachers needed … to make good decisions in the classroom.
(Eisner, 2002b, p. 381)
While Eisner's work in the areas of art education, curriculum studies, and school reform did not involve the
face-to-face instruction of teachers, his positioning of his research at the intersection where teaching and
curriculum meet allowed him to reach significant numbers of practitioners. His essays, for example, reg-

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ularly appear in such publications as Educational Leadership and Phi Delta Kappan, which have reader-
ships of 170,000 and 65,000 practitioners respectively. Eisner additionally serves as an editorial consultant
for Phi Delta Kappan. A further example of Eisner's impact on practice is his essay on accountability
testing that appeared on the New Teacher Center, University of California at Santa Cruz Web site (see
http://www.newteachercenter.org/annual_symposium). Also, Eisner (2002c) routinely meets with artists and
teachers in national and international arts organizations such as the Bushnell Center for the Performing Arts
(see http://bushnell.org).
With respect to arts-based methods, Eisner and his student, Tom Barone (2001), have regularly sponsored
arts-based research methods workshops at American Educational Research Association Meetings (Barone
& Eisner, 2005). Also, Barone and Liora Bresler (Wasser & Bresler, 1996), another of Eisner's students, are
the founding editors of the International Journal of Education and the Arts, providing a publishing outlet for
arts-based forms of educational inquiry.
While Schwab was “in the air” (E. W Eisner, personal communication, April 22,2006) with all of Eisner's 52
graduated doctoral students, Schwab's ideas are most pronounced in the scholarship of McCutcheon (1995),
Henderson (2006; Henderson & Hawthorne, 2000), and Walker (Reid & Walker, 1975; Walker & Soltis, 2004).
McCutcheon's Schwabian roots, for example, are reflected in Developing the Curriculum: Solo and Group De-
liberations (McCutcheon, 1995). Where Henderson is concerned, his contribution to a symposium at the 2006
American Educational Research Association Meeting centered on how Schwab would respond to contempo-
rary developments in curriculum studies and his volume, coauthored with Hawthorne, discusses “the art of
systemic reform through eclectic problem solving” (Henderson & Hawthorne, 2000, p. 187). As for Walker and
Soltis (2004), they include Schwab in the annotated bibliography of their coauthored text.
Further to this, another well-known student, Donmoyer (introduced in the knowledge base discussion), is rec-
ognized for making a case for
the distinctiveness of teaching as a profession [through] the claim to distinctive expertise … and that
this mode, following Aristotle, Schön, Schwab, and others, involves careful consideration of means,
ends, alternatives, relevant information, and deliberate choosing.
(Munby et al., 2001, p. 884)
Bruce Uhrmacher and Jonathan Matthew (2005), other former students of Eisner, have edited a book, Intri-
cate Palette: Working the Ideas of Elliot Eisner, in which their peers trace their former advisor's roots. Hender-
son (2005) speaks of how Schwab's concept of “eclectic artistry” informs Eisner's (1994) insights into “educa-

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tional imagination” (p. 57), Vallance (2005) draws on Schwab's commonplaces and the difficulties of proving
Schwab “wrong” (p. 76), and Donmoyer (2005) notes how Eisner exhibits “a healthy eclecticism” (p. 206) in
the Schwabian tradition.
Through Eisner's attunement to the subtleties of knowledge and the contexts of schools, along with his vision
concerning the artistry of teaching and its relationship to curriculum as well as the work of his former graduate
students featured here, he adds distinctive dimensions to the image of teacher as curriculum maker in the
years following Schwab's practical.
Seymour Fox: Leadership in Higher Education
Instrumental in introducing Schwab's (1973) practical 3 essay to a Melton Center for Jewish Education au-
dience (Fox & Rosenfield, 1977), Seymour Fox, an ordained Conservative rabbi and University of Chicago
graduate, is another of Schwab's doctoral students. Fox's studies caused him, influenced by what he had
learned and desirous of enacting the University of Chicago plotline as a founder, professor, and administra-
tor of an education department in the Israeli context, to migrate from the United States to Israel. A Director
of Programs Worldwide for the Mandell Foundation, a recent coauthor of a book on education in the Jewish
context (Fox, Scheffler, & Marom, 2003), and a member of the Board of Directors for The Florence Melton
Adult Mini-School (a project of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem), Fox lived his version of the practical
with others at The Hebrew University of Jerusalem and encouraged scholarship on the Schwab-Fox research
line (Shkedi, 1996, 1998). In addition, some Israeli scholars such as Tamir (Lazarowitz & Tamir, 1994; Tamir,
1998) approach the aftermath of Schwab's practical from the subject matter commonplace, particularly where
inquiry and the nature of science in teaching and learning are concerned. As a result, a rich literature following
that lineage exists in Hebrew (M. Ben-Peretz, personal communication, February 20, 2006). Most recently,
for example, two volumes of Educational Deliberations: Studies in Education Dedicated to Shiomo (Seymour)
Fox have been edited by Nisan and Schremer (2005), the latter being a student of Fox. With one volume in
English and the other in Hebrew, they reflect not only Fox's scholarship, but also his lineage which connects
with Schwab's practical. Among Fox's most well-known students are Freema Elbaz, later Elbaz-Luwisch, (who
was Fox's master's student and Connelly's doctoral student) and Miriam Ben-Peretz, the former Dean of the
University of Haifa, who was awarded the Israel Prize in 2006 for her educational contributions to her country.
Ben-Peretz currently is the Book Review Editor for Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice and on the
International Review Board of Teaching & Teacher Education, and Elbaz-Luwisch is an Executive Editor of

