Fowlers Mechanics and Machinists Pocket Book 1970

Books for Engineers
f:ng,lneertnlt Table s Iln d DaIB.- F or use in t he

Laboratory. the T ...ting Shop, and in Engineerin g
Educational Wor k I('lI.'nerally. by W . W . P ULLEN.
\\lb.Sc., A.M.los t .C.E ., :' I. L" I~h.E .• 61"1 pagee d em y
8vo.
Practical Telltlnll of Dynarnea and Moton. 19th

EdIUon.-A tr eatis e on t he m ..thods and instrum..nu
"used in t he te !lt i n~ o f dyn a moes and motors. By
cues. F. S NITH, Wh .Sc.• A.M.I.E.Eo
Pracucat Alternatlnll Cllrre"',, Hnd Altenl;ltln~
Current T e",tlnlt. 25th Edltloll._J)"al, In ' an
'-elementary ami practical manner wit h the principles
of alternating cu er..nts and a lternatinJ;: cur~J1t
machinery . HyenAS. F. SMITH, we.se., A.M.I.E.E.
Metallic Telltlnll; nnd Ill'''' Trealmt'nt. Fly
LROFRIC FIlN"'. A.M. I.M ..ch.E .
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Fow ler 's Electrical E ngineer 's Pocket Book
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FO\VLEH "S
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A Synop.•i. of Pracli~a1 llul..,~ for Fine r.•,

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BRITISH INSTITUTE OF
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Dept. 76SA, AlDERHASTON COURT, AlDEIlMASTON, BERKS.
INIlEX
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Colo..... To mperlq S ~ __ 323 2 19 ,237
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_ 203
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Co p p.r . Sh .arl" . !; l tehllb 10 6 117, 1961. 227
COpp" '. Sp_dllo Gn.l<y 10 2 Cu'li"l 1',,,.1., H.~. l \l~
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Cotl ~ . K.y. , Slid;"., P. o po. · 0 "'*". 19\1
' ioD IU Cycloid 5~
Collo.. F. b tl c. Pllllo 3~ 4. 6011 Cydoid.I (""rv.. .. ... .. 52
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C•• ". C".ln. P'tnpor'io... . 478
C..o. ROI Wi (73,479 o
C 5I1d I'1.. GII'>. I"".. 186 l>oo<.J m .1 J:.. ul ...l<tall 0'
er I>ln . Load. nab Dun"p ~ S8 T P.ill. 'lSO
Cu ba R oo .. R .. I. "'. ~ Dect ..... 1 Equi'... I , ftae·
Co bl Roo ll ...d ' i1; ; ~'';; ' - ' 01 ... i,,~I> .. S. ~. 12
Roo l. ..•. 7 DeeIDlll !'.xhon.... J
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C I .. nll 54 Dlol nal Sca li. How ...atI.. 6S
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Oio 1:. '1' ''. ' 10. h.,Lo. Koy . .~
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Drill,. fl" , 7 44 t"iu. 1'0''''.. . 351
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ll<iT1<I. T .. t... Oed",.; R<ju,va_ 1'1.. (;,1>0 ,... ..; s:i<!es,
I... " 2~ Prnpor''''''' _ 185
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1"ie,l"o. Roll., \J. .
Fum.C4OIl, Tool.bord."l ol..
n"..... 461
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Elficl.n .,. I-\'nrn' C. ••ri. , 411 , 4 15
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FOWLERS
Architects.' Builders' and
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POCKET BOOK
EIGHTH EDmON
A CompendIum of Modern Building Practice

for the use of
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IJKL",x,
PAr-E
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MIOChl D' Toolo, Pt.......
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lh, u llum ..•.... .. ... . .. .. ,H . 1011 T . .Ib ".. 2() 4
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M.nuhl. C• • , l ' no Suol4llb 103 Mllll n , CUlt ....., PrOpor l l"'"
Man.an _ B,o o ta. 1115 20~ , 206
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!lII• .., .o ~ !1I. ..1. HaOUoJ,d ·. . . U lI illi q CUl len, Standard
M>.niJLo a opo . S ~ .I0 a65 T. pen __ 213. 214
N ...iDa a op" . W kiq L <to a65 MiDi", CUll T II , ., 181
1I- . - y, De , 107 \lil lin. 1.1 .00101 , II , T~.
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110"""" , SpeoiDe Gr""'I, 10 2 MjJli". M•• bin.. , Cop.c.'" .• I Il-I
II '. Spo<"iDe H .. I ill'Z Millo". Mochi ".. . Cu,u " ,
Y u,.. , B rill.b Su nd"rd ., .. 20 5 .... <10 •••••••• • •••••••• 201 , t ie
xxii
TOKENS FOR
SPECIAL OCCASIONS • ••
THERE are times when It is feh
that some special form of reecgnr
tlon Is needed as a token of appreci
ation. It Is an old custom In this country
(and other English-speaking countries),
at certain times and seasons to send
out gifts to emphasise a feeling of
goodwill or to accompany a greeting.
These gestures have a very definite
place In the British way of life and
very often too, some deep thinking
goes Into the planning of them. Especi
ally Is this the case when the token
which accompanies the greeting Is
FOWLER'S MECHAN ICS A ND
MACHINISTS POCKET BOO K.
Many firms have adopted thIs suggestion

and even as an Individual greeting it is
highly appreciated. It lasts a lifet ime.
SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHiNG Co.,

40 DALTON STREET.
ROCHDALE ROAD,
MANCHESTER 4, ENGLAND
(or from .my Bookseller)

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For Buyen' OJ rectory .... palli!' . ... A :L

S xxvi.
PA\.iE !' AGB

S~ VU n~u.ll y .. "."
S UVOT. E.po.",......
S~V G~t ... aD ..
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SII
Silno-, S p«i ~ c \.i ;ly .'"' S piodJ. N" _ ,_ 140
Siloe., Spec,4e Hut ..''"'"' SpiadltSv-1.. U:.chl_ Toolo

SpiDdleo. I
1:16
In
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411
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5 1'•• <1 "I llolt•• Pl." 15.
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S pe .d•• lIonu 25 . "3. 3Y6
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plo uo.. 151 Sq.u... Roo t, R.. 10 for ........ . 3
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2 15 Squ.,. It''''lI . nd C.. be R"" .. 1
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SU . 397 . 4111 S I ~ . I. , C.'''''• • rK! Alt
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For Buy.....' DirllCtory aee patea Ix. A • .

xxvii. S T (ND & ll-<'<>l1" .. ....
PAGE PAl. Ii
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Over 1600 indexed subjects on

:\1ECHAXICAL ENGINEERS &
POWER HO USE PRom. EMS
in
Fowler's :\techanicaJ Engineer's Pocket Rook
T. Shackleton &, Co. Ltd.
General and
Commercial
AUTO & O~WARO

ENGINEERING
~
- RS
~ox 3~ . HADANG
Publishers
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.
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DALTON WORKS 40 Dalton Street

Rochdale Road MANCHESTER 4
Phon .. 'C O L ly h ..... t 1 51 4
, XXX I.
s, K~.W T H il l . \ 1>
\\ hitworlh B ol t s ;Ind :\ u ts
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0 .. I'" 261.
Arithm etical S IQ,ns and S y mbol s,
Si"n 01 E q uali ty , an d sig nifies eq ua l to, as 3 f~t _

I y ard .
+ Sign of addition. and signifies p lus o r more as 3+ ~ _ 1 1 .
'SiI':"D o f S u b t raction, a nd sign ifies m inu s or less, as
2O - 6 _Ho .
x Sign 01 ~tu ltiplkation, a nd sign ifies mu lt iply by. as
ll x 7 _ n .
7 Sig n o f Di visio n, an d signifies d iv ide by as. 010 +8 _ 5.
A h uri zont.1.1 stroke is o ften u sed as t h e sign oj di visi on .
In this case the n umber t o be di vid ed (diMd,OIdj is p laced
above, aDd the number .... hich divides (d itoisor) bel ow :
30
as- _5.
6
A A I C
Il - _C. th('o - = Hand - _ _
B C B A
AxB Cx D
If;\ x B _ C X 1>. t he n D a nd - - - _ H a nd
C A
A x B
---_C.
u
., : Sign 01 Pr opo rti o n , and s ignifies a s 3 is to fl so is
8 to 16,
y Sign o f Sq ua re Root, an d sign ifies a s Y6 4 _R.
V Sign o f Cube Hoot, an n s igni fies as '\164 _ 4.
The Greek letter", rep rese u ts 3' 14 16, t h e circumfere nce
of a ci rel.. whose diameter is I.
.'. Signi fies then or therefoT<!. ' .' since or beca use .
d2 _ diameter squ ared o r mUltiplied by itself , thus
4%_ 4 x 4 _ l6 .
d S _ diameter cubed or mu ltiplied by itse lf , twice. thus
4' _4 x -l x4 _S4 .
d ~ _ diameter to the fourth po"·er. or mu lti p lied by itself
t h rice , thu s 4 x4 x4 x4 =~6 .
A single accent ( ') sign ifies f~t. a d ouble acce nt (') inches.
thu s 4 '9' _ 4 fed 9 inches.
Dia _ diameter. 20 · Degrees .
Revs. per min . _ revolutio n." per minute.
I ..
2 " '' ' T UM a T ICA.1.. . IG N~ " I'll> , Y WBOLS
Brackets () o r 0 a rc C'l n p lo re<! to de no te that t he seve ra l

numbe rs included within t he brack ets are to be taken
co llec tively . T h ul'! S (,, +b) l ign ifies that t he n um be r
represen ted by .. +6 is to be mu ltiplied by 8; agaill
(.. + b) x (e-d) d..notes that t he n u mber represented
by a + b is to he multiplied by the n u mbe r o btai n ed
by subtracting d f fOm c.
A Ci,de contain :#1.0 de~ (written :l6( 0 ) .
A Righi If Olglt contains 90 °,
T he th ree angk-s of a Riglll-'Hlgkd Triaw:lt together are
equal to two rig h t angle$, Therefore, i f ont' a n gle
op po i'l ite the ri ght angle is kn o ....n, the other may be
found I>y s u b t ra ct ing the kn owu angle from 90.
I n a right -an gled tri a ngle the bottom side is called the
Ba $' . the upright sid e is ca lled t he PtTPtlldituJa,.
a nd thr slo p loJ; side is ca lled the Hy f>o!" , nu:;t . \ Ve
may call th ese sid es H. P , H .
Given the len gt hs 0 1 Band p . t h e le ngth of H = \ / B 2+?2:
Gi ve n the len gths H and p . t he n B_ Y Ht- P2.
T h e A .ea of a triangle _base xperpendicular ~2.
T h e Aua of a square or oblong _ le n gt h x breadth.
I n finding a.reas, inches mu st be multiplied b y inclJn
when the answer wiJl be in squa re- inches, or fee t
must be multiplied by Ieet .....hen the answe r will be in
square fed. In ches must never by multiplied by feet
or t·ile t'nsa.
The Ci"..mfe.nue of 01 d.de _diamete rx 3,1 416.
The A'elil of a Ci.de_diameter2xO·7854. or radiusz x
3. 14 16.
The Cubic ColtJe"ts o f a bloc k o r s hee t _l ength x breadth
x th ickness; that is . area x thick n ess.
The C.wic Ca plUlly of a cylinde r e- area of circ ular sec tion
x length o f cylinde r.
I n fi ndi n ~ cubic co n ten ts or superficial areas the same
unit of mea!luremen t must be employed th roughou t .
.'\. Cubic I m:Js 01 cast iron weighs, tou gh ly. l ib. There
fore, number of cubic inches in a piece of cast iron + 4
_ w .. igb t in pounds. To obta.in more accurate results
multiply by ,26.
A Cuhil Foot of cast iron welgb ., rou ghlv 450 lb.
SlJ U A~J; R;O OT :I
A Cfd>i, 1",,11 of Steel weig bs 0 ·28 lb.
A Cubi c 1" (11 of " "TOnght iro n weighs 0·28 lb .
A CNbit: I nd o f gUD me tal weighs 0 ·31 lb.
A Crd>ic I "d o f lea d weighs 0'41 lb.
A Cubic 1",, 11 o f a luminiu m weig bs 0 ·097 lb.
Vu l2ar F r act loDII.-Tb ese a re exp ressed by mea ns o f
t wo n um bers p laced o ne ov= the other witb a divi d ing
line between them , thus ! ' which means one q ua rler.
The lo we r o f these n u mbe rs (4) is eenec the drnom i>u3lor
and tbe u p pe r ( I ) tbe " aI"," ,"",".
DecI mal Frac tJoDII,- Deci mal fraction' a re those
" 'bieb h ave 10, 100, 1000. ac., for a denom inator and are
expressed. by writing the numerator on ly and p laci ng a
point, th us ' befor e it;
thus 1ll- '3 , All- -()5 ,'/,,\- ,750.
Rul e fo r Extracting, S q uare R o o t._T o extrae t. square
root is to frnd a n umber which multiplied by itsell wiU
prod u ce t h e given n u m ber.
RNle.--&:pa ra te t he givt'n number into pe riods b y
placin g a p oint over every sUlnId figu re , beginning witb
tbe u ni ts p la ce .
P lace II lon g vertical lin e o n the left-h a nd side of t he
figure, a nd a braeke t-as in a division sum-on t be " jI;ht·
band s ide.
Fi n d t he ~ rea tes t sq ua re in the left -hand p<"riod a nd p lMe
it" roo t be hi nd the bracket , s ub tract the square o f t h is roo t
fro m t he fi ut period , and to tbe re ma ind er hri n g dow n th e
ne xt period for a dividend .
Multiply th e roo t foun d by 2, and p1;l.ce th is a nsw er in
Ir ont o f the ver tical line, t h en d ivid e it in to the d ividen d
om itt ing t h e last figu re. T h is is a tri a l di viso r. An n ex
t he figu re t bu s obtained to the root and also to t ltt' d iviso r,
m ulti ply tlte divisor as it n ow stands by the fig ure of t h e
roo t las t obtained, and su btract the p roduc t frolll the
dividend. If the produc t th us obtained we re too large a
unit smal ler shoul d t he o be tried.
If there are more periods to be broug ht do wn , continue
t he operation in the &J.me manner a s be for e.
E:rd...pfu.-Find U'e square roots of 169 and 5476 .
169 {13 tbe roo t req nin:d. 7 54 76 {7' tile root ~n ired
23 ~
1
. 144 "=576
576
\\'hen a d eci mal fraction is involved, the pe riods lor t he

i., ci m<J1 a re m.l.rh d off to the ritlll .
4 CUBE ROOT.
E.fa",plll.-,-W ha t is t he sq uare root o f 72·564.
8 72'56 40(8-518 +
64
165 ·856
8'l5
1701 -=3i 40
1701
17028 TI3000
136 224
··76 76
Rule lor Ext raetl DIl Cu b e R oot.- (I ) Sep ara te the
given number into periods by ('la cing. d ot over ev ery
third Iig ure, begi n n in g at the IID1t! place.
(2) T.ke t he figures in the '"jl -1I4nd I,,~iod and lind their
greatest cube root. P1.ac::e this root on the ri ght-band side
0 1 the sum. Su b trac t the cube of this root from the le ft
hand period, and to the rem ai n d er bring d own the next
peri od for. d iv id e nd .
(3) D ivide t his d ividend (b u t wit h th e two last figu res
om itted) by three ti mes the square of the root already
found. Annex t h is quotient to the root.
(4) Now add togethe r t o ob tain . final divi!lOr:_
(a) The trial divisor, witb tw o cipher! attach ed. (h)
Three times t he prod u ct o f th e last roo t figu re
by the remaind er of t he roo t , wit h on e cipher
a t tach ed . {,j T h e sq u a re o f th e last root figu re .
(5) Multi p ly this final divisor by th e figu re of the roo t las t
obtain",\, and sulitract the product fro m the div idend .
(6) If th e eu m of these vanous products is la.rger t han t he
dividend it ind icates that the trial figure is too la rge and a
figu re on e uni t smalle r should be used .
(7) If there a re m ore periods t o be b rou ght down,
con tin"" the opera tion in t he same miln n er .
E.fa mpl,.-Wbat is the cube root of 12167 1
(3) 2%_ 4 z 12167 (23

4 x 3 -12 e
(3
" )
"
36 1200
180
4167
5 9
1389 ".,
.. .... - 23 .
s
0' .n 0Inch
' .
De cimal Metric Eq u i va le n te b U blil. 3Jnd, 16th,
a nd tlth9
--
aa .. -• IDCh
- --
mj m
- -
M
-
aa
-
.. • - --
-- --
loc h m /m
, - , I-- - ,
aa -
- --- --• ·5U62
·0 1562 5 O·3~6 12·700
- - -ceras 0 -793 5 l 3'096
a - -, - 'O~6~75 [ , 190
as -" - -- ·5525
·53125 13 ·492
s - - -
- ·0625 [-5117 ·5 ~6875 IHIlIO
-- -• - ·57 61 25
-, -• -- -
- - -
-
- ,
·O78 1 2 ~
·09:175
']U 937 5
[ -9lH
2'3!B
2-77

"-se .. - - ·5937
-- -- --s '6 25
5
14'287
IHI33
IHI30
- - -
-u• s - -
' 125
-HOO? S
"J562 5
3·175
3-57 1
3·_ ..
- - -
'6 09 375
-" -- -811875
· 6 ~06 2S
15"477
15·81.s-SI I
lfr27 1
-ia --a -- ·203 125 .'762 -"

- ·111875 4'365 - -6.5625 16 ·66 7
-
- , - - <·2l3U15
' 1875
5' 159 -- - - ' 71»"125...
sa " -- ' 7 18 75
17-{)64
17'462
....
5'55(1 17· 858
-"
11175
-" - -- -, ."
- - - -- - ·734315
5 ·9.~2 18'255
6 '550 18 ·652
-265625
-" • - ·261 25 l·US
6 'H6 - -- - -• ." ·165625
19 '1JSO
19· .46
- - - -
-- -- --- ·796875
'2 % 875 7 '5 4 as ·781 25 19 ·841
-" - s - ·3·8 211125 1-957 2(\"U9
- - ·3 4JH .,
125
"-28 -" -- -- ·159 37 9~:r~ -"sa '81 25

- --" -- ·8-8284315175
20.1"37
2 1·033
·\ 27 - 21'429
- - - • ·811Q62'lIn 11 -525
9-92 1 "
"- -- -r ·85937 2 1· ~ 2 7
-" --ra -- -- ,62

- - ' 60<125 5 lQ'8 1S
·875
- - - ·890625
22'225
22 '6 2 1
18 75 10-7 15 " as - - ·_ 25
"- -, -- ·48'45917 525 11'11 2 ss-
23 '017
- - -- ·8'\121875
375
28· 4 16
23-8 12
"-ar -" -- -- '6' 4<>tl75
I J-SO
1l·~5
12 ')0)2 "
-
--" -- '96875
'9531 25 26 ·208
- .
2 4-6(1,1,
- - - -
8437
- ~
"- - - ·984 37 25 '002- " 1' .
- ,
•
oectmur l':qulvalent15-b1h!l. 12tb~ ••Uld lflll!> of lIU
Inch.
I
ra
6
" Decimal. I 6
" " Deci mal
- - \ .o, 1667
I- -7 \3 -5..11666
-- \
-
-
3
{)S3333
-125
-
-, -- \5
- ·583333
·625
\ -- - ·\66666 - ·666666
- -- - \7 ·7083 33
-- -3
2 -
5
-
7
-
·2083 33
·25
·291666
·333333
-5 •- -
- -2\
\. ·75
·79 1£66
·83 3333
- - s ·375 -- -\I ·875
-- -5 -
-, -- --23
·416666 ·9 16666
\I ·458333 ·9 583 33
3 - - ·5 \·0
Decimal Equlvalents-7ths, 14th5, IlInd laths of an

Inch.
aa 14 Decima l
7 \4 Decimal. 7
-
"
-- --
- \ ·0 357 14 - - \5 ·535 714
\ - ·0 7 1429
•- - - -571-429
•--
3 ' 1071 43 \7 ·60 7H3
\ - - · 142857 -- - -642867
- -3 5 ' 178571 \. -67857 1
-- - -7 ·21 4286
-25
5 -
-- -\\ -2 \
- -714286
'7 5
•--
2 - ·28571 4 ·7857 14
- -5 -321429
,- -- -2523 ·821429
--3 --
·357143 ·857 143
\I -392857 - - -89 285 7
-
-- -7 -\ 3
·428571
'464286
-
-7
\3
-
-27 -9285 7 1
....zse
·5 - - \ ·0
7
Sq U 8 t~1I , .
Cube s , Sq ua re Huu l ll, a nd C u be Ro ora
S<j,,~,. Cub.
~o. Squa' • . Cu b•. «"" t. "-,
v' ~
, -UIS -oora -353
--
·5
,,
I ·00 2
·140
·250
-0156
·0527
·\250
·500
·612
·707
' 62 ~
·72 1
·793
,
I '390
·562
·2 44
·42 1
·790
·866
·855
·908
I
i , ·765
I
·669
1·42:1
·93 5
1·000 I
·956
' ·04
I, 1·265 1·06 0
II 1·56 2 \· 953 HIS 1·07
II 1·890 2·599 1-172 \· 11
2· 250 3·375 1· 224 '-.14
'I 2·640 4 ·291 1·274 H 7
'I 3·062 5·359 1·322 \· 20
"' I 3 -515 6 ·591 1·369 1·23
2
2,
•
4·51 5
8
9·595
\ ·4 14
\· 457
1·25
\ ·28
\·3 0
21 5'062 11·390 \·500
2' 5·640 13·386 \·5 41 \ '33
21 6·250 15·625 1·58 1 \ ·35
2, 6·890 18· 087 1·620
1·658
\ ·37
\· 40
2' 7-562 20·796
8·26 5 23·763 1·695 ], 42
21
3 9 27 1·732 H 4
. 3, !1·765 30 ·51 7 '·767 \· 46
31 10·56 2 34· 328 \·802 /048
3, 11·390 3'1,443 \·8 37 \· 50
3j 12·250 42·875 1·870 ) ·51
3, 13, 140 4H 34 \ ·903 1·53
3, 14 ·062 52·734 \ ·936 [ -55
31 15-015 58 ·185 r.sse \ ·57
4 16 64 2 1·58
4j 18 ·062 76· 765 2 ·06 1 \ ·6 1
9\·125 2 ,12 1 1·65
'"
20·25 0
'j 22·562 10H 7 1 2·1 79 1·68
5 25 125 2 ·236 1· 7 1
51 27 ·562 144· 70 3 2,291 1·73
5j 30·250 16!l·375 2 ·3 45 1'76
-;
I
a
SqUlt rC8, C u b e s , Sqlmrtl R oots, a n d C u be R oots.
(Coll/in wed)
~~-
N. Squa", Sa:;e ,,

' 0,"
I
'0 ,"
V v
• 3.1·062 19(H 09 2'397 1·79
"
6
61
36
39·062 'I'
24H40
2·4 49
'·500
H ll
1·84
61 42·250 27 4-625 2-84' ,..16
61 45·562 307 ·546 2·598 1·88
7 49 3<3 2<;4' ) ·9 1
7j 52·562 :lS1·07S 2-69 2 1·93
7j 56·25 0 42 1·875 2·738 ) ·95
71 60·062 465· 48 4 2·71:\3 ) ·97
e s, 512 2·S 2li 2
68·062 56 1·5 15 2-872 2·02
'I
8j
8,
e
'1
'j
.
72·250
76·562
85·562
90, 25
6 14' 125
669·92 1
729
79 1'453
857 ·375
2 ·91 5
2·958
3
.3·04 1
3...2
'<>4
2"
2<>8
' ·09
2· 11
'1 95 ·062 92b ·S59 3· 122 2' 13
10 100 11100 3· 162 2 ·15
2' 17
'°1
10j
105·{)62
110·250
I076·M9
1 1 5 7 ~2S
3·20 1
3·240 2·18
1O, 115·562 ) 24 2·296 3·278 2·20
1331 3-3 16 2 ·22
""" II 12 1
128 ·56 2
132·250
1423,828
15:'' 0'875
3·354
3,39 1
2:.24
2·25
13S·Ql;Z 1622-23-1 3· 42 7 2'27
" I 1728 3,464 2·28
12
13
14
'"
169
196
2197
2744
3""
3·741
2·35 1
H IO
15
16
225
256
337'
.096
3,872
e-o00
2··U>6
2·5 19
17 28'J 49 13 ·H23 2·57 1
18 8832 4 ·24 2 2·620
"
20
'"
36 1
. 00
688.
8000
4·358
4 ·472
2....
2·71 4
21 HI 926 1 4·582 2·758
22 , ...8 4·690 2_
2:1 ""
'29
576
12 167
I:J824
4·795
e-sse
2·843
2·JlS4
"
•
Sq,."rcs, C u hcs. Squur., Root s, und C u b e Root • .
(CO"lilllffd )
,
Sq";,, . Cub.
~o. Sq ,, " •. Cube. li oco ' . Root.
V V
-
:25 625 15625 5·000 2·924
:,!Il 676 17576 5·099 2,962
,.
-n
29
7?'J
784
841
1% 83
21952
243S9
5'1 96
5·291
5·31:15
3-000
3'OJiJ
3·072
30 900 27000 5 ·477 H07
ai 96 \ 2979 1 5 ·567 H 4\
32 102 4 32768 5·65G 3·174
:,3 101:19 :15937 5· 744 3'207
1156 :i 9:10 4 5·830 3·239
"':16
35 1225
1290
4 ~75
46ti5 6
5,916
6·000
3·27 1
3'301
:l7 136'J 501;53 6'082 3·332
3H 1444 54S72 6· 164 3·36 1
39 152 1 59319 6 ·244 3·39 1
40 1600 64000 6 ·324 3 ·420
41 1681 68921 6 ·403 3·448
42 1764 74088 6-480 3 ·476
43 11:149 79507 6· 557 3·503
44 1936 85184 6·633 3·530
4S 2025 91125 6·70S 3·556
45 2 11G 97336 6·782 3·51:13
22UH 103!'\:l3 (H 155 3,608
"
43
43
2304
240 1
110592
117649
6 ·92S
7·000
3·6 34
3,6 59
50 2500 125000 7·07 1 3·GB..
51 2601 13263 1 7· 141 3·708
52 2704 140608 7 ·2 11 3 ·732
53 2l.'109 148877 7 ·2S0 3·756
54 29 16 1574114 7·348 ;1·779
55 30 ~5 160;175 H I6 3,1>02
5H 3136 175616 7,483 3 ·825
57 3249 IH5 1!l3 7 ·5 49 3·8413
5S 3364 195 112 7·615 3-!.~70
59 348 1 205379 7· 68 1 3·R9·~
60 3600 216000 7· 74 5 3·914

61 3721 22698 1 7 ·810 3·936
62 3 :144 2 :; ln 2 ~ 7 ·874 H I51
- 10
Squa res, Cubes, S q u a r e Roofs, a nd Cube uoots.

(Contin u f d)
- - -
Sq uare Cub.
8•. Sqna.~. Cube. «oot. Root.
v' V
• 63 3969 2500 47 7·937 3·97 9
64 .096 2621 44 8·000 4·000
65 4225 274625 8·062 4·020
G6 4356 21:\7496 tH 24 4·04 1
67 44 89 :lOO 76a 8 ·185 4· 061
63 462 4 3 14432 tj· 246 4·08 1
69 4761 328509 8·306 H OI
70 4900 343000 8·366 H2 l
71 5041 3579 11 8· 426 4· 140
72 5 184 373248 8'485 4·160
73 53 29 38 90 17 8·544 4·179
74 5476 405224 8·602 -I· 191l
75 5625 4Zltl7S 8 ·66 0 4· 217
76 5776 438976 8· 717 4 ·235
77 5929 456 533 8 ·774 4·254
78 608 4 474552 8·83 1 4·272
79 62 41 49 3039 8·888 4·290
80 6.00 5 12000 8 ·944 4·308
81 656 1 53 1441 9·000 4 ·320
82 672 4 55 1368 9·055 4·3 44
63 6889 571787 9· 110 4·362
84 705 6 592704 9·165 4·379
ss 7225 6 14125 9·2 19 4·396
ee 7396 636056 9,273 4· 414
87 7569 65 8503 9·327 4·43 1
R8 7744 6814 72 9·380 4·447
89 79 2 1 7049li9 9·433 4·46 4
90 8 100 729000 9 ·4tl6 4·480
91 t;281 7535 71 9 ·539 4-497
92 8 46 4 778688 9·59 1 4·5 14
93 80 49 80 4357 9·6 43 4·530
9. 8836 t130584 9 ·fj95 4·546
95 9025 857375 9·7 46 4-5 60
96 92 16 884736 9 ·797 4-578
87 9409 9 12673 9·848 4·59 4
9H 960 . 94 1192 9·899 4·610
9. 980 1 970299 9, 949 4-626
1 00~ 10000 100000o 10·000 4·6 41
- -- - -
II
Squa re Roots. Dect muts.
No . , ' No. v- I No. V- xc. V

., ·632 2-4 \ ·54 4-8 2·1 9 9·7 5 3,12
..,
·45
·55
·67 1 2,'
·707 2·6
' 742 2· 7
1·58
1·61
\· 64
',9
s
"1
2 ·2 1
2·23
2·26
10
10·25
10·5
3· 16
3·2
3·24
·6 ·774 2·75 1·658 5·2 2·28 10' 75 3·28
·65 ·806 2·8 1·67 5·25 2·29 II 3·3 17
·7
·75
·836 2·9
·866 3
1·70
1·73 ,.,
5·3 2·30
2·322
11 ·25
11·5
3·35
3-39
·8 ·894 3·1 1·76 s-s 2·345 11·75 3-43
.8' ·922 3·2 1·7 9 5 ·6 2·367 12 3 ·46
·9 ·94 9 3·25 1·80 Z 5·7 2 ·388 12·5 3·53
'9' ·975 3·3 1·8 16 5·75 2·399 13 3·60
1·0 I 3-4 1·84 5 ·8 2·40 1 13·5 3·675
1·1 1·048 3,' J.87 ',9 2·4:1 14 :H4
1·2 1·095 3·6 \·8 97 6 2·45 14 ·5 3-81
1·25 1·11 8 3·7 1·92 6·25 2,' IS 3·87
1·3
I·'
1-14
H84 3·8
3 ·75 1·936
1·949
6,'
G'75
2'55
2 ·599 16 ,
15·5 3 ·93
I"
1·6 } '265 ,
1·2:;5 3·9
1·304 4-1
1·975
2
2·025
7
7 ·25
1 ·5
2·647
2..692
2 ·738
16·5
11
17·5
4-06
401 2
HR
1·7
1·75 1~323 '·2 2·05 7-75 2·784 IS 4·24
1·8
I ·'
1·342 4-2'
'·:.'178 '·3
2·00
2·072
a
8·25
2 ·828
2·872
18·5
I'
43
4 -36
2
',1
\· 414 H
1·449 ,., 2 ·098
2-12
2·145
s-s
8·75
9
2·915
2·957
3
19·5
20
H I
4·47
2,' 1-4S3 '·6
2-25 I ·' ',7 2-168 9· 25 304
2·3 1·517 4·75 2-18 9-5 308
12
C i r cu m fe ren ces a nd Arens
,
S ill" lieIre IeS £rom If64tl t 0 2 m.,
' <!, V<!lI Clll g IJY 61
). t JIS
Diameter
ei re"",·
De ci ma l lere1' "" Ar ea
,,~ 16th. 32Dd. 64t"" oquiv<> leot
- - I 0 ·0156 0·049 1 0-000 19
I 2 ·03 12 ·0982 ·00077
3 ·0 469 -IU3
-1964
·00173 ,
I 2 4 ·062 5 ·00307
5 -07 81 ·2454 ·00479
3 6 ·0938 ·29 45 ·00690
7 · 1094 ·3436 ·009 40
I 2 4 8 · 1250 ·3927 ·0 1227
9 ·1406 ·H IS -01553
5 10 ' 1562 ·4909 ·019 18
II ·1719 ·5400 -02320
3 6 12 ·1876 ·5890 ·02761
13 ·203 1 ·6,.181 ·0324 1
7 14 ·2188 ·6872 ·03758
IS ·2344 ·7363 ·043 14
2 4 8 16 ·2500 ·7854 ·04909
17 ·2656 ·8345 ·05542
9 IS ·2812 ·88::16 ·062 13
19 '2969 ·9327 ·06922
5 10 20 ·3125 ·98 18 -07670
21 ·321:11 1·0308 ·08 456

II 22 ·3·138 1·0 799 ·092 8 1
23 ·3591 1·1290 · 10 144
3 e 12 24 ·3750 1-178 1 ·IlO45
25 ·3 906 1·2272 ·1l984
13 2. ·4062 1·2763 ' 12962
27 -4219 ' ·3254 · 13979
7 14 2S -4375 1·3144 ·15033
29 ·4531 1-4235 ' 16126
15 30 -4688 1·4726 -17258
31 -4844 1-5217 ·18427
4 8 I. 32 ·5000 1·5708 -19635
CIRCU MFERENCES AN D AIUl: AS OF S M A L L CIRCLES 13
F' rom 1{6 4th to 2 m., a d v a n ctIn g b y 64 th!!

DlA ""' I~r
Cire um ,.,
_
.
~
Decimal
Elh l 'lIt ho 32ud . 6 ~l h . equl val~Qt
- -- -- -
33 0 ·5 156 1·6 199 0 ·20881
17 34 ·53 12 1·6690 ·22 166
35 ·5469 1·7l8 1 ·2348 9
9 IS 36 ·5625 1·161 1 ·2485 o
·518 1 1·8162 ·2625 o
19 "
38
39
·5938
·6094
1·86 53
1·9 144
·27 688
·291 65
5 LO 20 40 ·6250 1·9635 ·3068 o
41 ·6406 2 ·0126 ·3223 3

21 42 ·656 2 2· 0617 ·3382 4
43 ·6719 2 ·1108 ·3545 4
II 22 44 ·6875 2'1598 ·3712 2
45 ·703 1 2 ·2089 ·3882 9

aa 46 '7188 2·2580 '40574
47 ·7344 2 ·3.071 ·4235 7
6 12 24 48 ·7500 2 ·3562 ·4417 9
49 ·7656 2 ·4053 ·460 3 9

25 50 ·7812 2· 4544 ·47937
51 ·7969 2· 5035 ·49874
L3 26 52 ·8 125 2 ·5525 ·5 1849
53 ·8281 2·6 0 16 ·53862

27 54 ·8438 2· 6507 ·55914
55 ·859 4 2·6998 ·58004
7 Il 28 56 ·8750 2·7489 ·60132
57 ·8906 2 ,7980 ·62299
29 58 ·9062 2·847 1 ·64504
59 ·9219 2·8962 ·66747
15 30 60 ·9375 2·9452 ·69020
61 ·953 1 2 ·99 43 ·7 1349
31 62 ·9688 .3 ·0434 ·73708
61 ·98 44 3· 0925 ·76 105
I I I I 1·0000 3· 14 16 ·78540
14 CIRCUMYIiReXce s A N D ARB AS OF SMALL CI RCLeS
F rom 1/64 th to ,
2 'n
'. advancing by &lths
.... 18t_
Di ..... t""
w'"
D<d-'
"'jw y . len l
Clrwm ·
,~ ....
""" 1 /1 1·0 156 3· 1907 0·81013
\ /\ \ /2 1·03 12 3· 2398 '835"as
\ /3 14169 3·2889 ·8607 5
1 /1 1 /2 \ /4 \ 000'-' 3·3379 88664
\ /5 1·078 1 3·3870 ·91291

\ f3 1 /6 1·0938 3·4361 ·9395
1 {l H094 3·4852
\ /1 1 /2 \ /4 1 /8 1·1250 3· 5343 '99 402
1 /9 1-1406 3·5834 1·02182

\ /5 \ / 10 1·1562 3·6325 1·05001
\ / 11 1· 1719 3·6816 1·07858
1 f3 \ /6 1 / 12 1· 1875 3· 7306 1·10753
1 /\3 1·2031 3· 7797 1·13687

\ {l 1 /14 1·2188 3·8288 1·16659
\ /15 1·234 4 3·8779 1· 19670
1 /2 1 /4 1 /8 1 / 16 1·250 0 3·9270 1·22 71
\ / 17 1·2656 3·976 1 \ ·25806

1 /9 \ /18 1·28 12 4·0252 1·28931
\ /19 1·2969 4 ·0743 1·32095
1 /5 1 / 10 1 /20 1·3125 4 ·1233 1·35297
1 tu 1·328 1 4 '1724
4·2215
1·38538
1·418 17
\ / 11 1 f2'2 1·3438
1 f23 1·359 4 4·2706 1·45 134
1 /3 1 /' 1 /1 1 /24 1·3750 4·3 197 1·48489
1 /25 1·3906 4·3688 1-51883
1 / \3 1 tz 1·4062 4· 4179 1·55316
1-4219 4'4670 1·58786
1 tr \ / 14 : ~7 1·4375 4'5160 1·62295
1·4531 4'5651 1·6584 3

1 / 15 \1 @
/ 1·4688 4·6142 1·69428
I /3 1 1'4844 4·6633 1·73052
\ /4 \ /8 1 /\ \ /32 1·5000 4·7124 1·76715
CIIl C U M I' ~R "N Cb: S "Nil AR EAS 01' SMALl.CIIlCLES 15
,
F' rom 1/6 4th t o "
_ .Ill., a, vun cmg Uy 6 4th , ,
lli amokt
Circum _
lJech tlal feteuce Area
,,~ 16ths nnw 64th. " 'l ulvalelll
-- r-- - - I /33 1·5156 4·7615 1·804 15
I /17 I /34 1·53 12 4 ·8 106 1·84 154
I /35 1·5409 4·8597 1·87932
I /9 I /1' I /36 1·5625 4·9087 1·91748
I /37 1·5781 4·9578 1·95602
I /19 I /" 1·5938 5·0069 1·99494
I /39 1·6094 5·05(,0 2·03425
I /5 I / 10 I /20 I /40 1·6250 5·1051 2·07394
I /41 1·6406 5·1542 2-11402

I /21 I /42 1-6562 5·2033 2· 15448
I /43 1-6719 5·2524 2· 19532
I /11 I /2 2 I /44 1·6875 5· 3014 2·2365 4
I {45 1·7031 5 ·3505 2·27815
I /23 I /46 1'7 188 5· 3996 2 ·32015
I /47 1·7344 5· 4487 2 ·36252
I /6 I {12 I /24 I /4 1·7500 5·4 978 2·40528
I /49 1·7656 5·5469 2·44843
I /25 I /50 1-71H 2 5·5 960 2 ·49195
I /51 1·7969 5·6450 2 ·53586
I /13 I /2 I /52 1-8 125 5·6941 2·58016
I /53 1-828 1 5·7432 2·62483
I /27 I {54 1·8438 5,7 923 2·66989
I /55 1-8594 5·8414 2 ·71534
I /7 1 / 14 I /" I /5 . 1-8750 5·8905 2·7 6117
I /57 1-8906 5·9396 2 -80738
I I /5
/"" 1·9062 5 ,9887 2 ·85397
I /59 1-9219 6{l377 2 -90095
1 / 15 I /30 I /60 1'9375 6,0868 2·94831
I /61 1-9531 6 -1359 2-99606
I /31 I /6 \ .96&! 6 ' 1850 3·04418
I /63 1-9844 6-234\ 3·09270
2 2 2 2 2·0000 6·2832 3- 14159
16 Circumferences and A reas
- cIre cs
' ' nlame t " r
rom 1{16t11 Ill. t 0 26 Ill.
Il ia r. CirCllm!. MM Diar. CirellIDf. ' Are,
-
,I; ·1963 ·00307 2" 8-4 430 5·6723
I ·3927 ·0 1227 21 8· f1 394 5-9396
j, ·5890 -0276 1 211 8·8357 6 ,2126
I -7854 ·04909 2; 9-032 1 6· 4918
,\ ·9817 -0767 2ii 9·2284 6·7772
; 1-1781 ·1104 3 9-4248 7·0686
,I; 1-3744 ·1503 3,\ 9 ·62 11 7·3662
; 1·5708 -1963 3; 9-8175 7-6699
,I; 1·7671 ·2485 3" 10·0 14 7·9798
I 1-9635 ·3068 31 10 ·210 8 ·2957
2-l598 ·371 2 3,1; 10-406 8 ·6180
"
;
~
;
2-3562
2·5525
2· 7489
·4417
·5 185
·60 13
31
3"
3;
10-602
10·7 99
10-995
8·9462
9 ·2807
9·62 11
Ii 2 ,9452 ·6903 3 ,'., 11·191 9-9880
1 3·1 416 ·7854 3; 11-388 10-320
1,1; 3 ·3379 ·8866 3J! 11·584 10·679
1, 3 ·5343 ·9940 3; lJ ·781 11-044
1,1; 3·7306 1-1075 3]; 11·977 11-416
11 3 -9270 1·227 1 3; 12·1 73 11·793
1,1; 4·1233 1-3530 3 ]; 12·3 69 12-177
I; 4·3197 1·4848 4 12·566 12·566
I -/4 4 -5 160 1·6229 4h 12·762 12·962
I; 4·7124 1-7671 4' 12-959 13·364
1I, 4-9087 1·9 175 4 1"<. 13· 155 13·772
I; 5·105 1 2-0739 41 13· 35 1 14·186
I J! 5·3014 2-2365 4l~- 13·547 14·606
1; 5 -4978 2·4052 4, 13·744 15 ·033
I];
I;
5·6941
5 ·8905
6·0868
2 ·5800
2 ·76 11
2-948 3
4"
4,
4,'.,
13·940
14 ·137
14·333
15 ,465
15· 904
16,349
I t!
2 6· 2832 3 -1416 4, 14 ·529 16·800
2~ 6 ,4795 3 ·3380 411 14·72 5 17·257
2; 6·6759 3 ,5465 4; 14·922 17·720
2,\ 6 ·8722 3 ·7584 411 15 ·119 18-190
21 7 ·0686 3 ·9760 41 15·315 18·665
2" 7 ·2649 4·2 000 411 15 ·511 19· )47
21 7 ·4613 4 ·4302 5 15·708 19·635
15 ·904 20· 129
2"
2;
7·6576
7·8540
4 ·6664
4·9087 5S", 16·100 20· 629
2 1"6 8 ·0503 5·1573 Sit 16·296 2 1·135
2; 8·2 467 5·4 119 SI 16·493 21· 64 Z
C1RCtJMt-EI<ENCRS AND A REAS ce Cll'CLES 17
Viar. Clr<nm f. A. . Diar. Cireu"'l_ Aroo

-5 1" 16 ·689 22·166 10 31-4 16 78·540
51 16 ·88 6 22 ·690 JOI 3 1-808 80·515
5" 17 ·082 23·221 JOI 32·201 82·5 16
51 17 ·278 23-758 JOI 32-594 84·.540
5,\ 17 -474 24 ·301 JOI 32·986 86·5f)()
51 17· 671 24·850 JOI 33·379 88·664
5 tl 17-867 25·406 JOI 33·772 90·762
51 18·064 25·967 1O, 34· 164 92·885
511 18-261 2 6·535 II 34·558 95-033
5, 18 ·457 27· 108 III 34 ·95 0 97 ·205
5U 18 -65 3 27-6fl1l III 35·343 99·402
6 18·849 28 ·274 II I 35·735 10 1·623
61 19-242 29·464 III 36·128 )03·869
61 19·(,.15 30·679 III 36·52l 106·139
61 20·027 31 ·9 19 III 36 -913 108·434
61 20·420 33 -1RS III 37-306 110 ·753
61 20·81 3 34 -47 1 12 37 ·699 113 ·097
61 21·205 35· 78 4 l2* 38 ·09 1 1 15·466
6~ 21-5 98 37 · 122 121 38 ·48 4 1I7·85f)
7 21-9 9 1 38 ·484 121 38'877 120 ·276
71 22·383 39 ·871 121 39 -270 122·718
71 22-776 4 1' 28 2 121 39-(>62 125 -184
71 23·169 42· 7 18 121 40·055 127·676
71 23 ·562 44' 171l 12' 40-448 130-192
71 23·954 45 -66.1 13 40 ·840 132-732
71 24 ·347 47· 173 13! 41-233 135 -297
7, 24 ·740 48 -707 131 41·626 137·88 6
8 25 · 132 50 ·265 131 42-018 140 ·500
61 25·5 15 51·848 131 42 ·411 143 · 139
61 25 -9l8 53-456 131 42-804 145 ·802
81 26·310 55·088 131 43- Hl7 148'489
81 26-703 56·745 13' 43-589 15 1·20 1
81 27·096 58 ·426 14 43·982 153·938
81 27-489 60 · 132 141 44'375 156 .£99
8' 27·881 6 1·862 141 44· 767 159 -485
9 28-274 6..1·6 17 141 45 · 160 162·295
91 28 ·66 7 65 ·3% 141 45· 553 165-130
91 29· 059 67·200 141 45-945 167·989
91 29 ·452 69 ·029 141 46 <1.18 170 ·873
9'
91
29 ·845
30·237
70·RR2
72 ·759
141
15
46-731
47·124
173·782
176·7 15
91 30·630 74 ·662 IS ! 47 ·516 179 ·672
9' 31 ·02.1 76-588 151 47·909 18 2 ·6..<;4
18 CIRCU MFE RE NC KS AND AI<EAS OF CIRCL IlS
Din. Cir eumf. ~. Dl~r. Clre" ", !. ~.

