Structures 24 (2020) 905–921

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Structures
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Seismic evaluation of Bagan heritage site (Myanmar): The Loka-Hteik-Pan T

temple
Nicoletta Bianchini , Nuno Mendes, Paulo Lourenço
⁎

ISISE, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Minho, Campus de Azurem, 4800058 Guimarães, Portugal

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Bagan site is one of the most remarkable heritage areas in Myanmar, belonging to the List of UNESCO World Heritage
Buddhist temple Sites. Besides its cultural importance, Bagan is located in an area with high seismic hazard and the evaluation of the
Bagan (Myanmar) seismic vulnerability is fundamental for the protection of the monuments. This work utilises Loka-Hteik-Pan temple,
Seismic assessment a typical Buddhist middle-size structure, to evaluate the seismic performance of this kind of monuments, which
Finite Element modelling
corresponds to more than 50 around Bagan area. Furthermore, the efficiency a strengthening proposal, composed by
Pushover analysis
two kinds of steel ties, was evaluated, considering the past seismicity of the area and its current hazard defined by the
Burmese code. The application of steel ties is recommended for the mitigation of the seismic vulnerability of this kind
of Buddhist temple in Bagan, since it corresponds to a compatible and adequate strengthening technique.

1. Introduction
The significant increase of tourism, the growing interest of the in-
ternational community and the seismicity of Burmese central regions
recommends to perform structural analyses to understand the dynamic
behaviour of the Buddhist temples of Bagan site [1]. Hudson stated that
in the past, after strong earthquakes, different types of repair works were
undertaken in temples, without considering the compatibility of the
materials and without evaluating the effectiveness of the interventions
[2]. According to Pichard [3] Loka-Hteik-Pan temple is a remarkable
example of a typical temple of Bagan area and can be used as prototype-
temple to investigate the seismic assessment of more than 50 middle-size
temples available in the area [3]. As already seen in other exceptional
examples [4–10], the relevance of the case study, which represents a
monument of great historical, architectural and structural significance,
justifies the need of deeper investigation. Thus, numerical analyses were
performed here to understand the seismic response of these temples
based on the Finite Element Method (FEM). A macro-modelling approach
following homogenization concepts for masonry was adopted and the
seismic behaviour of the structure was evaluated through pushover
analysis with the distribution of horizontal forces proportional to the
mass. Damage patterns and capacity curves were determined. Moreover,
the most vulnerable elements, the maximum load capacity, and the ex-
pected collapse mechanisms were also identified. Finally, one strength-
ening technique using steel ties was evaluated, aiming at reducing the
seismic vulnerability of the structure considering a minimum
intervention approach. [11]. After the description of the seismicity of the
area, this paper deals with a systematic approach that can be followed for
other middle-size temples in Bagan area. First, a general geometric and
structural description is presented, in order to highlight the main ar-
chitectural aspects of this kind of temples. Then, the diagnosis of Loka-
Hteik-Pan temple is described, considering the current damage and
performing in situ tests. Finally, after a calibration of the numerical
model, the results of nonlinear static analyses are presented.
2. Seismicity of the Bagan site
Myanmar is located in an active tectonic zone, between the Indian
and Eurasian plates, called Alpide Earthquake Belt, which starts from
the northern Mediterranean Sea and extends eastwards, crossing
Turkey and Iran, until reaching the Himalayas and Myanmar. Several
types of motions are caused by the collision between these plates, such
as subduction and strike-slip faulting, making Myanmar a country re-
currently prone to strong earthquakes [12]. Despite the fact that
Myanmar has experienced many strong and destructive earthquakes
throughout the time [13], its geological behaviour was not studied in
detail. Neither the surface ruptures of the strong earthquakes in the past
centuries nor the recurrence intervals and the slip behaviour of major
active faults were documented [14]. On the other hand, data regarding
the earthquakes that occurred since the 20th century are more complete
and exhaustive. According to the Myanmar Earthquake Committee
[MEC], about sixteen strong seismic events with a magnitude higher