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Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice and serves on the Editorial Board of the Journal of Curriculum
Studies and the International Review Board of Teaching & Teaching Education.
Elbaz (1983) was pivotal in the development of the practical knowledge conceptualization, which threaded
back to Dewey and drew on Schwab's ideas concerning the practical. Elbaz's connections to Schwab imbue
all of her scholarship but are most evident in her 1993 essay review concerning Bowers and Flinders' (1990)
Responsive teaching: An ecological approach to patterns of language, culture and thought. In that work,
Elbaz (1993) discusses Schwab's struggle with having to fit new ideas into an old framework, the demands
of the eclectic (Schwab, 1971/1978), and the challenges associated with progressive education (Schwab,
1959/1978). She also used Schwab's ideas concerning the reconceptualization of the philosophy of science
(Schwab, 1961/1978), and recognized that Schwab's and Bruner's original structure of the disciplines work
did not take into account the “social and cultural implications” (Elbaz, 1993, p. 193) of choices of substantive
and syntactic structures of knowledge (Schwab, 1961/1978). Also, more recently in a literature review of K-12
teaching, Elbaz-Luwisch (2006) asserts that Schwab was probably “the first educational theorist to call close
attention to the lived experience of children and teachers in classrooms” (p. 359).
As for Ben-Peretz, we later mention a paper where she argues for time as a fifth commonplace. For now,
we draw attention to Ben-Peretz's 2001 article on the impossible role of teacher educators that builds on
Schwab's impossible role of teachers chapter and uses Schwab's (1970) practical 1 paper and his “Eros and
Education” essay (1954/1978) to form her argument. In that work, she discusses competing theories that
vie for student teachers' and teacher educators' attention and reinforces Schwab's argument that the teach-
ing and evaluation functions of teachers' and teacher educators' roles need to be separated. Referencing
a coauthored study (Ben-Peretz, Mendelson, & Kron, 1997), Ben-Peretz (2001) underscores the point that
“teaching context has such a significant impact on teachers' images of their professional selves, overriding
even background characteristics such as a teacher's educational level, gender or seniority” (p. 54). This lat-
ter point gives way to Ben-Peretz and Schonmann's (2000) book, which centers on teachers' knowledge and
the teacher lounge milieu. Here, the authors discuss classrooms as “practical places” (Schwab, 1970), ex-
amine how paradoxes of teachers' lounges form a substantive structure of knowledge (Schwab, 1964/1978)
and ponder Schwab's (1954/1978) notion of learners needing “psychological space” to try out their emerging
understandings and actions. They argue that teacher learners need teacher lounges to nonjudgmentally ex-
press their knowing with their peers. Similarly, students need to inhabit a space in their classrooms with their
teachers where they can “be assured that attempts at doing and thinking will be accepted as attempts, as
trial runs and practices, and not as definitive measures of [the learner's] own powers or limitations” (Schwab,

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1954/1978, p. 114). For this reason, Ben-Peretz and Schonmann recommend student teachers be introduced
to the faculty lounge context and the significant role it plays in teachers' knowing and actions prior to becom-
ing certified teachers.
Together, the scholars we feature on the Fox-Schwab research vein have advanced Schwab's practical and
contributed significant ideas, further cultivating the teacher as curriculum maker image.
Lee Shulman: Pedagogical Content Knowledge and Case Study Methods
Lee Shulman is another student of Schwab who built on the practical. Unlike Eisner, Fox, and Connelly,
Schwab taught Lee Shulman in his undergraduate program in the College of the University of Chicago. Many
of L. Shulman's contributions to the fields of curriculum and teacher development are rooted in Schwab's
thinking, teaching, and writing (J. Shulman, 1991/2004). Here, we focus on four aspects of L. Shulman's work.
A fifth aspect—his Carnegie Foundation influence—is discussed later.
We begin by examining three concepts, tracing the influence of Schwab's practical on their development,
and exploring their relationship to the teacher as curriculum maker image. Pedagogical content knowledge
is the first concept we review. Next, we focus on the notion of wisdom of practice, which also connects with
Schwab's scholarship and traces back to Aristotle. Then, we link Lee Shulman's work to the contributions of
Judith Shulman, a lifelong collaborator, with whom the development and use of case studies in teaching and
teacher education practices took shape, and on whom Schwab's teaching also had a significant impact (J.
Shulman, 1992; J. Shulman, personal communication, April 8, 2006). Finally, we situate L. Shulman's work
at Michigan State University and explain how, under Judith Lanier's and Lee Shulman's leadership, the in-
terdisciplinary members of the Institute for Research on Teaching Center (IRT)—such scholars as Sharon
Feiman-Nemser (who taught with Schwab at the University of Chicago), Margret Buchmann, Frederick Erick-
son, Robert Floden, Susan Florio-Ruane, and others—participated in face-to-face deliberations with Schwab,
at the same time as they developed ideas in their personal research programs that connected in significant
ways with Schwab's practical. According to R. Floden (personal communication, April 7, 2006), all research
conducted in the IRT Center at that time positioned Schwab's commonplaces at the center of inquiry.
For L. Shulman, a way for curriculum to maintain its relevance is to be tied to the school subjects. One means
for connecting Schwab's teacher and subject matter commonplaces can be found in L. Shulman's teachers'
pedagogical content knowledge conceptualization, which centers on “the most regularly taught topics in one's