-
lS i 48 ·302 HIS·661 201 65'188 338 '163
151 48·694 188 ·692 2°1 65 ·580 342·250
lSi 49 ·087 191 ·748 21 65·973 346·361
1St 49·480 194 ·8 28 2 11 66·366 350·497
ISj 49 ·872 197 ·933 211 66 ,759 354·657
16 50·265 20H)I,2 21i 67·151 35tHI41
1°1 50 ·658 204 ·216 21! 67 ·544 36.1·051
16} 51·051 207 ·394 211 67·937 367·284
161 5 1·443 2JO·597 21' 68·329 371·543
161 51'8:l6 2 13 ·825 21, 68,722 375·826
161 52·229 2 J7·077 22 69·115 380 ·133
161 52· 621 220·353 221 69· 507 38 4'465
16, 53 ·014 22:H54 22, 69· 900 388·822
17 53,4 07 226 ·980 22! 70· 293 393· 203
17, 53· 799 230·330 22! 70·686 397· 608
17, 54·192 233 ·705 22i 71 ·078 402·038
17i 54·58.0:; 237 ' 104 221 71·471 406·493
17, 54· 978 240·528 22, 71·864 410·972
17i 55 ·370 243,977 23 n256 4 15·476
17' 55·763 247·450 231 72·649 420·004
17, 56'156 25(l·947 23 i 73 ·042 424 ·557
18 56·548 2.54·469 231 73·434 429·135
lSI 56 ,941 258·0 16 231 73·827 433 ·731
18, 57·334 261 ·587 231 74·220 438·363
lSi 57 ·726 265·1 82 231 74 ·6 13 443·014
18! 58 ·119 2680803 231 75·005 447·699
183 58 ·5 12 272·447 24 75 ·398 452·390
18, 58 ,905 276·117 24, 75,791 457· 1I5
IS, 59·297 279·811 24, 76 ·183 46 1·864
19 59·690 283·529 241 76,576 466·638
191 6lJ.083 287 ·272 24, 76 ·969 471 ·436
191 60 ·475 291·0 39 241 77·3 61 476· 259
191 60 ·868 294·83 1 24, 77,75·1 48 H 06
191 6 1'261 298·648 24l 78·147 485 ·978
19i 6 1·653 302·489 25 78 ·540 490·875
191 62 ·046 30 6 ,355 'l5 ! 78·932 495 ·796
191 62 '43 9 3 10·2 45 25i 79·325 500·741
20 62·832 3 14 ·160 25~ 79·718 505·711
2°1 63·224 3 18 ·0f/9 25 l 80·110 510·706
20 l 63·617 322·063 25t 80·503 515·725
20, 64·010 326·051 25 i 80 ·896 520·769
20l 64·402 330·064 25, 8 1·288 525·837
201 64·795 3340101 26 8 1·68 1 530 ·930
"
Le n ethll of Ch o r d s for Spacing Ctrcte ~"'lo.e Diameter
18 1. :F o r C lr eles o f other Illu meten Multlp1,
Lenll.th g tven in Table by D iameter of Circle.
I Lueth 0'
No. 01 l...ngth of No. of L,"~th of N o. " f
!>p."'" (ord Spot• •. Cord. Spoc••. Corel.
I
3 ·' 660 , aa -0872 69 ·0<1. 55
5• ·707 1
·5878 i
37
38
-0848
-0826
70
71
-0449
·0442
·D·UG
0 ·5000 39 ·0805 72
7 '4339 40 ·078 5 73 -0430
8 ·3827 .1 -0765 74 -042 4
9
10
11
12
·3420
-3090
·21)]7
'2588
, ..
42
<3
45
·07 47
·07 30
·0713
·0698
·068 2
75
7'
77
78
79
·04 19
·04 13
-0408
·0403
-0398
13
1.
15
·2393
·2225
·2079
"
42
4S
·0688
-0654
80
81
-0393
·Q3BS
10 ·1951 4S ·064 1 82 ·0383
17 '1838 50 ·0628 83 -0378
·0374
18
19
20
· 1736
' 1646
· 1564 I
51
52
53
·00 16
·0004
·0 592
"
85
86
-0370
-0365
21 ·1490 54 -0581 87 ·0361
22 · 1423 55 ·OS71 88 ·035 7
73 ·1362 56 -056 1 89 ·0353
24 · 1305 57 -055 1 90 ·0349
25 · 1253 58 '054 1 91 ·0345
26 -120 5 59 ·053 2 92 ·0341
27 · 1l 6 1 60 ·0523 93 ·03:1~
28 -1120
I 61 ·0 515 94 ·0334
29 ' IOtH 62 ·0507 95 -0331
30 · 1045 63 ·0499 96 -0327
31 -1012 64 ·049 1 97 ·03 2-4
32 ·0980 65 -0483 98 -032 1
3;1 -0951 88 -047 6 99 -03 17
34 -09 23 67 -0469 100 -03 1+
;1 5 -0$96 68 ·0462
,
20
Brltl"h S tandard s uf W el llll t " " 00 M l'II I1U rell .
...., 1'1I. lo n e-
8 ""
320
Len l!t h•
Y.""
1160
,.,
'~'lQ
IflclMo
63360
I .0 zzo 660 792 0
I 'I 161 198
I 3 36
I 12
'\<1'• .
.
, •""'. .... .I
I ~'
.0
S u rfa ce .
Sq . rd' ,
48,",0
1210
s", """1.
'3560
10890
5'1_ 11..:,-.
6 2726<0
1568 160
I
,
"' I 212 1
,
9
3920.4
' 296
1<4
Soli dity.
C"b", roM. Cubic ' ... t. C"blc 'lnch...
I 27 46656
I 112R
Wel~ht _A v ofn lu l'o l".

To". C.. l•. Qn . I.b, . 0 ...
I 20 SO 2240 35fl"'O
I 4 112 1792
I 2R
, '"re
Th e American 0. sh ort ton _ 2000 lb s.
- 2Q cwts. of 100 lbs. eac h .
Wefg,h t -Avolrdupo ls .
27·3·H grains I drac hm.
16 dra eb Jl1ll 43 7. grains I o unce.
16 ounces 7000 grains 1 pou nd.
14 pounds J st one.
WeIght-Troy.
24 grains I fl'eooweigbt.
2Q pennyweights <I SO grains I troy ounce.
12 troy ou nces 5760gnin s _ I troy pound
,\
Metclcal Equivalent. uf Bcltl.h Imllerlal Wel~hllil

and l\.te.ll5Ure••
The }Iet[ic Unit of Length is the Metre _39'37 in ches.
The Metric Unit of Weight is the GralIllIle _IS ·4:r- Grains.
The following preJixes are used for eubdivlaione and
m ul ti p les :-
MiUi- . J" .e. Centi- t be. Deci - t't..
Deca _l O. Hecw _ IOO. Kilo_ lOOO. ~lyria _ lO ,OOO.
MEASURES OF LENGTH.
BI ,n••
IDcll :t·UiN otui_ua
FI>Ot , ·o·nedecu..-.tn&.
Var d O-PI43 ........
1'. 1110", I t i51 ",etrw..
Pole 5.-1 t-.
FllI10clC .. :101-I64' tfttI..
Iotllo _1_"148 meu--..
N.atk:&1Iot;"_Ia5~Q20 ...........
Sq. lllc.ll
Sq. 1001
Sq. yard
SUPERPICI"L IotEASURES
CK lOO6d oq.
o-ot2l/ 1'1
0-c.M sq
In.
1.fI.
_tn. I Ao.
Sq . 11>11,..
......
O·4~1
~::=~<t.
"""tare.
,....
,~ 15·:P15 sq
10-1161 ....
1<&. H.. I..... 1·4711 acr...
VOU:!.lE.
I <ulncb _ 16·3111 eu. «D lho" Ire •. I cu . 00011"'011'1" ' 06 1 e u. illeb
J cu. f<><>l _ '02&1 eu. a><treo. 1 ell. dffimel re_O I'024 Ca. In.
28·3 11 lJlre l . I .111'1 _ 1000 ell. centl motreo,
'7645 cu. ",."n.
l eu . y u tl_
16NS3 lllr...
4·54S9 htrel.
l ~~"::;;~U~~~8 eu. lOll.
I cu . motn_ I"019 " ". yudo.
1 Ialloa
'IOO~ cu. II.
:71·11 cu. h,eb...
1 u.s.a. 231 cu. loeba.
1111""
·8315 Imperial 111lo0,
2Z CO'U 'O t/ N D O;:O"'V.....l Ol< • .u:ro....
Co mpound Conversio n Fact ors.
BNGLISH TO MET R ICAL.

Poulldt PO' IInullool. ...• . IIU",. PO' linN! "'e1'e.
PollJlcb pu Im..l rard .•• kiloa. per lb ,u l "'oue.
TOIII pet tiDeLl loot .• .. ..••• k lloo. pcr fu>..J moue.
~..r: Il al yud .. kiIoL pet lioeaI ""'trw.
per "I"..... I",," ..• kiIoL per IQ"..... ... ali tnt
~.J:'; """arc IDclI ...... l<iloo.. Pu "'l Uoanl miIb_ ......
per ............ 1001 .••
T...... per IoqI1aI'll loOt ••••••
..s.:.. per"'l lal'e _In.
",1>1><$ "'"" "'I.....re ... . u •.
Ton> per "'lOUJ"'l rard ...... toaAaf per oqau. _1....
Po n ..ds pe r tu bi. yud ••• ~ pot cu bic:me ue.
Pound. "'" cubi.. 1001 . I<il<>o. pet eubie '''.In'~
r OllS per cubic yard , . too.- per cu bic lD.t... .
_._un.
Gr ai n. per 1I 0110n . C. ...."'.. pe t liln .
Poulld. ~r gaUoa . Ililal, ~r litre.
GallOal vet .quare 1001 ••• Ilu. ~r squ. ... mel ro.
I'ool-poul>d> .•••.••••••. •••••• Il.iJ Gf'U"lDeu• • .
f ""' -Lone •..•• .. . ....•••.....
Hon<' po . 10<". de d>e'o'al.
PouDd .pcrILP. .. . . .•.•.•. • ~ per u..val.
Sojo..... feel pac H.P• •••.•.
('"b", '''1 per H .P
He.u i~
HUI Il llil:l p« sqll.&te loot
.
.
&'Iu
eubie
,~ ....
UOooIM pet"
tn p" <.b. .. al.
u. pet" W Yal.
"'I""'" .... IA

MRTRICAL T O E NGLISH.
KHo•• ~t lI""aI ",.U" . ""uDd, pet 11 ••0 1 1001.
KUe.. per IIlleal "",l,e . ""ulldl pet It"w yl td.
KiJoL pot lIn .al m.u . to lll pot Un.al loo l.
Kllc-.. per lI""aI melA .•••••. .. toni per linuJ YiN.
Kika ..... sq ......... "t.i.... IA••• po,," .cll peo S<J. u.... IAcI>.
Kllc-.. p..- square milli",. II'e.. . tool pet "'I ua.<. "'" I>.
KiIooL per sq uat< tro . ..•••••• po>01lUb per S<J." .... mt.
T. . . - P« "'III _ t . U>llI per sqoue loot.
T t oqua n tro . toQI per 1<1..... yard..
Kilo&. pot cub;'; "'. U . po " lUb pet ccb;,; yon!.
Kiloo. po. cu bic m<l,e .. •.. . .. .
TODIlet per <ubie meu••••••••••
"""Dds per cub;'" IOOL
""'" pet cobi . yud.
G '~m"'eo ~< lilA . pai... per gal loD.
Kilos. p.r Ill" ... . .. . .. .•. . .. . .. pound. "'" gallon.
Ll!tc. per square ",.In •.•••• olle D' per oqua« loot.
KUog,. "''''" t"
Tonn. ·_ u os
.
.
lool -pound..
lool· tona.
P"..". de o.bevaL ••.. •. .•••. • .••. •. !>one-po_,.
KUe.. per <t;~ ..•••••••••.•_ poI>adI pot H.p.
Squaro 1DeU'e per dleY&I •••••• sq .... e loot J>U H.p.
C.b;'" _Ue I'<'" ....YeI•••••••_ eublC 1'.1 per ILl'.
c:._
CaJorieI_. ...oq<1J'O
.. . .. .•. ......•..
_ _ .....•
••.•• brolll.. lts.
....1 . -.111 per eqoan-.
I n ch e s a nd their E q u ivalen ts In Mil lim e t r e" .
1~. ~_+~I_I_ I~ ~~' ,\ j / •. I II I H I H I

25'427.n2S'1130'231-7'133-334 '9 36'538' 139'74~:: 42'9 4 4' 4 46' 4!.!49-2
o 0·0 1·6 3·2: 4·8 6 ·4! 7·9 9·5 11-1 12·7 14·3 15· 17·5 19,1 20·6 22·2 23.S
I
2 50'S' 52' 4' 54·t)' 55·6 5N 58 ·7 60 ·3 61·9 63·5 65· 1 66·7 ss.a 69· 71·4 7~-~ 74·6 ~
3 70·:.! 7NI 7~H 8 1-0 1l2·5: 84 ,1 85·7 87·3 ss.s 90·5 92'1 93·7 95·2 96·8 98-4 100-0 '=
4 lUl· I\: 103·2 10Hl roe., 1O...·0 ~ 109 ·51 11'111 2·7 114·3 115·9 117·5 119·1 120·71 22.2 123- 125'4.,
5 127·lJ 121l·"II:lO.2' 131·8 133'·1. 134·9 136·5 138·1 139·714 1·3142·9144·5146' 1 147·6 149·... 15u'1) ;
6 152·4 154·0 155·6 157-2 158·8 160 ·3 16 1'9 163 ·5 164 .1 166 ·71 68 ·31 69·91 71·5' 173.0 174,61 76.2 ;:
7 In 'll l79'4 ta r -o IR2·6 Hq·2! 185-7 187'3188-9 190·5 192-1 193-7 195'3196·9 19S·4 200'0201-6 _
II 20:1,2 :204·11: 20r,-4 20S'0 2119.al21 t . t 212·7214·3215·92 17-52 19·) 220,7222-3223,11 22.'\·4 227.0.s
9 221l'1\ 2:1O·2i 2:H·1l 2:n·4 2:i5·0 :23\3-5 :238·1 239·7241-:'1242·9244-5246·1 247.7249·2 25U.l'I 25:N ~
10 ::!.~ 4'oI25'~'1I257'2 258·8 26(HI26 1'9 263·5 265, ) 266-7 26S-3 269-9 27 1·5 27:H 274 ·6 276·2 277'8 ;
II 27f)'4 281·(1 :21\2,6 284·2 285,7 287·3 288· 290 "~ 292-1 293.7295.32%.91298.4 3UO'0 30l.(1303.2 ;;:
12 :lOH! ;IIlI H ' ;\()S,OI309-6 :1I1·1, 312·7 314·3 315,;: 31705 319· 1 320·7 322,3 323.81325.4 :127.0 32.'1,6 :,;
1:1 ,sl
:1:lfI.:2: :1;\1 :1:13·4 335,0 336-5, 338,1 339·7 3·U·3 342· 344·5 346· 1 347'71349'21350'8 352,4 354·1) t;:
14 :IS5·1l' 3S7'2 358,8 1360·4 36 1·9 363-5 365,1 366.7368.3369'9371'5373. 1,374'6 377'l'I 379-4 ;
15 38l·1) aae.e :IS4·2141 3.'l5-8 387,3 388·9 39t).5 392·1 393·7395·3396·9 39tH 400·01376'2 40 1·6 41).1 ·2 404-11 '"
16 411(,·4 411S·0 409 .6 1.2 412·7 !41 4·3 415·9 4 1 ~·? 419·1 420,7 422·3 423.9!4 25.4 427·0 4'28·6 4:l0':~ ~
17 4:H·l'I 4:13·41535·0: aae . 43tH I439·7 441·3 442-: 4""·5 446·1 U7·7 449·3i 450·8 " 52'4 454·0 455.6 ~
Itl 4 S7 · ~ i 4 58 · t\4 \"H 4li2· 463·5 :465-! 466·7 468.. 469 -947) .5473.1474-71476.2 477-11 479·4 ~S I'O::::
HI 41l2 'h' 4s4·2 4S5·S 487·4 -188 ·9 -tso.s 492· 1 493·7495·3 496-9498·5 500·I IS(U.6 503-2 404- ,,06." .,.
20 SII$.(I 50<J'6 511·2 ,512·8514·3515· 5 17·5 519·) 520·7522·3523· 525·5527·0528·6 S30·2 53 1.S ;;:
21 538·2 539·7 54 1· 542· 544·5546·1547·75 49·3550·9552-4 554·0 55.~·6 557.2 ;;
53.1-4 ,535·0 53li·6 1563.6565.
22 55IH"5I1U·4 562.0 1 566.7568.3569.9571.5 573.1574.71'576.3 577,8 579·4 58 1·0 51>2·6
23 5S"·::! 585·8 587-4 589· 59(}-5' 592·1 :';<:13·7 595·3 596 ·9 59S·5 64)0·1 H01·i 603· 2 HIlHl 606, 4 60$.0 ~
~I
,. .
:0.1 iI li llit" res a n n thef r Eq u Jvl ll .. n, .. In II Kh .. ...
Mi lli ·
"... " . ,-.... ,
~I mi·
m~.rft Ind....
~ Tillj ·
"'~" .... -
Inth ...
-
,
I -Q39<4
-071>7
37
:JO
\· 4$67
\· 4961 ,.
7J 2 ·li7-10
2·9 1J4
"s, .r Iti l
-1575 '"
1·5354
( ·5 7 4 M
75
7.
2 ' ~ 5 2S
2·l:/Y:!'.!
6
7
' 1%1'1
·2362 ""'" 1·6 14:?
1·6S:16
77
7S
3 ·U31 5
;i·OJ W
,.
-2756
,e '315{1
·354;1
H '"
-s
1·6 !'l2\1
)·73 :!:J "
~)
3·1lUJ
3' 1496
3· 1~\ IU
-393 7
1·77 17
)· 811 0 "
"""- e
112 3·22:>4
"
12
"UJ I
·4724
\ ·8504
1· ~S
11: 1 3 ·2671
3·307 1
,SIlN "'as
"15'"
\ ·929 1 3<W:i5
·55 12 50 \. %&5 3 'JS59
16
'5~
·6:..>W
51
52
2 -0079
2 ·04 73
""67 3·4252
3· 464 6
17 -6693
'"
2 ·mwi6 "90su 3·5\140
"'"
ao
·7087
·7 4ilO
·7874
51
55
so
2 · 126U
2·16 54
2'Z047
91
sa
3·;"·t I3
3·5tl :t7
:Hi22 I
"
12
:l;i
·8268
·806 1
-!:IUS S
57
5H
59
2 ·2-141
2-2835
2 ·32 :.!li
93
"95
3 ·6tH -I
3·/001>
3·7402
"a20s 'Y44!:1 (i(J 2·3022

2 ·4016
00 3'77~)()
-n
·!:IIt·':1
\ ·O1.:ll'
r.oeao
61
62
sa
:H 4 1O "
OM
3·6189
3·8583
1· 1024 ",
2·41m3
"" 3·8977
""au
2 ·5 197 ' 00 3·9370
I- I" 17 65 2 ·559 1
101811 66 2·598-1
JI 1·22u5 67 2-ij378
J~ 1·Z5 !JS 6S 2 -6772 - I deciul.etn
"'"'",
1 ' 2 ~2 ",9 2·7166
a.;U,"ti in 2·7559
! ·J 7iSU 71 2·7953
HI 73 n 2·8:J.I7
'"
- - -
--- ~
Via " L
--- '.
W I'ht n 10 n'
\\'e j~hl j);am _
- u-,- -jl\c.!w._
- - Lb•.-
"
' on
Wej~hl
n Ii{ Ou,H I I rOil.
lli""_
Inche,
\\'e i~ hl
Lb,.
~~\. We igh l
Cwt,.
·,
I nc he•• l"clL" •.
I ·041 a.ss ~l.t 27-7 '0 2 ·338
,0, ,0,,4 · i, 4·09 3' 29·8 lOt 2-5 77
, 3~ 2'$28
i.
·092
· 125
'il
q
4 ·51
4·95 3;
32·1
34-4 "
"I 3·088
3·366
'"
1 · 164 5 ·08 31 36 ·8 12
~ ·207 5·89 31 a9·3 "I 3 ·656
,\ ·256 •I
'f, 6·28 4 41·9 ta 3·950
H ·3 10 6·91 41 47 ·3 13t 4·260
I ·368 ••
'H 7·46 41 53·0 14 4 -581
l! .aaa '1 8·02 41 59 ·1 141 HIlS
·50 1 Ifl 8 ·60 5 65·5 is 5·259
"
II
J
/.
·57S
·654
·8 28
•I
' II
2
9 ·20
9 ·83
10·5
51
5,
51
72-2
79·2
86·6
1St
is
5·616
5·984
101 6 ·364
6·755
I
tI
1·02
1·24
2,
21
2~
11·8
13·a
14·8
6 94·2
Inches Cwts. "
"I
is
7 ·159
7 -573
I 1·47 °1 1··9876 is "'·438
~ 1·73 21 16·4 7 145
I 2 ·00 2, 18·0 71 1·31S 20 9 ·350
, 2 ·30 21
2,
19·9 8 1·49G
81 1·689
21 10·3 1
22 U·3 1
,,"
2·62 21·6
1 ,\ 2,96 3 23 ·6 9 1·893 23 12·37
3·31 3~ 25 ·6 91 2 ·110 24 ra-se
W e ig h t of One Foot of Square Iron.
Sid e 0 1 S ide 01 Side o.l SiJe 01
~
5qua,e ~!.hl Square We ight Squue Weight We iHbt
Inch•• Lb•. Inches. Lb,. [nch.. Lb,. l n cb e. Lb •.

I ·052
-08 1
II
I
1·58
1·88
i,'lr
II
8·14
8 ·80 ,
2; 27 ·6
30· 0
"
,\
I,
·117
· 159
II
I
2 ·20
2 ·55
I.
II
9·60
10·2
31
3;
35-2
40 ·8
I
,',
·208
·265 ,
Jl 2 ·93
3·33
It!
II
11-0
11·7
3]
4
46'9
53·3
,', 12·5 60-2
2"I
·326 I ,\ 3·76 4'
H ·395 4-22 13·3 4, 67 ·5
,I ·4(-;9
I'
If, 4·70' 2, 15'1 41 75·2
IJ ·550 'I 5·21 21 16·9 5 83·3
"
·6:lH 11J;~ 5 ·74
2'2! 18·8 51 91 ·9
,,
B ·732 I' 6 ·30 20 ·8 5~ 100·8
.saa
I
;:, ,
I {, (i·89
,I,
'1 2;,-0 51 110 ·2
1·06
1-:;0 .7·50 25·2 (i 120·0
ee ..., ,",. ..,,, . ,, , 'LA ' . ·U......
~ I :~~~!~~~;:~~~~~~ ~. a
· ± ~ ~ ~~ ~ ! * ~ ~ * ~ ~ * C i ~ t
, ; ; ; ; : ~ ; ; ; ; ~~~~~;;; i~ gi:~~9~
. ~ ~ = : ~ ! ~~ ~ * ~ ~ ~~ ~ g ~ ~ ~
-- , , , , , :;::: ~::: :; ..;. :f... ;:: ,:. : :l::tl ~ i%;::;:;;

~O~~~IN~ -~ ~ ~-i ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ O
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ N N NN~~
; ; ; , :~I~ ~ ~~;~~ : ~I : ~ e 'I ~~ ~ ~

. ~~= = :~~ : ~ ~ ~ ~~* ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ :
~
J
0
0
-- ,,,
;;
: ~:I~;==~~31~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ :~~~ i
·•• m~~=~: ~ : : :~ ~ ~ * ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 2
:~~~;~~;
_~_' ;_
I_;a
_ !
_ ~
_ ~
_ ~; ~~I~~
;;
•0 .!•
· ~~mm~~O
__ _ N<'NN N
__ NN ~ ~~m~~ ~_ N ~~ ..
~ ••
, -- : :=. :~~al!2
_ _ _!'~~
_ _ _ ;I:S8 ~!
_ _ _ _ __ N ~
NN~~
N
••• 66 ~ _~~~ ";'~':" . "' 6 ~ ~ '"
--
· ~. c ':" ':"
•"0 , ·, .....
~ n ; ~; ~ ; ~ ; $ I ~ ~ g ~ : = ; ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ :
]
•
0
~
j
<
mc ~~cm~~06 __
~2~'~Q:~ i~~!~~~~~;&~i ~ ~ ~ g ~ ~
. .. .. C_N
N~ C~
- ---- -----""'"
.5 • ~~ ..;. ..;.~ .~C . ,:.. ~ •• C·· 2 = =: : : · ~ ~ ~ *
"• l
•
~;;~$;~I:;I~ :~ ~ ~~; ~~~ ;~ ~ : ~ :
"" . . . . . . ~ . . . . . C~ ~~ .. Z .. &~ = = ~ ~ = = ! ~
~
~
,•
:~! ~;= '~2~ ~8~lo ~ ;~:~~ ; =_ ~ 2 ~
~~~~~ . ~ .~~~C~~~~~ ~~·~ 2 = ~ ~ : ~
-
~
~al~~:~:~~~~~~;== ~ ;;~S~g: ; ~
~~~~ ~~~~ ••• ~~~~~CC~~ •• • ~~ =~
.,
.
0
;,
---- ------. -- ---

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ • • RRN NNNR _ _ • • • __ ~
. .
Ga ueell& Weights ( Ibs pe r eq It) 01 Copper &: Bran
"
-0000
S. W.G.
T hickn ess
[)u.
.,
of inch
-,
Th iclm...
10·\6
Co~.r
e _
-IIH57
-
B,_
Lb •.
17·676
0 00 ·372 9 ·449 17-165 16·523
00 ·348 8· 339 16·056 15·457
0 ·324 8·229 14·950 14 ·39 1
\ ·3 7 ' 6~ 13·843 13·325
2 ·276 7·01 12 ·735 12·259
,
5
3 ·252
·232
·2 12
6·401
5·893
5, 385
11·628
10·705
9·782
tH 93
10·305
9'416
6 ·192 4·877 8 ·859 8·528
7 · 176 4-47 8,121 7·817
8 · \6 4·0 64 7 ·383 7-107
9 · 144 3 ·658 6 ·645 6·396
\0 ' 128 3·25 1 5·906 5-685
\\ ·116 2 ·9 46 5·353 5'153
12 · 104 2·64 2 4·799 4·62
13 ·092 2·337 4·24 5 4·086
14 ·08 2·032 3 ·69 1 3 ·553
15 ·072 ) ·829 3·322 3 · 198
\6 ·06' 1·626 2,953 2·843
17 ·056 1-422 2-584 2 ·487
18 ·048 ) ,2 19 2·215 2·132
19 ·04 1·01 6 1·846 \·777
20 ·036 ·914 1·66 1 \ ·599
2\ ·032 ·81 3 ' -477 1·422
22 ·028 ·7 11 1·292 \ ·244
23 ·024 ·0 \ 1-107 \ ·066
24 ·022 ·559 1·0 15 ·977
25 -020 ·508 ·923 -888
26 ·0 18 -457 ·R31 ·8
27 ·0 164 ·.j1G6 ·757 '729
29 ·0 148 ·3759 ·683 ·65 7
29 ·0 136 ·3454 ·628 ·605
30 ·0 124 ·3 15 ·572 ·551
3\ ·0 116 ·2S46 ·535 ·515
32 ·0 108 ·2743 ·498 ·479
33 -0\ ·254 ·461 ·444
34 ·0092 ·2337 ·425 ·409
35 ·0084 ·21 34 ·388 ·373
38 ·0076 ·193 ·35 \ ·338
37 ·006 8 ·17z:l ·3 14 ·302
-----
2S
~~ , , , , , , , , . .
• •~ II II II II I
o "' -_'"'... "''''

... '''0<<1>''''''
. " ,,,,,
9* ~ ~ ; ~ ~ ~ ;;
- - "" "" "' .,
.. ..... "' .. ..,-&> .. .., ... 0 _ ... "' .. ..,"' .. .., ... Ji'
~ 3
!I Q i ~ ~ ~ ; i aaasavsa ....... .,"'.... .......... . . ...
.,
-=- i ~~~~"t [" .:. ~~~,;,:;,;,~
I" 0 06 6 0000
. ~
. '" '" ...",,,.,. .

., m'JU :Z i
• "" "'0"'00""""
................
~
,;.
f ~ ~ :l ~ '; fl ;
~~:: ~ ~:: • ~:; :::,~~ ~ :
00 0 6 6600
- ...... ....... .. " "' ''''''''' . . .. . . ••

.. . . .. 0 _ .. 0
~:1l:~g:~ ~!:
.:.
n : ::l ;:::n~
666 6 0 00 0
~ e ., ......... ... ..... •

... ~~!::;;::l~
i: :t ;;~ ~i:
~ ~ ~::l :;C; :~a:
.:.
~U Sl~~ c: !::
0 6 0 "'000 0
• -
~
ii~;;=~~
• .
i :l ;; : l!::
.;,.
• :!-....-..
···i··~ ·
:; : :g:~ :J:!!
.;,..;,. ~.;,..;,. .:. 00: 00 6
<
"•
•
~
...~ : ': l:= ~
t;*ii;; ~t~ = ...... . ... .. ""
i * ~~ ~ :i :; ;
• .. :;:;;U:;;:i:
0
<
•
- o S1~ 3t :: :'! ~
;i~:;~r;;n~ • . .
I !;;:en g g
•
... ,.:,.. oi>,;. ..... ,;.
.... ..
~;:!: iSil~~i1i ;';
00 0 0_666
• ... ...... "' .. . . • ~i!iz~i~

-e ,,!, ; ; ;:!:illl:! "'~ o '?" "''''''''
• -- ~
:a: ;:;t;:g:j .. g: "' ':' 'P ':' '':'
"• - * i : ~ ~ : ~ • ¥ ~ :l~2l:i ~
~<D,:.. ,:..
• .!.-....
..... ,;... 6 0QOC;>
__ •0• •
_ 0•
•-- -- ! "' ''.. .. . . •• ~ Z ~:%-:~~ ••

0;
~
.. :l:S: ;g
':' ':''';' 0 .. ... 6
l;l_ li!: ::' ! !::l
_ ,;.;..:. ':'0
-~ - """' -'"
.. ., - 1/.. - .. ... _______6
~;;~n~:;;
••• -: 1 .,---~ ~g .::llO~- l:J~il:: S ~ ;!l;;;o -