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: nicoletta.bianchini@gmail.com (N. Bianchini), nunomendes@civil.uminho.pt (N. Mendes), pbl@civil.uminho.pt (P. Lourenço).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.istruc.2020.01.020
Received 3 October 2019; Received in revised form 30 December 2019; Accepted 15 January 2020
Available online 26 February 2020
2352-0124/ © 2020 Institution of Structural Engineers. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
N. Bianchini, et al.
than 7.0 in Richter scale were recorded during the past century.
Fig. 1 shows the earthquakes that occurred only in Bagan region and
the events that caused damage in the temples of Bagan [USGS, 2018].
Fig. 1. Location of the last strong seismic events (1975–2016). RS: Richter Scale
[USGS, 2018].
Fig. 2. Acceleration time histories observed by Nyaung U seismic station. Source data: Zaw et al. (2017) [17].
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Structures 24 (2020) 905–921
One of the strongest events hit Bagan in 1975 with a magnitude of
6.5 (Richter scale), making the monuments disappear in one red huge
cloud and leaving a dust of pulverized bricks [15]. This earthquake,
whose epicentre was located at the south of Bagan and at a depth of
112 km, showed a mechanism of thrusting according to Aung [16].
Many pagodas felt down causing immensurable economic losses and
inducing a systematic and massive process of reconstruction [14].
After 1975, the 2016 seismic events are the most relevant. The first
earthquake (Gwegyo earthquake) occurred at northeast of Chauk on
March with a magnitude of 4.8, near Bagan site [16]. The second one
(Mawlaik earthquake) hit the north of the country on April with a
magnitude of 6.9 and despite, the considerable distance, it was heavily
registered also in Bagan. Furthermore, it was followed by aftershocks
during the following days.
Although the Gwegyo and Mawlaik earthquakes did not directly
affect Bagan site, the aftershocks caused more damage than expected
[16]. The Chauk earthquake was the last event and the strongest, in
terms of intensity and damage. It hit Bagan region on August 24th with
N. Bianchini, et al.
a magnitude of 6.8 and at the depth of 84.1 km. Some studies refer that
there is a connection between Mawlaik and Chauk earthquake, since
they occurred along the same north–south directional fault [16].
Ground motion records of Chauk earthquake were measured by the
Department of Meteorology and Hydrology (DMH) and by the Ministry
of Transport and Communication. The data were recorded at the
seismic station located in Nyaung U, about 48 km far from the epicentre
and the Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA) was equal to 0.08 g along
horizontal directions, and 0.12 g in the vertical direction [17]. The
recorded data, in each direction, are presented in Fig. 2.
According to Myanmar National Building Code [18], Bagan belongs
to the national Zone IV, described as severe zone with a probable
maximum range of ground acceleration from 0.3 g to 0.4 g. In this
paper, a comparison between the response spectra of the records of
Chauk's earthquake and the design response spectrum, assuming very
dense soil and soft rock, is presented (Fig. 3). It is noted that the
Myanmar National Building Code does not provide design response
spectrum for the vertical component of the seismic action. The hor-
izontal PGA for Bagan is set at the value of 0.41 g [18], which is sig-
nificant higher than the seismic amplitude of the Chauk’s earthquake.
Fig. 3. Design response spectrum for Bagan [18] and response spectra for the
Chauk’s earthquake in the different directions.
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Structures 24 (2020) 905–921
3. Damage on cultural heritage buildings of Bagan
Despite the low seismic input recorded in Bagan, the damage in the
temples was widespread varying from light to severe, probably enlarged
by the superposition of the effects of the three main shocks in 2016,
without excluding the amplification of the ground motions [17]. During
the post-earthquake surveys, it was noticed that most of the upper parts
(such as pinnacles or spires) of the pagodas fell down and usually they
were found intact at the ground level [16]. Many spires, were replaced
after 1975 earthquake, without assuring a perfect connection with the
bearing supports where they were set up. This may cause their in-
stability even on low-intensity earthquakes like Chauk’s earthquake.
Myanmar Earthquake Committee (MEC) and the Department of Ar-
chaeology drew a map using a Geographic Information System (GIS)
tool to understand how the damage was widespread along the archae-
ological site (Fig. 4). Among the monuments of Bagan, 41 temples are
catalogued as heavily damaged with the need of prompt intervention
and 404 as moderately damaged. Damage seems to be mainly linked to
the partial inefficiency of the works undertaken in many temples be-
tween 1975 and 1990’s [2]. Loka-Hteik-Pan temple belongs to the
heavily damaged group (red circles in Fig. 4) and, in this paper, it is
used as an example to understand the seismic response of a specific
group Buddhist temples of Bagan, which represents about 50 temples
according to Pichard’s catalogue [3]. Pichard gathered all the in-
formation of more than 2500 temples in Bagan area at the beginning of
the 90’s, placing every structures inside a proper group according the
dimension in plan. In this case, Loka-Hteik-Pan temple is inserted inside
of the group called “central shrine temples – middle size”, which has an in-
plan dimension that ranges from the 12 to the 25 m. They are not only
similar in dimensions, but also in terms of construction materials and
structural configuration. Thus, the majority of observations regarding
Loka-Hteik-Pan temple can be extended to the other temples of the
same group.
Loka temple was selected and studied by the Department of
Archaeology of Bagan (DoA) due to its religious importance, with the
support of the Carleton University (Canada).
N. Bianchini, et al.