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subject area, the most useful forms of representations of those ideas, the most powerful analogies, illus-
trations, explanations, and demonstrations” (L. Shulman, 1987, p. 9). It includes “an understanding of what
makes the learning of specific topics easy or difficult, the conceptions and preconceptions of [that] students
of different ages and backgrounds bring with them” (L. Shulman, 1987, p 9). Foundational to this conceptual-
ization, and to those who follow the L. Shulman vein of the Schwab line in the years following the practical,
is Schwab's (1964) ideas about substantive and syntactical knowledge, the source of which is his structure of
the disciplines chapter (Schwab, 1964/1978). L. Shulman protégées like Pamela Grossman (2001; Grossman
& Stodolsky, 1994), Samuel Wineburg (2001; Stevens, Wineburg, Herrenkohl, & Bell, 2005), Suzanne Wilson
(2001; Wineburg & Wilson, 1991), and Deborah Ball (1993; Lampert & Ball, 1998) regularly draw on Schwab's
notions about the nature of content knowledge in their theorizing. Further, they and L. Shulman's other 60
graduated doctoral students use their content area work as a springboard for understanding the teaching and
teacher education fields, thereby contributing to the practical and theoretical development of the image of
teacher as curriculum maker from both content knowledge and teacher education perspectives. The influence
of the Shulman-Schwab line is additionally felt in the roles individuals currently assume in the educational
enterprise: Wilson, for example, is an educational consultant to the Phi Delta Kappan journal, Ball serves as
an advisory editor to Elementary School Journal, and Grossman sits on the Editorial Board of Educational
Evaluation and Policy Analysis.
L. Shulman's second strand of research in the aftermath of the practical is the wisdom of practice idea. This
notion particularly finds expression in Ball and Wilson's (1996) integrity in teaching essay, which is linked to
Schwab's structure of the disciplines work. This essay is a response to criticism (i.e., Sockett; 1987; Tom,
1984) that the development of pedagogical content knowledge negates moral aspects of teaching. However,
the strongest connection between the construct of wisdom of practice and teaching is evident in L. Shulman's
advocacy of the National Board of Professional Teaching Standards and National Board-certified teachers
(Feiman-Nemser & Remillard, 1996). In 2004–2005, there were 47,513 Nationally Board Certified Teachers
in the United States (http://www.nbpts.org/May 5,2006).
Another contribution to the curriculum and teacher development fields, case study work, is rooted in teaching
and teacher education and is linked by Lee Shulman to Schwab's ideas about college curriculum at the Uni-
versity of Chicago and to the importance of the materials of instruction. Schwab's (1962) preference for “nar-
rative of enquiry” over “rhetoric of conclusions” is emphasized and forms the rationale for development and
presentation of cases as stimulus for “properly conducted discussion” (L. Shulman as cited in J. Shulman,
1992, p. 15). Wilson's (1992) case stands out because it expands ideas from Schwab's practical 3 paper

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(1973/1978) by centering on the complexities of the practical and how scholars, such as Schwab, recognized
different forms of knowledge.
A fourth connection to L. Shulman is his pioneering in the IRT Center at Michigan State University before
his move to Stanford University. Schwab's deliberations with the Center's faculty impacted their scholarship.
For example, Buchmann (1993) developed ideas from Schwab's (1959/1978) “The ‘Impossible’ Role of the
Teacher in Progressive Education” essay in her work, and Feiman-Nemser (Feiman-Nemser & Remillard,
1996) and Florio-Ruane (2001) used Schwab's (1976) notion of learning communities to inform their scholar-
ship. Additionally, these scholars serve on influential editorial boards. For example, Feiman-Nemser currently
is an Associate Editor of Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, a position also held by Craig on the
Schwab-Connelly-Clandinin line, which we will now introduce.
F. Michael Connelly: Reconceptualizing Teachers as Curriculum Makers
F. Michael Connelly, another Schwab student, has to his credit contributions in the curriculum and teacher
development fields. The founding editor of Curriculum Inquiry, known for its programmatic quality (Fenster-
macher, 1994) and general audience appeal, he and Jean Clandinin serve in many academic leadership ca-
pacities. Clandinin sits on the Executive Editorial Board of Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice and is
Associate Editor of the Social and Institutional Analysis Section of the American Educational Research Jour-
nal. Connelly and Clandinin have directed centers of teaching and teacher development in Canada: Connelly
graduating 90 doctoral students and five postdoctoral students; Clandinin graduating 41 doctoral students
and 10 postdoctoral students.
With Jean Clandinin, his former student and long-time collaborator, Connelly introduced the notion of personal
practical knowledge, embraced the epistemological stance of teachers as knowers, promoted through fine-
grained studies the idea of schools as practical places, and developed the use of narrative inquiry in schools,
with and by teachers. We link and explicate Connelly's contributions through Schwab's scholarship. Working
with Dienes (Connelly & Dienes, 1982), Elbaz (1983), and Clandinin (1986), Connelly developed the concept
of personal practical knowledge, which became further fleshed out in Teachers as Curriculum Planners: Nar-
ratives of Experience, a volume coauthored with Clandinin (Connelly & Clandinin, 1988). Designed largely for
a practitioner audience, one aspect of this text's significance relates to the interpretation of Schwab's schol-
arship for practical use. The premise of the book is that meaningful work with curriculum, by and for teachers,