~ :i:~:;;:: ~n ;;;:%ci>; ~::
~~~~ :i:~~ O;;:

_ __ __ ~_o
~ ~ ~: ~ = : ~~~ ~~~ o~ ~
0
•s• ·i·
_
1· ·····11"
O_ ~ T~ .·, ~
······1
~~ ~ , I
~ 9 . _ 0 ~~::l IO~ ::nn0
_ _ _ _ 0' _ _
e===.=- ~ ••. . ----

~ ~~ ~~~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ : ~ ~
~ ~ "'o ~ ~ ~ ~ _
~;:~q: ,.;~ ~
$ ~ ~ ~ & =~ ~ ~~--~o = ~
e _ _ _ _ 0' _ _ 0
30
WeI ght of S oUd Metal Spheres of Varlous Di ameters

(R. B U llY ) .
The surface or ~ of ill sphere equals area of curved sur
face of a cylinder, whose lengtb and diameter es diameter of
sphere. For e xample, the area of a cylinder 10 in. diam. x
10 in. long is length x diam. x I< o r 10 x 10 X 3, 14 _ 3 14
sq. in., and tbis is also the area of a sphere 10 in . di a m .
He nce D2 x 7< . . area of sphere.
D' x "
No w, - - - - con tents in c u bic inches.
6
T h e n um oer o! cubic in c hes of co p pe r pe r po u nd weig h t is
j Ul>t eq ual to thll va lue o f 7<. T her efo re, a s ilu plc for m ula
lor calculati ng weight o f solid copper sp heres is
03x 3·14 D3
_ _ _ __ o r - _ Ibs . weil!ht for coppe r.
6 x 3-' 4 6
A more general formu la for a ny solid sphere is
_"'.,...~X~'P"'c.::~.:,~=.
- <a_.~O~IC·_O~Y'---'O_I_id _ Ibs . we igbt.
6 X epee. g rev- of copper
and from th e abov e the following table of weights has b<oen
compiled :
WEIGHT OF SHEE T M E TILl..
For I...... ckd uet 2 pe r cea l. f ro ... SI"",L.
Sl.... Ah ..n lnl,uQ DlIrahllnla
o
We l~htll In Lba, of Black Bolts alld Nu ts N
(HEXAGON HEAD AND ~U T AND ROUND NECK)

LENGTH OF BOLTS IN INCHES FR OM UNDER H E: AD. For u <h
addition.1
Di.m.l< n Inch
in I . n~lh
iIlch....
" 1 11 11 11 a 'I 'I 3 31 • ADD ~
£
I ·031 ~O35 ·038 ·042 ·046 ·049 ·053 ·060 ·067 ·074 ·014 ;
/, , ·056
·092
·001 ·008 ·073
,!OO ' lOS ·116
·07S
·124
·OS5
·132
·090
·140
· \0 1
,156
·112
·173
·123
,189
·022
·03 \
~
•c
l~
, ·139
·200
·150 ·161
·214 '228
,172 ,183
'24 3 ·257
·194
,27 1
·205
·286
·227
·3 15
·422
·24!'!
·343
·270
·372
·042
·055
.oss :
,to ·276 ·295 ·3.12 -:l30 ·349 ·367 ·385 ·458 ·494
·369 ·391 ·414 ·436 ·458 ,481 ·504 ·549 ·592 ·638 ·0854 >
,,
I z
I ·61 3 ·644 ·677 ·709 ·742 ·773 ·806 ·871 ·935 1·000 ·1230 e
.. . ·989 1·033 1·077 1·121 1·165 1·209 1·296 1·384 1·473
2,062
·1676 z
~
... 1·4l:l9 1·546 1·604 1·661 1·718 1·833 1·928 ·218:-1
... .. . 2·118 2·2 14 2·286 2·359 2·468 2·650 2·7 95 ·2766
"'I
,I ... ...
... ... 2·95 1
.. , 3·851
3·04J
3·959
3·131
4·067
3·309
4·285
3·489 3·667
4·502 4·718
·34U8
·4 133
,q,
' 'O
.. . .. . 'O. 'O . 'O • 5·032 5·161 5,420 5·678 5·936 ·4916

'O. .. . 7·90 4 ~'Z55 8·606 8·957 ·669 1
...
'O . 'O. 'O. 'O.
2 ... 'O . 'O . 'O . 11·473 11·932 12·39 1 12·849 ·874 1

33
Ulnnlnll.hum Gllug" fur Shl'eta lind Hoopa.
By all Order in Council, the lega liu ti o n of " B.G.'· as the

official gauge for iron and steel sheet" and hoopa took effect
as fro m N ovember 1st, 1914 . A schedule o f t he denomina;
tiODS ill given be low. All buyers a nd "CUen o f iron a nd
steel .beets and h oops should discontinue to specify or use
the ambigu ous " B .\\'.G.: ' which, being various ly in ter
preted as " old B.W.G.:'·· Stubbe' B. \V.G .;" and" R06e$'
B.W .G.," has been a frequent source of trouble.
EquinJellU Eq ul.. .,.",ts

~~.~ DoouIt:,
-
"' ....rt.ot ... In ",,, 1.1 01 ...
, ~. ,~.
N il'" •
No.
" ' 0 B.G.
1410 B.G.
,
,~.
.~
No
20 B.G•
B.G.
I",, ~ .
.·(134'
111/ 0 B .G .
12/0 B.G.
", un
.~~
"
n B.G.
IS B.G.
'03 IU
I I/a B.G. .=
" B.G.
"'''
«12416
-
l O/ O B.G . '79 17 25 B.G. ~~
'/0 B.G. .,~
B .G. ' lU M I
Polo B.G.
1/0 B.G.
.,~
"2827 B.G.
B.G. >017411
'O lll ~2 11
8/0 B.G. .~
-eess 2' u.c. '01119
' jO B.G. ee B.G. ' 0 123
_-.
•/0 B.G.
....
' U1 6 B .G .
310 II.G.
2/0 B.G.
'800
' . 45 2
"sa3Z D.G.
!J. G.
' 0 110
-,
~.
,
lio B.G.
"",
'3116. B.C . '0077
,, .
B,G. B.C•
..
se "G .·000'
..-,
II.C. '8 1. 1
B.C. ·28(14 ~ B.C. ' 00 54
•
II.G.
5 B.C.
'2 50
' 22U 88
8 .G.
B.G.
II B.G. ·1 'JIll .0 II,G.
1 B.C . '1164 B,G.
• B.C.
.,..,
'1 510 "
42 B C.
8 B.G.
"U 'G.
B,G-.
.
-.............
10 B ,G. ' 1150 B.G. . ~.
B.G.
"
12 BG..
B.G.
-,
.rus
., ""48 B.G.
B.G- ,
B.G.
-"
OO,,,
""
B.G.
15 B.G.
47
411 B.G.
«1170
OO,,,
-(lO152
OO,..
"" B.G.
"G .,~
50 BG.
B.C. B.G• OO,..
"" -cecss
18 ~ BG.
III B.G. ~
2:\IA
U.ernl lo' tgurea Relating to Water and Petroleum
= m'2"I4 cu bic l nc hn.
One " " l"l rhol 1':,,11011
= '16 cubIc foo t.
= 10"00 IbM.
'> • = 4'5:fi 1I1r......
On .. U.s. 1(&1100 ::: :!:it c able luehee.
,. = "I:sa cob le foot.
= ij"a:i lbe.
= 'll::l hUpl'r lal l(a1lon ,
.. .. ::: 3"1I11tl"llK.
Ou e c uhlc Inch of water = ''Oll607 Ib
.. " .. ::: 1Xl3lIOi imperial HallOI>.
On" c ubk foo t 01 wat"r::: 1l"lQlllllperlai R1Olloufl.
" .. ,,= l!!l"lfi[j lit",,,,
" " .. = 'O2!l3 cubic: 1II111re.
'\ .. .. = 6l!~J5 IboI-
Un" b. of ..aw r ::: t7"7l! eublc Ineh_
= "10 Im pe rial JC&llon .
.. .. = '41\.'17 k ilo .
un e e we. or water = lI '2 lrn perlal RA llo,,_
" .. = 111 cub ic IE'('L
On " ton o f .... tee ::: :15"11 cubic I&eL
= 224Im pe rt.1 j{Allonll.
" ,,
= 1000 iiiI'M \ap proxl llu.wlyl.
• .. = I e ub te rue tre \ar.pro:r,huaWIYI.
Onelll,tO! or "'"ler = 1!2 hu pe rl " l Wll On
" , , : : : 61 cubic Inc hes.
.. , , = 'tJa5:i cu bic foot.
Ou" cuhlc Illetr,' or .. eter ::: lli!O hll pe rhtl .11:11.110"'"
= 1'008 cubic yaMII.
= 610'1ll cu bic In ch"",
= 35'31 cubic l eot .
= ! OC(J kllOft.
= I ton (approllimalel,. l,
.. .. .. .. 1000 11t rtlll
One k ilo. ot te r .. tpAH lbe,
On eved ro ot te e '" t~ Iwpo.rialll:allo na.
One el mer ot w ater = l!~ imperialltallone.
One JJOOd ot ...aeer = 311 imperial ltal10na.
One lto"" la n lath am = 7 foot.
Oue a t wc. ph .. re = 1'IXH CUe-. per aqUaJ'1l eeuumeree.
A col om n 01 .... te e 1 loot h1Rb = '431 11:>. p"-llre perllQ.uare
tn eh,
" co lomn of water t metre hip;b ".t·43 1be. preMure polr
~uare inch.
.a. p~n re of l ib. pe r eqw.re l.Deb = 2"'31 f"" t of .ater in
helll;bt.
One Impo.rial ltaUon und. pet rol eum = S·! IbII. \ a p pro:lt!·
w.t&l,).
Oee eee Pf'troieu lll = !7!51IDperial lPlloll.ta pproIl ma.tel, l.
35
•
Dista nce across Cor ne rs- S q u a r es llnd H exagonal
A, ~
Fl a ts. 0 0 0
! -29 ·33 ·3'
f. ·3. ·4 1 ·44
i ·43 ·50 ·53
to ·50 ·5. ·.2
i ·57 ·06 ·7 1
k ·65 ·75 ·80
t ·72 ·. 3 ·88
It ·79 ·91 ·97
I ·8. 1· 00 ] ·0 6
1I ·93 1·08 1·15
I 1·0 1 1· 16 ] ·24
I' 1·08 1·25 1';1:1
I 1·15 1<13 !·H
Ik 1·22 ],4 2 \·::;0
I I 1·29 1· 50 \·59
Ii< [ ,37 1·58 H ,8
II \ ·44 ' ·66 1·77
Ik 1·5 1 1·75 ] ,86
II 1·58 1·83 1·94
Ito J.66 1·92 2·03
Il \·73 2 ·00 2· 12
Ik 1·80 2·08 2· 2 1
I I 1·88 2 ·16 2 ·30
In 1·95 2·25 2'3~)
II 2·02 2·33 2· 47
In
Ii
In
2·09
2·17
2·2 4
2 '42
2 ·50
2 ·58
., 2·5H
2 '(i5
2·74
2 2·3 1 2 ·66 2 ·83
Flats o f H ex. X 1·155 = Corners
Square x 1·4 14 _
Approxima.te Weight of one cubic Incb of Meta.ls.
Pl atlnu w O'78 1lJ... N ickel ll'i!t l bs ,
Gold O'tlll " Wro ul/;ht Iro n (l'Z8
Mercury 0'49 Steel 0'28
Lead .....•••.•• •.•..• 0:41 Catlt I ro n O'W
Silver 0'36 T in _, .. . 0' 26
Bismuth 0'35 .. Zin c _ 0'26
Copper 0'32 A n t im on y O'$t
8",6• ...... , , 0111 Aluminium 0'Oll7
se
Conventional Fonns of Section Llnln4. and Breakl
(Mat:.lli""Yl
8ize8 of Drawing Paper.
s ....... s ......
._ 0-
,. "",. In
eo
"" In
Fool_ p
Dom,
H.lI · lmperial ~
Medi ... m._ ... ...
0,.1..._
sc ••
" , I'.
."
U, re
,
l' l
" I
IPl,,",rW .•....
Oulumbier ...
Atlu
Doubl...
. ·• ".
'" "
"
•
R
S uP'"'-Ror lli .
'" ' pUl1t .. ..-

" •"
\,
27 , IP
F.lephant ._
Anti quuialL..
I lQp"'ror ._." ""
" •" ..
,• "I
37
-
ColDun Used in Drllwloll
• • ~rl.aI Oulour u • ..t.
Con er "l" . Mottled grey and raw UlulHor
Cement . Bumt u m ber .
Br1elr.worlr., pl-.n ••••••••••..... I n d ia n red .
Urick-wor k , el e1'a tl oll . La ke. with yellow nchr...
Stonework In p:en"ral , ere- Ra w u m ber, lIl'lh t M"pi ... or
.....tlon and p la n. Ind ia n ink.
Slat,,& .•....... ... ......... ..-.•..•. I n d lR(l tempered with yell ow.
\V ooc!w or k . Burn t Ilienoa.
'''' rou g ht iron •••••••..•••••.... Pru811lan b lue.
Cut (!'OIl .•••••••••••••••••••• •••..• In d ian Ink wit h Indigo a nd lake.
St-' _ . PrwIelan hlue a nd erIm!tOll lake.
n ~ . In d ia n yell ow . or Il" m boltf!.
Copper .................. ..•... ...... Indian r e ilo w ... ith I n d ia n red
or la k e w ith Ve ne t ia n red.
GI&lMI. 1I1f1"'atlou ••...... .....: MoUi ed eol ...It. or blaek and
ParDe 'e IlrPY·
G1MS, 11«1100 . ......••.• _•• ,.. H ooker'a l{I'et\n. No. Z.
Le>ld worlr. ••... .•••••••.. Ind igo.
\\'ater . l 'rWlelan blne.
Larlt" slu de tail. of ood - Section may be hatched . or
"'·or k. grain lIn&lllll>o..n .
Ironwork . jolabJ: and Ki l '
d en., witholl t o e tall s. Vermilion lint.
Wood j oist.. under lloon . Carmine Hues , brok..o.
Cen t re lln 811 . Crimllon I...kll.
Dlm enHlon IInee . Blue.
All 11m'll a nd lett"rlnl'l . I n dia n Ink.
Contraction of Castinltll.
Th e Il.lInllJ 1L1I0w&nce per loot In len llf;h to al low ro. OOn
tfllctlon Ie all follo.n:
In cyllnde... ::: n co It in.
10 lM..me and Kirders n
In thick brasll .. ... ....... ... /0
In thin =0
In slne "" ~
In lead _... ::: I .
tn tin _ .•.••..•.• _...... ::: I
In <'lOpper "" I.
1. Q&IOl .1.n>n pl~ _ _... .. i
38
UYNAM ICS OF FALLING BODIES
The tUUda", euu.1 relation .. b..I... ",OIo the ."loclt, . apace

and UW&when bodle'llall Ireely under t he acrion 0' Ilrav l11
are up"""",,, b r the foUo...lll!C lor"lu u., ;
c=,tand.=t,,'
Whe"" " :: ...Iocl t ,. In IMt per '-lld.
.. '" ..pace paNted throull:h 10 fee~ .
t = time In IM'leOnd..
1= tOI"t"e of ll:r&vlty '" 3l! • Sec. '
'" lll:l l em • .....,..
1'r<>111 the .1lo1'e two h lDd a m e n l&l equation. the t ollo_loll

.,...derhed :
1=.,1'= _ .'-- ,.
't
.,=,l=V2, . = y
,= i= ~lJ' J2,'
It a body be thro wn dow nward" or u p ward " w it h .. 0
lIoI t 1l,1 velocity of V feet per eecond, t h" I.oove lor mol '"
oet'Ome modified as 101l0w 9 : 'Vh,,",
V = Inltlall'elocitr in feet per ...eond
S = hll/."bl:\8t point r each ed In teet.
T = Un "._ Lo rea.eb blll;hellt pu lo l
Throwo downwards
, -VI +lt l '
._V + ~2 i1 - V+ t
TbroWD. upwards
,_V'_I,P _ ~
• -V - v2&'s _ V _ I "
,
,.
Men suration.
Area of Rect a Da:Je eq ua'" hmj(th mul tlpU..d by bread t h
o AUTO s C UTBOA RD
ENGI!"~r-:"s
P.O. BOX 3.;7. !"i:"OANG
Area or UJ Triangle equlLl. baIIe '''u lUp lied by half

vertical h e igh t : or whell! A - le ng th
ot~ and B vert ical he lll;"h t.
- ,
ANIa "" A. x 1:1
Ar ea or Tr lanl le when the Length or each tilde III
, &iveD .-Looot a, b , and c upr""",nt t he

I" :rt b", of t he tn ree lllde ~ rM I.....tlve ly:
an let. equal h a l( t he eu ru of t he three
I 6- 0-
b '
"
"1iI..,,.
. s - a+b+~
.. - --2
Ar..... '" V .(s - all. - b)f. - ~\
Area or Rhombl ill or R homboid

Le t a '" leu j(t.h o f nile "'ide, ...DeI
b '" pe rpell dkular bel jl,'h t .
.F7!iJ
. .- ,,- "
~
A.-- . .. . b.
Area of T ra pezoid equallJ b a lf the ..urn of t h e t wo

pIIl'aliel .id"", mu lt lpU..... by Ihe JI'l"rpen.
dkula r diqtan ce bEotwe.. n t h" m . OT
...h..re a and b equ a l le np;:th" of t he t w o
paral le l qid""", a n d tI eq ual ", Jlf' q .."C\IMlla r
heigh t.
. +b
Ar ea _ - -- X<
z
•• ~' E N S U I< Al lU N
Determination of Hypotbenulle, Bua, or Beight o(

a Right-an&1ed TrlanKle .ben two
Lj
,'
'"
.---.. ..... I
""
dimensions are giVIlD .
~
Let a = lflnjtth or baH,
b
~
:= hlllp;ht•
= hypoth,mu.e.
tl 1 pot heDU~ ""..;no + b t
na- "" ve t -= b"
He lll:h t ""vc' • (:I" ,
Area of Trapeslum eq ua~ Illn Kth of dlaj(ODal multiplied
by h a lf the IIu m of the pe r plludkul llU
~
le t tall u pon It rrom lUI oppollite
aU Il[l'Il!.
1- . ' K ::u .IiIPlJ. - Le t II b = l11DlI:t h or
,, -I --- dla~Da l and cd a nd #/ "" perpeo ·
, : dleu l.. ", t o a i/polllt." " "11;11111.
ed +~ J
Area = a b )( - -,-
A rea of Sect or of Circle equal ll . rM of elrele mu ltlplll'd

h y d eln'll lls ln a rc, and dl " ldf'd b y ::100.
K'l(AMPL K. - L et H == radlu .. an d 6=
(> d"I[1"l'flllln lire.
A.r ll ll
= HO)(3J x '
- "",
Area of Elll'Pllll equals ha lf thll l"rj(llf ada mu ltiplied hI·

1"..11 "maller 1Ll'lll. a n d m nltlp lled b y 3t.
EXA VPI.I:. - Le t a a n d b = ha lt 1arll" "nel

halt "mall . xlfl"
An-a'" a .. b ~ :n.
OircumfllrllDce Or Ellipse An ap pro ll lmat8 Orlnul a
a.C= "'( Vll~ _b~+ !! ,

. _ ')
'
_ h..r .. C I. th e err
C Q m r8~nCfl.
ElliplOld -VolunJfI = i ...

4, b, t , .. he", II, b lind ' an
t he eeo.\.p rl nelpal a:le>l rellpeethll l,.. I n II Spheroid
two of t hesll a:lM are eq u lIl. An ObI.. '" 8 . rev ohea abou t
t be shorte r ad.. A P m/.-Ll, 8_ ",voh"" ahou t t h.. l on ge r
a "l~ .
~lI IN'; l: tl A TJON
A t ell or alloY Regular P o1YRoD .. q u l 1JI til .. P\'rlwflt

D1ultlolled by hall ti ,e I"llgth ot dot.Led
line a b. Or dl ..lde pol:!,p:on In to trlsllll:leo!I;
lin d area 01 Ollfl trlanl(:fI, a nd multiply by
nnm ber 01t rl a n ll:l",. the IIllur fl conta ln L
Cl r e umfeteD ~ or Circle.
O",u m t ~ren .... 01 eteele "" dla lll~r " 3' 1418
= d ia m" ter " U.
Ana of Circle _
" ..... o leh·d .. -=- d l.. m .. Ult lOq .. . f'fI.d " '"1SM
= ,.,dlu. 8q o. "'lI x 1'1416
= n.dl ua toq lla ntd x ~.
f'ncloodllll: lIquare )( U
An4 o( tl llp.. - "ncl08l.1lg rec taugJ" )( U
Area o f aDy 8eR1Dent or a Circle.
Let a = h"llI:ht ol ....p;"' flnt , all~
/) = len ll:t h of ..h ord .
To tl. ud Diamete r or Circle t o w hi ch a n y SelllJlent

belong8.- &IUIU·f! hall chord, d h ld"
by h~i"ht, ,,,,d plul 1".llI:ht nf
. l!IlI:m~ ot.
Let e = h oll\:h t of ....j{IlIf1llt, and
rt = hall ch ord
rnam flr.. r =~ , + e,
A rea. of Pyramid equalM perhlloter or I.."" IIlUltlpll..d
by talt Ilant htllC h t, plIl M""'" ot b . -
Vo"' .... of 1'rimI or Orli lllkr oqn ll uea. of oOd
lDulti plied by le o gt h,
~
Solid Oontenta of Pynmid
. ...... _. '. lrea of t.M Illllitiplied by o••e-tblrd
. I "4rtlcal b ellith~
M RNSURATION
Area Q( H emisphere eQu",l ~ half that ot tha Mpb .. .....
Solid Co n ten tll of Sphere eq u al3 dl.am eter r u bed m ul ti

plied by ·5~. or 801Id contf'DtA ::: I x r' X 1I ~ ..here r ==
ra dlu ll oillphe ee,
S oUd Conten tll of Hemisphere llQual. hall th at of
~Jlhere.
Area Qf Sphere OlqU",11l dh,ml'ter lIQuanHi mu ltiplied by

3,. Or ,..·Ul ('qual" (Qur ti nlO~1I al'<"... c t
dlam l'trleal flf'ctlon .
EX AM PLIl, - IAt .. - radlu .. or half
dlaml'ter.
Area :::." .." X l.
Arlla o f S nrface o f a Cone equal3 d rrtlm tennlll!l of baee
multl plled by one-hai r tb& al.nt h eljl,'h t .
pl u lI ...1'M. of hIuta.
K X ",wPL L - Letab :: llia nt he ljl,'h t , be ::
d il, m e ter, And b Il ::: radlull of '
"' rell ::: be x 3: x a b eJ:e hld lDK bNoo.
'fotAl a rea :: ~ J ~ , + te Ill" " lI' .
Solid Oontents or Oone NjUlllR .. rea of bIL"e multiplied

by olttl·th lrd verllM I helll:ht.
KJ:"' IoIP I.K.-Let 1I1l:: vertica l h..lll.'lot.alld cd. r ad lu"ol
ha M" .
Solid contents :: ~'!l" " j , • a'
Ar ea of Cuned Surface o f .. Prnamm o f a ueae
eq na l. bait the eum of the dlaml'te... of
•
, ~,
the t ..o cln-uw 'mdll m u ltiplied br. ,! .
and multiplied by IIlant heljCht 01 r u•
.& ,
tum .
EJ:", .. Pl. L - lAt b. e. d . . ....p..- nt
frUlltUW. b d ::= alant belll:ht : b c an d
d t :: tbe t ..o cl l.am et e....
-
MP.ASUR A TIOS.
SoUd Contents of Frustum 01 Cone eq uals volu me of

"
complete cone, less t he volume of the cut-off.
K XAIIIIII'LK. - Let I e a nd rI t '" radU of the dre ula r ends
II (I and .. f :: vertical be ill:htL
Solid c on t e ntll = (e al" Joe Sf Joe "9
a
- lcf)" x:J+ xa f
~~-, -- -
Scltd ecuteute = I x at Joe ,." {H" -+-t H K ") -+- "'1

....b e~.o\ ill t he " ertlcal hei jl;ht of f ru llt n '" It. a nd,. e q llals
t he rad II 01 t h e la rK" &nd lIma ll ends 01 the fT11l1tu m.
Area of an Irregular figure-
W h ere t :: lan ll: t h 01 t1J(u rc pe rpend leu lar to llt ri P"' Le,
dl8ta u«l bet ween A Ban d Y Z , and" = DUm....... of IIt r lJ*
Simpson's Rule . lli vld e the filOlf ll ( 2l up iOloao)' "'Cn
Dum ber o f eq ua l p&r u a t tbe cow mon dlll t.nCll 1) a par t
a nd d raw ord ln ....... w wu eb th e boundary lin"" of the
(IRur e.
Tbenanll<of 'lgure _ aS ( A +4 U + l!C )
where S _ eon uDeD 10t" rv&1
A _ lIum of fi rst andl&,,' ord l ull t ""
U _ e um 01 the e '-IIn ordinat es
C _ Mumo! ,"eO/hi ordlnetex (llJ[cep t tint and la.t)
• • • I
,, I , I
• ,. 8~ ,1 ,J J '11I S1I , .j
•• •• ,' , I 1,\1
~1·~
• , ,
"ie. 1. £.arnpl~ .
SUUl ple I 'til + 4(1l + II + tit + 4) + l! (ll + ' J -f.:>d

- J { 8+ 4 (25~ ) + 2( llIl d
= ) (8 + IOS +391)
= ) {1501 "' I X I.IJ-= llJO~ "l !,.,~
.
Geometrical Notes.
Fi.2 , 1. To Draw B L ine Parallel to a i'lVon
Line at a !liv en Diatance trom it.-Wlth eenu ee L
a n d G, a n d t be 11:1.....11 di lltan ce as ra diu,",. dra.... the two
aro:a Sand Q. a nd t h e n d raw tile lin e S Q to u ch ing th e a rea .
The Hue S Q III parallel to t he line L G. It the po in t F i.
p;tYflD thro u l/: h w h leh to d raw t he lin e, w ith F .. ce n t"
dra.. an a re tc uchtug 1, 0 , a nd , wi th out alt.' rlull: the COTU
;milK, t.ak ", IL ny l:t1l,l rll l' and deHer lhe tlill arc abo ve It .
Dr aw a nne t.!'Tou jl;h 1<' toachtng t h l", ar c, and it will bf'
paull,,] to 1.0 .
a

Q
• <
,F > ..
• '. .
L P Q
"'". r.
•••
w·
'k
I.
"
""•
1.OI>OW.I'; TIl ICAL NOT.I';S
li'iM' .3. To Divide a giv6n Line in auy 1.)@8ired

Rati o .- l'or the ".ke ot n a m pl e le t t he lin e M W be
""'Qulred to t... d l.i<'iNi In thl'Nl p"rt" In the ra tio ot 4.11, a n <'i
S. Set 01T t htl line M N
at eny enp:le. lind mark
.,".
a ,..."" 1
ee a u. U X.and XN ,
~preee nU nll: 4o.11. end S.
1'1 9 . :to '\
~,," \
\
\
to any llCele. Join the
IllIIt point N to t be e nd
., v.
•\
\
·· ' ,, \
W. end throul/:h U a n d
X draw lIoee parallel
o '. to N \V. enttlolot M W
In tbe required rat io In
Dend Z.
Fig. 4. Bow to Read a Di 8oQ'on a i Bctt.le. - Th e
_ Ie Is Dlllr k ed aero III rtf, lilt P, end 110 on to t he r ll/:h t. th e
le (t peet onl y ot t,he ..,aI" being s how n In the nOl:u~. Or e
dl vl..lon I" ehoo llet 01T to t he left of rtf, and ..ertk.al ly abo ve
M. It I" r eq u ired to read to nn e -hu nd r ed t h of a dl ..l..lon ,
Kach of th""" hi d ivldud in to ten eq u al PUts. an d thtl
dl AIot0lle l ecale I, drawn a " in the I\I/:u ....,. Th e p ortion 01
any horl...nw. l llne , such "" J G. cut o IT hetwllfl l! N M a n d
t he nnt. d hljt(m a! lin e . will be M m an y h u nd ro dth s of ..
..·hole dl vl..lon lUI t he nnm bt-r o t l,he hori 7.on t,lI.l Ilno, ('(lDn t·
iDOl: from M UpWaM Il, hut no t mcludlng tl UI lin e M 1'.
Thus, J G w illllle&llu~ ..,Il/:ht h undred t h .. of. w hol edlvl Mlon.
beea u ee it T I.. the elp:ht.h horb' on tal line (rom the hottom .
Th e le nl(lh TJ III eeven.l;e nth ... or IOl\v ,su ty hn ndr",lthM. of a
w hole dlvleion, h " n ee It T = R G + G J + J T, w hich equ al"
one dlvl ..loo 7'['''' elll:ht hundredth, of a d l..hJlon plu.o
ee..enty hu ndred ths, or one and !lllventy-ell/:h t hu ndredthll,
o r 1"711 d iv holon ... It wll1 be fonnd tha t th" t ractJon al part
ot the dl"tanl'e cau be e ...lly obtai ned, tho,,: Couut oIT t h"
n Dm ~r of tentha of a dl ..lslou from 1M to tbtl l"ft. re......·
llO"n lO:!d by th" ll.rst dll:D~ alter the dO:!elmal p l_. In tbla
ease 7. The point i .. one to the lett of V. Th"n count up
that dl&llOn,1 until that borb:ontal line I.. .........,h..... repre
M:nted by the IIf!COnd t11(UN1 after the decimal p l- . In th i..
ease 8. Tben T G I...S of. whole dhl..lon. Similarly. S U
1 '~5 dlv l..lon ... aud P V I 1 '8ll dIT I~IDn ...
GEONRTRICAL N OT Es
N
,
v
"
F IG. 4.
F'ig.5. How to DBa a Scale of Dhcrde.e-Jo the
absence of 8. protractor for mlllL!lurinp; Dr markinll: alf aDJol,ltll!,
proceed thue : W it h the le ft or zero e nd of the ecere 0 1
d mrd ll as ee nrre, describe a n ~ pllll'Iinp; t hroujI;h60. Then
w ith V M centre, and ra.dius equal to the lenR{h of th e
sea le of ehorde u p to t he number represeotlop; th ll de~
In the an Fll e to he d eee rtbed (Ill t ill a case 50), de scribe 811 arc
eutt.tng th" arc T V In 'r . Join T to the zero or the scale,
..nd the 1I.Illl: le it mak es with the seal.. IR t,he rl""I""d anjl;lf<.
• • .. F19 . 5
v
Fig. 6 . Given Three Pointe in the Oircumfer·

ence .of a. Circle to Draw the Oircle.-Let n. Y, and
K be the ¢ ..en point&. l'i'om t he m i ddle polntJJ of R Y IUId
Y K draw pee pen d ten tara, These will Interseoct at t he
eentre of t he ci rcle. It may not be eon..enient to u.-.e the
centre of the circ le. In that cee e three IItripe or ma ter!&!
may 00 rlLllten ed wp;ether lUI In t h e t1 p;u .-e, with the
eorner ILt Y and the'",dp;e9 R Y aud Y K touehlng Rand Y.
Nn .... it a nenctl he lI.twhNl to th<l frame at Y . and t,h~
GEOMEIRIC"L NOIHS 47
lrll.llltl I.e lI,a d e to attd .. a.! W"yll In conta.ct with U a n d K ,
then Y ....Ill tra<:'e out thll circle. Na ilA a t U and K will b,
tou n d UMelul al{,in~t w hich to slide th~ Crarne.
,
,
Fig . 7 . T o Drew a.ny R egula r P ol ygon whee

One Sid e is ,"v an.-Let H L be the I{ lven IlloIe. and
u pon it d raw (In t h;,~ case a he ptaj\:onl t he n'quired poIYfl: 0n .
'V lth II all cen tr.. a nd IJ L radius, draw the I16miclrci e
Q K L . Divide it in to as man y eq u",l purte 11,11 t h e 1Joly~on
hlLll llld l!s , In thill ca se ",eve n. T hill Clln be doue uy tna l.
Join th e Bllcond poin t of divi sion Ie to the clllLtre Ii ; thi " ill
the s econ d ..id e or th e polygon. P ro'" t.he mi dd le potu ts of
K II and H L draw perpendtculara to t,hOll e line ", whlnh
intllrllllct at H. ·W ith E a" centre, and rndlu ~ It Ii,draw the
do tted circ le con ta in illl'\" the polygon , a nd wi th II L!Lllrad iu a
st ep off rou nd the elrel e the requirlld polYJ/:OIl,
, ,,
I E \
K
I -
.A"-'"... .11
.,.~
, "
./ \ I \. I
j
'
-{ • £. -
.
''''
- -,
- -0
-
Ir \, / ;'
'=='c=-(.
, Q
H
FI.., 7
GEON.K l"RICA L I<OIRS
F ill. 8. How to draw en ElIIps e. _A number 01

different me thods can be u M'<!.
n,ji,.i/WfU :K I is the major axis, F T the mi no r axu.
G and L ere th e /0«: these points are obtained by
d escribi ng a n an;:, of radius eq ual to half the major a xis
and with F as centre, to cut the majo r axil in G and L.
The foll owin g are t he most u!ltld methods fo r drawing
the eUipep.
1. Take a piece of thread and make the enM fast to a
ec cpte o f stout pill$ o r fine wire nails, 10 that the length
between pins is exactly eqnal to the major axis. Fix the
pi u firm ly a t G aDd L. and with a pe ncil always pressed
ont..ardt against the thread (as a t BJ to keep it tant,
describe the ellipse B T J P F D K.
2. !.lark o ff on a IJtr'aight edge or lath t he dillta.Dce 10[ 9
equ al to F 0 and N 9 equal to K O. If point M is aI_ ys
On the major ax.i.lI and N on the minor ax.i.lI, as the la th
ill mo ved about , then the po int 9 will always be on the
elll pee. This is a very use ful method for se tting out the
large ellipaea whic h may occ u r On buildin ~. Mou lded
ellip ti cal frames , in plaster Or cement. ma y also be struck
by means o f a movable trammel baaed on uae p rin ci ple.
3. Mark off a ny points a long G 0 , 0 "'" of which is
say at 6. W it h ra di us I 6 and centre G, d escribe an arc a t
2. T hen with L as cent re, and K 6 as radius, de scribe
anoth er arc Inte rsec t in g the form <:'r at 2, and t:1e point 01
intersection is On th e ellip se.
4. T h ro ugh the ends of the aI ; ~ d ra w lines perpeadt
cular to th em , such a s J 4 a n d T 4. Divid e 1 4 in to a ny
Dumber 01 equal parts. and al~o I 0 into th e sa me n umber
o f equal partl. join each point in I a with F (aay F 6 J).
a nd each point In I 4 with T (say T J 7). The in tersections
01 these lin es, euc b as at j , give points on tb e ellipse.
5. W ith 0 as ce ntre describe two ci rcles with rad ii equal
to th e sem i-major and semi-minor axes. From 0 dra.... any
radial line .uch at 0 H . Draw verticals and borizontal8
respec ti vei through the points in which 0 H co b the
circles, an the int.ertolCtioo of th_line. (su ch as at 1') is a
point On the ellipse.
6. An e1liplH' is an e leva tion of a eircle ...hoae p lane is
mclined to the plaue of projection. Let the circle I H C K.
shown in end ele va ti on at E S , be tilted through t he angle
S E 5 . Each point in the circle will be moved in front
elevation towards the line I K. For e:u.mple. the point C•
..hich is a t 3 in en d e1rvation, when tilted cornell to 8, and
therefor. it , fm nt .. In.. oon ;I .l.\ n . .. h.ich II, poi nt no tbf
.1Ii~
GHO)l llTR ICAl. NOTIlS 49
~-l--7
,
•
·
I ,\
\ ,'
\ I '
\ I ",
\ I '
\ , ,~
" I
",.
,
I
o
/. •,
\
/
I ,,
I ,
I \
I
\
\ ,,,
I
I
~
t
,
\
, -..... ...'.I"
~
If
\
, ,,,'
I, I I
, " - , I'I I
e -, " { "' :
I, I
" , .. f I
Yo> -
50 GEQMRTRICA L NOTUS
OODB trUCt1lll au
1 Ellips, (FIg. 9)._0 A Is
equal to 08, On half
8_
the IOIlRMt d ia illeter make
4 0 equUateral t,rlaojl;Je. On
, I t he centre O. wit.b It. radius
\ of hair t he sho rtellt di ll.
'f "-f- " mett- T, de'ICriOOlloare A II.
l'hroull:h 8 A dmw It. line
H C. Draw arc C D, and
line C &.
D I. the e.ntre for the
small radio ...
P. Is the centre tor u...
!a rll:8 nullo..
, M e thod of
obt a ining the
" Sc h i e l e"
Cur v e.-Mark
2 polnhOfl vertical
line (F I.ll;. to)
..'la ny d i s t a n c e
u pnr t , ThBlI to
4 poin t 1 on cen t,re
:5 l ine join a line
w i t h o u t.sld e
point of beari ng
lIur face. On t h is
line marl!; off d l,..
t a n c e = r ll d i u H
from point l,and
join point m/Lf'
ked otr to point
e, HCp6IItth l1ltill
Ue<le/lIIary leD ~ h
ot eu r v e 16 cb
tained.
F"f. Ill. -M.. thod 01 obtainlnll: .. Se hlel, " curve.

--~---'-- -
GEOMKIRICAl !<OT~ 51
Pa rabola lF I.a. 3l,- An a or aell:ment C A. 11
-~c M N D
=}c D " A Ii
,
_ 3 "rt'ft ot e1rc u rnllCrl bln K trlAIIJjl:le C T D.
M;.----..i ', ,..- c

z r--
: ~-;e
0
,
T
.....---'. - -- - - - - - - - . . . -
A
•
'. _- .. __ .. _ -~ ..
N o
1"1a. 11.
I
Area of A CM - ,eH " AD.
Method of Descri bing a Parabola.- Dra w the tanKent

N A M at the verte x A l' ''''Jl!'nd lc u l" r to A B l Fi lt. Il l.
Tb ro ujl;b C and D d raw HOell parallel with the .:lds, eu rttng
the tange nt " t A ill S a n d M. Il lv lde A M in to =1 nllmber
ot eq u a l P'lrt!l (1\lIo¥ ~l nnd d Iv ide M C In Uke wanner . Join , '
""'y, the t h ird dlviaion point In l.!lelatter to A , and throUICh
the t hi rd di vis ion point In A M d ra w .. line pan.l lel with
th", &x le and c uttin.l/: A Y In G. Th~ G "' .. po in t On t h p
po\rabc)l".
Hyperbola (F ig. 12),
ArM Or OAU CD = O A " A B ( I+10P:~ ~)
= OA " A U (1 + I O ll:'~)
"ru or H eM =0 A (ft l'tI _ A lJ IOltI~ )
52 GEOM ETRI CA l. ~OTEb
Method .! Describing the Hypllrbola.-Draw til"

."$11 0 A, 0 D. a nd l"t B lie .. po i n t on the curTa which 1&
l{iv en. Dr.... H K pa~1l ..1 to A O. Produce A B iIIde.llnlte1r
. nli tat.. at ra n d om po lntllin A B produ lll'd one of whleb II
..., . ':'.- - ...... _. - , ""_ v -8,~_-1 •

,, ,
Fi• . 4. "
c ,~~~,-c~ - - - -- '. 0
~ -!----'>l
o E 0
.... Join U Y ; it cu te B E in G. Ilraw throul(h U a Un a

pa rall e l to 0 D. Th ro uJl:h }l d raw .. lin e para.lle l to A O.
eul Uol/: T 0 In T. Th,," T 1M .. po int o n the hyperho la .
Cycloidal Ourves.-H a cir cl.. b.. made t o roll along a

line "li d remain in the aame plane, a po int In the c1re uru .
te rence of the rctltng circle wlll riMerlh., .. cvcloidrd curve.
rt the 11116 I.. a ..t fll.l ~ ht une , &8 }( If , Pll( . la, the CDue te
ca lled .. clle/oi'l . If the rol lln ll;. or p;entlcllotlu.u; circ le, roll ..
rou n d t h e ou t s ide of a eleele the cu rve I. ca lled an
~ "iCflcloid, a n d if It ro ll.. roun d th e tn ..I,I" ot a circl e t he
eurve h. called ,. IU/ 1>ot"lIdQ id. In t hl. latte r C&He If th e
Illanle tt.r or th", rolllnil ('Ire le 18 '-'Q ual to t he ra dlu8 of th e
circle around wh lrh It l~ rolled ~h e eu rve heooru~ a
"traiRht li ne.
Cycloid (F ig. 13'. -

LenR t h of are A P = 11 JA 8 xA{:: a. I MP
ArN of cy cloid gAP = f .. A. U'
Method or Describing the Oyelotd.- Le t e F be t h~

Ihl. u pon which t he cirele \"" nt ra V. l roll .. E Y=len"th
of elt('u mferenOP.
GEOIol IITRICAL NOTES 53
Divide off t he circu m fe ren ce in t o .. lIu lIllM·r of eq ua l

p .. r te.a ~ ebcwu do tted, end , of COUr86, d iv ld e }-; I' tete the
aeme Dumber. 'l'&ke thlllloir d d lvi alon jlCllnt"; (ITom B).
e
/ ;- !
,
ti
: •
_... _ .•_L __ ~4 _ _ :VJ _ _. P
w • •. ,D
. y\ -- - -.:X
. . ." .
"
E ? • F
t·m. 13.
Ereet. PI v ertl r..l Z j) Ilt ";, ItO \.I,at Z D : h eight o f third
dlvlalen p oint Y , o f el rde a bove E D F, ThroUll:h J) d ra ...
a HUll! para llel to E B 10" and wark off D W = Y X . TI,. n
W I~ .. po int o n tbf' cur ve .
Meth od of Describin g t he Epi and Hypocyclolda

lPia'.}4.l.-Lct 1:: 1:11' be t1l" e trcle on w.bkh t he 8"n",rating
GJ>O MRTIlICAL N OTRS
ci rcle C rull.., Ma l e the are H 10 t'q a :lli ia len /(t h to h al l

t ha etreumrereae.. ot the J(ene ratlng circle, and divide It
Into any num be r of eqa al part&. Vivid.. halt t h e
genllratin p;elrcle Into tba lI&w e numbe r ot part&. Bra ....
rad ial li nes tbrou gh the po laU! 6, 7, 8, g, 10 ; an d with
ce nt"", at I, I!, ete., deflCribe ara. ot clrdell t o t ou ch arc
D F, Then drur ....... from the cen tre pa....inl{ through
aach poin t on the generatin g circle t ill these touch the
dotted a.rcs strock from centr. I, 2, ete. Tht'ae Inter
lectlo na will then gi'l'l'I po ln u on th e cu r ve.
The a haded por tion H R G repreAOnt<> the portlno of t ilt'

eun_ ... hieh weald be f8qoJred tor I wh eel \GOth.
Invol u te Cune.-H a lleJ:i ble thlll' or co rd be unwou n d

froID I. c ircle a nd kept Iltralght. any point In It w ill
d e llcrl be a ea rve f':ailed the 'nt·ollde of I cl rcl•.
Method of Describing &II Involute (Fig. 15),-.Ll'I1

o e I ' be the circle . Draw t he ta oge ot 0 IS equal in length
to hal t the eteeumrereece o f t he ci rcle . Divide thill
tau Rent in to aoy number of equal parts, and dlylde t ht'
lIt'mt.elrc le loW the lI&me Ilumber ot Dqu.al perte. At
poinl.a A, D, C, ete., draw tan g enta to tb. elrcle,.nd DLlIl:.
A I, HI! , C a , ete. , equal to 01, 0 I!, 03, eee., rea~t.\"ely.
Tb t'n PI! 3 4 5 I!I &nl pol nu. re tb .. ~ur'l''' _ b"'/1 m il,. ....
ut..n tlt'J te &aJ ll n;;t h.
55
Th e Right-angled 't'rtaegt e.
The 4ith problem of Knelld """r" that "the IIu m 01 t he
!lQ\lArtWI of the baIMl and perpendicular at a rl~h t-a njl;le
ttl~!le 1.11 equal to the equate of the hrpoUln u".,:' 'l'hU8 if
the II dN of a t r laDjl;le are 6 in., S In., and 10 In .• t hm th e
square of II a nd the equant of 8--that III 36 and 64-are equal
to 100, the lJquare of 10, for eJ<amplll. No ... all n1ulllpl", 01
th_ nnmhen ho ld the .....me rela ti on - t hat 1.113, 4, 6-Il!, IB,
'40-24. 3't, 4a, and '10 on. A ecnvenienr eJ<&mpleof Ita UAIlI~
,
1'19 III
In t he n ... 0 1 the larlnl\: out 0 111. fou ndlltl on. The eorner ll
n e IIqulI-ted hy .. al:l:, elght, a n d ten:' Un", are atretchlld
..n d t he d lat a Lleu above·nnrn lld- that la, II and 8, or 16 end
00 fe e t e re ma rked: tlHm the h ,.pot elui lle Hne b. lIu.IlllJured
"Crollll t h.. corn an. The two rili:ht-&nJl:ltl 111l6H "re lUoved
u n t il t h ei r d l, t.anllM are II, 8, "nd 10\ and th e corner I~
"8<JUlLrllll.." Nor m " l IInM for ta cto rl e8- t. lIlt 18, for 811 e nll:int'
an d the m ...ln "lll..ftl n ll:-araLAld ou t thl" ","".
A LIst of all Int egral Righ t ·angled Triandes

whose leas t sides do not exce ed 20,
8 ";lI:h' _ ._ _ I Ii e 7 • g , 10 II U 12 IS 14
HrJ'Ohnu.... , 18 10 .. 17
"n" 01 .... ....
" " ."
H..tR'h~.
"-
_ _ ... 16 16
" " " '88
._ ... 20 I ' 111 llO
H1P"terlu..... 25 It 111 If
"
17
..
18 18
80 '80 .. " "
lit 101
I " 80
" " 181
"
L
56 R IGHT_ANGLE D T R1 A:>GL RS
· '<"'I"~
.:;j~
t• 8:lt
5" I~
•
.0
~,
•
"<•,
" ••, "•
j,~ <
5· .a" 8 J
·• •0
• 0
0 0
•
~e: g;1e:
~ <" 0 '. ~I~ ,
•• 8" "
~
I
,"
0
I
"• "
0
0
• •" I ~, ,"
••
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•"~
."
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0
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-~
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~
•
•""
I "•
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I
•• ,•
"- I ~, , J
•
0
.~
'" I
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• , I •
l~ I '~ ~
;;
• -~ • I "•
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L 18=
, .,.:, 8
U ·+ ~:.!'I
•.
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~Io o l~
'~
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s . "• ••• 5" 0 ..
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57
T r l llonO Inetrical Expression!'
,t.. . .._. .C.or_ fT·-.r_"! ....

,~
The~w (Fllil.
17111h0wlI t he ,d i tr'er .
eut trlj.,
"Onometrieal
\. fnnctlon.. In terms
of the eng te A 10 th...
', rad lu = 1.
Complement 01 an
.. nllle = ItlI d lfteren""
fro m IlO de ll.
Supplement of an
M ille = 1t...dl tr'erenOl"
fro lll HlO dell:.
i ,
...... .. . -. - ~- _ . ..
F lo . 11.
TrlgonometricaJ Eqnivalents.
v II - 1I1 D.OJ = <X)lI
Sin. + Om. = ~
V II ooll.") = "In.
,, .;. cot . = tao .
Sin. ,
00'. = 001l.
,, t 1110. = cosec.
Si n. t cOli. ::: tan . + 00• • =:: sec.
= "iD .
Co•• t 111 0.
C,. t cot.
=- rot.
=- "ID . ,, t 00!>l\C.
THe!:. = 00".