Fig. 4. Map with the affected monuments due to the Chauk’s earthquake, Bagan, Myanmar, provided by Manithaphone Mahaxay (Ph.D.) GIS Section of the
Department of Archaeology DoA, 2016.
4. Loka-Hteik-Pan temple
4.1. Description of the temple
The Loka-Hteik-Pan temple (Fig. 5), numbered as 1580 in the Pichard
inventory [3], was built in 1113 CE, during the Golden age of the Bagan
Empire in the south-western part of the archaeological site. This temple
is one of the most remarkable examples of Burmese Architecture due to
its paintings of Buddha’s life. Between the 13th and 19th centuries, the
Loka-Hteik-Pan temple passed through several construction phases, not
clearly reported. However, the last intervention works, which took place
since the 20th century, are well documented and described in Mezzino
PhD thesis [19]. Mezzino, [19] reported both structural and non-struc-
tural last interventions carried out in the Loka-Hteik-Pan temple, such us
the application of concrete beams at the corners of the structure and the
treatment of the original frescos on the internal surfaces.
Loka-Hteik-Pan temple is an isolated structure made of fired bricks
and mud mortar, with linear plan and single-storey. Its 150 m2 plan can
be divided into three main spaces (Fig. 6): the shrine, which hosts the
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Structures 24 (2020) 905–921
Buddha’s statue, the vestibule and the porch [20]. The porch and the
vestibule are covered by two barrel vaults, while the shrine exhibits a
cloister vault.
Shapes are massive and articulated by a sequence of terraces, which
mark the different levels of the structure from the height of 7.5 m, up to the
level of the Śikhara (set at the height of 10.5 m). Heritage of Indian and
Burmese styles, the Śikhara is, in this case, a sort of curvilinear high tower
approximately 5 m tall, offering a slender appearance to the temple [20].
The terraces are accessible via an internal and narrow staircase, built within
the thickness of an external wall (thickness varies from 1.5 to 2.5 m).
Three perforated brick windows let sun rays enter into the shrine
and they are the only way to shed light in the interior. From the ex-
terior, the windows are framed by ornamental portals containing
characteristic details of Buddhist art. The North façade hosts the en-
trance and is marked by a portal and the tympanum.
Most of the external surfaces were covered by stucco carvings, ap-
plied directly on the outer layer of the masonry, mouldings sculptures
or reliefs. Nowadays, only partial remainings of these carvings are
visible on the surfaces.
N. Bianchini, et al.
4.2. Main past interventions
Due to the past seismic events, Loka-Hteik-Pan temple, as well as
many other Bagan’s temples, underwent several structural and non-
structural interventions. After Bagan’s Earthquake, locals funded
heavy strengthening interventions [20] and according to Pichard [3],
“a reinforced concrete belt at the top of the walls” was inserted along
the perimeter walls of the main body/shrine. Three other beams
made of reinforced concrete, not continuous, were located at each
corner of the shrine and of the vestibule along the height of the
structure. Many portions of the portals and the final parts of the
pinnacles were rebuilt during the last century, using modern and
industrial fired bricks [19].
The Śikhara was restored several times and nowadays the majority
of its bricks are not original. Bricks are more recent and set with a
whitish mortar [21]. The original spire of the Śikhara disappeared.
This element was repositioned with a new steel fastener after 1975
Earthquake, but it collapsed during Chauk’s Earthquake (2016), ac-
cording to the DoA. The spire was not replaced after the last event and
the top surface of the Śikhara was restored with the insertion of new
bricks.
These aspects are the more relevant for structural performance.
Beside they changed the appearance of the building, they have influ-
ence on the dynamic properties of the structure. Other non-structural
interventions have been applied in this structure, in which the most
relevant are linked to the safeguard of the original paintings located at
the interior of the central shrine. Table 1 summarises the main
structural and non-structural carried out in the Loka-Hteik-Pan
Temple.
Table 1
Summary of main interventions on Loka-Hteik-Pan Temple.
Type of interventions Description
Structural Application of a reinforced concrete belt at the top of the walls – 1975/1982
Replacement of ancient bricks by modern industrial clay bricks
Replacement of the final part of the Śikhara by new bricks
Non structural New application of stucco
Recreation of carvings by the use of glazed ceramic decorations
Cleaning (chemical solvents and mechanical dry technique) − 1993
Liquid grout injection to re-establish adhesion between plaster and bricks − 2015
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Fig. 5. Loka-Hteik-Pan temple in 2018, after the
collapse of the upper part of the Śikhara (the tower
or spire of the temple): (a) Top view (Photo:
Santana M. (2018)); (b) North-East view.
5. Survey and tests
5.1. Damage survey
A new damage survey was carried out by the authors through visual
inspection in May 2018 (Fig. 7), aiming at updating the past damage
survey after the Chauk’s Earthquake. The temple presents a severe
disconnection between the two orthogonal walls at the South-East
corner, highlighted by two vertical cracks from both sides. In general,
this part suffered more damage than the other portions of the monu-
ment. It is marked by a remarkable out of plane deformation and the
generalized detachment of the corner along the entire height of the
temple. It is important to underline that this damage, located at South-
East corner, was already noticed by Pichard [3] after the Bagan
Earthquake in 1975 and was already present before the application of
the reinforced concrete beams. Thus, it seems that these cracks can be
the ones that were repaired previously and now reopened. In other