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is grounded in knowledge of self. The authors state,
For each of us, the more we understand ourselves and can articulate reasons why we are what we
are, do what we do, and are headed where we have chosen, the more meaningful our curriculum
will be.
(Connelly & Clandinin, 1988, p. 11)
Clandinin and Connelly (2000) describe personal practical knowledge as their way “to foreground individual
teachers' knowledge” (p. 3). Early work with the idea of personal practical knowledge led them to focus on
“experiential images” and how images connect to “teachers' knowledge and its expression in classroom prac-
tice” (2000, p. 3). The Schwabian concept of the curriculum commonplaces directly or indirectly distinguishes
scholarship on the Schwab-Connelly research line. Enns (1993), Chan (2006) and Ross (2004,2005), togeth-
er with Young and He (1995), use Schwab's curriculum commonplaces to explore subject matter content in
public education or higher education contexts and their influences on teachers' knowledge development. Con-
le (1996, 1997a), and Davies (1999) expand the use of the commonplaces including teachers' roles in reform
efforts, a focus that pervades Craig's research (2003a, 2006a).
The centrality of the curriculum commonplaces gives rise to an equally important Schwab-related topic: the
view of teachers as knowers. Olson (1995), for example, uses the idea of teachers as knowers as the founda-
tion on which she built her conceptualization of teachers' narrative authority, whereas Craig (1995) uses the
notion to explain how teachers come to know within knowledge communities. Olson and Craig (2001, 2005)
also examine how teachers develop narrative authority in knowledge communities as a way to explore pre-
service and inservice professional development and what it is teachers know and choose not to know.
Particularity of experience and context, another Schwab concept, also distinguishes the Schwab-Connelly
line. Clandinin and her collaborators (Clandinin, Davies, Hogan, & Kennard, 1993; Clandinin, Huber et al.,
2006) exemplify this vein of inquiry through explorations in pre-service education and the places at which
children's and teachers' stories encounter stories of schools. Chan (2003, 2007), a Connelly student, also fo-
cused on ways students' experiences interact in and with curriculum in context. J. Huber and Clandinin (2002)
furthermore explore ethics when working with children in relational forms of inquiry, and Elbaz-Luwisch (1997;
Elbaz, 1991) studied the political implications of using narrative methods.
Concerning particularity of context, J. Huber and Whelan (2001) employed the metaphor of a still pond to
unpack complexities of one school context. Sweetland, Huber, and Whelan (2004 examined tensions in one
school site through the idea of narrative interlappings and Conle (1996) explored narrative resonance with-

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in preservice teacher development. Tensions and resistance in teachers' stories to live by are chronicled by
Connelly and Clandinin (1999) and M. Huber, Huber and Clandinin (2004), and tensions relating to teachers'
professional development are studied by J. Huber (1995), Hogan (1995) and Conle (2000, 2001), as well as
by Samson (1999) and Rose (1999) from administrators' perspectives and Pushor and Murphy (2004) from
parents' perspectives.
A growing body of research on the Schwab-Connelly line centers on the particularity of experience as it re-
lates to the field of multiculturalism and diversity in education. Conle (1997b; Conle et al., 2000) works in this
area with other studies being conducted by Chan and Boone (2001), Craig (2004), Estola and Elbaz-Luwisch
(2000), and Xu (2006). J. Huber, Murphy, and Clandinin's (2003) focus on diversity and communities of imagi-
nation forms a major contribution, as do several multicultural inquiries conducted by He (2002a, 2002b, 2003),
Phillion (2002; Phillion & He, 2005; Phillion, He, & Connelly, 2005) and Connelly (Connelly, Phillion, & He,
2003), which take up policy questions.
Schwab's thinking on narratives of enquiry and rhetoric of conclusions is foundational for Connelly and Clan-
dinin's (1990) work in narrative inquiry as a research methodology, in which stories serve as both method and
form. Connelly and Clandinin draw on Schwab's research, naming three commonplaces of narrative inquiry:
temporality, sociality, and place (Connelly & Clandinin, 2005). Narrative inquiry (Connelly and Clandinin, 2005)
falls in “a period of Schwab's … fluid inquiry” (p. 478). It is recognized as an established research tradition and
has a handbook edited by Clandinin (2006) dedicated to the topic. Researchers on the Schwab-Connelly line
have in common the narrative inquiry method. Likewise, Schwab's rhetoric of conclusions idea shapes the
language of narrative inquiry. While the Schwab-Shulman line uses rhetoric of conclusions to discuss subject
matter content of textbooks or teacher preparation materials, the Schwab-Connelly line employs the idea to
describe expectations of dictating classroom practice with limited teacher input. Despite variance in usage,
both research lines use Schwab's term to denote predetermined knowledge stripped of any sense of inquiry.
A discussion of Schwab's contributions to research at the intersection of teaching and curriculum beyond
research programs of his immediate intellectual descendants follows. Direct and indirect links to Schwab's
scholarship are now mapped.
Self-Study of Teacher: Education and Teaching Practices
According to Jardine (2004) and Clarke and G. Erickson (2004a), amnesia concerning Joseph Schwab and