'ten. t Min . = ~ .;. t,.". = eot.
T,m. + sec,
,
= "in.
T...n. cot. = nod.
Stn .. ::: t'"r~ COIdne ::: ~
Hyp. Ilyp.
Senoot = ~ yp. Coll6CAn t ::: lI!p.
....M"p.
T t """"
Perp.
.nlll·:m "" l-J"U;t,
Cotall ll... ,t = lla-Hto
1'""
PKRP
HASJi =TAN D.. ANnl ,R A
B "'~II:
Co!I A = II f P.
B yp " S IlU A = Py.~P .
H v p " CO'IIl';'Il= A =BA 'U'
" Table o , NKlu ral S inefl lind C{l8 .n...~ .
SI N E.
~.
,, '1 ..m I,:, ._. -

e
=t:-ca
W so- w eo
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0 ·00ll12 ·0 1 1&:1 -oUH '017H ~
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-05::33 -oS5 2. -Q.\.lI L4 '06 1U4 ·00311 5 -oeees ·061115 es
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•• -139 17 · 14205 ·1 4493 · U 780 "\ !ooo:IlI 'U:l'\d · 15&43
., ec
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- 15643 ' 15930
.,= ' 16 79 1 · 17"711
.r S-'IUlI '11noS
"17:w<4
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'173OU ' 1765. '171131 ~
l~;:; "n
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"35 83 8 ·561 08 ,36379 ·lI6<,l50 ·86920 '3 7 190 ' 37 400
·3H60 ·31 130 ·31999 ·3/1268 'lI>\sati ·39073
"aa "39013 ·3 93 40
·40l173 '40\139
·390607
·4 120 4
·3l/8H
'41 46 9
·40 14 1
' 417 13
' 40 4117
,UWK
"40673
' 42 26 1
AA
"aeas ' 42 26 1 -42525 '4 2 166 '431151 ·413 13 '41373 ' 43831 M
' 4881 7 ' H 09 8 ' H359 '44619 ·U8711 '4S 139 ·45 39 9
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' 45399 -4S6S8 '4591(1 '46 174 ' 464U '46H90 ' 46 911
"aa '46947 ' 41203
' 484 8 1 -4~735
'47460
'411889
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' 4824 2
'418 7 1
' 494 9 S
' 48226
'497 47 -sooec
-48 48 1
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"""seaa ' "SOOOO ·Ml251 -&IIMl3 ·&117" ·S 100 4 ·SI 2U ,SI MIS
.
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·5U0 3 ,SI152 ·520111 ' 522 49 'S2 4117 ·52 745 ·S21191
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·53464
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·S31 30
._,
"55 1113
·5311 75
·55 4M
·SH III '5 H M
·55811 ' S5IU II
-5t 1l1l ,5135 7
M
..... ""
-55 9 19 ' 5<1 110 ...00
ss ·5155 1 ·515115 -51833 -58070 ·51 5 42 U n 8
- , .-,..
·58118 ·61101' '59 248 ,S9482 ·511715 ·691148 ·00 11 1
.. --
M
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-" ,10 415 ..1108 ,,~
.=,
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~ -l:l1581 '8 171 S ~~ -t2 478 '6 21U5
M ~ ·65 151
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,"" ' 67 IU ·lJ73 H ' ' '75 511 . " ,. ~
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,,- W ee
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\ J eOS IN I' _
Tll ble o f Nlltu r a l Sines '.lfld eodnc5
S I N I!.
, COSINa
60
'rubl e of Natura l Tlln llcnl s Iln ti <': ota llll.e n l ".
TA Nif l::NT
.. I ~ ••
~
o
I
2
3
._
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·034::1l
-00290 '00581 -00812 ·0 1163
"2~ 1-<lZ321 1' (rJO I1i -<t29<.ltI
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'~H\I -cssaa ~ f "'\16 116 .(O;.t0J8
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-linUS
'1I11<j,'j
'13157
"UISHI
·IU'S
·,411S4
• · U ....s. '14350 -14641 " H YH -15tH ' 15540 ' 1.lo838
• · 1S3.Jl! 1· 16 136 -recas -18134 -17033 ·173J2 · 1763 2
10 ' 17<>32 -17932 '11233 '18.>33 ·lllllJ4 ' 181:16 ' 19UI:I
II ' 11lUlI ' lln t O 1·2OQ.l2 '21l:ld ·2"';411 ':ro>lSl ·2 1:.>5
12 ·:lln.> .:.1IS5\1 ':Zl&>i '2ll<i9 -22414 '221lK1 .23OIIIl
13" .:buIIt! '23393 -2370\1 ·24(101 ·24315 '2..,;24 ' 2 4932
14 -24832 ·25242 ·2;5.551 ·25861 -26 112 '2'HlIJ '26194
15 -20,S4 '211..., -XHI 9 ·277 3:: ·28(1411 -zasso -ZlI6l4
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11 'JUS73 ':IOliSl '31210 -JlS:!!l I ' J LllSlI ·3217G -J H!l2
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22 ·40402 '4 014 1 ~ 4 1 0llQ ' 41 '~1 ' 41 7 ti~ ·'21114 '4 2H 7
23 ' 424 47 '4 2, 9 1 ' 43185 '4 34 1>1 ' 431127 'H IH ·4. 5n
U .44 522 ·H lll i ' 45~21 ' 45 572 '4592 . ·.6277 ' 40030
25 ' 4ti1l3 0 ',6985 ' 473 41 ·Hti91 ' 48055 ' 4 8~ J 3 ·411773
26 ' 411773 '4 91~3 ·49 , \15 ' 4911511 ·5022 1 ' 50 566 '5 09 52 I
27 ·5 09 62 ·51319 '519117 ·52056 ·524 H ' 327911 ·50 1, 0 I
U ,53 170 ' S35 H '5$19 ·5429 5 ·5.672 1' 5505 1 ·S54 00
211 ' 5U 30 ·S511 11 ' S6l 93 ·56571 ·5 63til '573. 7 ·57735
30 ,677 35 '5 3 123 · 5 ~5 l3 ·58904 ' 5 ~ ~ 9 7 ' ·5110>90 ·6 001111
31 .GOOl!tl '604 8~ ·QOi liO ·6 12110 '6 111110 '62011l · li ~. H 6
U ·6 24 llf:l ' 6289 2 ·6S ! 98 ,ti3 70 1 ,ti4 11ti ·6 .5211 ·6 , 940
13
34
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,61 450 -ti19 14 ·6/1300 '6111U ·99157
,70020 ·70455 ·70ll91 ·71329 ·7176\1
·til0211
·ti9588
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·91450 '
' 700 20
·726 5 4
I
III '7:lti54 ·73099 ' 13 54 6 '13996 ·1 4 U7 ,14900 ·15355
11 ·11ill5 5 '15312 ·792 7 1 '76732 1,77 195 1'11691 ·7ti128
...
39
078128 ·78598 ·79069 '19543 ·800 19
'80976 '814$1 ·81946 ·62 433 ·82923
'8".91
·8.H 15
·80818
·83\110 I
40
n
·_1(1 ·8 H06 '84900 -85Wll j .1IW12
1-&ti28 '8 1U O ·9W55 ·88 412 · _ 2
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·9 4345 ·14_
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·11315 1
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1-«100
t .. ..... 1. .... 1.. 1 10' 10' O' IOoe

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I
61
Ta ble of N a tu r al Ta n~ent8 a n d Ootangeute.
I
TANGENT.
D<,. ~,.- 10 ' 20' I -I

30 - ' so- so' ~l
.5
46
J .()OO(I \ -OOSll 1-0117 '
j'0 355 1"1)415 11'0476
I-O l16 11~ 1"0295 10355
l'OM1 1 Hl599 100661 I 0723
44
43
47
48
Hl723 1 0786 108-191' OlliS 1"0071 1'
1-1 106 l-117 1 1· 1236 11802 1-1369 1 1436 H S03
1041 1· 1106 42
41
4&
so
51
52
53
H S03 1' 1571 I 16S9 I 1706 I 1711 1 1841 H917
1' 1917 11986 1' 20$l1 12131 1'2 203 1 2%15 I ZS49
3032 1'
\ ' 2349 12422 1-2496 12511 1 2647 1
1·2799 I 237611 2954 1
= I'2796
3 111 I 31&0 1 3 270
1' 3270 ) ,33 5 1 1 3. 32 13514 13S96 1 3680 1 3753
I"
40
39
38
:16
54 \·3763 13849 1 3933 "4019 14 106 1 1 4193 142111 55
55 1'416 1 1 . 370 I 4459 I 4S50 1 46 41 I 47l1ll , I 4825 34
S6 14 285 1' 49 19 1 " 5013 13108 1·5204 15301 15398 33
57 1 5398 15 497 13S96 r-eese 15798 1$\100 1600S 32
56
59
1 600 91 6101 16212 1 63 1S I 1'ti4Z5 1-6533 116642
1 864 2 H I1 53 1 \l86 4 1 697 8 \ -7090 \ ·1204 " 7320
31
30
60
61
11320 17 437 I 7555 178U 1
I -~O
n9S I"'917
1 6 1&l 18200 184 17 18546 1 11678 18601
\-8040'I ss
28
82 I 8807 I 89 40 I 90 74 1 9209 I 11347 I 11485 H1628 27
63 I 9626 I 9768 1'9911 20056 2 0203 2 '0352 20503 26
lU 2 05IJ3 2 0055 2 081)91 2 ()965 1 2 ' 1I;!3 2'1283 21 445 1 "
85 21445 2 1600 2 17.. 2-19 43 2211 S 22::65 122460 24
66 22460 ' 2 2631 12-2816 2 ·2!19S 2 SU. 212 3369 23558 "
67 2 355823750 23944 24 142 24342 2 4545 24750 22
68 2 ·4150 2 4959 1 2517 1 2 5386 25604 258:<16 2.e050 21
69 26050 2 621 9 2'fl51O 2-614 8 1 2 696 5 2 '7228 2 74141 1 an
70 2 '7474 2-11 25 2- 7950 2-8 2311 2 ·850 2 2 ·8110 2 ,9042 , 19
71 2'90)42 2-931 8 2·&600 2-9 S1l6 3-11 ' 78 3'04741 8 ' 0779 18
72 .'J.0716 3 -1084 8-189 7 8 -17 15 3 ·20<40 I 8 -2371 8 -2706 17
78 3-2708 3 .3052 8-S 402 S-3 7$9 1 3'4128 3 ·4495 3'4874 18
14 3'4814 3 ·5260 3- 5M5 3·60S8 8'11470 3 ·ll89O 3 ·13 20 15
75 3'7320 3·7759 3-82U8 :HI6 67 ' 3·9136 3-9618 4-11107 I' "
76 4-0 101 HlI60 4- 1125 4-1853 4 '2193 4 ·2747 4 ·33 14 13
71 4 -3314 4 '3898 1 4 -4494 4-5107 4 ·5736 4"63ll2 4 '704 6 12
78 4 ·7048 ' 4.11 28 14-48301 4 ·9 15 1 4 ·lliI94 5 -0858 jIH445 ' II
79 5-1 445 5- 2256 5-3092 5-3955 5-4845 5 -5763 5'6712 10
80 5'67 12 5-7693 5'8708 5 -97 H 6 -08 44 8-}'70 6'S 13 7I •
81 6·3 187 6 ·434~ 8 ·5605 6·69 11 8-8269 18 -9682 7 '1153 8
82 HI53 7 -2687 ' -4287 7-595 7 7-7703 7-IISSO 8-I U 3 7
83 8-IU3 8·3449 8 ·5 555 8-7768 · 9 -()(J98 9 -2553 9.5143 1 6
84 9-5143 9 -7881 10 -078 10 -385 10 -111 1l -059 1l '4 30 , 5
85
86
87
l! -43O 11 -828 12·250 12-706 13 -196 13-726 1' 14 -300
14 ·300 14-924 115'004 . 16 '34 9 17'169 1 16 -075 19 -OS1
19 -OS1 20-205 21-4 70 ' 22-904 24-541 26 ·431 28-6 00
I 4
a
2
88
89
28 -636 3 1-241 , 34-1167 88 -188 1 42 -96 4 49 -103 57-290
57 -290 86-7 50 6HI89 114-5& 171 '63 343- 77 "" I 1
0
",' '"' '" '" - I '" I '"_I_..Jl

" I' D<'
_
COT AN GR N T
62
ueenu Functions of •
= a H llI92 8~ .' = 1)"861160440
, = l 'fi70790l S .' = 11'006 27668
•
= I "0471117b!:> • 0'3 1830989
••
•
= 0 -78t>8IlHlI = 0 -10 182 1 18
.'
• = O-oS22/i l t> 8
= O'US 61l8 78
•• .'
..r.
= O" U81118116 = ! "7724t>S88
•
= O'1 1163411M
.
Yo = l'f 6Ui918 11
"• 0"180899611 = 0 6641 89 68

v.
"• = 0'09817477
1
0'88278 406
ee '.I.
•
= 0'011463211 LOll: ." = 0'491 1498 1
'SO
Weights of Wooden Pat t erns and Metal Castings.

Th e WeIght 0' the Outing wl U be, ....
One POUIld
I y...,. ...""0. . -~
Welllht ol
Patte... / wl th .
outGorn) I..
~,
.~. 10 _ - 0 ••• .
-Whi---- - -- ~-- --- - - -
te
Bayw ood .
pine ... .. .
Yellow pin.. '"
Beech ._. _ .• •_
0. >'-._ ._ ._ I
15'5
U "S
10"6
18"2
S·'
'8'
17.,
12"j
15"5
10.
.
In
10'1i
,
11'11
".;
12"2
,.,
15 2
M
6'4\
5"11
3"88
t "OO
2 "91
63
use or LoaarlthlDs and Antl logarlthDls
(Ta ble.. of l.o,il(&rlt bm & Anti logarithm. follow these 1101~1)
Lo~arlthll"larea _erlu of nurube", 110 related to ordhuu)
nu mbers aM to I!:rt"al ly flllClIItate arllhmeti<-ai computationll.
The Ihnlt ll or apece forbid ent..r in ll into the fu ll t h"ory o r
I ho re llLt lon . hl p. bUI a fe .... brief r u in a. 10 the met bod o r
ulliol/: then . rna ,. be of 1leI"Tice. Brien)', the l~rlt hm of a
"li m be r with repo"Cl to al!:hen bese la the power 10 wh ic h the
I'Ia.1le IIIUIlI be raised toequal the " li mber. Fo r e Ialll ple, In
th e "Ip~lon-
10 ' =1 0 10 1 =1 00 10' = IlW 1(l< =I OOOO
and 1I111np: 10 •• & ~
1 1lI t h O' loKa ritb m or 10
, 100
, 1000
..od .woo.
Por /I nUIllht>r ber wee e I an d 10 the 10000000Ithm would be
gre eter th ..n 0 b ut Ie .... than I . For a nnrnbrlr l(Te&tt' r than
10 but 1_ tha n 100 the logari thm would be gT'eAt.. r than l.
but lees then to and IlO on. For eumple, tb .. lop:arlth m o f
2!J woul d obvlou" l,. be 1 + &omt'lhinlil, ~rAUII6 til I" JV6IItllr
t han 10 and Ie,," Ihan 100. The vallie of tb.. dedl"al portion
( .~~. een be fou nd Inlltantly on r eferen ce to th .. ~o"'·
pan y lng t-able tcppoelte 2l:I and n nd er 0 In the " 1'>11
eolumn l. 1I1"1I"" the "alue of t he logari th m wou ld I... I ...
'4624 :: 1' 4624, ThlM I" the q me"" ..a yiol( t hnt
Itp ... :: 2Il.
A n y n umbe r caw In thill wII,y bl! e ~ pre_d all a pc .....a r o r
10. l:<'u r t he r , when se ve ra l numh,,", e~ I'n<M>I(,d 1111 pow er.. ot
an y base are muillplled to~et hll r th " product. lIIay he e x.
preesed by a power w h ich 1Mt h e II UIlI of t.h....... ve ral lnd lcea.
Por example-s
to )< 100 )< toOO III"Y b e w ri tt en 10' )< 10' .. 10'
..nd t.he r"" u lt 1M to' + . + • :: 10· or 1.0000,ooo.
SIm ilarly one n u mhe r. or " 8erlo", of n u rnlH're, m llY boo
divi de d by "n otller num be r, or ""I.... of numbl,ore, by ·su b
ll'1le! lr'l( the po we rs or l~arlthruM wbteh "'f't"'''ent t he
d l"bIor fro m t he pow(>1'lI or l~arithme wl.Ieb I't'p~nt t ho>
dh ldlmd. Fo r el.llmpll"
~ OCU) is the ..me , W·
WJ 10'
lind the eeean I" 100, i.t. Il).I - I : : 10'
W bole po...., ," at 10 ba"e been take", tor MltlipllellY of
illIlIlU'll.doo, but the tell800ing is equllily apl,lleahle to lIny
nn m ber _toa.u"er. Yor eXAmple, 8Uppoouo ..... had the
lollDwi n ll pro<h:IC:tao to mulilply
'29 X 56 X 31 X 84
64 USE OF LOGARII HMS AN D A NTILOG A R I T H MS
th....., w 1ll:ht be es.pres.;ed lUI IrutionaJ JIOWez'll ot 10 ...~

lolloWII(the v&lu"", of the f ea pective log a r ithme belnjl; lIJleer·
tained fro m t he teble _ before e xp1B.inedl :
10' ·. ... " 10'"71" " 10'-"" " 10'" ''''
..od ll.ddinp; th e I'lllveral lndh..e~ together = 10"'''''. The
value 01 t he ree ult; will ohvlou,,!)' be p;rt·",t",r than 1,OOO,0Cl0
or 10', a n d its epproxlmate vulue can 1,<1 ell.!Ii1 y RKcert""in",l
from II. tAhle ot "ntilOjl;Rritlllllll, as will he explalll e d 10t,6r,
the pret'lllll de g r ee of RCcur lLCY depeud tng on thl' e xt e n t to
which t he IOll:arith mK are work ed out. With a fou r ngure
tabl e florh as here gteeu the result ..-out d be n act to
nl"th, which IdvM All w eat IL d~r ee 01 accUfa.e y as h
required In the m ..jority of enl/;i neerio jl; t:al culatlon...
Should we hav e d ""lred to IUlC<.!rtai n the val u e 01
2Il x 56 x :-II +ll4
then t he result could he arriv ed a t by addillJl: the ludiceM or
po ", llr~ or t he flrMt t,hr"", fl~ureM sud ~uhtrllctiup: that of t he
tourUl. t.huM
1'46\14 + 1"7482 + 1'4914 "" 4"70\l0
Mubuactinll: 11l2!3
= :iI'7"i77
a nd t h e a n.. ... er would be U...·,, ". t he ..al ue of ", h ich ClI O be
read il y d educed lrom t be table of an tll Ojl;lLri thllll~ ,
It wll1 t il ull be ""'ell t h" t h v th e ai d of tables of iOf(a r lt h ms
and ILlltll ol/;a rlth n". lllulti, ~ll"..ti on and divlMloo can bfI
red u ced to operattena in add ition and Mu ht ract ion , a nd t h~
\lame fll )pli,,~ Ilh'lO to powllrs IUlll roo t ... aluce ro ote ",,,y I)'"
expr6~ "ed "8 fr ll.('L! ollll.l pow er.. of II. base an ri the In -l. ex la w
still h old...
ThUll 101 or 10" Is the ....me "'" "10
lOt or 10'" Is t he !<Am", A.8 "' 10
and .oJHl x VTIl = 101 + • = 10 • or 10"833
The 10000s rithlll o r .... number Il;reater t h an 10, It wlll be
ohHer vtld from thiH proceeding, consists of a whole n u mber
plus flOIll8 decim al plIort, If the number He" betw een an..
m ultlple of 10, !lllch a.. lOll, 1,000, 10,01l0, etc, 'l"h18 wb ol;,
number ill cu.lled t be cM,rae tcl"Ust ic of t h e 10Rarithm, and
may ha ve a pOll il i w 01" neo,uil't val ue. The fractional or
decim al part ill called t he .. Ulnl i ...... a of tbe 10F:a ritb m. and
hall (JilL''' '' '' a p<lIliliw ,,(Jiu~, I n t h e c _ of number" IM8
tbau 1 t h e charat" lerl sti~ ....W hav.. " Dejlstl ve T &1 Uf'. Tbu"
t h e 1000 ari t hm of
USII OF LOG ARITHMS ANt> ANTILOGAlllTll loIS 65
1~ i.. ·1 i! _ I, usually '"'itten T

rlu i .e. 001 is - 2. "'2
ro\r" i .t . ..()()I·is - 3, ""'3 etc .
Th e numbers I, 2, ' 3 are he.... the cAartu:uriJlin of the
logs. of the soe~'ernl fractions given. which being multiples
of 10 have of course no ma,,'fua, but fo r any intervening
numbere t he re would be a positive decimal or ...."lIiua
portion. The logarithms or numbers bet"ween I and 10 have
no characteristic. but the ,1w,adrnJli, of the logarithm o f
a"y ""mbe, l'eaJeT tha" 10 is expressed by a postnve
inteRe r whlcb is one 1e!!S than the number of digit!! the
DUmber itself contains, If th.. number is less than u n it y
a nd expressed as a decimal. the cha,,,ele,istic o f it!!
logarit hm is negative and its value is equa l to the number
nf cy phers followi ng the dec imal point, p lus I .
T he method of f ind in~ logarithms will be easily seen
by co nsi d e ring a few examples. The tab les on pages 73 to 82
giv e accurate v al ues up to fou r figu res . the fit1l t t hree
o f wh ich can be read at slgbt, and the fourth by addi ng
the difference ind ica ted in the columns a t t he right h and
side. Fo r example-
The logarithm o f 29 is 1·4624.
T he logarit hm o f 293 is 2· 4669, the decimal part ·4669
being foun d opposite 29 and under 3.
The logar.th.m of 2934 is 3·4675.
I n the las t case the _"IJUG is made np by addinK 6 (the
d iffereDce under the head of figure" and opposite 29) to the
_ ,d inG portion of the 10000arithm of 293, i.I. , .,,669 + 6 _
4675. The value of t he character.lstlc is, of course,
determined simply by Inspection of the Dumber in the lny
erplained, and the way in whicb it va ri", may be further
illust ra ted thus_
The loga rithm of 290 is 2· 4624
29·0 is 1·4624
2 ·9 is 0 ·462~
·29 is -1·4624
0029 is 2. 462 4
.. ,. .. ·{)(}29 is 3·4 624
If " n um be r contains mor e tha n four di gits till' "' an/inn
m a y be obtained fo r the fil'lilt four fig ures, and any val ue,
for the remaining fignres rejected. The characteristic is
of course, determined exactly a t a glance.
Thul, to obtain the logarithm of 293 476. we see at a
glance, . ince there a re six digita in tbe number, that the
c haracteristic is 5. and the mantissa may be tU.en 1.5 that
of the number 2934, wh ich es $hOWIl above is -4675. The
logarithm there foRl, o f the number 293-176 may be
3M,
66 trSK 01' coo ... . , T H NIS "'NO ANTILO GAI<I THM S
taken u 5 ,4675 . A, alread y etated.tbls value, a lth ou gl,

approximate, is sufficient for most ecgieee rmg ca lcula h o n'
Hav ing explained how to lind the log arith m of a number
it w ill be easy to understand how, if a logarith m is give n.
tile number il.!lelf may be determined from the tab le 01
a ntiloga rith ms, a, t be procednre i, much tbe same in the
t ...o casn. F or Ins ta nce , giv eo the log ar i th m 2· 4669. Hn d
the corresponding numbeT.
Regard, it must be reme mbe red, is paid only to the
""" ..tiu", portion, viz., 4669, unti l the end of the operation.
On referri ng to table 01 antilogarithm" we find the first
t wo figu res 46 in the rust column, and following the ro w of
figures bo riwntally unti l we come under t he head of 6 (the
third figure in the gwen logarithm), the nnmber 29'24, ' "
wbich .....e add the difference 6, under the head of 9 (for
the last figu re) making th e number 292 -1 +
6 _ 2930.
This is the number sought, tbough the posoition o f t h e
dec imal pla...e de te r minin g its exact value yet requires t o
be fix ed . Since the characteristic is 2 there ...ilI be 2 1_ 3 +
figu res to t h e le ft o f t h e decimal point, ie., ~3·0. H ad th e
logarithm been 2 ·-1669 t h e n um ber would ha ve been ~3
Ha vin g shown how logarithms o r their colTe'pond iog
n u mbe rs may be obtained from t he tables, one or tw o
examples of t heir use may be given t o ill ustrate t he follow
ing ru les wherei n t he y a re mos t freque ntl y o f service ;
M ul tl pll c utl on,- Add the logarith ms of t he se ve ral
factors ; Ule sum will be th e loga ri t h m of the p rod uct .
Multyply 8l,547 b y ·0293.
Cha rac teristic of 86547 _ 4
Ma utis.'Ia of 8654 (taking on ly lour figu res )
·9372 (from the table).
T herefore logarithm of 86547 _ . ·9372
Sim ilarly logarithm o f ·0293 _ 2·4669
Ad ding, and re me mberi ng that

the mantissa portion i5 always
positive, we get logarithm o f
product 3 ·4041
From table of antilogarithnu we fin d the number corres
po nding to 4041 is 2536, and since the c.hanu:tem.tic i, 3
there will be fou r figures to the left of the decimal poi n t.
The answer the refore is 2536·0
Dlvlslon.-Arrange the sum in the form of a fraction
and subtract the log arith m of the denominator from the
logarith m of the nu merator: the re.m.a.iDder will be th~
logarit hm o f the qu o ti ent. {Note that the dh·i.lr and the
dividend may eaca consist of several fac ton and that the
USB O. LOG~R,lT HMS AND ANTILOGAR IT IIMS 67
loga ri th m 01 t he p roduct "ill be ob tained as in mul tipli_

ca ti on ).
Divide flR76S by 3476.
Logarithm 98765 _ Hlfl46
Logarithm 3-1076 _ 3·54 11
Subtracting: logarithm of quotien t _ 1·4535

From tabl" o f antilogarithII15 number correspondlag to
4535 it 2838 + 3 _ 2841. and since the characteristic is 1
the ilDll"er is 2M·41.
P o w e f'll of N um bef'll._To raise a number to a givrn
~er multiply the logarithm of the numbn by the power
indea ; the product is the logarithm of the result.
Find the value of 27.53.
Here the logarithm of the result will be 3 times the
logarithm of 27·5.
Logarithm ZJ·S 1·4393
multiply 3
Logarithm o f result 4·3179
F rom table of anti logarithms n u mocr correspondi ng to
3179 is 2079. a nd since the characteristic ill 4 We II1l1st add
a no ther cypher to thill result to make 5 figures to thelelt of
the decimal place. The answer therefore is 20790·0
Root8 o f N umb e rs.-To find the given roo t o f a
number divide the logarithm of t he number by the ind ex
d eno tin g the roo t; th is gives t he loga rit h m of th " root.
F ind the 'VR9276, i.e., find val ue of 892 76.
Here t he loga rit hm of the resu lt will be one-fou rt h
t he logarithm of 892 76. and t he characteris tic will
be 4, since there are five figtl res in the number.
Taking the first fou r 8927 to arrive a t the mantissa
we get-
Logarithm 89276 _ .. ·9507
Di viding by 4 we gl:'t-
Logarithm o f result _ 1·2377
From table of antiiogarithII15 we find number eorres
pe nding to 2377 is 1726 + 3 ,.,. 17'19. Since the character
istic is 1 there will be two figures to the left of the decimal
pla.ce, and the answer therefore is 17·29.
N"oTa ._lt should be observed in connection with the last
two enmples that fractional roots and powers present no
difficulty, and that had the value of 27·5 "', or the 4·5th
root of 89276 been required, th" result would have been
obtained practically ju st as easily, although such ~'a1ues
would be quite IDlpoMible to obt&.in by o rdinary ari th
metical methods.
68 UsR 0 .. LOG AIl ITH ~ S A/'fLl ANTl LOO AR ITlI M S
OomputatioD 01 Negative lndtc...-- Aa pf'vlotllO lr

nplalned , the m"n.tilJ.'la or a loll:arlth m a h...,.a bu . poel.
tiTe "'alue., but the ('harrn:t~ri",tir ma y ha ve .,Itber .. po"ltlve
lJT n~tl"e ...lue. \,'hom n"ll"the t' h. raelflr l"tl"", a re met
... Ith the C"lcu14tlona are made aeoordlDp: to the u aual
al,1leb raic nlu. hut.." th_ may I(he lIOl'lll!l trouble to tha.l"
n ot w el l ..enlot'd In the aubjeet.. few e:n,mpliP'll are appe nded
to make the mfOthod dear.
T o ad d N e",t ive I ndtces. - Talul l hfOlr aum (to oldder.
Inp: the'll pl)IIltu'l! tor the time belnK I. land make the a naW flf
lll'll:a t h e .G + 4" + 3"= l i
ThUll
To ad d Positive an d Nept in ln dicea.- i.lI the
pooJlth'e Indll'ft a re 1II"!Jt addf'd tojtether, and th e n aU the
n f1l;at l VIl IndioM, aft.. r whkh the dltrt"ren('l! ot the..... ' '''0
auma I" taken••nd th", amn.fl r I" conMld...red pollilha or
n e~tl v(' &("C(Inllnll: a .. the po.dtive or .ell:athe Indel( I_ the
JTf'ater.
Tbu a n + l! + 4 + 3 + 7 = 1I+S+i+ll+-4 == 11+ 111 = 10,
8 y a ron"lderatlon of the above two rulell., and remem
bN' ln jl,' tI "lt the manti_ portion I~ alwaya pDIlltive, t h e
foll owl nll: adclition~ ",-11\1"" readily undentood;
7'42111 Add 9"!UI 1::11 A d d 4-7731

4'41113 ~ 314111 1.0 8-11113
7'4M5
In l'lu lllpl" ( i!~ the "u m .... t t he flnt dl'!elllla l plaee I" 14, t he
I of wh k h I" eRrrl&d OVN'to the lllll.... kl n l( 10, a nti jfa nd 10
-
ii -IIlIU
t.hen p;lv" 7.
Subtra ctio n with Neg a t ive I n d lc lIs .- Ch a nll:" t h e
,,111:" o r the Ilulllh" r to b... wubt rar-ted and pl"(ll'llfld a-'I in
....t1d IUoll. Thu. 6 from 3 == 6 +:1 = 11; 'i f rom '2 = 4 +2 =
1! ; a nd f fro'" 6" == I + if == £ One or two e'llOmple ll havi n R:
hoth "harll"te ri"rk ....nd manti$WlAre 110... ¢v..n.
(11 fI'Tom 7"64IS lSI t 'ro lll S't:!M
ukol lt2 1~ tak.. 1 "8149
,.
10'4 219 3"lllli
~
(II ' rom a":!296 ' rom i- 198i

e-seis ..t , llill 34
tak e
~
e-sets ......
~
us e OF L.OG AIUTH M S AND AN Tl L.OGAll lTHMS 69
In lIub tracUu ll: t h " nl'1Jt d eci ma l plaClltn uam pl"'l t) aud
(3) the re 18 I to be earried, and th18 haa to be lIubt racted
from th e u pper 1f In each ease, "'blch mall:ea tht"lU T. Then
10 exa m ple (:!. T and 6 (sign chanRed to p lUII !tCC()rdI DIl: to
ru lel Rlv"" Z. and In eaemple Oh:rand 1 1(1'"6$ 3. I n eXAmp le
(41 there III I of cvrIa~ which hlI>I to be RubtrACted trom
2".... hlch Il:lvee 3: Then (rom th,,3 tbeG haa to be lIubtracted .
which (chanll:l njo( ItIlIII,l{ll) Kive,,"9 &/I. reeujt,
1'0 multi ply & Logarithm having a Nega tive Index.

M ul ti ply the decimal portion nile n.o.a.ntl,... 1In the ordinAr1
...aT. which "'ill IOV" a pollitive ..a lue, thNl multiply tb ..
negllthll charact.. rilltlc, whf cb will glv.. a n~tlv e product ,
a nd add the ca.rna.ce to It In the mAnn"r a1r8&dy explained.
Tbull Ifm u lti plied by 3 ~e8 U ILIId if t or carrl&ll:e .. to be
&d.ded the reeult "'Ill be it.
i!J:llm pl.. : Mu lt iply

b,
To divide & Logarithm having a Negative Index.

it th " charRcleriRtic III div l"lble hy tht" d ivi" or we ue dow n
the qu otle ut w it h t he n "il"tlvll 81.1':11, nIHl d h'ld" t he d ec huaJ
port ion by ('{)1lI1110n rules. ThUll, {f·Il· I~1I +:3 = :f'2lJ3. II ,
bow ever l the llll W' t l v ll cha ractor l" t.lc III !lOt, exnrtly d l vlllilole
by the nlvlMor, add s uch " ne(1alil'e number to It WI wlll
"". k" It d i"lljl h lll, a nd at t h e l<II.lUe Wmll l?retlJ: AU equal
posititte number to the lUan ti8IIA port tou. N o w dtvtd e t h e
InCr eMllll Ch lU'lI.Cl<l riat lc, a nd in cr.......oo rua ntlllNl. llCparlitely.
Thul - 0·5175+5
-I (Ii + f) + (4 ... '5115) f of 5
(16 + . '5175 ) + 5
;a 1 · 11035,
" .W be _n,4 baa been added to the II eo tbal tbe
eum W ruay be u:4J;tly dhi.lble by 5; and,"" Tie t hne
added 10 tbe eh&racteri8t ie portion, '" mUllt aJeo be added to
tbe mantlua portion In order that the reeultant "lIlue oJ
lhll lop;u tthm may be the IllU'DIl- A • • e add :rAnd 4 to the
IORari th w '_bJeb eoqu5.1ol 01 Ita n1l1e reall, doe- ~mal n the
aame .
,. FOWLER'S LONG-SCALE CALCULATOR,
Fow ler's Circ ular Calculators, lik e the com mon st raight
s lide-rul e, are based on the properties of logari thms. wh ich
red uce the tediua operatioD.S of mu ltiplication and
d ivision to t h e simpler ODes oj addition a nd subtraction,
wbicb can be pe rformed mechanically by means o f scales
m arked wi th logarithmic distances that can be ad d ed o r
s ubtracted fro m one anothB'. while the values of sq uares,
eu bee , roots, reciprocals, and trigonomdrica1 functi ons
can be read olI di rect from one teale to another. By
combini ng these operation::, complex arithmetical calc nla
tioll.5 can be easily made.
Cil'l: u lar foTIWII of Calculators poesess maDy advantages
ov er Itraig bt ones, h ut in the pas t the cost and defects
arising from di lJicu lties o f construction of circu lar i.n.!Itru
men u have militated against their n"" Great improve
men ts hav e, ho weve r, been made in recent yean, a nd the
Patent Ci rc uw Calculators constructed by Fowler .t Co. ,
H am pso n St., Sale, N t. Ma n chester, a re a grea t adva nc e
over t he o rdinary slide rule, no tably as re gard s compre
hensiveness a nd po rtability, case a n d rapidit y of workin g,
accu racy 0 1 resul ts, clca.nline!l!l of scales, and general
convenie nce . Calcu la ti ons co rn et to t h ree, a nd often
fou r significant ligu res, can be obtained with a n instrumen t
easily carried in the wai stcoat pocke t ,
There is n o s ti c king or undue sla ck ness of slid e, whi c h
ofte n occurs with straight sndc-rutce, from cha nges o f
tempe rature and humidity, and causes trouble a nd
inacc ur a cy in setting. Further, there is no .. s witc hing "
of t he lI1ide from one end to the other to enable
the res u lts to be read on t h e full-le ngth scale. To
avoid t his .. s wit ching " trou b le, many use rs o n ly work
with the 5 in. o r half·length scale o f the t o ill.. rule, and
co nsequ ently diminis h the accu racy nf their calcu lations.
T he s u perior featu res o f F owler ', Lon g -scale Calculator
a re the ou tcome of long and min ute Itudy o f t he problems
o f constnlction in v olv ed , aided by yf'afll of experi me n t and
costl y tools t o permit of m ass p rod uction a nd extre me
accuracy. By refin em ent of design, t he scales o n the dials,
the rotating CUl'3Or lin e, and the fix ed radial datum tine
are brought 10 closely togethe r that parallax in reading.
..bi eh bas pre vio usly be<!n a d"wback to ci rcn lar
Wculaton, it eliminated.
The p<1'Cket instrument is of standard design, with di ab
71 in. (60 mm.) diameter, an,1 it i. housed in a n ejectro
FOWLR Il'S LONG-SCA LE CALCU L ATOR 71
pla ted prctec tfe g CUe (""" illustration). A vllrie ty ot

designs ILre made for !If>'''Cial trades a nd pu l'pMell, but for
all-round a<h'antag"es the makers recommen d the" Long
Scale" type lor engineers, d ra ughtsmen, and scie nce
students as the most comprehensive and conve nient
pocket calculator lor their needs tlu.t hu ever t:.e.- n made,
and will be pleased to forward full de.criptive ci rculars on
application.
To perform the operation of addition and subtraction,
which constitute calculation, with any form of logarithmic
calculator, two methods o f reading a circular scale may
be employed.
In one desill;n, two scales. exa.ctly simiJax, slid e past
each other like the scajes of the ordinary straight slide
rule, a dial with a scale in its ollter edge rotating inside
a fixed annulu"; t his sliding arrangement being supple
mented with a radial cursor line, also capable of rotation
(the analogue of the sliding cursor of t he straight rule).
In t he second design there is no fixed annu lus; only a
single rotating dial carrying all t he scales, bu t this is
su pplemented with two ind epend en t radial lines, one fixed
to serve as a datum, the o ther capable of rotation to se rv e
a CUJ5(lr.
Certain adva n tages acc ru e t o each desib'TJ. \....ith the
slid ing'lICale d es ign , so me problems in ratios ca n btl read
with a single setti ng, just as with a s traig h t slide -r ule.
b ut, like that rul e, confusion is a pt t o follow a mo me n tary
abberatlo n as to whether tlll' res ul t is to he read on the
fix"d or th " moveable scale. F u rt her, t he It..n gth o f t he
sca le ca n uot exceed a single circ um ference o f the d ial .
In the second design, with a single rotati ng d ial an d no
a n n ul us, problems in ra tios req uir e a movement of t he
cursor for each ratio. O n the other hand, when making
a series of multtplications and divisions, which con stitute
the bulk of calculati ng work, there is less lia bilit y to
confusion. The manipulation of the instru men t is easier
to teach and easier to learn. A ca lculation begins a t the
datum line and ends there.
Further, the use of a single rotating dial instead o f •
routing dial aDd a fixed annulus permits the logarithm ic
scale to be extended over several circles and thul in cr eased
in length, with COITl"Sponding increase of accu rac y in
!Oetting f;w;ton and in reading final n-snlts.
Instru me n ts of both designs are made by the firm , but
th e lingle dial .. long-Scale ' type is recommended as
L
7 '1. FOW L.ER'S LON G- SC AUI CAt-COI.... TO ..
le ss lia b le to e rror in ma ni pula ti on, a nd bec ause it peetme e

of the u se of a ahort---5Cale for rapid ....o rk. or ot a lo ng
lIC<lle .....hen great er accuracy i. dealred.
The advantages con ferred by the extenelc n o f the sc al e
over several circles is shown by th e fad t ha t wit h a
.....us tcoat. pock et instrument t he long -~Ie is 30 in. in
len gth , as compared with 10 in. in the ordi na ry slide ru le,
or e ven 5 in., if the operator, to avoid end" Iwitching,"
...orlts with the hal;·length scale. ... he of ten d oes.
The advan tages of Fowler', Long-Scale Calculator are
in creased by the fact tbaJ tJu 1'0"1 ,,"4 lkuk dials 0/ tile
i.u /n u.... Ns art" sylt£.bolliurd:' t.e., when the aero llne
o f the front dial is!tet under the front datum line, thelma t
e unor lio e and t h e back datum line always give similar
readi ngs on the outer scale. Tbls i. vel)' convenient, ...,
it e nables v a lu es to be projected fro m the back dial to
t h e fro n t d ial in trigonometrical and other calculation s.
Fu rther , it e nables cube- roots to be read fro m the front
d ia l lo ng-scale by a single se t ti ng, because the readi ngs
o n t h e lo ng-scale ace t he sidh roota of correepondmg
radial readin gs on the short-!lC8.le, a nd the c u be root 01
a n y nu m be r is the six t h root of t he !KJ uare of t ha t n um ber.
Front Dial.- Th is compdses se ve n eirctes. The oute r
on e i, a " Short-Scale" complete in a single circu mfe re nce ,
e xactly lik e t h e logarithmic scale o f t he com mon s lide-ru le.
The six in ner circles fo rm a similar cont in uous" Long
Sc a le," havin g a t otal c in::umfer en ce , or len gth, o f 30 in. ,
a nd is used ius t lik e t he single-circle or .. Short-Scale,"
wh en very accu rate res ults a re roqui red .
\ .... hether to use the short-scale o r the long-scale is a
ma tte r 01 choice lor the opera tor. The short-scale is
convenient for rapid calculation or for deciding on which
ci rcle the result of a long-sca.le c1aculation is to be read,
th ou gh this can generally be quickly fixed mentally.
Da c k D la l.- This comprises seven scales, beginning
";th t he outer one and proceeding inwanb, as follows:
No . I._A logarithmic scale exactly lik e the outer
.eale of the front dial.
No. 2.-A scale of reciprocals exactly like No.1. bu t
gTaduated contra-clockwise. This permits of such inverse
I I I I . .
val u e as _ _, - .- being read d irectly by aid
II II let" Sill ...
of the datum line lro m the values 01 s, JlZ, lOf! Jl. sill Jl•
.-tc.. on -.:ale No. I .
N". !I -A -=.ale of log s grOlduated a t i n t _ v"" of 01.
fOWI-I!Il'S LONc;..-SCALR CALCUI.ATOk. 73
No. " .- A seale of equare root. of num beu on Scale ND,