parts of the structure, there are many minor and medium cracks along
the boundaries between the reinforced concrete beams and the masonry
surfaces, associated to the incompatibility of the two materials.
The tympanum in the North façade is visibly affected by out of plane
deformations and some parts of it were reattached in the recent past,
using cement-based mortar [21]. Due to the non-optimal orientation of
the bricks on the vaulted systems (continuous mortar joint at mid-span),
both in the vestibule and the porch, there are longitudinal cracks along
the length of the vaults, which are clearly visible to the naked eye. The
entire structure is affected by partial and, sometimes, complete de-
tachment of the plaster. Due to weathering, the original mud mortar
often disappeared and this caused disconnection of the brick units.
Location Reference
All the corners of the shrine and vestibule Pichard, 1976 [15]
Portions of external surfaces Pichard, 1976 [15]
Top part of the central shrine Mezzino, 2017 [19]
External surfaces Stadnter, 2013 [22]
Aesthetic elements of the portals
Internal mural paintings Mezzino, 2017 [19]
Mezzino, 2017 [19]
N. Bianchini, et al.
Fig. 6. Main spaces of the Loka-Hteik-Pan. Source: updated from Pichard [3].
5.2. Sonic tests
Sonic pulse velocity testing is a non-destructive test (NDT) used to
estimate the elastic properties of materials, based on the propagation of
waves inside the materials caused by an impulsive force. The velocity
and the time spent to receive the signal, generated from the waves, can
be read between the thickness of the internal and external surfaces of
the walls (direct sonic tests) or along the same surface (indirect tests) at
a specific distance [23].
The sonic tests were performed in situ in May 2018, using an im-
pulse hammer of the PCB, a piezoelectric accelerometer of the PCB
( ± 0.5 g) and an acquisition board NI USB 4431. The tests were re-
peated several times at the same location to obtain a statistical stability
of the results. Indirect sonic tests were carried out along all the external
surfaces of the walls, at different heights, testing both original and
modern bricks. Direct sonic tests were performed only on the North
façade of the temple, since the cross section of the walls at this location
is visible and accessible.
From Eq. (1) [24], the Young’s modulus (E) can be estimated, as
function of the density of the material (ρ), Poisson’s ratio (ν) and the
velocity of the waves (VP):
V2p (1 + )(1 2 )
E=
(1 ) (1)
The results of the direct and indirect sonic tests allowed to estimate
the average Younǵs modulus of the masonry walls of the temple
(0.46 GPa), with a highest value of 1.10 GPa (recent masonry with
cement-based mortar) and a lowest value of 0.25 GPa (deteriorated
original masonry). Table 2 summarizes the main results obtained,
which will be adopted subsequently in the model updating.
5.3. Dynamic identification tests
Dynamic identification tests allow to estimate the dynamic prop-
erties of the structure, namely natural frequencies, mode shapes and
damping ratios. Four high sensitive piezoelectric accelerometers (sen-
sitivity equal to 10 V/g, frequency range from 0.15 to 1000 Hz and
dynamic range ± 0.5 g) were connected to an acquisition board (NI
USB 4431, 24-bits resolution) by coaxial cables. The acquisition board
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Structures 24 (2020) 905–921
was connected to a laptop with acquisition software developed by
University of Minho. The use of high sensitive accelerometers allows to
perform tests with low amplitude for the excitation source (ambient
vibration) without causing damage to the building. In general, the
highest modal components are located at the upper levels of the
structure. Thus, it is recommended to measure the vibrations, using the
accelerometers, at the upper levels of the building in order to obtain a
good ratio between signal and noise, aiming at improving the signal
processing of the results and the estimation of the modal properties
[25] (Fig. 8). Since the roof of the temple was accessible, it was possible
to set the accelerometers at different heights, following the geometry of
the terraces. The signals from the ambient vibrations were measured
during 30 min with the sampling frequencies of 200 Hz, performing
eight different setups. In total, 25 points at the terraces levels were
measured, namely 12 in the transverse direction (Y) and 13 in the
longitudinal direction (X). For each setup, four accelerometers were
used, keeping one accelerometer as reference in the transverse direction
(acc.1 ref, h7.5, see Fig. 8).
The data were processed in ARTeMIS software [2018], adopting the
Enhanced Frequency Decomposition Domain Method (EFDD) method
[26]. The analysis of results is mainly focused on the lower natural
frequencies, since in general they are the most relevant for the global
dynamic behaviour of the built heritage [27].
Five modes with frequency range from 3.67 Hz to 9.34 Hz were
estimated (see Fig. 10). The first and the second modes correspond to
the first global ones in the transverse and longitudinal direction, re-
spectively. Observing the second mode, the Śikhara is moving out of
phase with respect with the other parts of the temple. Moreover, the
south-eastern corner, which is the most damaged part of the structure,
presents modal components significantly higher than the other corners
of the main shrine. The third mode is a global torsional mode, mostly
involving the main shrine. The last two modes present complex shapes:
mode 4 is a local mode of the Śikhara, involving high modal displace-
ments at the top, while mode 5 can be considered as a combined mode.
The corners show different modal displacements, which can be
mainly associated with the existing damage, detected in the results of
the dynamic identification tests. The mass distribution of the structure,
which is massive and non-uninform with a shrine, and the asymmetric
geometry (stiffness) cause asymmetric mode shapes.
N. Bianchini, et al. Structures 24 (2020) 905–921