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the contributions of his practical to the curriculum and teaching fields is a recurring theme. The latter authors,
for example, particularly focus on “the collective amnesia in the self-study literature” to the “foundational role”
Schwab played (Clarke & Erickson, 2004a, p. 203). For them, Schwab's explication of the practical is the
“most significant in recent times in focusing attention on the teacher as a knowledge creator and interpreter
of curriculum” (Clarke & Erickson, 2004a, p. 199). To Clarke and G. Erickson (2004a),
Schwab's seminal paper on “The practical” left an indelible mark in the profession… His contributions
can be found in the works of Clandinin, Connelly, Elbaz, Eisner, Fenstermacher, to name a few, all
of whom research and write about the “some how” of teaching.
(pp. 208–209)
Self-study's foundation rests on Schwab's four commonplaces (Samaras & Freese, 2006) and self-study, for
Clarke and G. Erickson (2004a), represents a fifth commonplace. Their thesis follows a plotline similar to one
introduced by Ben-Peretz (1986) who argued that time constituted a fifth commonplace in curriculum deliber-
ations.
Schwab, according to Clarke and G. Erickson (2004a) and others (Tidwell & Fitzgerald, 2006), paved the way
for self-study research—sometimes called practitioner inquiry (Day, Calderhead, & Denicolo, 1993)—which
has been defined as “the study of one's self, one's actions, one's ideas, as well as, the ‘not self’”(M. Hamilton
& Pinnegar, 1998, p. 236). It includes the “autobiographical, historical, cultural, and political and [takes] a
thoughtful look at texts read, experiences had, people known, and ideas considered” (M. Hamilton & Pin-
negar, 1998, p. 236) and their connections to teacher education practices. Clandinin and Connelly (2004)
present Ross's (2002) dissertation research—rooted in Schwab's scholarship—as an exemplar of a self-study
narrative of teacher knowledge. In addition to improving university teaching, those involved in self-study re-
search seek to confirm or challenge understandings, gain additional perspective through the use of multi-
ple methods, and deliberate, test, and judge educational practice for the purpose of building a teaching and
teacher education community (LaBoskey, 2004).
The Self-Study of Teaching and Teacher Education Practices (S-STEP) Special Interest Group of American
Education Research Association (AERA) is one of the largest groups that meet within the AERA organization
and biannually at Herstmonceux Castle in East Sussex, England. In addition to the two-volume International
Handbook of Self-Study of Teaching and Teacher Education Practices, S-STEP publishes biannual confer-
ence proceedings and has a related journal, Studying Teacher Education, edited by John Loughran and Tom
Russell. In the inaugural issue, two articles directly reflected Schwab's influence: one authored by Kitchen

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(2005a) on the Schwab-Connelly line, and one written by Pereira (2005) who, as mentioned earlier, was a
Schwab student. In the second issue of Studying Teacher Education, another Kitchen article (2005b) ap-
peared and in the third issue, Craig (2006b) discussed Schwab's preference for practical and eclectic ap-
proaches to curriculum processes and the ways narrative inquiry undertaken within the self-study genre rep-
resents fluid inquiry. Also, Pereira, in the 2000 Herstmonceux Castle Conference Proceedings, stressed that
“mathematics teachers must change the way they learn before they can change the way they teach … They
must reconstruct themselves as learners before they can reconstruct themselves as teachers” (p. 205). Here,
Schwab's dialectic of the teacher as teacher and teacher as learner is reflected in the self-study genre.
Other essays demonstrating the connection between Schwab and self-study practices are handbook chapters
authored by Feldman, Paugh and Mills (2004), Clarke and G. Erickson (2004b), and Clandinin and Connelly
(2004). Feldman, Paugh and Mills discuss how action research and self-study are and are not related, draw-
ing on Schwab's (1961/1978) “Education and the Structure of the Disciplines” article. As for Clarke and G.
Erickson (2004b), they favor Schwab's commonplaces as a necessary backdrop for self-study. Meanwhile,
Clandinin and Connelly (2004) discuss self-study research as “important not for what it shows about the self
but because of its potential to reveal knowledge of the educational landscape” and as holding “the highest
possible potential for improving education” (p. 597). They then suggest a continuum of self-study: the first, a
narrative of one's own practice; the second, a narrative account of oneself in relationship to one's practice;
and the third, a narrative of a researcher who set out to do something different and inevitably came to learn
about self. Clandinin and Connelly (2004) offer exemplars for each of the three kinds of studies, most of which
are drawn from their former students' work, which also embraces the practical. One exception is Hollingsworth
(1994), whose understandings of Schwab's contributions are outlined in the action research section below.
Action Research
To Hollingsworth (1995), the action research movement acknowledges three factors that have led to its in-
creased acceptance as a legitimate form of inquiry in the United States. The first factor has been the impossi-
ble task of disseminating quantitative findings to local settings, the second arose from post-Sputnik demands
for local results, and the third has been attributed to Schwab (1973) and “the concept of curriculum as inte-
grated with human deliberation” (p. 16). Researchers (i.e., MacPherson et al., 1998) speak of action research
as the vehicle through which Schwab's ideas about deliberations could be realized. Similarly, Goodson (1990)
declares himself “at one with Schwab” (p. 300). He points to the action research conducted in the Centre