Tbi.s ecete , it will be noted. ex tend. CODti D uou~ ly
ro und the eircu mf ..renee of two eirclee.
N o. 5.-A scale of angl~. from 5 °-45' to 90 • lor deter·
mining aines and JOlt sines.
No. 6.-A kale of &lIgles, from 5"-45' to 015 · fo r d eter,
min ing tangenl.9 and log tangents.
No. 7.-A scale of angles, from 35 • to 5 °-45' for d ete r
mining sines and log sines.
The values of the natural functiollS given o n Seales N~ .
5. 6 and 7 ere read directly by means of the datum line, on
Scale No. I their reciproeaJs 00 Seale No.2. aod the l0ll
fu ncti o ns on Scale So. 3.
R edu ced vi".. back dial. Fowle r's Long-Scale Cal eulator.
For convenience in setting, the Short-Scale and t ho Long
Scale of the front dial, as weD as tho ou t er _ Ie of the
back d ial, have a number of factors com monly used in
making calculatioll5 (gauge points) specially ind ica ted.
One of the thumb-nuts at the circumference nf the
i oslrum~ot rotate s the froot dial only: the other rotates
s imulta.neoutly the froot dial CUr80r line and &~ the back
dial. Whea tbe eerc line of the froot dial is .et under
the front datum line the instrument is .. syacbrcnieed,"
i... th e float cursor line and the back datum line Ii,.•
.lmilar re&dinp on the Doter or logarithmic -eale.
I t .hould be Doted there is DO cursor line on the bac:1t
dial. The vatuee of the fuactions indicated by the RVe ,a)
eca les Mial . .. ad off tb .. outu Eaie by tbe d ata lft Ii" e.
,.
LOGARIT HMIC CALCULATIONS,
In al l log arithmic scales. whether circular o r s traight,
t he logarithmic distances, representing the in tnval s
between the numbers 1, 2, 3--10 grad ually diminish.
This reduces the possiblity of sub-division as we advance
aj ong the scale, and t he accuracy with which settings or
beadings can be made, especially between the graduation
lines. as they have to be estimated by the observer.
A co mparison of the logarithmic values of the numbers
I. 2. 3. 4, 5, 6 , 7, 8, 9, 10 shews that the differences between
them are ro ugh ly proportionate to 30. 11 ,6, 12,5, 9 ·7. 7·9,
6·7.5'8.5'1,4-5. These represent the distances available
for su b-d ivision and show how much further it can be
made in the lower part of the scale than in the u p per part.
F or decimal calcula tion a n d co nvenience o f rec koning,
sub-divisi on must be eit b er by 7, 5, or 10. For c hoice, t o
is preferable; but whi le t h is may be adopted in the
lo wer part of the scale, it can no t be a dopted in the h igh er
h igh er p a rt owing to lack of space, a nd therefore so me
times only five graduations ca n be made whe re each co u nts
2, or even only t wo graduations where each co un ts 5,
As an example of the difference b etween the lower and
upper p a rts of a logarithmic scale, and al so between a
short scale a nd a long one, take the four-figure value
2465, This cou ld be easily set und er the datum or cursor
lin e all the " Sho rt-Scal e ," becau se it co mes o n th e lower
and more widely sp a ced part, but it woul d be di fficult
with unaided vision to set 8465 with the same a ccuracy
on this !!COIle. On the Lcu g-Scale , however, this would
p rese n t no difficulty, 846 co uld be eee exactly , a nd 8465
with close approximation.
Any value may be assi gn ed to tho prime n umbers of a
lo ga rit h mi c scale, but proportionate values m ust be
accorded to th e sub-divisions. Thus 6 may represent 0·6 Or
60,600, etc., but if taken to represent 60 on the Short-Scale
the sub-divisi ons would represent 61, 62 , etc., exactly ,
wbile 61·2, 61'4 . 6H;, etc., would have to be estimated ,
whereas on the Long-Scale the latter values would be given
ex ac tl y on account of its greater sub-division.
LOGARITHMIC CA LCULATIONS 75
I n est imating fractional valUe! between two division
lines, the differences between logarithmic di,tllnce and
ac tual distance should be noted, and also whether each
division co u nts I, or 2, o r 5. Attention to these points
makes for accuracy a nd should be DOted.
Units o f M e a 5urement.- In maki..ng calculatiol1!l, care
should be taken to express the quantities in proper units.
If an arN. is desired in sqnare feet &5 a product of linear
dimensions. these should be expres5ed in feet. If desired
i n square yard., the dimensiollll should be in yard•.
It does occuionally happen that some dimensloU$ a le
in one unit and others in a different unit. F or example,
in formulae for beams, breadth and depth are usually
expressed in inches. and spa.u in feet. Again, the weights
of bars a re geoenUy given per foot run although the
sectional dimensions are in inches. ;\listakes oocur through
overlooking these points.
Simplificatio n o f Dedmals .- Io simplifying decima l
va lues regard shou ld be paid to the value of any terminal
figures struck o lf.
Fo r example, if we .. ish to contract a value ~uch M
15,647, t hen 15 ·65 is a nea rer approx imation than 15 ,64,
because the figu re 7 is nearer 10 t han I. If the number
had been 15 ,64 2, t h en 15 ·64 wou ld have been more
approxima te t han 15{i5.
A misconception of the fractional value o r decimals
so meti mes ca uses mista kes, especially if the re are cyphers
to the ri gh t of the decimal point. Remember that when
ex p ressed as a fracti on, the number of cyphera in the
denominator is the same as the number of figures after
.
the d ecimal point.
For example-
• 3<l4
3·04 _ 3 - o r _ _ ...- 00' ,_
100 100 100 1000
Flxlnll P o s iti on o f Decimal P olnt.- Wh en possible
put all calculations in a fractioDal form.
The cornet position of the deimal point in the answer
can often be best determined by rapid mental arithm~tic
Rules axe mOl"e or less troublesome to remember an d
7. LOOAR ITHIolIC CALCULAT10NIi
011 t he t account liable to cause mi,lalu,

For e xa m ple , IUP~" the value of the
r~ lI ired :_
li ·~ x 746 x 19·2 x 9
2876 x 92·5
•• could r e&$:l I1 meotally. and roughly. at foUo,," ;
6 ·9 i. PTa(:~ 7. and 7 into 2,876 ill roughly 400, 400
io to '46 is roughly 2 : 2 into 92·S ill rough ly 45. This
wou ld be in the denominator, and for the numerator _e
G ould atil l have left 19 ·2 x 9. roughly 170 . This di vided
by 45 wou ld obviously give a value 1_ than 10. but
create. tha n I . I II the answer, therefore, we .bould wrik
all figures a ft er the first one to the right of the d eci mal
point. A rougb estimate like thU QCX:upi.,.leu time to make
thiuI to d escribe , and ill safer than auy cut-and-dr ied rule.
Squllrea, Cu~ R oots and Nurnben.- It ia useful
to reme mbe r that any number between I an d 10 , t he
sq u a re is between I and 100; for any n um ber be tween
It) a nd 100, the equaT e iii between 100 a nd 10 ,000; for
eny nu mbe r betwee n t OO and 1,000. the square i. between
10 .000 a nd 1,000 ,000 . Cube of any n u mber between 1
aDd 10 is betwee n I and 1,000; cube of any number
between 10 and 100 is between 1,000 an d 1,000.000. Tb"
co nve rse is true for square TOots and c u be roots. For
a ny numbe r less t h a n u n ity, t he square root or the cu be
foo t is greater t ha n t he nu mb"f.
Common LQgarithms
o 2 3 , 5 6 7 8 9 1 1 231 4561 78 9
10 0000 00.(3 01~ 0 17 02121 02531 02941 03341 037414 8 12 1 17 2 1 25129 33 37
II 04H 0453 0531 05t* 06071 06-15: 06821 071 075 4 8 11 151923263034
12 0792 08:! 0899 0934 0969 100.(1 1038' 107. 11 3 7 10 14 17 2 1 242831
1271 1303 1335 ~ 13671139! 1.(3
~,
13 1139 1173 123 3 6 10 13 16 1 23 2629
14 1461 149:' 1553 158.(1 1614 1644 1673 ' 170:11 173 3 6 9 12 1518212427
15 1761 1790 1847 1875' 1903 1
1931 1959 1987 2U14 3 6 8 11 1417202225 c
16 2041 2068 2122 21,(8 2175 2201 2227 2253 227' 3 5 8 11 1316 lil 2 1 24 z
17 2304 2330 2380 2.(05 2430 2455 2.(80 25041 252 2 , 7 10 1215 17 20 22
18
19
20
2553
2788
30 10
'1.577
2810
3032
2625 2648 2ti7'1.
2856 2878 2900
3075, 3096 3118
2695 2718 2742 2765 2
2923 2945 2967; 2!l8' 2
3 1391 3 160 3 181 3201 2
5 7
, 7
, 6
9 12 14 161 9 2 1
9 11 13 16 18 20
8 11 13 15 1719
~
•
21
22
32221 32431
3·124 3H4
3263 328.( 3304 3324
3464 3483 3502 3522
3345
354 1
3365
3560
3385
3579
3404
35H
2
2
4
4
6
6
8 10 1 14 16 18
8 10 121 14 15 17
"••
•
23 3617, 3636 3655 367 4 3692 1 37 11 3729 3747 37 3784 2 4 6 7 9 11 13 15 17
24 3&Y. 3820 38 385E 3874 3892 3909 3927 39 45 396' 2 4 5 7 9 11 12 14 16
25
26
27
397! 3997
.f1S<
4314
, 161
433(
1 40H .(03 1
'"
4183 4200 42J 4232
4065
4::1 4 43621 437 4393

4082
4249
4409
4099
4265
4425
411
4281
444
413
429
445
2
2
2
3
3
3
5
5
5
7
7
6 8
9
8
1 12
I It
11
14
13
13
15
15
14
28 4472 44871 4502 4518 453 3 4548 4564 4579 4594 4 2 3 5 6 8 II 12 14
29 4624 4639, 4654 4669 '66 3 4698 4713 4728 4742 4757 I 3 4 6 7 10 12 13
30 4771 478i 4800 48 14 4829 1 4843 4857 4871 488 4 1 3 4 6 7 10 II 13
~
CoM )I ON LOOARITlIMS
~
o I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 12345678 9
31 49U 492~ 494 4955 4969 4983 4997 5011 5024 5?~ I 3 4 6 7 8 10 II 12
32 505 1 50H5 507 509 5 105 5 119 1 5 132 5 U5 5159 517 1 3 4 5 7 8 9 II I 2
33 5185 519 5211 5224 5237 5250 5263 5276 5289 53<Y. ' I 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 12
34 53 15 5:12 534 5353 5~~ 5378 1 5391 5403 54 16 5~~ ~ I 3 .. 5 6 8 9 101
35 5441 5453 5 465 547 5490 55021 5514 5527 5539 555 1 1 2 4 5 6 7 9 101
36 5563 5575 5587 5599 5611 5623 5635 564 7 5il58 ~ ~ ~? 1 2 4 5 G 7 8 10 I
37
38
5682
57\18
511fJ4
5R09
5705
582 1
57 17
5832
5729 5740 5752
5843 5855 586()
5763
5877
5775
5888
5?,;::; I 2
5899 I 2
3
3
5
5
6
6
7
7
8
8
91 o
9 1o
~
a
39 59 11 5922 5933 5944 5955 5966 5977 5988 5999 60 10 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 1o ~
40 602 1 603 1 604 605 6064 6075 608 5 6096 6 107 6 117 I 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 1o
~ !~ 6 !~ 6 170 s
"g
41
42
43
6 128
6232
6335
6243
6345
614
6253
6355
6263 6274
636::' 6375
6180
6284
6385
619 1
629 4
639 5
620 1
6304
6405
62 12
63 14
6415
622
632
6 42.
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
..
4
4
5
5
6
6
6
7
7
7
8
8
8
9
9
9
,"
,•
>
44 6435 6444 6454 6464 647 4 6484 6493 6503 6513 652' I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
45 6532 6542 655 1 656 1 6571 6580 6590 6599 6609 66 1 1 2 3 ... Ii 6 7 8 9 •
46 6628 66..17 66-1 665 6665 6675 6664 6693 6702 671' 1 2 3 <I s 6 7 7 8
47 672 1 673( 673 674 ~~~ 6767 677f 6785 679 4 680' I 2 3 -I 5 s 6 7 8
48 68 12 682 1 6830 6839 684 6857 6866 6875 688 4 6893 I 2 3 4 4 5 6 7 8
49 6902 69 11 /:1 92 692 6937 6946 6955 6964 6972 6981 I 2 3 4 4 5 6 7 8
50 6990 H098 7007 70 1 702 4 703 3 7042 7050 7059 706 1 2 :3 3 -I Ii 6 7 8
CO)IMON LoGARITHMS
o I 1 2 3 , 5 6 7 8 9 1 1231-456 789
51 707' 7084 7093 710 1 7 11( 7118 712 7135 7143 715 1 2 3 3 4 5 678
52 7 1HO 7168 7177 1 718.-; 7193 7202 72 10 7218 722 n I 2 2 3 4 5 677
53 72U 725 1 725' 726': 7275 7284 7292 7300 730 731 I 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 7
7324 7:\32 73' 734S 7356 73647372 73807 731 2 2 3 4 5 66 7 g
"56
55 7404 7H21 7419 1 7427 7435 7443 745 1 7459 74 7474 I 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 •
57
7482
755
74901 7497
75661 7574
7505
7582
75 13
7589 j
7520 7528
7597 7604
7536 7543
7612 7619
7551 I
7627 I
2
2
2
2
3
3
..
4
5
5
56 7
5 6 7 ~
7634 7642: 7649 7657 7664 7672 7679 7686 7694 7701 1 1 2 3 -I -4 5 6 7
"" 7709 77W: 772:1 773 1 7738' 7745 7752 7760 7767 7774 1 I 2 3 -I .. 5 6 7 §
:::'
7782 7789 77Hl> 7803! 7818 7825 7832 7839 784f 1 1 2 3 .. 4 5 6 6
60
•>
61 7853 78601 7868 7875, 7889 1 7903 7910 7917 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 6 ~
62
63
7924
799:1
7931 7938 79 45i 7952!
8000 8007 8014, 802 1
7959 7966 7973 7980
8028 1789
8035 4 1 804M
7987
805
1
I
1 2
1 2
3
3
3 4
3 ..
5 6 6
556
•
•
6< 8062 8069 8m5 808 01' 80S! 8096 8102 8109 8 116 812' 1 1 2 3 3 -4 556
65 8 129 8 136 8142 81491 815. 8 162 8169 8176 8 182 81S. 1 1 2 3 3 4 556
66 8 195 8202 8209 1 8215, 8222, 8228 8235 180 824 8254 I I 2 3 3 .. 556
67 8261 8267 8274 8280 6267 8293 8299 &106 &1 12 83t! I 1 2 3 3 -I 556
68 8.125 833 1 &13S 83H' 8351 8357 8363 8370 837 ' I 1 2 3 3 <I 4 5 6
69 8.188 8395 11-101 8407 8H4 8 420 8426 18241
[ 8432 18439 1 I 2 2 3 4 456
70 tHSI 8457 84631 8470 8 4761 8482 8488 8494 85 I I 2 2 3 .. 456
1
<iI
I
Co:lllllON L OGAll.ITH WS
~
o 2 3 4 s 6 7 8 o 12 3 145 6 17 8 9
71 8513: SS\9 85251 8531 8537 854 854 8555 8561 8S 11 2 2 3 4
• , s
·, ,
72 8573, 857 8S85 8591 8597 8803' 86 1' 8621 862 1 12234
73 8633: 863 8645 865 865 7 1 8683
8692 86
1 =1 8675 8881 868 4 1 1 2 2 3 4 •4 ,s ss
"
75
76
8704 871Ul 8716 87221
875 1 875 87621 87GBi 8774 8779
8808 8814 8821 8825: 8831 8837'
8727 8733 87391
8785 8791 8797
8842: 8848 8854
874 I 1 2 2 3 4
880' 1 1 2 2 3 3
885,112233
• s
s
s
s
~
4
77 fl8(l5,1 ssn 8811 8882' 8887 8893 8899 890'; 8910 89 1 1 I 2 2 3 3
78
79
892 1 8927 8932' 8938 1 8943 89,19
8976 8982 8987 8993 8988 1 9004
8954 89601 8985
9009 9015' 9020
8971 I I 2 :! 3 3
9025112233
•4 •4 ,5
4 • s
•g
1
80 9031 9036 9042, 9047: 9053 9058' 9063 ' 9069 907 4 907! 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
81 9085 9096 9101 9106 9 112 9117j 4 • ,

"g
9122 9128 9 13' 1 1 2 2 3 3 >
82 9 138 9U9 9154 9159 1 9 165 9170 9175' 91~ 91Sl 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 • s "~
83 9 191 920 1 920< 9212 9217 9222 9227 9232' 9 2 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 ,
••
81 9243 9253 925' 9263' 9269 9274 927 9284 9 2 8 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 • ,
85 9294 9304 93~93 15 9320 9325 9330 9335: 9 3 4 1 1 : ! 2 3 3 4 • ,
86 9345 9355 936< 9365 9370 9375 9380 9385 93 112233
1 •3
87 9395 9405 9410 9 415 9420 9425 9430 9435 9<1401 1 2 2 3 •4 ,4
88 9HS 9455 94601 9465 9469 94 74 9 479 9494 948,0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
89 9494 9504 9509 95 13 9518 9523 9528 9533 1 953 0 1 12 23 3 4 •
90 95 4 9552 9557 9562 95 66 95 7 1 9576 958 1 95srO l 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
Co:.rMO'" LoGARIT}lM S
O l234567891234567R9
91 9590 9595 9600 9605 9609 9614 9619 9624 9628 1 ~ 0 I 1 2 2 3 3 -4 4
92 96$ 9643 9647 9652 9657 9661 9666 9671 9675 9 681 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 -4 4
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M etals lin d 11.110), •.
P II1 IroD.- Im p u re iron containi ng over 1·5 per cent
of carbon and large qu an ti ti es o f other impurities always
made in the blast fu rn ace . Used as the raw material for
the production o f wrought iron and swl. It is crystalline.
brittle, fluid at high temperature, and can be moulded in to
various shapes or forms, and is thus used most extensively
for the framework of machinery. etc. The strength of cast
iron varies through a wide range. Its tenacity may be as
low as 5 tees per sq. in.; and on the other hand, specimens
havebeenproduoed with a tenacityof 15 tons, Such samples,
however, are rare, and from 6 to 9 tODS may be taken as the
limits of tenacity ordinary met with, or an average of say
7i tons per sq. In. The ultimate crushing or comp..essi'"c
lItrl'ngtb varies from 25 to 60 tons, lite a''ef'4f:' NittI ab<NI
.5 1mI.$. It is thus about 6 times as strong in compr~ion
as in tension. Cast iro n contracts about' in. per foot.
\Vrou Q,ht Jron.- Nes rl y pure iron. Has not been
fused since the removal of the foreign ccnsti'tuents. but has
been prepared by the welding together of small mas'K'5 of
spongy iron. It is fibrous, tough, soft. ducti le a t h igh
te mpera t u re , but not fluid; it is weldable a t 1,500 deg . or
1,600 deg. Fag.; is easily oxidlsed : it mllY be forged.
hammered, or rolled to various sha(l('S; contains not more
th a n 0·25 per cent of carbo n. It always con tains particles
of slag anti. ox ide, th e elo ngatiu n of which during rolling
p rod uces t he fib re, th us preventing t he complete welding
of th e mass, a nd making th e iro n stronger in the d irecti on
o f the fib re t han across it . F ib re is no t a source o f strcngth ,
tho ugh a fibro us, we ll-wor ked iron is stronger tita n a less
fibrous, JX?Orly worked one. Mild steel o f t h e same composi·
tion which has no fibre is stronger than either of them.
Comparfscne between fib ro us iron and a wire rope which a re
sometimes made a re quite fallacious. Commercial wrou ght
iron is always made by puddling.
Ste e l.- This includes all varieties of iron con tai n ing
less than 1·5 per cent of carbon except wro ught iron. It
may have been fused as in crucible cast steel and mild steel,
or it may have been prepared in the solld condition, as in
blister steel and puddled steel; the latter is rauly if eVeT
ma.Je new. When the steel contains less than ·5 per cen t
of carbon it is called mild steel, when more, hard steel.
Ha rd steels harden when they are heated to redness and
quenched in water.
Pill: Ieo n I n the Fo u n d ry.-Tbe irons used in the
fou nd ry an! Nos. I, 2. 3 and • (foundry). No. I for v ery
lir ht eastin&", and the higher numbera for other pUrposetl"
-..
88 IUTALS
Owin g to t he un_tisfactory meth od o f grading a.nd varia
tion !! in t he composition of iron even of the same bnmd.
it is no t ah•.-a ys easy to obtain exactly the metal requi red.
Scotch found ry irons are usual ly higb in silicon and hig h
in phos p horous. They flo w very freely. and make sound
castin$S. H emati te iron s, wh ich contain no p h os p horus, are
less lIu lta bl" for fou n d ry wo rk, t hough they ma y sometimes
be used with ad van tage.
T h e mos t im portant constituen t ill found ry iro n. and t h",
on e most li kel y to cause v aria ti on in q u al ity o f the cutings,
is sili co n. The quantity co ntained in the pig may va ry
considerabl y, a nd i t is very easily oxidised out during
melting.
The amoun t of silicon which is usually present in castings
is about Ii t o 2 pe r ce nt for strong, clean castings, and ICSlI
wh er e greate r ha rd n ess is req uired. As most pig iron n ow
mad e co n tains more th an this, it will be a r t h e additi on o f
a co nsi dera b le amount o f lo w s ilico n or white lIera p, th e
amount of scra p whi ch can be !lafely used dependi ng almost
entirely o n the a mo unt of sil ico n p rese nt in the pig.
When p ig iron is exposed to oxidising influences. as in th e
cu pola , the silicon is o:ridised out, whilst until the si licon
is m uch reduced, little if any carbon is removed. The
removal o f the silicon, how e ver, tends to throw th e carbon
into t he co mbined form , and thus to whi ten the iron.
R epeated mel t ing, therefore, t end s to whiten t he iron.
\Vh eth er r....melting will im p ro ve t he qu a lity of an iron
d epend s entir ely on its comp ositi on . n mo re silicon is
present than is good for the p ur po<re 10r "'hich t h e me tal
1$ to be used re- melting will Im prove it, othen>ise it will
d eteriorate it. wb eu iro n has go ne whi te from the removal
of silicon by remel ti n g o r otherwil;e, it can be bronght back
to the xrey co ndi tion b y t he a.ddition 01 a little silico n iron.
Su lph ur is o ften bl a med for causing an inferior iron, b ut
it is rarely present in large eno ugh quantity to d o se rious
mischief. It tends, as ..mady re m ark ed , to mak e the iron
white; bu t this tendency is co u n te racted by silicon . Su i.
phur is rarely pr esent in a ny q u a n ti ty in iroua co n tai n ing
above I per cent manganese, or 2 p er cent of sili co n, a nd if
sulp h u r be p resen t in an iron the addition of a little ferru
mangane!le will hel p in its removal. Sulphur is n ot tak en
u p fro m the co ke in the cu pola until the silicon in the iron
is considerabl y red uced.
Wh en hard irons, lo w in silicon, are required , t he silico n
may be rem oved b y repeated re-melting in the cu poh_ T his
is h owever, objectio na ble , all sulphu r may be tak en up fro m
the co ke, and. the refollll, low s ilicon iron should never be
M ET ALS 89
melted in contact with co ke : a be t te r method is t o melt
in a re ver be ra ti ng fu m a ce with free access o f ai r.
For mak ing car wheels. etc., iD America. no n-pbospbo ric
irons are sometimes melted with fro m 2 . to 10 pe r ce n t o f
mild s teel or wrought iron sc rap. This di lutes th e sili co n ,
whilst carbon is take n up from the coke in t he c upola.
Occasionally t he iron is bl own in a Bessemer con verter for a
few minu tes. t he ~ i1icon be ing thus much red uced.
Co m position of Iro ns fo r Differe nt C lasses of
Castlng,s ._ The followin~ interesting infonnation relatin g
to the com posi ti on o f iroWl for d ifferent dUlleS of casti n gs
was given 10 a paper b y F, )f. Thoma.s read before the
Dirmio.llham ~I etallurltical Society.
For th in ornamental war", su ch as grates, etcvee, ho Uo w
ware. or ot he r lig ht castings, use a mixtu re 01 No. I and
No . 2 irons. soft a nd capable of taking u p scnp, a nd wi th
su fficien t phosphorus to ensure fluidi ty.
For medium-steed castings for general wu rk. less silico n
a n d p hosphoru s b u t rathe r more combined csrbon is wanted.
A mixture o f No.3 irons and sc ra p shou ld be used.
For heavy mach inery ca.st in)\:s requiri ng at reng th a nd
to ugh ness , use iron s low in ph os p h 01'Us. a n d not too mu ch
man ga nese.
C hemica l Ana lysb of I rons fo r Diff erent Cl asses o f
C as t lnQs .
M odlmm ·oI..,a
C• •lImll lor
C.... ral Work
Grap hitic carhon _.. 3 ,20 to 3·60 3·00 t o 3·20
Combined Carbon 0·0 8 0' 15 0·35 .. 0·45
Silicon ... _ ._~._ 2·50 2·R(j 2·00 .. 2·25
Su lph ur _.• ._... 0 ·03 0 '0 4 0·06 .. 0·08
Ph os p horu s _ 1·30 .. 1·50 1·00 .. t ·30
:\lanKanese Up " 1·00 Up .. 1·00
Hu"Y
Mao::hi-.-,
Cati"61
Graphitic carbon 2·80 to 3·00 2' 50 to 2·80
Combined carbon 0 ·45 0·60 0-60 .. 0· 75
SSilicon ~~-====:
ulp h u r_ ::
1·20
0 ,06
:: 1·50
" 0·08
1-00 • 1·30
0{)8 .. 0 ' 12
Phosph orus 0-40 .. 0-60 0' 45 .. 0.70
.Ma nl:"aDe:lle - - - - - 0-60 .. 0·8,5 0·50 .. 0·70
90 MIl:TJ,.LS
For en gine cylinders and hydraulic castings, a m ixture
of refined o r cold- bla st irons and scrap from a v reviou s melt
is preferable, This will give close-grained cast ing s, tough
and stron g, free fro m und ue contraction, hard a nd of goo d
wearing p rop erties, a nd capable of machining to a highly
finish ed su rface.
Sctni.stcel.-\Vha t are termed semi-steel castings are
prod uced fro m mix tures of pig iro n a nd wrough t iron or soft
steel scrap in varying proportions. Such castings lack
ductility and can ne ither be forged nor welded. The adde d
steel t ends to reduce t he to tal carbon a nd si licon a nd de
c rease the graphite present. T ho mas Tu rner, in t he J o urnal
of t he Soc iety of Chemical I ndustry, gives the st rength of
cast iron with a dd it ional wrought scrap as follows ;-100
parts cast iron; 10 parts of wrought iron inc reases t he
stre ngth 2 per ce nt. 20 parts of wrought iron increases the
stre ngth 32 pe r cent. 30 pa rts of 'Haught iron increases the
strength 60 per cent. ~O pa rts of wrought iron in creases
the strength but 33 per cent. The maximum resu lt is
prod uced wit h 30 pe r cent of wrought scrap.
The principal rules to observe in melting semi-steel
mixtures are summarised in a paper by Mr. Riddell befo re
the British Found rymeo's Association as follows ; work
t he cupola hot. Sele<:t clean scrap according to its section
and avoid massive pieces. Base calculations on the steel in
the cupola to contain from 1·70 to 2·00 per cent carbon
when melted. Estimate and provide for the silicon in the
casting according to this basis. Above all, take care that
the metals are thoroughlv mixed.
E xperience shows that the shrinkage and contraction in
serer-steer castings are greater than in cast iron, th e
a mou nts varying with the proportions used. 'Villi the
lowe r percentages the variation i!$ only slight, but it
becomes more pronounced as the proportion of steel is in
creased, and should be provided for by a corresponding
increase in the sizell of the hea ds and risers.
Owing to the reduction of phosphorus, ec., the ran ge of
flui di ty of se mi-steel is shorter than tha t of cast iron a nd
the me tal sets quicker. To meet this it will be necessary
to pour hot, involvi ng atte ntion to the ref ractoriness of the
facing sa nd, a nd to pro vi de ample gates and runners so
that the me tal m ay get to all parts of t he mould in the
sh ortest ti m e possible. Castings made fro m semi-steel
mi x tures show a close-grained structu re when ex amined
und er t he mic rosco pe.
Duclllumin is a n alloy of al uminium,havi ng the stre ngth
and hardness of m ild ste el , but onrv slightly he a vier than
aluminium. It will take a polish equal to nickel plating,
M ETALS 91
III unaffected by merc u ry, ;.", n on ,magn etic, withstands
a t mospheric in flu en ces, and i5 hut little affected b y se a or
fresh wa ter. It contains upwards of 90 pe r cent 01
al u miniu m, has a specific gravity of abou t 2 ,8, and a melt
ing poin t o f 6SO deg. Cen. It is manu factured accordin g to
t he p urpose lo r wh ich i t is required, with a tensile streng t h
of 40 toes pe r square inch, with very litUe etc ugauca, or
28{30 tone per square inch, with 15 pe r ce n t elonga tion in
2 in. or 2S tolLS pe r squ are inch wi th abou t 20 per cen t
elo ngation in 2 in. It is no t recom mended for ~ti ngs .
ChiU Casllnll,-ehi1I casting is largely used wh ere a
hard surface is required, as in reus, <ic. In c hill casting
the part of the mou ld whe re the metal is to be hardened is
made of iron instead of sa.nd. \ \'hen the metal flo ws
a gai nst thi.!I .. chill" i t is suddenly cooled, the se paration of
the graphite is pre ven ted, and the iron ill th us left white,
the carbon being in t h e combi ned C(In di tio n.
Iron for chill casti ng s honld no t be too h igh in siliC(ln or
the carbon will no t re mai n in comhination , a bout 1·5 per
ce n t is p robabl y bes t , thou gh opin ions diffe r o n thia poin t ;
ph os phorus must be very low . H ematite iro n . if not too
high in silicon, is well su ited for chill casting, a nd high
man ga nese, over one pe r cen t , is d esira ble . Sma ll addi ti on s
oj chro mium t o leav e 0 ·3 per cent are useful. Ordinary
foundry pig is qu ite un suitable.
Mu llcable Cast I r o n .- Mallea ble casti n gs a re castings
whic h have bee n exposed to some oxi disin g action by which
U,e carbon has bee n to a la rge extent re mo ved . T he usual
me thod of making them is to embed the castings, made in
the ordinar y wa y , in h em atite or oxid e o f manganese, in
i ro n boxes, and h eat to redness for fro m three day s to a
fort ni$"ht, according to the size of the a rticle and t he d epth
to which th e d ecarbonisatiou is in tend ed to proceed.
T h e iron for makin g malleabl e castings m us t be a fine
pained, white iron, and should be as fr ee as possible from
Impurities, a n d as there must be p ractically no graphite, the
silicon must be 10.... Ma llea ble cast iron s hould n eve r be
subjected to great st ress, The tensile strengtb is greater
than that o f the casting and about hal f that o f wro ugh t
iron, whilst its ductility is less thau that of wrou ght iron.
liard and MUd Steel-There are two cl&.~ ol
steel-( I ) ltutl steer, containing ove r ·5 per cent 01 carbon,
which becomes h&rd when it is heated to redness and
quenched in water, and (2) mild steel, containing lCS9
than 'S pe r cent. which d oes n ot harden se mibl. y when sc
treated . The two claB!1C9 ~ gradual ly one into the o ther",
so that it is impossible to draw a n exact lice of se para ti on.
Hard at .... l is almost aI..... ys made hy cemECltatiOll .... th lW
92 IolIlTAL5
withou t s u bseq ue n t m elti ng, whi l., t mild s teel is made
either by th e Besseme r of the S iemens process.
Grv.dea or H ard S teel- The ce nt re of t his ind ustry
, She ffield . The grades o lllte,,1 ma d e are-
R,..qr Tn " pn .- l i pe r ce nt carbon. T h is steel becomes
v ery ba rd , and is ve ry difficult to work. Articles mad e of
it take a ve ry keen edge.
S ,......jw T , m!'" . -I t percent carbo n. T bis5t~1 hardens
well, and tools made of it take a v ery keen edge. It is
easier to work t han the riUOT temper, a nd with difficul ty
can be welded.
Tool T,...pn.- l i per cen t carbon. Th" steel does no t
become 110 hard as those above. but is hard enough to take
a very keen edge. It is easier to work, &tid with care can
be weld ed .
SpiJtJl, T ....per.- li pe r cen t carbon. A very usefu l
steel for la.Tge toots, b ut req uires care in welding.
CAiul T''''I'".- I pe r cen t carbon. Thi. is a very useful
steel. It h ardens well , thoug h it becomes less hard then
the steels co ntaini ng mor e carbo n. and wben harden ed is
very tough . It is used for cold chisels a nd o t he r tools wh ich
req uir e stren gt h and a moderately sharp cu t ting edge.
SIt Temp"'.- i per cent carbon. T his is a very ecugb
steel, b ut d oes n ot hard en .....ell. It is used for co ld lieU a nd
other t oo ls which have t o s tan d bea v y blows. It welds
fairly well .
Steel Custlngs are d ivid ed in t o three gredes-c-" soft,"
" mediu m ," and" hard." T he figu re s in the follow in g table
give the composition of ea ch class of casti ngs:
Carbon. Silicon. Su lph ur. l ' h llll- Ma n·
p ho rus. genese.
5011 0 -17·020 o·u·o·,u O'OIS_O-oro 1l"·G20-0~ 0 ·&l).O -75
Modl nm (j.2 G-- O 'SO 0 -25-0-35 0-0 15·(1.0500 0·(llO-(j.04 0·50- 0· 16
H ard O·MI-040 0· 15-0·35 0·015.0-050 0-020-0-04 0·50-1·00
Bessem er S t e el.- Thi.'l is steel made by the Bessemer
f'J'OCIl)SS. Pig iron is m elted, run into the converter, and ai r
I!I b lo wn thro ugh till the carbon and silicon are removed.
Carbon is then added in the form of ferro-manganese to the
req uired amount. The end of the p rocess is indicated by the
drop of the flame whi ch issues from the mouth o f the con
verter. Provid ed the s teel is not required to be ell:tremely
mild , that mad e by this process is eqnal to that made by any
othe r. As pboepbcrus and sulphur are not removed during
the prootS!l the p ig iron used must be free fro m those
elemeota.
Steel made by the Bessemer procelill is sometimes caUed
acid. steel , beca use the furnace liDiug it llilicionM.•.• acidic.
IIETALS
Basic Beaeemee Steel-This il Iteel made In a con
.,
verte r lin ed with basic materials su ch a s calcined d olomite
instea d of such a allicious material as gan is ter. The chemical
chan ges are much the same ex cept that t he blow is not o ver
wh en t h e fla me drops. hu t mu"t be contmued-c-the after
blow- till the phosphorus i5 removed, the end of the open..
tion hei nK judged by t he eppeeraece o f t he fractnre of a
sa mp le of the metal. The pig irOIl u.sed must con tain a large
qua ntity of p hosphorus, a nd it is difflc ult to remove the
.,bole o f t h is and therefore basic Besse mer steel is viewld
with some suspicion for p urposes where resistance to shock
is required . For other p urposes the metal can be made of
excellent quality. There IS, h ow eve r, ecme di ffic ulty in
ensuring the absolute u nifonuity of vlU'ious blows.
Open-hearth or Siemens Steel._Th is is made in large
reverberat ory fu mac;es fired with gas. Pig iron is melted
and th e carbon and silico n are oxidised ou t by the addition
o f o xid e o f iron in the form of . hematite iron ore, the
oecessary carbon be ing afterwards added in the fonu o f
ferro-m a n gan ese. The process is s lo w, an d t h e flame can be
regulated &0 t h a t the metal may be retained unchanged in
t he fu rnace for ecme time: samples ca o t he re fore be taken
and th e necessary t ests made t o e ns u re that it is of the
required qu alit y befo re the ch arge is ru n fro m the furnace.
The pig iron uS<'<i mu st be fr ee fro m sulphur or phoepbo rus,
as these are n ot rem oved du ri ng the process.
A s ligh tly d iffe re nt proce!lS in which p il;f iron a nd steel
scrap i" used , without the addition o f are I" known as the
Scimens-Ma rtln process - The proce ss in general use is
the Siemens. a nd n ot the Se im e ns- Ma rtin.
B a s ic Open-hea rtb Steel. -This is made in a ga s
furna ce, the hearth of wh ich is li ned with dolomite o r
o t her basic mater ia l. By t his means phosphorus can be
eli mina ted . and t herefore pbosp bcric pig iron rendered
available for steel m a ki ng. It is not e 5oll('lItiai. however,
lI.8 it is in the basic Bess em er process, that the pig shou ld
contai n a large quantity of p hosphorus. and h ence there is
muc h Jess chance 01 a n injuri ous qu a nti ty be in g left in the
metal. The basic heart h ensures the complete re moval of
the silicon., a nd the length of ti me required to eliminate
the phosphorus ensures the re mov al ot all b ut a trace o f
carbon. A steel can therefore be made much mil der than
b y allY o f the other processes. Steels made by thi s and
the basic-I3e$Jemer p rocess are often cal led basic s teeJs. on
account o f the basic lining o f the furna ce. It must be
borne io mi nd t h a t the tenns .. acid" a nd " t-sic ,. as
a ppli ed t o s tee l ba ve 0 0 re ference to the quality 01 lbe