Fig. 7. Damage map of Loka-Hetik-Pan temple.

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Table 2
Summary of sonic testing results.
Type of test Average of the wave’s velocity and mechanical properties for the masonry

Vp [m/s] E [GPa] ρ [kg/m3] ν [-]

Direct tests ~280 0.41 1780 0.2

Indirect tests ~310 0.50 1780 0.2

Fig. 8. Setups with the position of the accelerometers for the dynamic identification tests (REF indicates the reference accelerometer, which remains unchanged, Seti
corresponds to the setup i, H is the height of measurement in m).

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6. Numerical model
6.1. Finite element model preparation
The 3D Finite Element model (FEM) of the Loka-Hteik-Pan temple
was prepared using Midas FX pre/post processor for DIANA FEA [28]
(Fig. 9). Some assumptions were made, such as the depth of the foun-
dations, set at 1 m, the connections between the walls in the model,
considered as perfect, and the geometry of the reinforced concrete
beams, modelled taking into account the inspection made with rebar
steel detector.
The numerical model represents the current state of the structure in
terms of geometry and materials. In addition, an unstrengthened model
was also prepared in order to evaluate the performance of the temple
without the reinforced concrete beams. The upper part of the Śikhara
was also added to simulate a generic mid-size Bagan temple (Fig. 9) and
the condition before the 1975 Bagan earthquake.
analysis, by changing the masonry Young’s modulus and comparing
the frequencies of the numerical model with the experimental fre-
quencies obtained by the dynamic identification tests ([6,7]). This
procedure was carried out using the Douglas-Reid method [29], im-
plemented in the GAMS software [30], considering the results ob-
tained from the sonic tests (Younǵs modulus of the masonry) for the
initial values.
The process aims at minimizing the difference between the experi-
mental and numerical frequencies. The number of modes to be cali-
brated is an important aspect to take into account in this phase [31].
The MAC (Modal Assurance Criterion) was also implemented to eval-
uate the consistency of the modal analysis with the tested mode shapes,
comparing experimental and numerical modal components for each
mode. The eigenvectors were normalized in a way that the maximum
value of the modal components is equal to one [31]. MAC ranges from 0
to 1, in which the highest value corresponds to a perfect correlation
between the eigenvectors [32].

Fig. 9. Solid model and meshed model, built in Midas FX + for DIANA environment.

6.2. Calibration and material properties In the calibration of the numerical model, four principal trials were
evaluated. For each calibration shown in Table 3, MAC values were
The calibration of the model was performed using eigenvalue evaluated.

Table 3
Frequencies, MAC values, updated Young’s moduli and errors obtained from the calibration, considering different number of frequencies to calibrate. In bold, the
considered frequencies for each assumption.
Mode fiE [Hz] E = 0.415 GPa5 frequencies E = 0.434 GPa4 frequencies E = 0.536 GPa2 frequencies E = 0.572 GPa1 frequency
Experimental
frequencies fiN [Hz] ε [%] fiN [Hz] ε [%] fiN [Hz] ε [%] fiN [Hz] ε [%]

1 3.67 3.13 15 3.20 13 3.56 3 3.67 0

(MAC = 0.94) (MAC = 0.96) (MAC = 0.97) (MAC = 0.97)
2 4.59 4.15 10 4.24 8 4.71 3 4.86 6
3 6.49 6.12 6 6.26 4 6.95 7 7.18 11
4 7.90 8.22 4 8.40 6 9.34 18 9.64 22
5 9.34 9.98 7 10.20 9 11.34 21 11.71 25
Average ε [%] 8 9 3 0
(considering only the
calibrated frequencies)