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for Applied Research in Education (CARE) in East Anglia, United Kingdom, which addresses “practicalities.”
He connects his observations to his understandings of Schwab's discontent with the field of curriculum and
quotes Reid (1978) and Westbury (1973) to make the point that schools and practices need to be looked at
the way they are not as they ought to be.
Cochran-Smith and Lytle (1993, 2004), Florio-Ruane (2001, 2002), and Hollingsworth (1994, 1997), among
others, have been instrumental in advancing action research in the literacy, reading, and teacher education
arenas, whereas Feldman (1994) has been active in the science and self-study strands of action inquiry. He
and others cited earlier have helped self-study to become recognized as an action research tradition, along-
side the European and American traditions (Zeichner, 1994), and valued as an integral part of “the scholarship
of teaching” (Zeichner, 1999). The work of organizations such as the National Writing Project and the National
Council of Teachers of English, however, also deserves special mention. They have played influential roles
(Zeichner & Noffke, 2001) in helping teachers unpack their practices as is apparent in a volume spotlighted in
the Teachers Helping Teachers section featured later.
Portfolio Development
Nona Lyons' (1998) edited book, With Portfolio in Hand, represents the most significant work in the portfolio
strand of the literature. Lyons' book builds on her early studies (1990) concerning the ethical and epistemo-
logical dimensions of teachers' work, an inquiry she conducted as a Spencer Fellow with Lee Shulman as her
mentor (personal communication with Nona Lyons, April 10, 2006). In that research, Lyons (1990) sketched
the plotlines of how Schwab's (1964) ideas informed her scholarship:
Although researchers, educators, and scholars ha[d] argued that knowledge and values are impor-
tant dimensions of teaching, implicit in a teacher's sense of mission and critical to a conception of
practice, there [was] a remarkable absence of good descriptions of how they are involved in teach-
ers' lives or in their growth and learning.
(p. 161)
Lyons' understanding of the “absences” of which Schwab spoke led her to explore the use of portfolios and to
think about them as a medium through which teachers could reflect on their multiple dimensions of teaching
and develop their knowledge. To her (Lyons, 1998),
The real power of a portfolio process for teacher interns or master teachers may well be in the acts of

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constructing, presenting, and reflecting on the contents or the evidence of a portfolio. This inevitably
involves sorting, gathering and reflecting on the work of teaching … and articulating why these are
important to one's own philosophy and practice.
(p. 4–5)
Richert (1990), a student of Lee Shulman, additionally has studied preservice teachers using a variety of re-
flective tools, one of which is portfolio. In Richert's (1990) investigation, Schwab's commonplaces of curricu-
lum and his “Translation into Practice” (Schwab, 1973) paper were integral to her inquiry.
Portfolios have been used and studied in preservice teacher education programs within such institutions as
Banks Street College in New York (Freidus, 1998) and Leiden University in the Netherlands (Tanner, Lon-
gayroux, Beijaard, Verloop, 2000; Tillema, 2004). Portfolios are also the primary assessment tool used by
the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards for the certification of experienced teachers and by
a number of states with respect to teacher licensure (Moss, 1998). As well, the use of portfolios by inservice
teachers (Teitel, Ricci, & Coogan, 1998) and professors inside and outside (Lyons, Hyland, & Ryan, 2002) the
faculty of education forms part of the literature, along with works relating to online teacher portfolio develop-
ment sponsored by the Carnegie Foundation (Hatch, 2001) and inservice teachers using reflective portfolios
to capture their sense making of school reform (Craig, 2003b).
Similar to the S-STEP group, the Portfolio and Reflection in Teaching and Teacher Education (PRTTE) group
constitutes one of the larger special interest groups within AERA. And like other featured teacher develop-
ment practices and processes that emerged after Schwab's practical, portfolio making is caught in an episte-
mological struggle concerning “the legitimization of the right of teachers to carry out investigations into their
own practices” (Lyons & Freidus, 2004, p. 1079).
Narrative Practices
In Munby, Russell, and Martin's (2001) view, the use of narrative methods in preservice and inservice teacher
education is linked to Connelly and Clandinin's extensive work (Clandinin & Connelly, 1995; Connelly & Clan-
dinin, 1999) in narrative inquiry, despite narrative in teaching and teacher education taking on “a life of its
own” (also see Grossman, 1995). Lyons and LaBoskey (2002), for example, propose the use of candidate ex-
emplars—sets of narrative teaching and research practices that a community makes visible—to demonstrate
that teachers are knowledge creators and users and to help elevate teaching as a form of scholarship produc-