meta.! bu\ onl y to \b,.. cha1acter DI \he famae. in whitch
the y were mad e.
94 ME T....L S
The op en-h earth processes have t h .. ad vantage that the
operati on s a re more completely u nd er control and that
sa m plea can readil y be taken at a ny t ime for examination
It is th eref o re possible to euaure absolute uniformity of t h e
steel. For this reason t hCSO'l processes have come in to
general UIMl. and open-hearth steel is often viewed wi th
greaW eonfidence than Bessemer steel by the engineer.
It is not eMy to make steels containing m uch over ·5 pe r
oent of carbon o f good quality by these p rcceseee. though
various methods of doing 90 ba ve ~ ll suggested.
Hadfield' . M an lla""se Steel.- An alloy of iron and
manganese manufact-ared b y H adfield ', Steel Foundry
Company, Limited, Sheffield, who are the 90Ie makers
under the Hadfield ', system and paeente, This paten t
manganese steel is specially suitable for certain wearing
parts o f grinding. crushing. and elevating machinery, as it
~ extraord inary wear-resisting properties.
~Ianganese io small quantities ball little iunu.. nce on the
charac te r of t he metal. When t h e q uanity 01 manganese
rises to 2·5 per cent the strength an d d uctilit y diminish, and
t he hard ness increases, the inn ue nce reaching a maxi mum
with about 6 per ce n t o f manganese. With larger qua ntities
stre ngth and ductility Increase. It cuts well, t he caatinga
being free from b low -h oles, and forges well a t a moderate
temperatu re. Ma nganese ste-eb are not susce ptible of
ma~n etisation .
Effe ct of Aluminium ond Tun Allten on steet.c
Al uminium added to s teel d iminish es or destroys the
tendency to form blow-b oles, and thu s Rives sou nd casting
eve n with the mi ldest metal.
T he ad d ition of t u ngsten m ak e s steel v ery hard , bard
eno ugh to tum chilled rolls. T his stl"el is not inc re a sed
in hard neu b y t h e or dinary proc ess 01 hardeni ng, or
softening by annealing. It can be wor k ed at a red beat
thou gh it req u ires great care . For hard steels from 8 to 9
per cent. o f t u ngsten should be present.
Nickel SteC'l.- This material, wh ich has been used
lor a n u mbe r of yeers for armour plates. is also not
withstanding its greater cos t than ordinary mild steel,
comi ng extensively in to u se for constru ctional purposes in
connection with boilers a nd engines. Iu special properties,
II.S compared with ordinary mild steel, are its greeter strength
and especially its high elastic limit com b ined with the
tough ness and greater resistance to corrosion.
Percentege of Nlck el.- Altho u gh nickel steel will
allo y with steel i n almost any proportion, what may be
called com mercial n.ic'ke1 steel contains ouly from 2 to 5 per
cent, a nd 3 per ce n t is about t h e usu al proportion. Steel
IoIH T ALS 95
.,th tbi~ pe re entage rolls a nd lorge" well, a.nd WhCli

hard ened t h e ra tio of t he elastic lim it to t he u l timate
strength is ve ry g reat. The extreme toughness of n ickel
steel makes it more difficul t t o m achine than o rdin ary low
ca rbon ~ teeJ . and the best o f mac hi nery and tool, a re
required to cut a clean thread on l>tay bolls. Steel co n tain
ing not more than one per cent of nickel can be easil y
forged, hu t lbi! operation becomes more di ffic ul t &II t he
pereentage o f nickel in creases, and above 5 pe r ce n t is
scarcely practicable.
T enacity li nd E las tic Llnli t of Nickel Steel - At
illu st ra ti ng the influence o f nickel upon steel i t may be
stated than an ultimate tenacity of about 40 t e es ca n be
obtained from a 3 per cent nic kel steel having a pacentage
of carbon as low as -175 pe r cent. whereas to obtain this
strength i n ordinary steel at least ·5 per cent of car bon
would be required, which would make the materi al so
brittle a.!I to be u n reliable.
Speaking ge ne rally the elastic limit of nic kel ~ teel maybe
depended upou to about 50 pe r ce nt of its ultimate strength.
Coppe r v-c-The principal charao::: te ris tics 01 copper a re;
(I) its hig h conducting capacity, (2) its ex t reme malleabili t y
a nd (3) its resistance to corrosive action. It can be lorged
either hot or co ld. b ut ca n not be weld ed . Th e tenacit y o r
cast copper varieslro m 8 to 12 t ons per sq uare inch ; forge d
copper a bout 15 ton s per square inch . An av e rage an a lysis
or wha t is te rmed " Uest sel ected .. co p pe r is co p per 99 ·55
per cen t; ni ck el, \)·0 1 per ce nt ; a rse nic, 0·020 pe r ce nt;
lead. 0·01:\ pe r cent; bis m u t h 0·004 per ce n t .
G u n met al.- T he co mposition o f g un m ctal ad opted by
t he Ad miralty is: T in , 10 per cen t; zinc (max. ). 2 per cen t ;
copper, remain de r; im p uriti es, nil . All copper i~ to be of
a p p ro ved q ua li t y. A deviation of mo re than I per cent is
suf ficient to condemn the ma terial. T est pieces ha ve to
stand the following tests; Ul tima te strength, not less t han
14 tons per square inch; elongation on 2 in., not less than
7·5 per ce nt. 't hi. alloy makes very sound a nd tough cast
ings m uch hard er than copper. bu t will no t forge. The metal
doell not lend itge1l to rapid working wit h machine t ools.
Brlls s .- This is an alloy o f copper and J:inc. an d is in
some respec ts superior to gun metal. The proportions vary
fro m 70 parts oj copper and SOof zinc to 60 o f copper and 40
of zinc. 'the 70 to 30 (or more often 2 to I mi><tu re) m a kes a
good alloy for parts where tenacity and ductility a re re
quired. Such an alloy will give a tenacity of abou t 20 toM
a nd an elongation of 50 pe r cen t in 8in. The al loy o f 60
copper and 40 zinc will permit o f forging hot. but it is not so
good fot watklng col d. and the , t re ngt h fal ls off .. the pro
dorti on of nne i Den'&.~ . a.nd th.e 2 \0 I mi :d u re lC'PJ"eDU
96 "'IU A LS
about the e ",u e me ainc limit in brass which has to be roUed
or worked cold. Brasil is o fte n mi xed with asmal t pe rcen tage
oilead. This makes it easier to work, and also chea per, hut
it reduces the tenacity. F or castings exposed t o the act io n
of sea water the addition o f I per cent o f tin dimin ishes th e
tendency to pitting and, the mixture is k nown as "naval
brass : '
Monel Metal.- This metal which is suonger th an
nick el steel, consists primaril y of nickel a n d copper in th e
proportion of three parts of nickel to one part of cop pe r.
A standard analysis o f Mon el m etal is as foll ows: :Nick el.
68 to 72 per cent ; Iron , 0 ·5 to 1·5 per cent ; Sulp hu r, 0 -014
percent; Carbon, 0-07300 0,15 percen t; Cop per to balance.
This alloy is silver-whi te a nd takes a b rilliant fin ish , which
i t retains indefinitely. In t h e rolled sheets, the su rfac e
assumes on heating a coati ng o f o xid e which has great
resi sta nce to acids. A speci a l pickle h a s to be u sed to
remove the oxide coat for articles destined to be polished.
T he metal melts at 1,350° C. It can be roll ed perfectly from
900° to 1,200° C.. and its ann ealing tem perature i5 anove
875 ° C. It can be fin ished hard or soft, like s heet co pper.
The ro lled metal has been drawn into wire of all s izes
down to O·OO4in. It d ra ws per fec tly in t o a smooth t u be, an d
its high elastic limit a n d tensi le strength, co mbined ",itb
its incorrodibility, are of especial valu e ill light m achinery.
Its s pecif ic grav ity, as cast , is fro m 8 ·86 to 8, 87 , and wben
ro lled from 8 ·94 to 8·95.
Monel Melal Rolled ,
I In. Hod• . Annealed and
Cut Monel Met al AI Ro lled Cold Dcown
Te nsile s t re ngt h _ . 70,000 to 85, 000 _ 100,000 _" 110,000
Elastic limit _ _ Tl ,000 to 40 ,000 _ 50 ,000 _ 80,000
P"r «a t p", ceol Pe< eftIl
Elongation in two in . 30 to 25 30 25
eduction of area ""~ 35 to 25 50 50
Ma ~n Il U u m.-This is an a lloy composed of magnesi u m
and aluminium. It is ligh ter than al umin ium and is a
stronger and tougher metal, its tensile stren gth ranging
from 14 to 2 1 tons per sq. in. according to its composition.
Goo d BOund , clea n castings can be made from it, while it
wo rks well in rolling, filing or t u r ni n g . Further i t ca n be
sol d ered , forged and weld ed . The melti ng poi nt ran ges
from 1184 d eg. F ab . to 1248 deg. Fab. according to the a Jlo y
It is a good conductor o f heat , the specific heat bein g
0·2185 d eg. Fah. The aJIoy can be turned and faced at the
same speed as brass. The t ool s req uir e to be k ee n-edged,
a nd will wo rk better if kep t lu bricated wi th tu rpentine.
petroleum or vase line . In sawing, tbe saw should be lubri
cated with petroleu m . T h e alloy takes and retains a hiRh
silvery white p olish with r otten -ston e, tripoli or rouge .
97
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98 MllT A I. S
Phosphor Bronee.i--Accord in g to A P hili p. H.Sc .

(Ad miralt y che mis t), in a pape r read before t he I ns ti t u te
o f 1\10t a 15, t h e special charactl'f,stics o f t hi s a lloy are (1) its
freedom from corrosion by salt wate r; (2) its high qu alities
as a mech a n ica l constructive material: (3) th e small effect
which rise of temperature has upon its mec ha n ical p ro
p ertles : (4) a spark canno t be re-...d ily obtained from it
by a b low; (5) phospho r b rcneee of high phosphorus con
te n ts possess low friction coe fficie nts, and resist abrasion
well. Pbosphor b ro nze is partic ularly sui ted for boiler
fit ti ngs and for fitti ngs exposed to eea water, for the COli
atruction of machinery for manufacturing explosives, and
lor bl-arings Ior hi gh -speed mac h inery.
:\Ir. Philip proposes the following spocifications of the
chemical composition of phosphor bronze casti ngs to give in
la rge cutings an ultimate t e nsile stress of over 17 tons pe r
square inc h a nd a n elongation on 2 in . o f not less tha n 20
pe r cen t: Copper, 90 to 92 per cent; tin. 7·4 to 9·7 per
cent : ph osph oru s 0·3 to (H) per ce nt.
For p ll<...pb or bronze rod , meet or WIre Copper, 94 ·5 to
97 ·5 pe r ee e t : re mai nd er tin : phosphorus. 0 · \0 to 0,25 pe r
cent ; ultima te telUiJe str_ when unannealed. over 30 toua
pe r square inch: percentage elongation when unannealed.
ove r 10 pe r cent 011 2 in . ; ultimate tensile stress wben
annealed, over 20 tons per square inch: percentage e1o n'):a.
tion whe n anneakd. over .0 per cent on 2 in . For beari ngs
the phosphorus should be bijl"b, from 0·8 to I -0 peT cent.
~tanl1anese Bronu.- This metal resists the COI'TOSive
action o f sea water and b used for gear wheels, maay parts
o f machinery, and largely for screw propellers. A typical
mixtu re consists of copper, 58-60 : zinc, 41-39; manganese
u p to 2 with up to I pe r cent each of aluminium and tin,
a nd lKlmetimes mo re .
Babbitt's Metal.- This allo)' is exteusively used for
lining!! bearings. Its composition varies widely, a n d
co nsis ts o f tin. with a small quantity 0 1 copper and anti·
mon y. T h e quantity of tin is usually over 80 per cent. A
typical alloy recommended by Cbarpy consists of 6 parts o!
co p pe r, 8 partll of antimony, and 8A parts of ti n.
OlE CASTIN GS.
The p roceea 01 pressure die casting has made very rapid
p rogress in the 1000t t wenty years. The lncr eaee in the
manufacture of pressu re die ca:n.l "'l>ll uas been primarily
due to the evolution 01 t be 4 % a.iu wi nium high purity
einc iLIloy!!, po!I'iOSlIing very hi gh scr engm, good dtrnensiona.l
st ability, an d t be a b ility to maiuwm t hese properties
u nd er serv ice co n d it io n_ The de"elopment of these
iLIloys whi cb arc co ve red in E nr1...ud by Brit ;~h Sta.nrta~<i
99
Specifica tio n 1004 , foc ussed attention on die ta.'lting
mac hines a nd die d esign in gene ra l which resulted in
Impr o veme nts in t he di e casting of a ll all oys. The tonnage
of eiu c alloy die castings bo th here a nd in Am eri ca, bow
ever, i. greate r tha n the s um total of die ca.stin~ in
aluminium. brasa, tin and lea d alloys.
T he majority of machines uged to-day are power opera
ted ; very low pressure machines such at ba n d operated
o r direct-ai r machines are DOt no w used t o any great
extent. H igh pressure machines faIl in to two main types.
cold chambec machines in which the metal for each shot
Is baed-Iadled into tbe pressure cv li odl.'r. an d ~oec .
macal_o 10 ",well ttl.. metal .u wmaueaJly l In ..... IOto the
pressure cyunde.r, which is kept submerged in molten
metal. Eitber hydraulic or pneumatic operation is uS«!
to operate both ty~of mactcnee Cold c hamber macbinee
are used mainly for alum inium a od b rass d ie easting.
while t h e gooeeol"Ck type is used for ~i.Dc and o ther alloys
of lo wer melting point. Modern high ~I'MlI ure mac hi nes
are now casting parts as la rge as 36· X 9 x 8· a nd as small
a.s zipp fas ten er components. The capacity of t he Brit ish
die cai!lting ind ust ry is stated to be some 25 million castin gs
pe r week in zinc a lloy al on e .
P ress u re d ie cMtings a re prod uced in pr ecision mad e
steel mo ulds or dies co n taluin g o ne or m ore impressions
0 1 tile article requi red. T he die opens p rimaril y into
two parts to a llo w for ej ec t ion o f til e cas ting. b ut the die
bloc ks may b e furth er d ivide d by mo ans o f slides a n d
cores t o prod uce holes , or irregula r s haped opc nlnga at
va ri ou s angles in t he castings. T he di e is fitted on th e
die Cil5ting machine which perfo rms t he oper a ti ons 0 1
open ing and closing the d ie a nd in jecting th e molten
meta l unde r prl"ssures of toOO to 10 .000 Ibs. pe r tioq , in.
or mo re. The cas ting solid ifies almost insta n tanoously .
and the machine is operated to open t he d ie a nd ejl'lct
the casting. t h e cycle being then repeated . T be number
of ti mM a machine can be operated in an hou r depends on
several racecrs, but 300 shots pe r ho ur for an 8 o e. casting
is an average ra te 01 productio n.
The majority of castings only require simple trimmi ng
operations to be ready fo r U'll. Under fa vo urab le con
ditions ca.stiop in :rinc alloy can be made accurately to
0.001·, while parts with a maximum number of 24 io\ernaJ
and extemaJ threads p"'r inch, and hole.!! as small as
0.001 · diameter are being successfully cese. TIl""" limits
a re greater for aluminium or copper alloys, T he die life
lor Ibe lo w melting alloys of rinc. tin and lead b almost
indefinite. hu t dec.r~ rapidly lUI the ml"lting poi nt (If
t he .1101 Illl"fI' a_
I ~'
_ ,,"",. ' "' Ol . ~ ••" ...

l oooh.. III F
Sln1ll l b DC
D.S,S . 101,14/.0\ ...S·_·, 0'0,:1 . 0:)- . (16

'"
(1i9'~"'1 1oc>I/l.,1
".1""01 18 · 8 M,
B.SS. 100t/8 , ·$-4·30·7S- 1·'lS '03'%,·08 Bal.".,.. 11 '1
'"~
AI,,, " lc:ol,, '"
" 110,.. ,.% " % • • % " %
..... 51%
.•. 10-.50'1 u
0.. lI--lI ~4 O,H
,.,
c.r
1101.......
1101 .....
,$ -S
18"
M'
D.T.D.424
"% ,. % " % " %

'"
15-1) t .o ,., Hal"",. ,., m
<;b'"
~,
'"%
~.
"%
t\aa..... ,.,
M.....eotd lD
Alkl ,.
,.,
"% ,.% ..%
. ..
..,
e.s Bal_ M'
Covpet .1.110'" 7... % "% ,'%
84'0 , -u Oal ..."" ». ,
Aluminium, - Comm6rc la l al u mini u m contalne cl_ OD
B\l~
per Nm t ot aju m tn tum , a nd for .pt'CI..l pUTJ'O'Il'tI can be
obtained wi th ua Httle WI 0-4 to O':i PI'T ceut of Impn rlt leR.
TlHI mo~t Htrtking feature III I!./! reln tlve IIll:htnellfl com pa red
wh.h ot,l".rl'l ; Its lIpecifl<: p:rs vlty vartes from 2'/i6 In In~h
to 2'7 In for ged harP.. The welgbt. of" l(iven hul k 01 t hl "
met a l compared with o'hara \8 "'" follo w.:
Al u m in i um .... 11)0
W roulI'b t I ron .•
St ooL
~1lO
1"00
I COpp6I' ... • •..• S'IlO
H 3· 1.~
8il>er .• _•.. . . , -00
I Lead ••...•.•.••• H ill
11<>1.<\ . ....• •. _ •• 7 '7'l1
P latinum 8"81
The heat I'OlIdut'tlvity of alumtntu m I" h lll:h, beln ll:" MeOODd

only to copper. It!! elect rical co n du<'tI1"lty 1& fr()lli tIO to 6l!
per rent tlmt of p ure eiec trolytic coppe r.
Al om lnlam e&O be me lted in ordinary p lum"l:wlll:"o rruelble.
o.-e r a w ke t1~. hut without lluJ:. or it nlA)" beeome brittle.
......
(lor blr'll:"& q uaotltiella l"e1"erberatory coal furnace IIIp:enerall y
The' ~hri null:"e of aluminium ca.&tlall:& 1"&riM from ll a. t el
hiD. to the' (oot aerordiug to compoeitioD.
10 .Ol'klnil a1llmlniow. a 1Ib~~ to31 .Itb a ll:OOd
ele.annee would be used , and the ..ork run 'a" hlll:h u 81'(1(1.
per min .. tllf'o t 1 or hlhrka"t In t h. abaP" or _ tllUld . a t"'r
IUTAL.S. '0'
or paraffin being used. For drilling holes a diamond o r
nose drill wirh ample clearance should be used. a twist
d rill be ing liable to seize. Screw t hreads ca n be cu t with
a n ordinary tap, using a Jittlelight oi l all a lubri can t.
The metal can be read ily welded by means of po rtable
oxy-a.cetylene bl owpipe eq uipmentll. Sol d eri ng ill an u u
safufactory process, sin... e the greater cond uc ti vit y of the
metal remo ves the beat fro m the so lder. Where it ill
necessary to use sold er the followi ng all oy ill rec om mended,
viz.• 80 per cen t ti n and 20 per cen t zinc. This should be
fluxed with . composition of 80 pe r ce n t stea ric a cid , 10
per ce n t ti n chloride. a nd 10 per cent zinc c h lorid e. A plue
nickel 5OIde rinll: bit shou ld be used, as co pper d iscolOUR
alumini um . This can be worked sUcce:sllfully if thO'
aluminium be heated first. or kept hot with a blowpipe .
Aluminium d octl not rust or corrod e, ex cept with strong
alJmIies o r acids. Gol d and s ilver o nly ex ceed it in mallea
bility, it having been drawn down to I thickne" 01 0-0005
inch , and ill mOlit mallea ble be t wee n 400 and 600 deg. F.
AS gases a re easily absorbed, alumini u m should no t be
heated much be yon d itt me lting point, 1,215 deg. F. , and
the shrinkage will be ahout 13/64 in ch per foot. As
t he re are no a luminium o xi d es readily termed, the scums o r
o xid a t ions will consist entirely of impuritiea., and will do
mo re good than harm. It can be cast ID dry o r green sa n d.
StrenQth of Alumlnu= i i n Vario us Forms (E hev a rn.) .,
Ultimate
Tealile YIeld E loo• • tloa ) IOOolul of
Sinogtb
T..... pet oq. ia.
polat per 01"'. E1IIUelt y.
,.,
,,...,
Sand ...Iingo ... .. .. .. a-s
ehlU 0Jl.~ .........
R..Ued b...... .. . .. . . .. ,.,
1·25 ""
Ro>Iled Ib ... t
Dn.... _I ~·::::::
~ "• --
,"" '-."""
e·11
SaIl :!nora ...... _=
Han! dr ..... .-ire ...
", -
-
11,000,000
I O,~~
A lum.Jn iu m AlJoys.-Pure aluminium is too lIIO ft and
weak for most purposes. but it uni t es with all metal. eseept
mercury and lead, t hon gh with difficulty witb antimony,
and its allo)' 1 ere very useful.
Mixed WIth from 2 to 8 per cen t o f n ickel aluminium
makes a valuable hard al loy of tensile strength of lIIOlIIe
50,000 ponnds. Nickel aluminiu m all oys ha ve as much
spring as the hardest of bard -drawn bra.a.
Aluminium bronu, containing 5 to Ii per cent of
aluminium, ill a s trong fine-grained bronz e, , u ita blO' for fin ..
in'ltro men bt
102 M ET A!. lI
Cop pe r hardened a lu minium has t he st re ngth of a wit

bron ze but the l i ghtll~ o f a lu minium , a nd contains 2 to 15
per ceDt of COP(!<" f .
Aluminiu m s tee l ill, nex t to nick el steel. the st rongest
IIteel made. Alu minium makes caet steel flo w bette r a nd
drives out occlud ed gases, making it more ho mogene ous.
Density, Specific Heat, CoetflcJent of E:llpliRSl on, Melt.

i De and Bollloll Points o f Metals a n d other substances
DeDSily.
Spo<:ilk: Lbo. PC'
Subslaoce. .......;11 cubic
100 1.
Wa ur _I liz<' F.I , ln---

- -- 42 , ......
..,
- .....
, .e 161-7 11 14
".
A1u",' " ", (Casll ' ·1 12
Amu"""', ......
8 " ",ul/& ..., ...'"
""7. m
'" .oOQOis ,~
0,
..'"," "..'".., ~, ,~
....,.. "'",...
~':i~~. ;: :
~,
""
. ,..... -
."" -" ..,
..-
' 24 1
Colre ••••. ••. ••• •
G....
"""
............
I"" . t ,no"p:'::: =
-t. .
,-
.1-5
,-
, -" ,,,."
Ifoalc...n ...... N ses .rec
..."
I""", W""", .). ' 11 4 ~
7 '7 4
",
, .. '" .... .. ..... ,.......
srn
"-
II ·S$ ~
"" ·1 17
-(lOOIOI
)(en:ary .. •. .• .•• " '$911 ~,
.-r.. ' 17
'"
=li~Ui' : : :
" ' kII.I .• . ......... H
. ..'"", ."
" '"
~
-t ..
~,
-..
" I ... "" .....

,"
Oak .. ...• .•.••••.•
OillPot_ml. .g ~
_.w............
-'" .-... ..... "'"...
I'b~_ :U·$ eeens 11111
PI_ C..... blteJ ...
. -es
.........
,..
,~ m .". ~
............
'_I
sn.....
n . ..............
10-47 4
,n
~
' 116
~
-.. 1761
4 12 1
Nil ~. m "00
ZlDe.. .. .. . . ... .. ..
'"
Th e specific beat in the above table is re ferred to wat..r
as uni ty. Th e figures in the column are t h e number of
British thermal units req u ir ed to raige one pound of t h l!
Itibiotaoce t h roug h one degree Fahrenh eit
Strength of Metals and Alloys. 10::1
TraDllver8e Strength of Cast Iron.- T he followi ng
table Rives res u lts showing tbe coefficient of bendi ng
strengt h for cast-Iron rec tan gul ar bars of di fferent grades
af iTon. jb
- B x D2
_ Wx ~x K
L, B , a nd n are le ngth. breadth, and depth res poxti vely

in similar units.
Cross B n'aklng Tests of ea.1 Iron.
Dnctlptloa-
I
Doptk. BrudllL Span I
I lICbn. Inchc&. I"". .
B
I T-.
III ' Coo-fAl" ;" 1
~dOC I To".
op. u..It
per
Rectangular .
2C93
:2 93 I 0·90
0-90
I 2020 1 .'89
4 76
,<8
1 14·4
Planed
{ 0·90
0-90
2·93
293
I 2020 1·52
1·49
I ,<8,
14 5
Rectangular.
Mean of 2 I i I :~ i:~~
I 13 -6
1- 1-36
1
Re<;:tangub,;··· · · · ·· · ·1 ~ \ '33- 1 :~:~

Rectangu lar, Mea n) 2
of a large number ,! _z
-I1- I
1
36
~
) ,26
1.67
13 ·0
- iN
Rectangula r. 1
I
1
2
I 3636 0·36
0·79
15·0
16·4
Tensile Strength of Cast Iron.- Thu n ton gives the
following values for the te nsil e strength of cu t iron under
various conditions :_
Ordi..."y CcmdiliollS. -Good pig iron 8,93, tough cast
iron 11' 15, hard ClUIt iron 13·37, good tough gun iron 13·3 7
tons pe r sq. in.
Reme lkll Cad Iro ...-s-First. melti ng 6·26. second melting
10·25. third melting 13·50 . fourth mel b ng 15·96 torul per
$<I. in .
Co m preaalve S t ren!ath of east lron._ Tbe eempres

!tn1Igth of cast iron varies from 25 to 85 tons pel"
sl\'l!
square inc b. but depends o n the length 01 the lpecimem.
M a ll e a b le Call t l ron .- ) lr. A. Marterul (Proe. l nst. C. E. ;
gives t he foJlo"'in g a verage results o f to me t ests on this
metal. bo th fo r pi eces wh ich have been welded and for t be
unwelded met;o.) ;
10. ST I( .l!;N GT ll 01' "KI M .I>
T~ I :~~~7 Ne:E.1iODll;:~~::.n
~nwel d ed
Wel ded
~ j
Jq o&re inch. sq uu e inch.
4·44 I 16·38
19·24
per oon l.
8·2
13·3
"""t.per
2,5
H
Physical Properties o f Alumlnium.- With regard to
comm ercial aluminium of a p urit y of from 99 per ce nt to
99 -5 pe r cent, the follo .... ing table gives the usuaf Iimits of
p hysical properties of commercial aluminiumz-s
Ultim.ate T.noile P.""'ntq.
Elastic Umi L
I Suel1lth. monl.tion in 2i n.
Caatiap ••. .••.•.

Sheet (H ard) •••
Lbo.. per sq. ill.
U ,OlXI (llin.l
.,
Lbt.. pn ~.
20,000 (Mi n.
I e.
20 10 50
2 .. 8
ShearinJ,1 Strength of Various Metals.
M. too ral
.z; .s.
, t", og t h .trengt h
R aUo
/. I Authorlty
.q. m. T '
Tono,per
sq. II).,
Tono.per
--- ----
B . .... m • ••1001 3.'i'21
-----
52-20
--
0 ·6 7 Pl.tt and Hayward
CI1Iclbl e .t... l . 3330 52-16 o·s. P latt a nd Hayward
I Kl tkaldy
St ••l p ro peller ,haft
C&lI II• • l
1S-12
2760
2 7· 36
28 -0~
'"
0 ·72 P latt all.d ~ay ..ard
Si.m. na·Martl.. atee l 2 1-05 25 -75 .~ Ma tt a ..d Ha ,...,ard
W.l.ba... .. . .
'"' PoppIo_ell..,d Coke.
~. ~ 23·~ ~
."
.. ..
........ 11-60 ..-cc
""'"
1II: 01I.,-,, _ l aI
"
,,~ 2-S·~6
.", Pl.all and Ha , _ard
CUD _laI •.•
Hard n>lIed b"",.., _
.. 12·47
ie-ee
"
,~
Pl.all aDd Ha,ward
Klrl<aId,
0 '59
Bron.. uttlnp . .•..• 10.39 11'~8 e-sc Klrl<aIdy
Cu t iron ..... ...•.. ...• 9·54 '· 14 ." Poppk...,11 and Cot ..
y .....11 Matal sa 0 ·7 1
" Idelda. Wait ""beq
.1Id McCabol
1<1'1""';1' 01' TRM P,, " .n'lIIUl: OS IlK T ALS IU5
E.tf «:t of T e mperature o n StrenQ,th of M etahl __Th e

effec t o f t~· lllV" I" l.urc o n t he atroogth 0 1 m .. t. l~;~ va ri:lhl" _
Wrou!:ht ir on And steel improve in teoacity up to abou t
500 d eg. Fah. Above that point, however, th e Itreng t h
dimin ishes ra pid ly. Average cut iron begi~ to lose
stren gth a t 200 e eg. Fah., and at a red heat its norm al
rtnon gth i~ reduced one t hird. Cas t iron also becomes
uncertain below freezing point, At . temperature of
400 deg . gun met&! becomes percepti bly eofter. At 55J deg.
its ter.-eity is reduced by one half. At high tempen. tDr~
alloya. lu ch as Ddta metal, Phosphor bron~. auu'. metal.
are m'leh . t ro ngr. t ba.a brass or gun metal. Tho It~ngth
of COfpeT b laluu:d by prolonged ""'J'C*Ire to • t .. m~llI..
tu n "en as 10" as <400 deg. Fah. At tha temperature
good annealed copper cannot be depended on fO T a ".ensile
s trength 0 1 mor e than 10 tcee pe r "'Iuan inch,
E"pan llion of M e t al s .- l le tab expand by hea~. aod
('.onmct by cold : and in almost a ll mec!uuli cal operations
it is teceua.ry to make allo ..ance for this, otherwbe VelY
great Itrainll alll brnulllht to bear u pon the ma terial.
Co ntra c tion o f Ca8tlni8.-Pattern·maken usually
snow for iron Clllltings from T" in. to • in. per foo t , an d for
b rass casti ngs double tha t a mou nt. Fo r a lumin iu m cas t
Ings t ill. ~u ,". ill. per foot is all owed .
M eltJnll Point of C o m m e r cia l Copper Alloyll - The
followin g a rc th e results o f tests to ascertain the melting
points o f SOUle of th e commercial brasses a nd b ronzes made
by H . W . Gillett a nd A. B. Norton, of t he Un it ed S ta t es
R"r"~ll of !'Ilin e!. and recorded in technical paper N~
.'!.~pr<lI illln.
I Composltlon, _ M'IU D, Poi nt .
Allo,
Copp« ' Zlnc. ll1<L ll.oad. &":~ ~: I

Gu n meW
Leaded ggo metal
1 88
as, 2
2
10
91
I "'3 1995
1
980
182.5
1795
R ed b rua... ........ .. .. 85 5 5 5 970 1780
Low-grade red br.ue.. 82 10 3 5 980 1795
Leaded brceee 1 80 10 10 ) 9 45 1735
Bronu with &lUI:.. . . .. 85 5 10 9110 1795
H al f-yel. It half·red .. . 75 20 2 920 1690 3
Cut yellow bra3ll.. .. ..
Nava! b ra.ss
67
611
31
31II
2
8.':15 1645
R55 1510
!
Ma o gane.e brouee .. .I 810 1600
Th e rQeltiag point given ~ the li'l0I ('II..I. or point where the
all oy it complrtely molten. The temperatures are thoull'b t
to hoe acc u rat .. with in p lul or minus 20 d.... . Faa.
100 Cum position und J'hysical
eom p iIW b , ' W tt . ", ..." """ aDd '~Drod\H:<: d 1m""
,;
~
GOllmet&l
AdoL"''''', No. I
.. a
2
<
,1 lim o ,"
....
~ II .....
..
lkI
"
to
, ,,
,
."
ro
,,• es e
,, 8~ ill u
"u
6/11 '·1,
, . eo tu
,"
" zu
zo ",
..'"
Dr• ••_Yellow .
"""ia
.. E,,~li.4 Stan,!',l
6 0-7
N a~'a l St a;; <1aru
..
"""
""
.....
~ lu n tt Meta l
Admiralty
E .l.rUOiou ••..•.
~tridKe .... ...
"
as
c-e
.." ..., ."
..""
lboK""""" .••.•. SIl'S c-s
se-s
,,
Copper }I.og~~ :::::: so
..•
~ !ucb's 0< " err<>""'tal "•• S6i60
..
AloUlio.iuw-Il . sa
"~ I
Hroo.., ..• sc
""',aI . "
..
;l5 .'dODei
U G<:r mansilvu •••••••••. .• • 0·62 14-3 6
n Cup..o-n;ckrl .. 15-1l5
~.:l
~~
So
l'la'iooid .. ....•••••• . .•. ••
<.:"".14,,';0
Aluminiom tino
.. . .. . .. ••.••.•
.
"
5(
3~
..
..
ooPP'"
t ine-c op p e,
•••
• e
•
...""
~~ M .gn~iium ~.~~~.~~::: : ::
" .
tlunluUlio •.. . .. .. . .. . .. .
l·/5
0·1
"e
3-15 '"
..'" Aoli·lricUoD "' et. L. . .•.
" babb i'
W hi, e b< OTiug ...... "ru
5'6 ..,
aa-a
es
..."" 1'1..;'lic ",;,',al_A'd;;;iiy::

1ol.t~lIic Pa c kin g
Uad_aulittl'y ca.timp.
I::l..,tricl~
F~l>1e metals
.
..
.
s es
s as
00
W - IO
25-35
Prop e e t te e ot A U op •.- _(; " .. IJ, ,In p . I US. WJ
P~p." ,u~ be/ or< the Ju.. io< .... UIU' io u of Eog;n«,..
,
., J
,~ • ~
= •..
• ~,,;
•"" I-T."s, cl.
--,"'"".- I
1
<
E
I :'
~
s g
:<
~
"",;>; ~
];
...
El a",c Ll'lIha '" 'J00'l;,
LllUU 1' ;; ~m' ~l b l
Toll, To n.
Bnnd l
'u.n,.
I H a ' d n' ..
-------- --- - -- 8~: .1O J~'--::- ilr 14
10 II I 15· III 15- 18 M · Ju

81 · 10 I ~· l ~ 15· ZU 6 ;;·;U
6H11 1 2· 1 ,~ IIi 2(1 SU-W
t .e 1 1 2- 1 ~ 2- 15 !lO-I~ U
10-1 1 15H ~ 6·1<1 w
e.a 1~ -22 20-25
" 1121
81-91
W-1 5
141 6 ·7
r-z
5, -, (1
14 ·8 0
4. 4 l 121 H 22 -28 5U-!5
2 ·~ ·~11 S 7 -5~
1 1 2~ :~ i
W,
o:is ", "
".
t-
0' t l I t -I S I 2 7- ~ ; 18-30 1100

~
1<0
,. ar ' 104-1 I ~
0'
0"
a ,,s-s "
lS' 17 ~8 -~ ]
n 23
"
"ao
.., '"
25-85
"
-n
"'"
2 ii)'
21-40
'"
8 -10
,
11-10 "
si:j· '"
8 1· 10 as
"l · 5~ 0'. 5 51::, 1 ~- 2 '
Q vo< 18 ,
",.,
(\075
",
11-2 I ",., " , "
'"rc , "e.s "
,., I
to
" "
3U·5O I
-----
106 Compeetncn and I'hyslcal Proper-tfee of
A lloys·-.;.m li /llUd
- - --
u.....
- - - - -
I ISm.... u••
ana 10 SIIoc.L
"toac~· RI'ti U· Ge<oenJ.- Mu:hi
lIydnlullc W
Parts.
k" H ..,d be~
Val......
2
,
4
St1'O:tth.
Good Ihelliai....
.. ~
TOOC~
R~to =.~,, ; lrJ(1l prc&

Reobu
I
Guo llKIuoll C~
FulOpo, ooIlan, burl.....

WOfDl rcari...- and ~ _ "
Fu lOp t>ocIl.-, .. at.... a\raID .lil ti!>p.
'• I"t_h. __ --
.nd
~ bock.
7 SltftII:th.nd IDClOfl'<>dib ilit J'. Cull....... _ U at...... d e.
8 R...... Ibock ...<1 rlbTaUoo. Bearlo,p I.... h14b a~ aDd _ _ _
II Aotl· lricuoll. BUlhinp, be........ (DO o.bod<).
10 !'fa .4001' b. 1J&bt caoUnp.
II N o1leabilhy " Cold·rollc<l. Tu t>. I.... boOk"'. a te.
12 Hully cuL GolD_I. (pla .....
13 MalJ"" Wlly. ... oJ... "".... &1101". GClIefal.-SU."Chlou, oplnd lca I U~
14 H OI·roU ed. Slupl".be.olblllC.a,C.
IS RC'Oi... OI>l.......... Cond n _ l u "
16 l ....Ullb. duc t ila" Varioua.
17 Carindja.,.......
18 SlrOn,' b: fo rgin" ro lli'.,; C... llop.,
....i."
;,t,e nKlh ;
",,"001011.
I"", b"... ,,.".jIll co.-. Propellen. , uln . lid.... lOan"O·
lea. tiI>j[A.
"
ao Re .i o" hl,b w. ter p ,.".......,.
lI e&l... i.lln,.
l'r<-l'eUe. blad ... , et c.
F i",bo. ' Iays.
""aa St ... nllt b; bard: . . .. . 11 ="on. Gen. ..1.
RolI.d and forg ed bol. Fo' l:1np and clttil\&f.. (p.......'"
AI . 0-7-35 % 1",C.o1, rolled.. m CIl p.... ura-:- ul' to 14 tOftI i n, e rn al
" 7 · 10 %Callinc. 10 I .. nd .
G l llre.... th ; , .,.;. \1 eon. Pltti .......
"" R tI cotrOIJD n . Vano u&.
C.rlndp..-•• te,
~
"" lIlji,' .lec t.J~ resina"". Not ch.o~DI wllb t.mp-u ta ...
sc Ll.. hi.i..... Aot olDDbito Cutin....
..
""
"""
...
"
..
W
SIldenl_ . ~
~~",mt.
"""
P1tJiip ..-trvcUoG.
"
,""
MOIehlne Tool DeRllln
Th e arst req uiremen t in an". machine is t hat it shall

accomplish in a satisfactory manner the particular purpose
for which it is designed; hut collateral with thi, il'l the
problem o f" constructional economy:'
It is Important to know what i.$ settled by eXperience,
and where to atop tlj;ng to substitute new devices or
imp~ticable ideas.
Many attempts to depart from known and tried p rin
ciples involve. serious rislr. of failll'"
A machine should be sufficiently heavy to absorb it ow n
vibration. Meta.! should be nw:d fffely. but it should be
disposed in the correct place.
Complicated mecharnsms should be avoided as far u
possible. The simpler the machine the better.
Simplicit y means that there is D O unoeceaa.ry multiplica_
tion of parts If two eleme nts ue u!oed where one wo uld
do the same work this would clearly be a violation of con
st ructional economy. Every wheel. every le ver, and every
ca m must be essential to the successful operation o f t he
machine, and the designer's task is not complete a!l long as
there is a reasona b le doubt in this direction.
An o th er matter which adds to censtructlonal expen se is
the un necessary multiplication o f sizes. Take, lo r Instance,
a shaft or spindle 3ft. lo ng and 4in. larges t d iameter. If
practicable to make t h is sp indle wi th fou r shoulders and
diameter . it wou ld be bad design ing to make it with six . It
takell ti)no to turn and gauge these ext ra diam,·ten a nd
lengths between ahoulders. and if t his be rep ea ted on a
n um ber of shafts in a machine the a dditional e><pen'le
contiden.ble.
AU bearing $urfacl'$ should be as la rge as p raclkable to
ensure a long period of ""..ar before getting out of tru th .
Convenient means shou ld be provided for compensating
for wear ""b"o it does occur.
All parts sh ould be readily accessible 1IO as to be easy t o
get at in case of accident. It u frequently upedlent to use
cap bearinltS on thu account, whereas otbe","se solid bear
inK' would do. All gearing and importaot mechanisms
should be en closed in neat covers.
The drh'inll: sh oold have plenty 01 powu. and !IO shou ld
the feed motion.
Th rre ab oold be plenty of vMiation in speeds of .pin dle
and of feed
110 IIACH1NB TOOL DIlSIGN.
With the u"" a t an .. all gear " feed it is advisable to

include ecme form of safety device, either friction or other
wise, in the feed train. This should be arranged 80 t bat it
will not s lip under any ordinary working stress. while in the
ease of exceptionally heavy stress, the slipping of a feed is
like a Ioafety valve, and is preferable to the Iracture of
wheel teeth and the possible straining o f other parts of the
machine. When a belt is used for driving. thi9 of itself
forms a frictional safety device.
A mechanism or a machine need not necessarily be
entirely new ;0 ita conception. II is the more effective
grouping and combination of mechanisms bnt adapted for
the particu lu (~ o f work to be operated upon, together
with .!:as! mNn ~ o f mampulatioQ. that makes one machine