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N. Bianchini, et al.
In the first assumptions considered for the calibration, the MAC
value of the first mode is about 0.94, but the average MAC value for the
higher frequencies is very low (0.27). The total error between the ca-
librated frequencies was equal to 8% (not negligible).
In the second calibration, the mode with the lowest MAC was ne-
glected. The average of MAC for the higher frequencies was improved
to 0.38, but still far from a good value. In this case, the total error
between the calibrated frequencies was equal to 9%, still not negligible.
The third calibration phase considered mainly the first two global
modes (1st and 2nd). The MAC value of the 2nd mode increased from
0.54 to 0.55, but it is not enough to consider this trial as a good cali-
bration. The total error between the calibrated frequencies was equal to
3%, acceptable but can be improved.
Finally, in the last assumption of the calibration, the error was
minimised giving more importance to the 1st mode, the updated
Young’s modulus for the masonry of 0.57 GPa was obtained, which is
comparable to the value obtained from the sonic tests (Table 2). MAC
value corresponds to the highest values (0.97) and frequency error is
Fig. 10. Mode shapes obtained from the dynamic tests (left) and from the numerical model (right).
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Structures 24 (2020) 905–921
equal to zero, as expected. Thus, and taking into account the im-
portance of the first global mode for the dynamic behaviour of the
structure, this calibration was considered as the most appropriated one,
in order to obtain a calibrated numerical model with a MAC value equal
to 0.97 for the first mode, which means perfect correlation between the
first numerical and experimental mode shapes.
After calibrating the model, the nonlinear properties of the mate-
rials were defined. The nonlinear behaviour of the masonry and the
concrete elements was set considering the rotating Total Strain Based
Crack Model (TSCR) [33]. Non-linear material properties of the ma-
sonry in tension and in compression were defined based on the re-
commendations proposed by New Zealand code [34].
The concrete is modelled according to a Total Strain Based Fixed
Crack Model, considering a shear retention factor equal to 0.2.
Regarding the properties of the steel of the concrete beams, and since
there is no information on the characteristics of the steel bars, a steel of
class S235 and the Von Mises behaviour were adopted. Table 4 sum-
maries the nonlinear material properties assumed.
N. Bianchini, et al. Structures 24 (2020) 905–921

Fig. 10. (continued)

maximum vertical displacement under self-weight loading, the out of

Table 4 plane behaviour of the walls of the main shrine under the action of the
Nonlinear material properties. weight of the Śikhara and the strains at the vaults were evaluated. In
Masonry Concrete Steel terms of vertical stresses, the results show a maximum value at the base
of the walls of about 0.49 MPa. This value is about 1/4 of the com-
Young’s modulus [GPa] E 0.57 29 200 pressive strength ( fc ) . Under the action of the self-weight, the maximum
Density [kg/m3] ρ 1777 2500 7850
vertical displacement is about 4 mm, while the out of plane displace-
Poisson ratio [-] ν 0.20 0.20 0.30
Compressive strength [MPa] fc 1.91 24.00 204
ment of the walls of the main shrine is less than 1.5 mm at its middle
Compressive fracture energy [KN/m] Gfc 3.05 0.1294 Ideal plastic point. Both values are consistent with the static damage pattern.
Tensile strength [MPa] ft 0.10 1.90 204
Tensile fracture energy [KN/m] GfI 0.015 0.129 Ideal plastic 7.2. Pushover analysis

Nonlinear static (pushover) analysis was performed for both the

7. Seismic analysis
7.1. Linear static analysis
First, a linear static analysis for the action of the vertical loading of
the self-weight was performed. In this analysis, the materials show
linear elastic behaviour, which is useful and fast to depict incon-
sistencies between the model and the reality with low computational
effort [35]. Linear static analysis allows to compare the total vertical
reactions at the base of the model obtained from the analysis with the
expected total reactions. The total vertical reaction is equal to 15,661
KN, which corresponds to less than 0.2% of difference with respect to
the estimated value of 15,639 KN, obtained from a hand calculation. In
parallel, the expected normal stresses at the base of the walls, the
unstrengthened model with the upper part of Śikhara (UM), and the
strengthened one without the upper part (SM) in all the directions and
orientations. In the pushover analysis, horizontal load pattern propor-
tional to the mass of the structure was adopted. The unstrengthened
model (UM) represents the configuration before Bagan earthquake
(1975) without the insertion of the reinforced concrete beams, while
the strengthened model (SM) represents the configuration after Chauk’s
earthquake (2016) with the insertion of the reinforced concrete beams.
The results obtained from pushover analyses can be used for a first
evaluation of the performance of Loka-Hteik-Pan temple considering
the current strengthening technique and the expected seismic load for
Bagan, which is 0.41 g [18].
In general, the reinforced concrete beams improve the response of
the temple, increasing the load capacity and the post peak behaviour is
more ductile (Table 5 and Fig. 11). The most vulnerable direction of the