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ing verifiable knowledge and to contribute to knowledge growth in the field. In Narrative Inquiry in Practice:
Advancing the Knowledge of Teaching, Lyons and LaBoskey (2002) present 11 diverse narrative practices,
which are then subjected to reviews that render them part of the scholarship of teaching. Among the essays
are exemplars created by Richert (2002), Clandinin, Connelly, and Chan (2002), Craig and Olson (2002), as
well as by themselves. Olson, for example, centers on the use of reading response and base groups in a
sociology of education course for preservice education candidates (Craig & Olson, 2002). The readings and
associated journal writing “enable students to surface and examine unchallenged assumptions embedded in
their narrative knowledge about equity and diversity” (Craig & Olson, 2002, p. 188). The close reading of texts,
accompanied by the unpacking of terms, is reminiscent of Schwab's pedagogy. Additionally, where the use of
journals in preservice teacher education is concerned, Munby and Russell (1998) generally credit Clandinin
and Connelly with pioneering that narrative practice.
Interdisciplinary Efforts
Three interdisciplinary practices relate in direct and indirect ways to what occurred after Schwab's practical
and stand to influence teacher development. One effort takes place in the United States, another in the United
Kingdom, and a third in Canada. Throughout his career, Lee Shulman, has had one foot situated in medical
education and the other in teacher education. Most recently, as the President of the Carnegie Foundation for
the Advancement of Teaching (http://www.carnegiefoundation.org), his interests expanded to include multiple
areas. Here we highlight Carnegie's 10-year interdisciplinary study linking the professions of law, medicine,
engineering, and the clergy with teaching. In describing “signature pedagogies” of the professions and their
“potential lessons for the education of teachers,” L. Shulman stresses that professionals do not solely “un-
derstand and perform,” they have to “be certain kinds of human beings” (2005, p. 3). To L. Shulman, sig-
nature pedagogies are “habitual, routine, visible, accountable, interdependent, collaborative, emotional, un-
predictable, and affect-laden.” Yet this interdisciplinary project, sponsored by the Carnegie Foundation and
directed by Ann Lieberman, has found that teacher education does not appear to have well-developed sig-
nature pedagogies in the manner of other professions—which may or may not be why Schön (1983) regard-
ed teaching as a lower profession. Thus, this innovative work, in L. Shulman's words, could “revolutionize
teacher education and professional development in the next decade” through the excavation of multiple mod-
els, which appears similar to Lyons and LaBoskey's (2002) notion of candidate exemplars and the work of the
Self-Study of Teaching and Teacher Education group, two different strands that also have built on the practi-

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cal, which have already been surveyed.
The other two interdisciplinary efforts of note are the International Conference on Reflective Practice in the
United Kingdom and the Narrative Matters Conference in Canada. Associated with the Institute of Reflec-
tive Practice in Gloucestershire, United Kingdom (see http://www.reflectivepractices.co.uk/), the International
Conference on Reflective Practice and the Reflective Practice journal have received significant support and
encouragement in their formation from Connelly and Clandinin. Clandinin, for example, is currently a part of
the journal's executive editorial board and Craig serves as one of the journal's associate editors. The confer-
ence—attended by delegates from over a dozen nations—spawns conversations that cross the boundaries
of profession and provides support to the development of teacher as curriculum maker notion.
The third interdisciplinary effort we showcase is the Narrative Matters Conference (http://www.stu.ca/conf/nar-
rative/) founded by William Randall and Dolores Furlong (a former doctoral student of Connelly) and held bi-
annually in Canada. The Narrative Matters Conference explores the significance of narrative “across a broad
range of scholarly disciplines and applied fields from education to linguistics, history to healthcare, journalism
to gerontology, psychology and anthropology, to name but a few” (Randall & Furlong, 2002, p. i). Despite the
diverse disciplines, the centrality of narrative to human development—and subsequently to the cultivation of
the teacher as curriculum maker image—prevails. In the future, we imagine that both the Reflective Practice
and Narrative Matters initiatives will expand due to their grassroots nature, international composition, and ac-
cessibility.
Teacher Groups
Teacher groups ranging from book study groups (Florio-Ruane, 2001), portfolios groups (Craig, 2003c), lit-
erature circles (Kooy, 2006), and Critical Friends Groups (Cushman, 1999) also are teacher development
practices that exemplify further development of the teacher as curriculum maker image in the years following
Schwab's practical. In this subsection, Critical Friends Groups (CFGs) form the focus of our discussion. Lam-
pert (1999) traces the idea of CFG groups to Schwab's (1973/1978) arts of eclectic paper. Hence, when Gore
and Liston (1991) and others (i.e., Kroath, 1990; Lord, 1994) state that teachers' inquiries are richer when
they reflect with “critical friends” (Gore & Liston, 1991, p. 119–136), the longitudinal influence of Schwab's
practical is evident.
CFG groups consist of groups of 8–12 educators (teachers, administrators, professors, or mixed groups) who