1IO much more sUca'\Sful than a notbe r.
S'ul run on steel s no uld always be hardened.
G"r1-lOUlal or bronze shou ld no t run o n gu n- metal or
bronte.
Ihmdl c l!I. - AIl handles for controlling t h e variou s mo ve
men ts should be grouped in a con v en ien t posi tion for the
operator . T oo much importance cannot be a ttached to this,
a s the outpu t of the mach ine depends on ease in handling.
H an d les shou ld be constructed in s uch a way that the
movement o f t h eh andle is an indi cati on of the movement of
th e m ac hine. F or in stance, in a bori n g and mi llin g machine.
to make the upright travel fo rward a hand le ill to be pu lled
forw a rd; in order to make it trav el backward the sam e
ha nd le is pushed backw ard; to make the sadd le go up a
ha ndle is to be raised up, a nd in order to mak e the saddle go
down this same lever ill pulled d o wn • .tc.
The same remark a p p lies to the handl es for a co mpo u nd
rest of a la the. When stand ing b y the carriage with cue
band on eacb. of the crank handles wbi ch give motion to the
ICrews , a nd the handles are at the top o f their revolving
path, then, when you push them away from yo u, the tool
should move away from y ou , a nd vic. ",".sa.
AU handles, whether used as leven o r IockinK ban d ies ,
!lhould be similar in shape.
F ramework and Braekets.- F or al l fra me work and
brackets the bollow or box aection uould be employed
....henever possible. A complete hox is 13 times more rigid
.gaiD~t torsion, and four ti m ell more ri&id against ben d inl!
Y~CIl1Nl: TOOL DK SIGN 111
than the aAlIIe a mount 01 material is in the lorm of rib
eecticus. It il prob&l.y from fou r to eight tlmulllol" ligid
than the ri b plan in a ny fonn.
There i.I often a mistaken notion respecting the expense of
makiull: pat te rllll for box fra m ing, Cae cere boxes being con
sidered as an addItiOnal expenee. This is o ot the ca.H, ,. .
inv~ti,ation will s bow. The cos t o f cere boltes is o lt en
saved In the diminished cost of pattel'll5.. Th e patterns
t hemselves are much stronger and more durabl e: clIa:Ige.
....... eaaily mao.- wh"n req uired. and in Dlo ulding the re is
a.ocd!lo to aU parts before cores are placed in posi tion ,!lO that
me nding and dre!Isiog ant ea$ily perlonned.
A pro jecti n g bracket-whether vetfcaJ or horiwnlal,ta.kes
a .-",oolie fonD 0 .. ita eomp.......unn eide , Of . its reqcfred
sectiollS p rod uce tbat rorm in order to secure the greatest
strength with the leas: material. Machille ooluIDll'i, or
uprights, have in practice more and more approxlmatedthis
form u ntil it hu become recogn ised as the mos t appropriate
and pl euing i:l appearance.
T he design of b rackets should be symm..tri calwith thatof
the mai n frame, i". ,a ribbed bracket should no t be used o n
a bolt fra me an d ~C4 veys".
All edges of castings should be ...e ry well roundet.l. Thi"
fea tu re a dds greatly to the nea t ap peara nce 01 u mach ine.
I nternal sha rp corners are sources of great WeakDe5$.
Deadlng, 1I0d Bllodlnll._ A rliffi"nlty encou ntered in

desi jl,ning sup ports and other bolted-on parts, ....hc n
t he ,oint is to be concealed, is in having thll parts match in
d imes ions . I n some cases a 'half-rou n d beading a nswers
very well, but in others a flat bead or band is more s uita ble.
Th~ bands STe made ill prcporttou to ~j.<" 01 th o machioo,
II in. X li n., an d lin. X 2m. being exam plCll. The ba nd can
of conne, be either above or bel ow th.. joint, all the
convenience 0 1 casti ng the two parts may d ,·termine.
W he o joi ned in this way there ill n n appearance 0 1 being
"btilt up," aDd thl! rou:Ided edges at th e top and bott<.>m 01
the band conceal irregLla rity nf th e vertical faces.
Keys .- The feather ieys on spindles, such as in drilJing

machrnes,where til,,)' iLle subject to oo .... t40:w... and gr"at
rtrain, IboulC be of tempered steel, the depth eqQ&I. to the
_ ic t h, and the length DOt less than four tiDlM th e dia:neter
112 othCtl l NK T O O L DKSIGN
01 the s pindle; otherwise they wear loose in bme, a nd b ow

the start cause undue fricti o n.
When very h ea vy torsional aU- has to be tr ansmitted,
t wo or more feathers a re better than 011." Do t on ly red u cin g
the pressure in proportion, but balancing t he stress o n each
side of a Bhaft or wbe-el.
The re Is, of course. nothing 50 good in suc h cases &5 a
tq uaro ,haft, or preferably a casteuated shaft.
The strain on keys is as t h eir distance from the centre,
a nd in ~ where agreat force is to be tn.nsmitted. the
drivinJl: mechanism should be removed (rom the shaft
altogether and clutched to the driving wbed at so me
distance from the shaft, or by gearing direc t o n to the
peri ph ery 01 a face-pl ate.
The width of a Kty is roughly a quarter the d ia meter 01
th e $haf t-
Worm Gear.- Th e most perfect wonn gear we have

(th eoretically)is a ec rewand nut.and theywaste e no rm o usly
in fric ti on : a nd. in proportion to what t h ey do, th ey wea r
out the most o f any piece of mechanism. The m eet naper
fee t worm gear we have (theoretically) is the Se llers s pira.l
pin ion a nd rack. and ye t they seldom wear ou t. and hence
lose littl e in friction.
MlnlmumThJckneslI of CUlltln!tfl.- Cast-ironcastings

are in ord in ary work rarely made len t h a n A in. thick .
Wh eel B08ses.-A boss of a wheel or pulley is usua lly
made fro m 1i t o 2 ti mes the diameter of t he s h a ft which
carrlflll it, and I i to 3 times as long u thill d iame te r.
BearlnQ, II.-A bearing is sometimes longer t ha n a boss,
bu t ill rearely less than Ii times as lon g lUI the diamet er of
its shaft .
SUdlnQ, Surfacea.- All sliding su rfaces mnd ha ve
provision for lubricating them.
Bolt.._ A bolt is usually screwed for a d i.rta nce eq ual to
2i times the diameter.
The strength of a bolt. stud. Or screw is taken all beinll its
resistance to b reakinll: across the lIeCtion at th.. bo ttom 01
th .. th read
I.~WS OF MOTION .>3
.studa UlltJ Sc rew. should b.: screwed into the metal a
distance o f from I i to 1i times their d iameter, while the
tapping bole should be drilled to II depth equal t o at lea.'\t
twice the diameter of the sc rew.
The distance o f studs from the edge of metal should no t
be le!IS than I D ; in some cases it should be J D, where 0 _
the diameter.
Leve n.- A lev er is such, that when it is pivoted a t its
centre, equal weights placed at each end will balance each
other, o r b old the lever in equilibrium. If it ill not pivoted
at th .. cenue. but one um is twice as loog as th.. o ther,
then, II weight of Zlb. on the end of tbe Ioog arm will
balance. weight of 41b. on the end o f the other, neglecting
the weight of the lev er .
Or, if A _th.. .wort ann. D_tbe long arm, and W,1f>
tbe r<!Spective weights, then
A x W ... Jj x DI,
I I a lever is tu rned about its pivot, or fulcru m, the n each
end ....i lI travel through distance in ptuportio n to th e lengt h
of its ann. The end of the long arm will aleo move at a
co rrellpundioRly greater spe<:d than th" short a rm.
Pulle y . when connected by " elb!. or rope!!, bear the
...me ratio to one another as the arms of a lev er. Thus if a
12in. p ull" y is driv"n by a 24 in , pulley, it will make t wice
all m.lI1Y revolutions as the 24in . petrey.
Toothed Whe els. when in mesh behave in th e same
man ner ,
w ork is done when a resistance is overcome,
A Unit of W ork is the power expended wh en a pressure
of lib. is exertet.l through a sp3C" of I foot_ I foot-lb. Th e
amount of work performed in o vercoming a g iven resistance
t hro u gh a given space is independen t o f tho time occupied.
A rrors c-powe r is the exertion of 33,0CHl u nits of wor k
or Ioct-lbs. in the period 01 I minute,
T he Kfnet lc EnerllY. or ultlaJ ene,gy, or the acc umu
la ted work stored up in a moving body, is tho prod uct 01
the mass 01 t he body into half the square of its velocity, o r
the weight of tbe body into the beight from which it m ust
(all to acquire its act\la! velocity.
E-l ..... - -
W""
spece
2,
Vel<JC.itv _, Acceleration _
veloci ty
tim_
114 LAWS Of' MonON
.. . JC. •
Mumentum _ lOaM X velocity - - -
,
Foree;
... , I .....
_ ~Iomentum generated in unit time
, X ,- - -m,
,
~
_Acceluation produced in unit 1l13SS _ _ - X m _ _

~ ~
Ine r1.la is re:li.stance to communication of motion.
M omentum is res istan ce to extinction of motion They
are equa.l to each other, and of opposite character.
I n earning to rest the inertia in a moving load is given up
again as momentum. The value of the momentum is irre
spective of the distance inwhich the velocity was acquired :
its e ffect d epe nds e ntire ly u pon the dis tance in wh ich it is
ex~n<J...J. a nd v aries inverse ly as the time occ upied , and
di ft'lCU y R.I t h e lOaM o r we igh t moved and the v elocity of
movement.
Momentum Of' QUlIntity ofMotJon _ mass X ve locity.
and rep res en ts t hecoastanr Iorce whi chac t ln g for one second
would stop D mo vi ng body _ m v. A mass in motion , havi n g
mo me ntu m _ m II. will, etter im pact with mass .., 1 at
m,
rest, have II. resu lting velocity o f VI _ - --, or m u
m + ml
{m+ml)v l ,
M(}m~ nl u m varies as the velocity, an d is t he measu re
of a given force, du ,ing a giNn tim. 0/ uairm.
N ewton'. Laws o f M ot lon.- F int Law,-All mot ion
i!l naturally recti lin ea r and uniform . A body at rest will
continue at relit, and if in motioa will co n ti n ue to move
in .. straight line with uniform velocity, unless ac ted
upon by some external force.
SttOfld ul&I.-lf .. body be acted upoa by two or more
forces for a given time, the effect will be the same as if the
torcee acted independently for the tame len gth of time.
This ill the foundation of the parallelogram of forces.
TlIiFtl ulII,-Action and reaction are alway1l equal and
contrary in direction. When a body receives motion from
anctber, the second body 106C!l a quantity of motion equal
to that which the lint receives. When .. pressure produa.'S
motio n, the qua..ntity of motion. or momentum generated
in .. given ti me , ill p roportional to the pressure.
G a OMBTRIC AL PJtOGRBSSTON. 115
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° o<> o ~ o o<> o o<> o o<> o o<> o o<> o o<> o o<> o
";"'";"' ~ ~ ~ '!"' "'!"~ ~~ ~ ~ O;- O;- '!"' '!''' ~ ~ 9
GEONRTR ICAL PROGRR~SION
"'
Oecme t d CI' I I'["o~ ["e ll ll l on.- Indesigni f\g s uc h m ..cbine
toolll aslat"es. boring and tuming mills. milli ng milChiues.
etc.. to have a proper range of speed, Or gea.... it i, f'lI!IC."utial
that these !!lIQuid be in geometrica.J progression. tha t is,eacil
suC«ftSive sP-d or feed is i ncreased bv t he same multiplier
at each s te p, as: 1, 2, 4. S. or 3, 9. 27. etc. The common
multiplier is ca lled the ratio. For anyone design ing tonla
in this war the accompanyi ng tabl e may be of value , parti.
c ularly t o those who are unfamiliar with the use of
logarithm a. The ta ble on pages lOS aud 109 ell:plai ns iteself,
yet may be made clearer by a fe..· examples.
SupJ>05e we have a fonr·stepped cone and wish to make
th e entire ratio abon t 4 to 1. \ \'e find in the fourth column
of the table a value of 4 ·10. The ratio between two
adjoin in l<: spec<Js is gi ven as being I ·6 to I. If it was desired
to extend the range of speeds by dou ble geati ng in the same
ratio, the ra tio 0 1 tbe gearing required wou ld be the ligure
in the 5th co lu m n. vi~ .• 6·55 to L
Suppose now that we want 16 teeds, the fas test to be ~
times the slowest. The ratio be t ween two adj oining feeds
.hould t he n be I ·25. o r an increase of 25 per cent.
P res eue e o n TooIII.-Aceording to Mr . J .11. Wicksteed
in English l'nLctice it is customary to desigu machi ne tools
.!IO a ll t o allow 150 ft .ru n of belt for eac h foo t of surface s peed
of t he wor k . A llO\ ~ ing the maxim um pu ll of II. 4in . "elt to
b e 200lbs., the t b eor e ti cal press ure develop",\ all th e tool
wou ld be 30,OOOlbll., which. by frictional resistance, would
be redu ced to aay , 20 ,OOOlbll.
Ma.x.Im um lillI e s peed of cast-iron machine....,u t spu r
wbee ls _ 3 ,SOOft . per minute, and for ordi nary cas t ...h.-els
I ,300ft , per minute.
Maximum lI&fe speed of cast-iron puUey rims _S,OOOft.
per minute.
Maximum speed of steel pu Uey rims _6.(lOOft . per minute
eoeU lclen[ o f Frfc tlon.-This is the ratio of the force
of fric tioo to the forc e p ressing the bodies togelb..r. The
foUowing are th e m ore co m mon value'S : -
NeWs 011 metals, dry 0 '15 to 0-2
Meta.ls on metals, lubricated 0 -03 te O·Qti
Meta.l!l 0 0 wood, dry 03 to (Hi
Wood 0 0 wood, dry . 0 -3 to 06
Leather on metals, dry 05
Th.. wrhc. u. 'tUp~ to be amooth
li S CONE P U LLE Y CALCULATIONS
Co ne I' u ll e y C a lcutatto na-c-vet-nrm 'e M etbod.-.\lOllt

d c"igoc rs ha ve been inconvenie nced by tbe wa n t of so me
I~ical p rocess lor designing the cone pulley. and geari ng fo r
dnving machine tool:t , !IO as to give an even graduation
between the limil.9 o f highest and lo ....est s peeds p rescri bed
by the wo rk to be d one. Ell.&minatioDo f the speed and f eed
a.rrangm ..n ts of some machines leads to tbe concllsion that,
in many ca~. the oaly law whi ch ope ra ted in their design
"''" the law o f trial and error. with the r..sult Oat the bert
combination 'II"a.I not discovered. The difficulty 01 t he
p rob lem wben attacked in this way d epends upon t h e
degree of co m p licati o n in tbe mechall.i..sm to be UHd.rangi D~
from the simple COQe p ulley eadcee-speed countershalt to
the elaborate combinations of pulleys and gearing used 0 0
-orne o f the larger machine tools.
There are several methods by which the calcu latio!lS re
quiTed can be made. A si mp le DOl! is that d escri bed by Mr .
P. V. Verno n in a paper read before the Mancbester Associa
ti on 0 1 Eugt neere. No . 14th, 1903. from which the method
her e described ~ extracted. By it the ca.lculatiooa may be
o rga ni5ed, witb the practical certainty o f ob taioiDg t he
d esired s ub-d iv is io n fo r any given range a nd nu m ber of
speede.
It wil l be no ticed that the required speeds a re filled before
pro po rt io nin g t h e means by whicb t hey are obtained , thu s
ren d eri ng t h o means su bse rvien t to the end, ra ther t han the
end to the m eans. Befo re conside ring a specific case, it will
be well to state broadly somo of tho con ditions which a re,as
ta r all p ossi ble, to be fulfilled , all follow s :_
( Il The to tal ra nge o f s peeds sh ou ld be lIuflicie n t fo r a ll
leAlIOn.a.blo requiremen ts.
(2) The speeds should be lIu llicie n t in number.
(3) The speed c hanges should be in geom et rical pro
p rogression t h rough the wb ole range.
(4\ T he IImallest step of the co ne pu lley (wber e used)
~lmu ld be as luge as possible. 10 as to obtain an "lIicie nt
bd t drive unde r all co nditions.
(5) The drop {rom one step of the ec ne pulley to the next
should not be gnat e nough to rend er i t difficult to movethe
bel t .
(6) The geou ratio should be a$ higb as ClUI co nveniently
be IUT&Dged, so &5 to obtaiD a relatively bi Sb belt speed
. be n on bea vy WOf"II:.
>19
Verno n' s TlIlll " of Ide a l Speed Ran ll.cs .
-,
o.
16%1 1.1% ~s% II~~
e :; 10% I l'Yo lon
-"
' 1:'% 14%115%
':-"-1 ~I~ - - - --- - - --- -- --
,,, I rooc
soo
1000 I roeo
eso
1000
".
tooo
soc
, ~
."
'1000
"', sao
11100 J 1000 1000
"~
.. 672 1'"
"'"
,
s
, ", 729
8M
5Ho
192
cos
6 27
,~
774
68\
ses
'" 'n
52 1
'"
,~
~ 1~
4 "~
7 411
63 L;
410
722
'"
.
...
,W
,sea '"
572
'" ~,
551
'" ",
37 1 ""
~66
531
531
'" ,", m
.fi4 43 3 ~,
'n 304
~ 49
,,, 2H2
" ""
" ". '" '"
408 320
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.. o"' ~ ' boo Pf'I'C'"lltae<o 01 <hop t>.t...... ucl>
.p.. .d;e .......t .. 1".n,4.
CO N K PU I.l.HY CALCULATIO NS 12 1
H "v1utl d ecided on t he general de1ign of t he machine and
the t ype o f gcaring to be used.it i5 fil"llt Dece!llID ry to fill: the
Dum ber o f epeede and their total range. Tbcae are m a tbln
whicb muat be settled by the jud gm ent o f the designer from
co nsideration of the requirements. The Il"'l:t step is to p lot
oo t the speeds in a geomeencel progression. A!l!IumJng the
bigbell t and lowest 1I~ and the numbe r of means, the
common ratio of the progression can be determ ined by thO'
timple formola below :_
·- C ) ~ l l or. - ,.,
in _hicb __ the common ratio.
4 _ the hi ghest speed.
b _the lowest speed.
II_the Dumber o f meaDa.
Fro m thi~ formula any of the intermedIa te .~s ca n be
fou nd by the equation- ._b( ;-' )
r (b)
in which ! _ the reqnired o r ptb mean.
Although not difticult, the above calculation., whic h
requ ir e the use of lo ga rit h ms, ma y be replaced for d rawing
ollie.. U~ by a table of progressions. o r " Ide a l Speed
Ran .ee." as shown by the table on pages 119 a nd 120 .
r t ampi' 1.- (5 e6 Fi~ I a t X .) F or a ll I'lxa mple a cast"
h a s bee n ass u med in which it is req uir ed t o lind the correct
p ropo rtion s of sears and co ne p ulley for a headstock with
two ratios of double gears, the co n e pu lley to ha ve three
Hteps , th ", largest 18 in . diam. , and to be driven fro m a two
s peed countM$haft. Eighteen speeds req u ired, fro m 300
d own to <4j tu rns per minute.
Re ferring to the table, it will be aeen that th e fi r1lt
n um be r in each co lumn ill 1,000, 1IO that a co rrespondi n g
range of apeeds in the table would bave 18 speeds, varyin,
from 1,000 x 4 ·5
1,000 down to _ 15.
300
By looking al ong hOrUontalline No . 18. we lind that 16-6
in the 22 per cent column is the nearest ugu re to 15, and
gives probably a near enough percentage for the pu rpose.
II a gre-ater degree of a.c:eura.cy be requind, the percentage
of drop can be .Iightly changed to lIuit , but all the adjacen t
columns only vary from each o ther by a difference tlf I pel"
cent, the table wiU be found to fulll]] al l p ra.cti eaJ requ ire
menu. The required .-peed range will then have a d rop
from speed to speed of Z2 pe r cent. with 300 lUI a ma:rim uDlo
Plot ou t the ~ either by calculation OT slide-ru le.
t2 ~ CONR PUl-I ,RV CALCULA T IONS.
lit Gro up, 6 . peedB.

IIDgle a~ .
!nd Group. do.

: x _~_=~ 'H tol
3nl O l'Ollp. do.

1£ C _ .
lf XO - 19 7 tll l.
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',4 0.-.,. 'P '.tU",. "F ' 0:': II
f"I71'I'I7."Jf
Z
",71~_
F IG. 1.- Dialf!'UJl illustrating Method of Cakula tinj;l

Cone Pull,,~..and Gearinll
CONK Pl,lLLBY CALCUL "' T I ON S 123
It is next req ui red to find the co rrec t propur tio llS o f gears
a nd cone pu lley to produce t he a bo ve speeds,
T h e set o f,peeJ5 as p lotted above may be arranged as at
Y in Fig. I, which represents in a si mple way the gener al
iLlTa.ngemen t or typical form for obtaining geometrical
ranges for all combinations 0 1 gean., cone puUeys. a nd
ccu u tersbatt changes. I t will be seen that the amt.ngemen b
con.sisb of three main divisions of si.1 speeds each, o ne
division bei ng entirely single speed. one for the low-gear
ratio, and the other for the high-gnr ration, each d ivision
giving one-third the range and ..nthout any overlapping.
Each main division consists of two sub-divisions of thr ee
speeds each, ODe for the fast and one for the slow counter
ahaft speed, the subdivisions being in the same order in each
main division. Each subdivision consists o f a group of three
speeds. Doe for each step of the COile pulley, all in the same
order anel without oved apping. Suppose, in the example,
that the two cone p ulleys, vix., the countershaft COliC &Dd
that on t he machine. are identical. then the co untenhaft
speeds will be 234 a nd I II t u rns per minute. Il5 will beseen by
inspection 01 Y,being eq ual to the 2nd and 5th spindle speeds
NOTR.-I I the cone pulleys have an odd n umbcrof steps.
the countershaft speed equals t he speed of the dri ven cone
with the be lt 0 11 the middle step. I i the n umber of steps is
even t he co unterahatt speed
... .. q uic kes t speed o f cone x !S]OWClIlt speed of co n e (e)
• Vquick est
The largest d ia meter of the co n e p ulle y is given a.~ 18 ln .
T he s malles t d iame t er then is eq ual to
Largest dia meter x Cou Dtershaft
of CODe speed (<II
Q uickes t speed of COile
113 X 234
_ _ __ _ 14 ·4. say 14 in. The middle s te p - half the
300
sum of the other two steps _ 16 in . The COile p ulle y will
therefore have diameten of 14 in.• 16 in., and 18 in .
The proportiOD.9 of the cone p ulle y have thus been
arrived at irrespective of the ratio of the gearin@;. wh ic h
remains to be fixed.
To Detennlne the Two Gear Ratlos.- By inspection
of the range of lpeeds above it will be seea that the ratio
required for tho low gear is in the proportion of the 1st to
,..
the 7th speed.
_ 300:01 ·5 _ 4·44 to I.
The ratio for t1lf' high gea r il in the proportinn o f the
'oJ t be 13t b "PC""d.
_ IOU : 15- 2 _ U~ ·7'" I.
12 4 CONK PULLEY CALCULATIONS
This Kea, ra t io is exactly the square of the lint gear rabo.
The t hree division of speeds will thus ha Ve g..ars fo r min g a
gco metri ca l progression with a common ratio equal to the
li....t Jl:ear ratio thn.. ;
Single Spet:d 1st Gear. ::0, 1 Cear.
I I X 4+1 I >( 4 ·44 X 4· 44
or I 4·44 19 ·
r he above holds good for aU arrangements planned by
thi s method, no matter how many gear changes may be
used . The required data are now complete. and the correct
.pe-cds truly be fouod and laid out as she....n at Z Fig. I.
10 th",lowesl line the percentages of drop from speed to
speed is g iven, and it will be observed that this is very close
to t h e 22 per cent aimed at. If all the fill:ures 11',,«- wo rked
ou t to sufficient places o f decimals uactly 22 P'""f ce nt
wo u ld be obtained. It is not necessary, however. to overdo
thE' calculations, or much time can be wasted withou t any
corresponding lI:aio. I n many cases the gear ratios obtain
a ble will in t rod uce a slight error, which would more than
extin guish the extra accuracy so obtained. I u all practical
work a p p ro ximati o ns are permissible. p roviding tha t the
erroe a re llmall and are k nown. The wheels shoul d be
proportioned to give the a bo ve speeds a.I nearly WI the
p itches will all o w.
E.tam ple H. - F or anothe r example a design is chosen
whi ch hae a som ewhat co mplex aITa ngelpent of gea ring
(Fig. 2), wi th a vi ew to sh o wing th e cimplici ty o f the
claculation s involv ed. It is assu me d t h a t it is d esired to
find the correct proportions of geaT'!! a n d cone pulley for a
beadstcck arranged to ru n 5ingle speed or t hro ugh any of
four separa te ratios o f gearin g. The cone pu lle y to have
fo ur steps , the largest diameter being 24in., and driven from
• 2-speed cou n tc n h a ft giviog "0 speed~ va rying from I up
to ISO per mi nute.
T he total ratio of speed range required _ 150 to I.
The COITII."5IJOUdin~ range in the table will vary from
1,_
1,000 down to 1>-66.
15(l
By examining horizontal line 40 in the lilbl.e ...e lind
tha t 6 7 in the 12 pet cent column is the n ~ figurt" to
6 -66, a nd is Dear enough for the purpose. The required
speed range should then have a percentage of drop from
speed to speed of 12 per rent, with 150 all a maximum.
Plot ou t speeds, following same method as in the previous
ex ample. (Seoo Fi e . 3. pagel281
CO N . PIJLLI!V c .-.LCU L.-.T IO NS . '25
.. ,
T ,•,
, .,
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-
- -
- --- I
- ,
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,
FIG. 2.
ABC are equal wh eels.
oE GF- T
H T
K .
are all equal ratioe _2·78 to I .
Countenhaft, ~peed~ 124 and 7..·.. turn s pe r minut.

1st Group, 8 ~peed s, single speed.
A D
2nd. Group. do. aXE _2·78 to 1.
A F D
3rd Group, d o. _ x _ X _ _ 7.74 to J.
C G E
4th Grou p, do.
A H F D
- x- x - X _ 2 1·55 to I ·
B J G E
A K H F D
5th :GrouP . do _ x_ x _ x_ x _ ... 6Q to I
C L J G E
'26 ccae PU LLKY CA1.CUL"'TiU"'~
S pindle S peede.
..loST I SLOW
Single S~d..... . ISO jrn'1i6 102 90 79 169.6161'3

ht Gea r ..• 5J.g(~7'.f 41 ·7 3.N 32.328.4 25 2'2
2nd Geu ... _.... . 1 9'7~ 17 15 13 ' IIi; 10.2 1 9 7-9

1
3rd ~ ...... .•. 6·96 6·125·38 4,73 4·17 ::1-67 3·2'1 2-83
4th Gear ... . .• .•. 2·5 2'2 \ 1.93 i t '5 1-3 1.16 : 1-02
11"
The CODe pulley in t h is example has four seeps. aod the
CQuntenhaft mud there fore be calculated, there b<:ing DO
m idd le step. T h" fast countershaft speed. by fonnula.
(t ) _ 150 X . / 102 _ 123-6. say 124 turns pe r minu te,
><SO
By inspec ting the range of speeds given in F ig. 3, it ....iIl
bl' o bserved that the s low countersha.lt BpeOO
Fast countenbaft ,peed ISO
_. 5 _ 124 ..:.. _7 4'4
Ra tion o . 1st and th speeds . 90
T he largest d ia me te r of the cone p ulley is given as 24io
T he smallest di ameter then by formu la (a)
LarKest diamete r of co ne x f <\.!l t countenhaft speed
Qu ick est 6P...-d o f cone.
24 X 12 4
_~_ 19.:l 4.
The co ne p ulleys will therefore have steps 19 · 84 0in.,
21 . T.!7in . . 22·64in., and 24in. diam ., the diamters being in
arith m~tita l progression with a common difkrence of 1·387'
in . In calleS whe re the drop in diameter betwee n the steps of
the eoae is considerable. or where the driv...is very short, it
woold be necessary to calculat... th... Intermediate speeds
sepa rately, as equal differences in diam...te r do not give
~ual J'C'rcentall:e of s~s change.
The c.illculation is made as folloW'!! :
Let. _ diameter of reqnired step of driven cone.
y _ diameter of required step of driv ing ccee.
" largest diameter of con" pulley.
b _ smallest diame ter of cone pulley
r _ intermediate speed requirf'd.
~ _ ~ of driviu,i: cxm.
. 127
COSK P ULLKY CALCULA TIONS
Th en •
Qd+h~
,+' - ,.,
I n th is, as in all other co ne pu lley calculations, a fu rthe r
co rrection in diame ter must be m ad e wb eT'" the diametera
vary greatly, or wh en the shafts are v ery close togeth er, d oe
vary g re atly, o r when the shafu are ,"ery dose
to the \'a riations o f belt tension w h en lUI o pen belt IS used.
W h"n the .peeds are calcu la ted by t he meth od he re d e
scribed , ho we ver , the variatioo. in tension is 110 sma ll that in
t he ma jo ri ty o f easel no correction nC!'td be mad e.
To Determtne th e Gear RatJ .... In E::':Rmple 11.
By inspe<:tion o f Fig. 3 it will be seen tut t he ratios
r~ u i~ for t h e fou r sets 0 1 gears are in the proportion! of
the firs t speed to the 9th, 17 th , 25th, and 3Jrd res pectiv ely.
Th~ ra ti os are in geometrical p~ro:ssion with a common
ra ti o of 2·783 to I , and wo rk out at 2·78, 7·7 4, 21,5 5, and 60.
The requ ir ed data are DOW complet.c, and the table of speeds
may be finally laid onto
By com pa ring Fi/!. " with the skelelon diagra m (Fig.
3) it will be seen that the desired range of speeds II ae been
ob tai ned withi n very small limiu, and tha t t he r~ults is
q uite as acc u rate as is requ ired . As the ra ti os of t h" va rious
sets o f gears are in gemoetrica.l p rog ression, t h e first gea r
ratio o nly n eed a ctu ally be calculated, t he seco nd , third,
and fo urth ratio s being the square, cube, a nd fourth power
respectivel y o f th" first.
For convenienc e In reference, wb en o nce the method
is understood , the foll owing is a p pen ded . Given til ",n u mb er
of chan gC!J and m aximum an d minim um speedll ;_
(I ) Dete rmin e t yp e of gearin g .
(2) F in d X to obtain percentage o f d rop .
(3) La y o u t a ll spi ndle speed'.
(4) Find speeds of co un tenhaft.
(5) Find diameters of cone pulley.
(6) F ind ratios o f gearing.
0) 1.&y ou t t h e correct speeds obtai ned.
With o4d DurnbeY' of steps to cone p u lle y ;_
Coun tershll.ft speedw s peed o f driven cone On middle s tep.
\Vit h rtJtOl numbe r of steps t o CODe p uU..y :_
Coontetshaft speed_
QuiCkest ~ I slowest
of co ne x..; quickest speed o f co ne.
SnW.lfttdiam. Largest diam.XspeM o f couDtenhaft .
of COOl'. - QUickest speed of co n e .
Qnicil:~ t speed wi thout gear.
Ratio of ge.u _ ._
Qu ickest speed ,,"' ith gea r.
'28
- " "~
PU 1.L KY CALCUL ATIUNlI,
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. _ Large8t diam. "
Ita tl" o f co ne _ S ma lle.t-d iiiU. '
lL u gest diam. '.
Smallen diam . of cone -e v Ratio
T h e ra nge o f ~~b may also be she wn g ~phic &i l }· by
curves, and suc h curves a re very helpfol in c:omp;orin,
d iH.,r.,nt range$.
Diffe r ential Fee-d Modo n,
Fig. 5 abowa .. d ifferential motion lor an Ulin . diameter
boring bar, tbe bar in tbii case being o f ca'!lt iron. and the
\/amMO o f speeo.i obtained by meaD.!! 01 ch a ng e wheels.
Here a wh~1 B is filled on t h e end o f the ecr ew , and is in
m~ with a wheel A concentric with the ba.r . A lUns loose
oln the stud attached to the end of tbe har, hnt key.,.'! to the
stud is a wheel C, w hich t bo! rotates with t be bar. C is in
lfI.e:sh wil b a ....h ..... D keyed to a bum, to whic h is also
keyed a wheel E'-tbis being in mesb witb a whee l F ke yed
Fill. S._Wfereo tial 1~ motion, with c han ge whr:els.

Cast-iron boring Dar. 18 ID d ia me ter
Screw lin. P .. L . B ., 1i n. diameter ; c ha nge wh.,..,l, lin. P.,
IJin. wide, 2lio. bore , to the whrel A.
Th e etcd on which the whee-Is D and F. a re ca rried
is bol ted to a lotted swing frame, ecnet rain ed to hang
verticall y hy means of chain and weight.. \\'heels C, D,
E, and 1'- a re change whee19, and a re all of th e urn., bore,
C bri0 l\" keyed on a busb which in turn ill keyl"d to the
stud. T o enable the rotation of tbe 8C JeW bv h and, the
s tud, ca rryin g wbeels D and E, is dropped till the wh eelll
are out 01 SPar. Thus it follows that if It. was on ly IlillbtJy
s~ed fo"""a rd in advance of the rotation 01 the bar, o r
wa-_ ,etar<tffi , B wou ld be turned a C:OIT...pondinll amoullt ill
s••
130 OI P " III' ''.N TlAL I' KK IJ MUTI ON
the oppo. ite d ir ection to the ba r . Of in t he eame direction,

respecti ve ly, a od a f"...:1 tr avfll1lC "'long t he bar gi v.m to th"
boring head.
The follo win g ru le hol d!! good lor o b ta in ing th e relativ e
'peed of ro t:l.tion of t he scre w in bo rio g ba ts lor Doe re volu
tio n o f t h e bar when wh eels A •.nd B a re equa l, v iz ;
Revs. of B _ re vs. o' A- I.
To aDal y "'" this. let us suppose t h e bar to make on e com
plete rig h t-hand t u m a.s in,1k u.ed by the outside a lTo," in
Fig . 6, and t h at wh eel A tul'1'\ll with t he bar a t e xactly the
same rate W heel 8 will thllt ' ha ve bnon carried ro u nd b y
(-- @"
.J~
~~. .. .. _ 0
a
'" "a "
z
0<
f!~ '''' ."....
~ zO<
'"of- u,- I:
:>ffi
" "Z 0X'"

Z ;l; r
0
f
:>
~
'"
c" ,nuJf9' '''
CD V """"" ....."
~-
•
~'
ci
-.4
0<
0: _ .. 11_ 'IOU' .. .. " ' ,,..
F I.:i. 6 .- Dia.gra.m of di fleren tial wheel~
the bar , b o t will have made no re vol u ti on a round il:3 own

axis rela ti ve to th.. bar. It will be itS if it ..as solid with t h e
bar , and with wh eel A.
~ow. agai n, 5UPpo6e th e bar to revolv e. and that ill the
time cceu p ied by o ne t u m A make5 more than OD" tu m,
...y, an a mount equaJ. to oDe tu rn plu! a Dgle.. Then
D1I' I'HIUlNTI A I. PI!H D MO TION 131
I..t uS assu me that A h~ made on ly one t u rn (ccoee

que"Uy B will "ot ha ve turned ). and th en th s t, for tbe
momen t . t he bar is arrested whilst t be moti on of A con tinues
until it has completed its prescribed amount or t he portion
of a t um inluded b y angle Q. tb.. n B will bave been caused
to tum through an equal portion o f a revolu tion in t he
opposite d ir ecti o n to tbat of the bar. No ... if A should
make less thaa one t um, it would be the sam e- as if A. wb ile
t be bar "as a rrl'llted. wae moved back a oorresponding
amount. when B would be turned an equal amount in the
same diR"Ctioo as the bar. Thus we always lose a revolu
tion of A due to its tumlag iD the same direction as the bar.
As examples of the application 01 the rule, and talcinJl:
ODe revolution of the bar, then. if A makes one reVQlu ti on.
Revs. of B~ I- I _O.
If A makes i rev.,
Revs. 01 B -i--I - - l.-i rev. in arne di rec t ioo as bar.
If A makes I t revs .•
Reve. of 8- lt-l-t.- t rev, in o pposite directio n to ba r.
Now. taking an example f rom the bar in questioo. and
c hange wheels as 35 and 50 d rivers, .. 0 and 25 d riv en. fo r
one re v. 01 t he bar A wo uld ma ke
35 50 7
I x -.-0)( 25- - T - I} revs .
re vs. of 8 -11-1 -1 rev .
As the ecrew is iin . pik b, the teo<! would be I )( i - lin.
per re v. of bar,
With t he arrangemeut sho wo in Fi g. fi th e followin g
keds are obtainable :_
Drirlrlr W_I i Wbeela-OO-'-~-"-.-'-n
-_ -"Dri-m
- --W-M'-·--""
-~ ' --
-,--! D-- '--1 P R."::U".,
35 es 50 50 • I.
25 25 50 20 I
:<, •• 50 25 I
50
50
50
20 ••50 20
20
I
I
as 35 50 20 I
132
Tumbler Gearing.
Tum bler .lI:earing is a useful device for the p u rpo9t! 01
reve rsi n g the motion of d riven shaltll o r disengaging them
fm m the driving mechanism, and i t is fou nd frequen tly in
heutocks and aprcaa of 1ath~, p la ne r e levating geari ng