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structure is the negative transverse direction (Table 5, UM Y-), pre-
senting a maximum load factor of 0.25 for the UM (load factor corre-
sponds to the ration between the horizontal inertial forces and the self-
weight of the structure). In the same direction, the reinforcements of
the SM present an increase of the maximum load factor (0.42) of about
70%. For what concerns this study, the parameter to take into account
the seismic action for Bagan was the PGA (0.41 g) defined in the
Myanmar National Building Code [18]. In this case, the load factor is
higher than the PGA (Table 5, SM Y-), which is mainly associated to the
improvement of the connections between orthogonal walls at the cor-
ners. Table 5 and Fig. 11 present the results obtained from all the
analyses. It is noted, that due to the staircase built in the west long-
itudinal wall (Fig. 6), the structure is not symmetric in the transverse
direction.
Fig. 12 presents the tensile principal strains, which correspond to an
indicator of the cracking.

Table 5
Results of the pushover analysis for the unstrengthened and strengthened model.
Pushover Unstrengthened model (UM) Strengthened model (SM)

Peak load factor Displacement at the peak [mm] Peak load factor Displacement at the peak [mm]

X+ 0.72 30 0.85 60
X− 0.49 53 0.43 24
Y+ 0.41 36 0.43 15
Y− 0.25 20 0.42 43

Fig. 11. Comparison of capacity curves along X (left) and Y (right) direction for the unstrengthened (UM) and strengthened model (SM).

Fig. 12. Principal tensile strains for the pushover of the unstrengthened model (UM) and strengthened model (SM) respectively: X+; X-; Y+; Y -.

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8. Strengthening proposal Table 6

Design values of the Lean Duplex Stainless Steel with safety factor γs = 1.15
An alternative strengthening technique using steel ties was evalu- and E = 200 GPa.
ating, aiming at improving the seismic performance of the Loka-Hteik- Tensile strength Yield strength Yield strain Ultimate stain εud
Pan temple, mainly in the most vulnerable direction, with low archi- [MPa] ftd [MPa] fyd εyd
tectural impact for the temple. Pushover analyses were performed to
552.8 417.5 0.0021 0.0675
evaluate the most proper and balanced configuration for the ties, which
may be applied considering the minimum intervention criterion [11].
The new strengthening proposal was applied to the original un-
strengthened model, in order to simulate the undamaged configuration The capacity curves presented in Fig. 14 show how the applica-
without the reinforced concrete beams, corresponding to an alternative tion of ties in Loka-Hteik-Pan temple improves the seismic load ca-
and more compatible intervention technique, replicable in other similar pacity of the structure for the most vulnerable direction. In the last
historic buildings. configuration for the ties (6th trial), there is an increase of about
The application of ties in the Loka-Hteik-Pan temple took into ac- 44% in the maximum load factor and about 70% in the displacement
count the damage pattern obtained from the previous analyses, its at the peak.
geometry and the aesthetic details. This technique aims at minimizing
the damage in specific directions of the structure and counteract the
high deformations caused by the seismic action, expected for the Bagan
area [18]. This was also done by positioning the ties in the most proper
location, without undermining the paintings. The location of the ties is
usually set at the level of the slabs (terrace level in this case) [36], but
because of the presence of the capitals they have been set at 50 cm
below capitals’ base.
In the iterative process towards a balanced and efficient
strengthened configuration, the diameter of the cross-section of the
ties (20 mm and 25 mm) and their disposition (six configurations)
were considered as variables, in order to achieve the required seismic
capacity for the temple. The six trials are summarised in Fig. 13,
adopting Lean Duplex Stainless Steel (AISI 316), whose properties are
Fig. 14. Capacity curves for the iterative process to evaluate the new
presented in Table 6. In the preservation of historic buildings, durable
strengthening technique.
solutions are recommended and AISI 316 is the least corrosion-prone
stainless steel.

Fig. 13. Configurations evaluated for the ties. Φ is diameter for the steel ties.

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In the strengthened model with ties (Fig. 15), the damage pattern is
spread along the structure and the out-of-plane of the eastern wall is
less evident. It is also noted that, for a similar displacement of about
0.10 m at the same control point (the top of the spire), the load factor
for the strengthened model is more than the double of the load factor of
the unstrengthened model.
In the strengthening with Austenitic Stainless AISI 316, the 6th
configuration for the ties was considered. The others trials were
discarded, because the 6th one is the most efficient in terms of load
factor, ductility and damage pattern. The capacity curves obtained
by using the two types of Stainless steel are presented in the Fig. 16.
The Duplex Stainless Steel allows to reach a slightly higher maximum

Fig. 15. Principal tensile strains for the UM (left) and SM (right) model with ties at the end of the capacity curves (South façade).