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meet with a trained coach monthly for approximately 2 hours. Where the term Critical Friends Groups (CFGs)
originated is debatable, although it likely arose within the context of school reform in the United States. Since
1994, CFGs have been integral to the Coalition of Essential Schools and the Annenberg Challenge reform
movements. In 2000, CFGs became part of the National Reform Faculty located in the Harmony Educational
Center in Bloomington, Indiana. The National Reform Faculty has a website (http://www.nsrfharmony.org), a
number of professional development offerings, and sponsors Connections, an online journal where teachers
(e.g., Kelley, 2004) publish articles about their classroom practices. More recently, the notion of CFGs has
been borrowed by those directly assisting schools in their reform efforts with the coach being a university
partner external to the campus who enters the school context to work with the educators. Such relationships
reportedly have led to “frustrated [or] formal [or] fully engaged friends,” according to Gordon, Stiegelbauer,
and Diehl (2005) and Stiegelbauer et al. (2005).
Teachers Helping Teachers
In this final section of related strands spun off of Schwab's research on the practical, we focus on two ex-
amples of teachers helping teachers to become curriculum makers. The Ontario College of Teachers models
teachers supporting one another and their profession. Rather than dealing exclusively with working conditions
and salary negotiations, the Ontario College of Teachers expanded its influence to teacher development. Cas-
es for Teacher Development: Preparing for the Classroom, edited by P. Goldblatt and D. Smith (2005), is a
collection of 13 cases prepared by anonymous Ontario teachers. Each case is accompanied by three schol-
arly commentaries, some following the Schwab-Connelly line (Clandinin, Craig, Olson) and one following the
Schwab-Shulman line (Richert). Also included is a set of probing questions and a reading list which includes
L. Shulman and J. Shulman and Clandinin and Connelly selections as well as a recommendation that teach-
ers read McKeon's (1952) essay to understand the four ways theory and practice can relate to one another.
The second selection relating to teachers helping teachers is Silent No More: Voices of Courage in American
Schools, a collection of teacher essays edited by Lent and Pipkin (2003). These essays are about teachers
involved in literacy projects across America who have taken stands that have brought the boundaries of their
intellectual freedom into view. Narrated by 10 teachers (with an additional composite chapter penned by the
editors), this book examines the American educational system through chronicling the fates of educators who
challenged the “prevailing orthodoxies” (Harvey, 2003, p. 80) of high stakes testing, reading instruction, and
artistic expression and addressed such controversial issues as race, class, gender, and war. All told their sto-

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ries in their words, voices, and emotions. Hence, these teacher narratives stand as models, “allowing their
vision of what is possible to effect what seems impossible in American schools” (Lent & Pipkin, 2003, p. 141).
Issues, Challenges, and Future Directions
In the case of Schwab's immediate descendants, it is evident from our literature search that they moved to-
ward teachers, children, curriculum, and schools—even those whose focus did not center on teaching and
teacher education. Having shown how Schwab's academic descendants went forth with “different mixes of
ideas … and ferment” (Schwab as cited in Reid, 1999b, p. 390), we now reiterate a series of issues that have
lingered throughout this review. These issues include, but are not limited to the teacher defined as a purveyor
of codified content knowledge, the teacher whose knowledge base is determined by policymakers and bu-
reaucrats and influenced by university professors, the teacher perceived as an implementer of others' reform
strategies, the teacher enmeshed in the politics of inquiry, the teacher devoid of agency who struggles to gain
authority, and the teacher for whom the extremes of technical rationalism encroach on classroom practice,
narrowing the space within which lived curriculum can be instantiated. To this, we add the historical rifts be-
tween teaching as a field of inquiry and curriculum as an area of study and the divisions within and between
the two that have emerged, along with ultra-specialization (another side effect of technical rationalism), which
stalemates conversations between professors and teachers, even those with similar interests. We additionally
include the nature of curriculum professors' work, a matter that Schwab (1983) took up, a topic that Jack-
son (1992) also pursued. Further to this, there is the issue of research and evaluation funding, determined
by funders' priorities, and which positions researchers and evaluators in ways unlikely to engender teachers'
trust or to spur their willing and authentic participation in examining their situated realities. Associated with
this are tensions concerning what comprises research as defined by the academy, in the policy arena, and
that supports practice and teachers' efforts to address the complexities encountered in their daily interactions
with children in school contexts.
In order to capture the nuances of the particular—the essences of the practical, future inquiries at the in-
tersection of curriculum and teaching will need to unfold with researchers working alongside teachers, hon-
oring practice, awake to diversity, and inviting participation and insights. Such a positioning will ensure that
researchers pose relevant questions of social significance and follow where educational inquiry leads.
Cheryl J.CraigVickiRoss

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• Lee Shulman
• teacher education
• teaching
• teacher knowledge
• curriculum
• pedagogical content knowledge
• curriculum studies
https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412976572

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