This strengthening proposal showed its efficiency on the seismic

response of the temple, but other aspects should also be considered, e.g.
the cost of the strengthening and the effective use of the material. Thus,
Austenitic Stainless AISI 316 steel was considered referring to the BSI
Standards [37] (Table 7). However, the diameter was enlarged up to

Table 7
Design values of the Austenitic Stainless AISI 316 steel with safety factor
γs = 1.15 and E = 200 GPa [37,39].
Tensile strength Yield strength Yield strain εyd Ultimate stain εud
[MPa] ftd [MPa] fyd

443.5 210.0 0.00091 0.0675

30 mm, aiming at assuring a similar seismic response. The main dif-

ference between the two types of steel is that the austenitic steel is a
good compromise between cost, corrosion resistance and production,
while the duplex steels have a very high resistance to wear and to stress
corrosion at the expense of the production process. In terms of chemical
Fig. 16. Capacity curves for the unstrengthened model and strengthened model
composition, the austenitic steels contain 17–18% of chromium, 8–11%
(6th configuration), using Lean Duplex Stainless Steel AISI 316 (diameter:
of nickel and the 0.07% of carbon, while the duplex steel has only the 25 mm) and Austenitic Stainless AISI 316 (diameter: 30 mm).
0.03% of carbon, being therefore less prone to corrosion [38].

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N. Bianchini, et al.
load factor in comparison with the Austenitic Steel, but the beha-
viour is quite similar (Fig. 17) and in both cases the peak load factor
is higher than 0.41 g. The results show that the strengthened model
with the ties made of Austenitic Stainless ASISI 316 and 30 mm of
diameter presents also an appropriated seismic performance and can
be an alternative to the ties made of Lean Duplex Stainless Steel AISI
316 with 25 mm of diameter.
Fig. 17. Principal tensile strains at the end of the capacity curves for the strengthened model (6th configuration), using: (a) Unstrengthened model (UM) Lean Duplex
Stainless Steel AISI 316 (diameter: 25 mm); (b) Austenitic Stainless AISI 316 (diameter: 30 mm). Deformation factor: 5.
9. Conclusions
The seismic performance of Loka-Hteik-Pan temple was eval-
uated, by performing nonlinear static analyses and comparing the
unstrengthened configuration with the strengthened one. A three
dimensional finite element model was built and calibrated based on
the dynamic properties estimated from dynamic identification tests.
Pushover analysis was performed for all the directions and orienta-
tions to investigate the nonlinear behaviour of the structure, showing
that the weakest scenario may occur in the transverse negative
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Structures 24 (2020) 905–921
direction. Since several retrofitting techniques, such as FRP strips,
TRM or grout injections, are not compatible with the presence of
painted surfaces along the walls of the central shrine, and in order to
improve the response in this direction, a strengthening proposal
composed by steel ties, and with less architectural impact for the
temple with respect to the exiting reinforced concrete beams, was
evaluated. Two different stainless steel types were evaluated, con-
sidering its structural performance, chemical composition (resistance
to the corrosion) and the cost. Even if the application of ties it can be
considered an irreversible technique, at the same time it is one of the
most compatible for historic buildings and their effect is usually
beneficial. The choice of adopting ties in this structure is also sup-
ported by the fact that steel ties are able to avoid one of the most
dangerous mechanism, namely out-of-plane failures of significant
parts of the building. In addition, steel ties can also prevent diagonal
cracks caused by in-plane shear.
The results of the pushover analysis lead to the conclusion that the
proposal strengthening technique with stainless steel ties improve
N. Bianchini, et al.
significantly the seismic behaviour of the Loka-Hteik-Pan temple and
can be adopted as an alternative to the existing strengthening with
reinforced concrete beams. Thus, it can be adopted to reduce the
seismic vulnerability of the existing unstrengthened middle-size tem-
ples of Bagan.
As future works, the evaluation of the seismic performance of Loka-
Hteik-Pan temple should be evaluated based on the Discrete Element
Method [40 41], aiming at validating the numerical results obtained in
this work, namely the collapse mechanisms, the maximum load capa-
city of the building and the efficiency of the steel ties for the reduction
of its seismic vulnerability.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to express gratitude to Myanmar’s Department of
Archaeology, National Museum and Library (DoA), Association of
Myanmar architects, Professor Mario Santana Quintero and Dr. Erik
Costamagna from Carleton University (CAN) for this unique opportu-
nity to collaborate in the preservation of the Loka-Hteik-Pan temple and
the provided data, which were fundamental for the seismic analysis.
Finally, the authors would like to thank to Professor Su Su and Aung
Zaw Min for the supporting given during the in situ tests.
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