and many other pam of machine tools.
The device is very old and i, excredingly aimple, F ig. 7
aha.. , a con,tTuction which permits of a free motion 01 the
tum bler lrame amund i13 axis, and i, accomplished, as
may beseenfmm aD examination. by making the distance
betwern cent", of driver and driven wheeb equal to pitch
diameter 01 large tumbler pinion plus one-half pitch
diameten 01 driver and driven wheeb.
A diffeeeece of th~ teeth in tumbler pinions will often
be enouJlh to give clearance to both driver and drive n
wbeels, and ClIre must be taken to soeleet luch diameters as
will alia", clearance ...hen the tumbler wheeb a re e ntirely
disengaged from the driver. \Vhen the centre for smallest
pin ion ill sle<:ted it ",ill he nec_ry to make i t suc h that a
FIG, 7.-The Best F or m of T um bler Wbe els

for R eversin g.
cirele struc k from the d ri ven ...bed c en tre will be tangent
t o t he pitch circles 01 both large a nd smaU t u mbler pinions .
Sometimes, owiog t o the const ructiona l surrou ndi ngs, it
is Dot polI!lihle t o obtain the same amouot o f move ment of
t h e tu mbler frame. a n d pinions of equal sire a re used . In
t h is caee t h e cer-ect method of arranging the pinioD.'l i!I
abO'Ol'n at (2) F ig. 8. The distauce betweeD the fixed
ce ntres A D lihould be made equal to
diam. of d rive r dia m. ('Of driven
,
- - - - -- +
2
dla tn. of p ini (>D
TUMlI LER GEARING 133
Thud wbeu geared wget h"r thll wheds are in on e ~ tnught
line a nd ru n free ly. T he position of the idl er reversing
pinio n abo ve or below t he centre line will depe nd u pon the
direction of rotation 01 the d river. If run nin g in a ri ght
hand d irectio n ~ shown, the idl er shou ld be above the
ce ntre line: if ru nnin g in a left-band d irection it sh o uld
be be low the ce ntre line.
The effect p'rod uced when a tumbler i.!l thrown into
engagement WIll be either to cause the teeth to lock o r else
to tend to throw it out, all depending on the di rection of
motion of the driving wheel. It is obvious tbat the con
struction which is free from the greatest danger of damage
to the wheel teeth will be the beet, and this secured in tbe
first txample , &!I shown in Fig. 7.
The wrong method is shown at (3) in Fig. S. in wh ich the
d istance between the fixed «:ntrell A' D' is slightly less
.ou;,.
F IG. S.-Tumbler Wheels showinK Right and Wrong

P ositi ons. Tumbler F rame Pivoted about D .
tha.n the distance A D. Here the tendency of the wh eel
teeth is to .. gather in," and act &!I a toggle joint on the
fi.J:ed c entrell, and unless the tu m bler frame is very rigidly
locked in posi t ion, someth in g has to gi n' wa y; in any ca.""
l'xCl'!<!;i\"<.' Ir idinn is :;.et up. . .
134 T U M BL E R GRA-K ING
If It s hould be lound oec e>l>lafr. to havlI ene cen t res limited

to the distance A' D' in ease (3) t he Idler sh ou ld be below
the centre line wh en the d ri ver i5 run nin g i n a righ t-ha nd
direction. as ease ('l. and above WhCD runnlag le ft -ha nd ,
which is the 0 r,posi te to case (2). This will prevent a oy
.. gathering in • o f the wheel teeth.
I n setting the wheels out, it is advi sable that a definite
dista.Dc1l bet ...eee the fixed centres is not oom pubo~. but is
capable of a little elasticity. It may be found u follows
(see Fig . 9 ) , and should fint be set o ut luU !lize before being
drawn in position. Asmmins A to be the centre of the
shaft 00 which the tumbler frame ",..iveb, describe two ares
Band C from centre A with radius A B ""1ua1 to the eeetree
of the whee!!;io gear.aod TadiusA Cequal to A B+working
depth of tooth +cleannce. On these ate5 mark off a dis
tance C Bequal to tbe ceatres of the tumblerpiniont. Now,
liAng th_ points as cectree, describe two ~ with radii
B D and C D equal to each other. and equal to the centre
distance of the wheel and piDion +working depth of tooth +
clearance. The intenection of these afal at D gives the
F IG. Y.-Method for setting-outCentres for TumblerWheel!l

when Centres A D are Limited. Tumbler F ra m e
Pivoted about A
ce n tre for the o ther fi,.,ed wheel. This (.(Instruction gives a n
equa l amou n t of clearance for the teeth 0 1 t he pinions when
o u t of gear.
The above re marks also apply to tumbler cone gearing
(Fig. 10 ). where the angle A should be kept as acute as
possible to avoid "gathering in"; without it . it is difficnlt
to pu t the wheels in mesh. and mO!'lt annoyiog when aquick
change cannot be effected. the very purpose for which they
are inte nded . The tumb ler pinion should be as large as
!X*Jibie . It is a lllO prefeI?.ab le that the tumb\f,r pinion
Til l> IIR R N llU< 135
~hnu ld t~ .. ttil e bottom, so th at it h ILS to I>e h l ted in~tead of
bein g drol' I't"(1 in to gear. The pinion then has no tenden cy
to d ro p further
int o g ea r, a nd
in the event of
A a ny loose ness
~-"><: arisin g thro ugb
""e ar there
wou ld no t be
t he a m.. chat
«ring caused
a ! i I placed
ll boVO'.
F IG . 10.---Cone Tu m bler Gearing .
I 1 2
~
DESCIUPTlO N OF T HE VERNIER A N D IT S USE
(DROW N &: S HAR PE MFG. Co. )
On the b nr of the inst ru men t is a tine o f in ches n umbered
0 , I, 2, et c., each inch being di vided in to t ell parts a n d
each t enth in to four parts , making fo rty di v isions to the
illch. On the eliding jaw is a line of di vision (called a
Ve rnier , from the inventor' s na m e) of t we n ty- five parts,
n u mbered 0, 5, 10, 15. 20, 25 . Th e t we nt y-five pa rts on
th e Vernier correspond, in extreme len gth. wit h tw cn ty
fo u r parts or t we n t y-fou r lorthiet hs of the ba r, consequent
ly eac h d ivision on the Vern ier is s maller t ha n eac h d ivisio n
o n t be ba r b y one-thousand th part of a n inch. If the
s liding ja w o f the Cali per is pushed up to the other, so
that the tine marked 0 on the Vern ier corresponds wit h
t ha t marko:d 0 on t be bar, t hen the t ""o nex t lines to the
righ t ...-ill d iller from eac h other by on e-thousand t h of an
incb and so the diff<:rcnce will continue to increase, o ne
thousandth o f au inch fo r each di ,ision , t ill t hey a gain
correspond at th e line marko:d 25 o n the Ve rn ier. To read
the distance the Caliper is open, commence by noticing
bo w many inc hes, tenths and parts o f tl'ntbs, t he zero
point o n the Vernier has been moved from the zero point
136 THE VR R:i IE R
on the ba r. N o w co un t up on t he Ve rnier t he Dumber of

d iv isions, u n til one is found whicb coincides with one o n
the bar, which wil1 be the number 01 t housandt hs t o be
a dded to the distance read off o n t he bar. The best way
o f ex p rC9Sing the value of the d ivisions on t h e ba r, is to
calls t h e tenths one hundred thousan dths (· 100) an d the
folll'1.hs o j tenths. of forthieths, t wen t y -five thousandths
(·025).
• • ~ \ -l
~~
-i;;;.-4 "~
Fr G. I I. - Ve rn ier.
Fo r example :
As the Vernier i5 5hown in the annexed figur e. it has
been moved to the rig ht one and one-te nth inches p lus
three-quar ters of one-tenth (or '0 75), ami a." the 14 mark
on the Vernier regist ers with a corresponding mar k on
the bar (indicated by an arrow] the jaws are ope n
I inch + · 10 + -075 + -014 _ \· 189 inch.
In maki n g inside measurements wit h t he 6' Vernier
and the Pocket Vernier Calipers, two an d cue-half tenths
or two hundred and fiJty thousa.ndths (-250) of an in ch
a nd with the 12" and 2-1" Verniers, three tenths o r three
h u nd red thou><andth (·300) of an inch should be added to
the apparent reading on the Vernier side for the space
occu pied by t h e caliper points. \ ...· hen t he other side o f
l(ICRO Na rER C ALl P K Hs 137
the ins t rume nt ,~ used . DO deductjon i~ n-ee....a r v, as ' h ~rb
&r~ t wo line1. ODe i ndicating in side and th " o~bfl OllUride
m....~ urem ..ut· .
F,~ 2
.1CROlllETEB CALIPESI
MicrometN C&lipen a re usually grad ua ted to reAd 1'1
th ollaand tla of an in( h , bu t on e-half and oOe-qrur te '
th oo sa od t hll cau be visually estima ted , Some calip,n
are fitted with V'llmieu, by whi ch sizes C&Il be ob tai ned to
, .m t h oUllau d t h... o f an inch. Decimal f!<lllivaleulll marked
on t h e frame of the in strument alllO renier pO!l..ible thO'
Imm edi a "e e][preMion of reading. in eighth s, ...ill:tllen th....
t hitt y-teeo nd s and Illx t y· fou rths of II.D inc h
The chief mechanical princip le embodied in the oon
stroction is t ha t of a scre w of 40 thread... pe r inch freo to
move In a fixed nll t, with an o ~n i o g o b taiul'd by t he
bac k ward mov ement of th e sc rew in which the "orll t o be
mM~ ll red i~ p laced. I n figure I. whic h represents a
cali per havio.': a ratchet sto p F , hy means of whic h objec tB
bei og measu red may be .ubjected to th" same p reeeure,
and .. lock in g devi ce. or clamp riug E . for preservi ng the
Mttl og: A i~ the hu b. on whi ch graduation. are m.rked
40 to the in ch . .. " d figured 0 I, 2, dc ., evO'ry fourth
divi-dcn rep'MO!ntin~ 0, · 1"• • ~l" • ..te . R is t he anvU. .. nd
C the sc rew, t he pItch 0 ' wweb i' 40 to the incb D II
Ule . loeve which i. Ilra.d. ua.tell. on its be ...,lIed ed.':e into
t 6 parte and figured evny fifth d lvl»ion O. 6. 10. II, 20.
A. tbe graduation. on the b ub A w oJofl n to t he pi tcb
o f the lCfe_ ea cb di vi sion en th~ hob abo ... lb•• th~
caliper hall ~n o pened on e-f ortieth oi &lI Inc h , or 26
tb.nlla.Ddtb. Ii.• ,. - 0211") Si m ilarly eac b diviaioo 0IlI tb..
, 1",,1'& D ... heD ~ng tb e line <.lJ grad ll41iOlUl OD t h..
hnh A indicat.... til,.1 Ih", sen'. ha.~ m...-le oo e t_"",ty_fifth
138 SPEED CU R V U
o r one-fortieth o r o ne thousandth of a.n inch. H en ce

to read the caliper multi ply the uUlJlber o f divisions
vis ible 00 the hub A by 25 and add t he number 01 division s
00 t he !lUl.le 01 the sleeve D Irom zero to rue line com ciden e
,..,t a the lln e of graduations on the b u b. T hu s, in t h ~
illustra tion , 16 di vi sion s are vh.ible on t he hub (<I X 41
an d l!l d ivisioDs are shown 00 tbe . Ieeve . The read ing in
th ou ... nd ths is ther elOl"e f6x I 6+2 1_ <l 2 1 or · 421 of
ao inch .
W he n a mkroll1eter is litted with .. verni er scale fint
detennioe t he n u mbe r 01 tbou sa ndthll u a bove, and then
find .. Iioe au t h e vernier !lC&1.. wh ich ezac tl y coincid e!
.ith eee Db the sleeve, the Dumber 01 th b line then
represen ts tbe n u m ber of teo -thou u.ndth l that must be
added to the Du mber of thousandth, a lread y determined
10 t he an oe x ...:!. ill ustration, figure 2, the readioll is
O· !40+0 ·01103 _ 0 ·:t40:l 01 a n in ch .
Spe ed Ourve
... j1;OOd el[a mple 01 the method 01 lay ln p: ou t t he MPN'd" of
ept udle by IlltlO.1ll1 of a cu rve tM ..how n tn 1'101:. U .
_ Co.",1",,. 70::> I( ......
I r- eo..'l"t",,.43oQ~P M
r:
~,
~~ 12 · ~Ql'
~
.~ ' . '1;
it
~
:!>
-4 ')!>
ifitA
:: ",~ "., ?
If':
12~ '_1'
t,ii~
l:!> A •
tIl
: 4
I I
.
I l;:;~"ons~p
__ \oW< ~ ng''''Ou<:I''
Fi~ . 12. -S ~ Curve..
The speed ranges from 34 ·2 to 950 revs. per minute in
ebaogee and ulling a 2-speed .auDtenbah. .
139
LATHES
I n the firs t piece, the machine should be .titlly 000
structed. and 80 lined u p and fit ted that initially i t may do
&afufactory work. Theo
(a) Thll various c be cges of speed, of travenloe. of too.
po$ition• .te., should be effected by handle mo veme n ts
",b)cb should be practieally in stan tan eo us in action and
within easy reach of the operator.
(bl A ,ufflci..nt Dumber of spind le speeds should be pro
vided to cover the range of work without baving big jumps
in the dillerent diameters. To ful1il this conditioo direct
connected elcetrica1ly-driven lathes are the t-t.
I") All ordinary speeds of traver.le should be obta.ioable
without the removal. and changing of Split wheel., o r belts.
(4) \\'heo .crew cotting. one movement should suffice to
reIea.se the screw and withdraw the tool fro m the work.
(..) F eed stops should be introduced, aDd aI., mean5 of
re ve rsin g the feed tra verse from the carriage.
(/) Micrometer adjustments sbollkl be provided for the
ItereW!! of t he eompouDd rest.
(I) It should not be possible for any two travereee to be
in action at one time.
(A) The heads tock apindle should be hollow.
(i) Bo th fast a nd I~ headstocks shou ld be bored at
the end s to suit the MoI'llll ta pers.
(J1 Coven s hou ld be placed ove r a ll gea ri ng and a.ll
screws,
(It) Provision should be made fo r t horough ly lu bri catiug
tbe tools.
SpIndles o f a ll light la thes should be hardened and
a.ccu rll.tdy ground cy lindrical on d ead cen tres. Above
41 in di ameter. howe ver. ha rdening ~ n o t advisable.
Bearinll.S. -Each o f t he following materia ls ha ve bee n
used : H ard s teel, CR.'1t iro n, ph osphor b ro nEe, and brass
or ca'l t iro n lined with whit e me tal. When the beari ng,
a re amall. DO doub t hard steel i5 desirable. but if they a re
of ample proporti on s it becomes unnecessary. Too iKlft a
metal. OD the other hand, ls not satisfactory, a.s it dcee no t
ia.st .....ell enough. If Rabbit metal i5 used. it should be
pourod into place and thoroughly pounded solid before
boring to aEe. Both phosphor bronze and cast iron are
e.pecia.Ily suitable.
Th e Bed.- Wh en it comes to a q'Jestioa of rigidity
and -earin8 aurtace, the in verted VI usually adopted
in Ammcan lathes cannc, t touc h the broad flat aurtace of
t he 8ritiJ,b bed
140 l.ATH " PROI'O RTION ~
l:)IJln dlo Ncses.c-ru e ~ piudJo "<»I" ~h o u l<l n ot he
tlJrc,,,l ,,d il.8 fu llllHlgt h. uut ~houl,l iJll.vO l!. ~I l ai ll put " Ca.r
La t he colla r ou wh ich tho Ia ce pla te s houl.l m . Ti ll S Wo ke .
I
•
',%~::71 C - ., •
. --_ . ~
i1 ~ ' lC b t of ,;
t:..,t<..
..;;; ::§•
.
1- ~,
~~
.a
.1"'''-)' " \.;')0<1 d e ul o f rhe t h r ust :t l\c1 ""n ~c'1 n ~ " t . ""0:11' '''1
th ~ eore w 1,1"",,,,<1 8, which iu tiU h1 lua y e uuue I,ho ['H'op l:,!"
"
W r u n ou t of t rut h. A " o lit! co lLII' Ill, the bn"k 5h.u u 1ol
!l.l w a )' ~ he' pn .wld"d. ll.~ on thi ~ d" penlh t o ~ ICf ClL l u:t-ll ut
l,b" trul. h o f t he fa. ceplate.
Ur. Nt eoleou <1i"id ,," ia t hes Iu to lllrl~ ' C1r'~H C H;
Car1>on L<tl hr s. -Ordhmr y, ol d·ytrl~ btl"",
lf if1Il. · ~lxrd J." f h cs.
C(l"'po.~itr {,alhrs.-To thiH c b. ~ .. belong lu ~l of lb.
1:,l h,'~ ad eertiaed ami ~old IlH higu-sp<.'{>d . •
Fo r Ilia. ('ClIt...." :l <:.-orhoD btbe "l.ould I", c., p....bl.e o f
d " li n ' r illJ/: "loout I~ hor-re ,JOwpr, " ('nrnpo~iw l"tlJe "bou! 5
lto....... !'OM'er, lIud It hig h -speed lat he abeut 10 lJur!IC 11O"'o:r
Lathe Prop or t ion s. -- 0;,,,,, of Rpindlc (frOllt locarin!!,) = ' 4
l"'il' h t of renlTL"8 + ~in. Lo ~ l'eLl!ht of ccnr ree.
U ium. of ~ p in<lIe of roo,e head ='J u,'i};ht of Qentr 6il
~ Hu.
Width of CODo -e 'I bei;J;h! of c.,n.lr,·g -+ lin.
Pro Jl(lrti on ~ of co ne "'11/t g""riol/: suc uld 1>, " r r,ul,l:;oo to
eu n tl i:ull,·t en. !.(l be t u rned.
•,,
o,
,,,
,
• ·0
....
'
•,
P ropo rtioDS of
Loolle B ead8t ocb
The sc rew IIhou Jd •,•
..lw .. y~ be le /l.·ha n ded,
and lock- uu ts Hhoul o
00 l'rovhlmi at t he •
L ~-: ·o . . ...
~i
bad. ,,[ til ", h&1II1 wh e,,1
to la lr. ll up all Y wear
oct.w e..n t he eoll a r and
ite h~.r1IlI( . Th e hold
.
, ,
Helrh t iOIl;.down 1Jo1l IIbo uld
~. • 8 C 0 o " I IkN.
be De..rer t he Iro nt •
-- _ .- - - - .
Oeul;hO
en rl t h lon the ee u u-e, U
•7 'II H i 886 119t

1~
e -
7 '1
71
71 1
I , •'1
I 'Thnol •
the too;nd e ncy 1_ to lUt
d nrlnll' eu ttl n it •
8
II
It
21
1lI
\8
4
'.
12 ,
Ii ,
, •
8 ,
'1
101
11
11 1
I
•' 1
"
.."
10
12
16
'1 120
2
III
'oU
27
8e
7
\66
18
21
, 10
181 I.
'1
II I '1 "181 'l1 l 11II
"
I i I I,
81 ",
8
" •
1<2 LATH & PR OP OIl,lIONS
NI l -- .......---
...... ..
"..
111I---- -
a
1 -----1
- ... :=-::
• I ... ... .,. "" .......
"" .,.. ", ""
c
---.:J
• I
<--
... ... ... ....... -
-_- 00 -
~ :::
. . .,..,..,.,
-- -
---<'< ..
o
<
_~r.T l
,
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LATH E I'ROPO MTJ ON S 14:l
Lalhe Beds.
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Chang e WheelA.
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1..6
ALL-GEAR H EADS
A m"cll hle tool ll1louid. whun"""r potIIlibl". ha"" aJ.I ,. "U .
11:.....00. •• head. In w hleb the dr1vh~ 1".... :I I1~ k h"" t he cone
pulley dl llp\aeltld by a 1Ilnll:le pulley driven by a belt. or b,. a
lIpu r or lIpr'()('li:et wh ee l driven from aD electric m oto r. aDd
tunl n ll: a nelIt 01 ~ In. lIilllllar ItlaDn.. r to t he feed ~
...hkh are now IlO oornmon. They are a lBO d6llcribed aa
"lIloll:le-pulle,. heads ~ aDd .. coWltAnt",peed belt machines."
Sueh ffil:ll'haDbJm h&8 not only the .dv.n~ of jl;re&t
Inc~ In po...er , more pcetttve actlon. and I{I'\'IIU6I' facilit]'
of II~ chan~ but erso, If Inlltall..,d M a be-It.driven
mal".hlne, It redueee to. minim um the altl'ratJOnll neeeB-'lllJ'!
If . t aDy time the m&clrlne l~ to btl eonvN"U'd tJ mo«w
drIvln Ro [n addition to the quickneu ...Ith ...hich the
chan~ ca n be made III the ObviOUll advan~ that tbe belt
.1....]'" rnns . t run epeed, .nd is not "lo ... fId down jllHt at
the Urne when fu ll po wer is n~ed -that III. whan ~
diameter w ork ... 1<0 be done-a defect that Ia Inherent 1n
cone pull",)'1'. Conlleq uenu,.. at whatever "peed the rnsehlne
ill running, the full po wer ill .vailable at thEI cutHnp:
eurrece,
All ani,. one belt 18 required, It ifl pl'll.('tlrabh~ to WIt' "
much w:Idur belt than IIIpollRlble ...Ith a ecne p ulley, a n d the
pulley he lnp; m ad e . dla meW equal to or even p:rtlAter than
the lar~ ...t d lam eh'r or t he co ne pulley , t he m llJ:lm u lll belt
eltort III .1"'."11 be ln jl; jl;l ven a nt. Thi ll nAt ural ly mu ch
lu cl'MlMll'l the a vet>LJl:e output or tho m a ch in e. All be ll
IIhUtlnj( I" d on e IIway Wlt h thellre of t he be lt III pr olonged,
and t he d r ive hI more wl(iIll)' "duptahl e tha n w hen a con e
pu lI"y IIIused.
In eerte ln de ~ lJl:nll ol lltlUdli the COl'lt 01 ereet je n and
lIIaln ton"noe o r e cc u nce eeh att lind addltlollll.l beltJIls saved,
..It h the ILd d ltlonB of 1_ obllt ructe<:l lIj(h t and a better
e t rucs phe re, Th e poe tuco of t h e machine with ~rd to
th e 1ll",ln Il~lv " \II n ot limited, as tbe belt In the mll.jorit,. or
qu." rt8J' ·tw llit oolt lila"
ca>Il'f'I ",ay r un a t any ang le either aho..e or belo w , or ..
00 used. l'urther.ln the eeae of ..
la th e howilltock. tho d rivinJ;!: pulley III removed lrom the
Ilpl n<lll'. w it h the reonl.1t that then. \II no u ndue t rictloo a nd
wear a nectllljl; the aUj{Ilment of tlLe spindle due to the pull
ol the belt. All a reault. an .. all·gear ~ bend haa • m uch
h lp:her efl1dency than. ccee-pcner head.
The dfllllj,(nlllllutrated are eeleeted with a ...l ew of eho...·
lDjt bow varie<l tb_ can be for attalnlnj( the _Ille eodA.
..nd ho w the Intro<t uctlon of dUfenmt eombloatlonll of
ll:e&riD ~ .. If..... te t he delllJl:1l ...... a ..bole. I t I" <:u"toruu,.
to enc lOoOe the ae o.rlnl( In " boll. a nd let It I'lID ia .. batb
of oil.
ALL - G E AR H K A LIS '47
-
1' )J)l:l1l of A ll-G ear R ead s.- All Kolar l.o"aO. m a y be
dh lJe<1 Into fOUf JI:~nl"r.. 1 l ype8, ,,1.1.: (I~ S lld ln jl,' lI: ey.
121 Clutched j:[f'AT. 1:-h Slidinllll:l'flT. \4l OOlublnatJ on .
The IIlldln!l·key typt> b as ee r t....ln .,tV_Dt_eII: It, l&
eeonoru jealIn 1IJ "'0l", and tee s pN'd ma y bf, qllick ly e h" n ~
Hut It I~ n" bll" to jrel out of Orol' T. and .11 W- f1Iln tht> train
!'lIyolvp. ""'",,, ot t 1'..... 1<1 1,.. it I.. true.. o u t It ill the kill"
....'-1. nOl tl1.. looul e(\ o ne. tb"t mak"" t ht" mu.t n o ;~. a nd
wh ile th t.. t ype may be ulOl'd very . p proprla~ly (Of' • rNd
moti on it \" n ot Muit.. b!c t or • h ijl:h-lIl'<"N! ...r h ·... Aurlshou ld
not ..... n-d for linch pul'JKll'e,
Clu ld_ ..lODe ma y be u ..ed ....bel'll the nu m ber of rhan~
requlrNl h. "n,all, &lid 01 t heooe mlL/lY plla ",ple$ a no 10 tllIeof
both tooth ami frlC'tlon el utchM. Th", latter Iypo:l a re •
DflCefIIIlty In turret la t hes. beeaU lll'l II I_ n_ r y to
In"tAntly oh lAio '&At a nd 8low !'B t ell of . plDdle s peed
IICl'Ordlnll ... dlffe....nt tela]" in tbt' lurret a f'lll pr _ ntfld to
the ... or k .
Fo r nol la b llit y. 8lmpllMt y. a nd n u mber of ehaDJtM
obtal"abl", hO,,"f'Ver, th...... te not hi np: to equa l th "alidln p:·
JnW.r tn_elth..r with pl&ln IIlid lnj( Il:M rlI or with tu m ble r·
<:<In ", I«'"'rl np: o r t h p. B eodey.Norton tn~ .
The eo mbinatlon type ill t'nc! l <"'l.~ In ItIl "anet t.' On.. or th e
1" l:eolt f "", t u """, I" th" use or t he rateh..l or • f""'" w h«ll . ~
wh lr h h"" fon lltl re voue wi th ~ve~1 ulI. kt'I'1I. and h"" n,ue h
t.o oolmn",nd It . Th " ratc het w h", ·1 III attached t o th..
•10'A·e..t runnlnp: p:ea r of a ll Y pa r t.lcul"rro nll of I«'"' N!, a nd 110
l onl( All t,lw ,lrl\' l ng IIl 1llft III r unnlo p:. and the ot her !t""n In
t hll l'(lne n"" d l......n!t" p;ed . th,' pe...1 ...n d ~t ..hllt wheel rotate
to!tflU",r wit h the d r-iven »he tt, but wh en 'Ul y one of the
rll" ! "'r 1Ir - ! " of the llerlll!l 18 1n ORe t he ratch et wh ee l. which
III keyl'd to t he 1I11O\ft. si m p ly rUOI! .. h....d o f t h.. IIl0wly.
ro ta Unp: l{llI,r .... rry l~ tho pewl,
~
"1" I " ' JV":Il ~

r~~·;-·~ [ ~ ,
l~rK/:~ '\\
'Ifl )! .~ , .. \i
\, <~A 'j
no.. U. -"IIlf'llt &toh", t W h...l. ..on.... &: I A n " •••• Loorh.
Silent Ra tcbet Wheel- An eIl. mlll", of pa ... l and
ra!lehlM wheel . . u.d In th. JOOM.ad lAm...... turroe la the
'" _ho_ In F'111'. 1£
14il
, The "", ...1 H ". d.'op~ r. ,, ~ h h u " poo l."t III t h.. t_ of
t.h., ;,l',·"r. On the out." de or tb .. pe l l~ rl veto'd " wl ul/: K •
• nd III • I/:roo ve 111 Il:"'U G is .. napped • "prlnjl; L (Mo Wll In
10n R end ahort do t ted 1IU<B\, the end>! ot w hl~h . but "foClli n..'
the WI"t" K . ' \'"hfon t he ratchet wh e",11 rolate>< taJlt"r than
1I;:eaJ" g w h koh carriell. We JlRwl iI. the ps.... t Ir",,1f i" h eld
....a' l ro m the ratc bt w h...,1 hy tm. ecuen ot theaprlll '"
t -r1np: ll.lt"ln"t the ..-Inll; K.. .-\~in ... hfOu II;:"'Bf E' ClI. rTJlull
the p' 1 l"Ota t _ fU ler than th e ra toe t...t wbt'<'ll F, the JlIlIwl
I" t urn l11 tO niMh with F hy the pu"h or tbe "prlUIo: 0" t he
opptWlite" Ide o f ~he winl/:.
W it h Wi. ~ ba Ji ther-e "'..., oOlaine<! nlue r h&n~ 01
"pol'f'd by the mceeme n t o r two 1.......1 lI. The re af e two &at"
01 il1"L1"ll. h " rln ll;: t hree W"' '''' in each COlle. o r th_, tw o
pal" hav e rat r he t ...hrels. a nd th.. f"em..lnln R ~"' ......
000... ,,,,,1 0, Irl. ·rJ,on ..I,, '.. h-.
6
o,
"
I'l l. 11I. _ A II..( ;ea f Bead, mao1l!' h. J OI'hu " Hu ck lO"
&: ce. Ltd.
BUdinll;: Wheel T ype.- FiR. hI Ihuw.. lUI II.f ... """meu t

h { M I'JIkn. J OMhuli Buck to u &: ()). LI~I., ... hkh I" of
t h . "l\<llo R·...h eel type, ..nd Ill".... elll;:ht chl."I1;:"" Th e
Alt.-GEAR HRAD~ 149
...·r.nIo\."u"fIl, 10. H'ff Illinpl .., and h_ th" P.. ... L adv. U ""t04~
that on.ly th.. J/:.....rlI r"'l u ir l!d a re In mesh. Ou the nrel
motion Ilh.1t th"n, u.r<l mounted two 1*i"" 01 "Udl n!!! I':"a""
A. C and KG. They aNo moved by 1"'0 1,.,..n1l, 0I1l" abo\'", th"
ot her, Alln CI." lII\"8h with "Ub..r U. V . F . or H , j(iving th u~
tour .pt....... to the epiodle. Thn" P:0ILno ani keyoo to ..
81,oeV" rUlllllnl( lreely on the epindle. an d take the pl_
of the (':0"\'1 pun ey. The e.ktlve may be co u pled to the
IIpill<lle by t h.. clutch N. Tbi", dUleh IUA)" be moven
out of ~r. all "bown in the drawinll(, or may be
moved "till lurt h..r back. pu tlinK L Into mNh with
M. thl!! action ..11'...,110 1'-" t hill eha~ "lhllnl/: 0 Into ",,"b
with 1\ .. hlrh t.. 11."')·...1 to the 8plndl... ,,'h ..., 1., M. O.
Pact 11.1<.. an ord ina ry .. hack j[ ee r.~ thu.. douhHlI1/: t h"
number 0 1 ehou'Jll!lIo, And producinjl: th" e1Kht req uired,
Gea r Q m....h.... wilh A pinion on the armature Ilhatt of •
m owr.
The a liOt""., u" o! t.h" dnunie 1/:.... at th e In)nt 01 t "" bead·
.toclt: Inllt-.d 01 t lo.. .-r bI Il:OOd pJ'll(:tl"", . . It redUl'M t h..
"""ultan l I.hru,, ' upon th", ",plndle bearinJl:. \ \' h" l1 the 1n'A....
are pl&CA.·d At t he hack of the hett.d"t«k theeap 01 t he tront
bN. rl nl( takt'JIIA t hnll,t equal to the eum of : h e rol"CUll actlnll
u p wa rd .. f ro m th.. ~k-~r pinion .nd · the eul,t.!n K tool,
wh el't'OUl with thlM dl'foll(llit ~ to ralT}" on ly t b.. tl llfor elll'l"
of t,h_ tcecee,
A Tn mbler ·ge a.r ArrM gemen t . - lt h, liO....i b ht W
obtAoln 21 c ~ In IoW(IlI,et l'lr,,1 IlrOI{I'I...~lo D wi tll on ly It
1l:e.I'fSAnd fou r "harr... by wdnll: the MyMl.om adopted hy t.h..
Bro w n and S harpe Ma nufa"tul'lnll: (lomp",ny . A d1a~m of
thilo amlllll:tlm on t 1M ~ vell in1<'IK. 17. G,,,...... I , .J, nnd K metlh
wit h ClllTl"llPOlldl ll~ Il:""rs H , F. And B. I, J , a Dd K ar~
m oun ted OllA ~pll.",d liha n N. which '" the ftl1/l11lhaft of the
m oti on. Th" eounecuou between th~ elonltatl'd pinion A
and t .....eon.. of 11:""1'8 ll-Il 18 made by a tUIl.bler pi n ion, And
",h aft M ilM n.u.. seven ~perJ<1s Il:lv..n to It , co rTt'JM po nd in p; to
the Kflr'l'll mou n ted on It. Fo r each of tbeloolllhdt N 11&& ttuM,
obu.l noo II, put tlnll: either I. J , or K Into jl;l'Jar. Obvlo u ~ly
on ly one 0 th,'ll(> uiuat. be in w('fI.b .. , a ti m e, and It I" a.n
a rlva n !Af(o' to haw' onl,. Due handle to mov,," Uwm. The
ri Kht ·bllDd portilln of t h .. ftllW'!' abo..... bo w [tu.. cau be done.
c;..1'8 1 and J move tq(ether. and the (or u II1ld" (reel, OIl
the rod II how n . Tb.-y ""-' moved by pl "o wo rkln ll: In a ea.m
which tuma t broua:b hal f a ...... eclutton,
I t is bOt aJwa)·.. ~t ble.kl o btain a OOrTtIC( ....tio het"eeD
~ Y and .I , ... a ll.xlld ""'.lit", dblt.an.,.. haA t() be rnal n·
taiuei , and Ill) a n a lt..natlve ..meJllt" Is ItlY4'D In the to~
I. ft.-hand oom"r nl 1'11to Ii. In " IIlmllll!' maDll ..r (ORr pa\roo
o f _ r s ccutd be ueed, Jotiv lnlt fo ur cbanlZ:f''' toe- l!!vuJ "..-,d
Dl .hArt M .
150 ALL-GRAil IIEAUS
+ -3
"", _ K
.... ,
Zf a,........'
l'1 Q. H . - Tum bler Gom, u.... ArTallj,(e lu .....t.

t"elath-.Il1_ 0 1 ~":
8 0D I' 081 3 1;
I I"'i! I· . ~ 1·7 2113 :n :!~ o-e I'U 'l.'
Not"",, - II + I = Y +J = H + K,
l V-ti ~ 01 b1l(lu\lIt to 10wN.!. .. ~ m:lli,. I .
Ooubl.. lC'",r ratlDol :
.!!.1l 1 -4i Il .!. = 1I·5 to I
1 lI'03 1\
.!!. x .!:! x .L = 1~ '1 to 1.
o I •
Designa.tion of Lathe Bizes.-Iu Aw ari Cll<l lvecifiu _

tl m"l lathM arll dll &ll(llatOO by the diAm eter 1Ld1llitted over
th e hu ll, "",I Dot by th e heil(ht 01 eelltN'&. Thu.., a 10 tn.
eenree 1"t1,.. in llriU" h p.... cU"" would he tfom"'d a W in.
lathe in A m er ica.
Detl.nit ion of Capstan and Turret Lathes.-A ",pet.a.l>

if,the I" one ha.v lnjl; a t u rret whOfle " u pport ,!ides
lonl{ltodlnally ou a base ln d ependen r frcm the la t he bed.
and the turret la the hI one in whkh the t urret llUnJlO" Dr
.... r-r1~e "lI d lllOl d lJ'fletir 0 11 t.h.~ .
lSI
NOT ES ON T URRET AND CAPSTAN LATHES.
T he T urret and Ca pstan lath e is the princ ipal type

of lathe used on m ass produc ti on . Eve n in ma inte n
a nce shops and t ool rooms where it is necessa ry to prod uce
any lin es of d u plicate p arts, th is type of ma chi n e too l
is as m uch in evidence as its parent tool, the ce ntre
latbe .
I ts main advantage o"eT the ceqtre lathe for Certain
[obs. is, that ail the tools used in completing t h e job
can be set up to cover all the machinin g operation includin g
bes t part of the measuring. Thus owin g to the elimination
of time taken in changing tools, production time is cu t
doWil to the minimum.
The machines are made in sizes from 4' centres and
the bar chucking dimensions range fro m i" dia. upwards
F or bar works the Collet type o f spring c h uc k is used
accommodati ne hexagon, square, or ro un d bars, bu t the
larger machines handling castings are, a lso in add iti on
to Collets, equip!'· wi t h the familiar three o r fo u r jawed
ch uck s som e of bich are arran ged t o ca rry soft jaws
whi ch can hi' m a., h in ed in po sit ion for fin ishing the
rev ers e side of the component en surin g co ncen tricity.
The m a chines dealing with sm all dia. bar materials
have un gcared h eadstocks and the usual cone pulleys
with counter sh afts to match. The countershafts have
usually tw o forward speeds and reverse.
Th ose dea ling with large bar materials a n d castings
a re designed with all geared heads, in this case t h e machine
is d riven direct from the main shaft the speed c hanges
bei ng contro lle d by le vers throu gh th e gear cha nges in
the head .
The production of medium s ize sc re w t hreads on both
t}'Pts o f mac bi ne is co vered b y self-open ing d ie heads ,
a lthough on ve ry small jobs the b utton die holder is
sometimes used.
On brass wo rk special chasing rest!! are used. b u t
this has been greatly superseded by die heads.
On larger machines, wh er e coarse pitches a re heiug
produced, special lead screws are used and a single point
tool is carried in t he tool post of the front carriage which
is driven in the usual way. Short special Jead K re ""s a re
152 !'lu rK S ON T UII II I!:T AN [ ' CAI''' I ...,'< L ...TH E s
supplied ..a ch co veri ng a n u mber 01 pitches owiolo: to tIM'

cha nge wheel rntiOll in the gea r bo x bt'iflg Iix ed.
Facing a nd forming and cotting off is also ope rated
frorn the fron t carriage which usually carriell t wo tool
posts accommodatin g foo r tool" in each post.
The h exago n tool h ea d mount ed eithe r 0 0 th e Ca pstan
shd e or the Turret saddle usually carries al l the boring,
facing and ICJ'ewing tools.
The main tumin g tool for parallel work i, t he roller
st eady bo x tool. This form of tool, which is a combination
o f cu tling tool a nd stead)", is capable o f taking hto,avi....
cuts when red ucing a diameter, than t h a t o f any tool u'lld
on a centre lathe with the same degree of a.a:::uracy.
There a re eeve ra! types of ie head available which work
from the h exagon tooJ h ead, and t ....o of these . recommend ed
by the lead ing mac hine tool makers, are " T he Coven try
Die Head," and " The Land matic H ead." The roaken o f
these issue compact books of detail' wh ich will be su p p lied
with their compli ments to any in terested opera tor.
The dies in both these bead' are self-ope n in g and
can be sharpen ed wh en necessary.
Wh ere threads a re to be finished to ex act lirnita, it Is
better to usc two dill heads, one for rou ghing, a nd a no th er
for fini shing. In use, a generous su pp ly of coo la n t is
nece ssa ry .
A few notes taken from an Op era to r' . Handbook of
one of the lea d ing machine too l m aken regarding the
inltallation 01 a machine should be obse rv ed hy the
penon respo nsi b le for erecting.
" The turret bo xes and facell a re a ccurately machined
in position , that i. to say, all holes in the tUITet head
are bored from t he spi n d le a nd a ll fKes a re mach ined
by meanl c;>f a ltar fn<! fa cing heed attached te the lathe
spilldle ."
,. Be for e effedi nJt th...... important op erationl, bow·
ev er, eve ry care is taken to see t bat the Ued of the lathe
is sd a beol utely le vel , and p roviding th is is r"PC'a tcd
when the lathe is in stalle-d in its producti\<e position,
accurate work shonld be readily obtained." The levelling
operatio na should be carried out with a fint class level
.. nd in mOllt cueA thO' mach in.. m"~ no t be l>ol ted to t hO'
' 53
000" H a vi n g secured. perfectly 1.,\,.,1 bed th " mac h me
should thea reproduce the aeeunu:y to whicb it was
manufactured. A simple and ch..ap method of t~ti n g
the alignments is to skim a pice of steel rod (he ld in t he
head) with a ligh t cut from the inte rmediate saddl e.
T he le ng th o f th e test p iece sh<lu ld be about tw elv e in-Ires
an d the readln ge t ake n wit h a m icrome ter sh o ,, 1<1 be wit hi n
half a th o usa nd th of an inch ·noos · in t he twelve in ch
le ngth."
Af te r this has I:>e<!n accomplished a rolle r steady bo ll
tool may be M:t up to take a cut from the heult'on t oo l
holder. This may be aceompliMied by bringing the tool
up to the finished rod and setting the roU.. n u p to th e
dia. and t he n adjusting the cutti ng t oo l t o the d ept h o f
c u t req u ired .
T he leadin g ma n ufac t urers will a t a ll times be ple a~ et.I
to supp ly op erators handbooks wh ic h d eal with t il .. tooling.
set ti n g up. and care o f these machi nes.
Plani n g Machines .
P o w er R equired by PianlnQ M a chlne • .-The ....f'igh t
of table a n d wo rk tog...ht e r is often very coJ)..'iderable. and
this weig ht has to be moved against sliding fric ti o n. bo th
wl>ile doing work and while Teversing. To show ....ha t a
large fac tor t h is weigh t is in the power r....luired for a
p la ni ng machin.... we will take an example of a machi ne t hat
will plane work 6ft . wille, 6 ft . high a nd 12ft. lon g. The tabl e
weighs a bout 14.000 Ib s .• and ma y often have a Io.'ld o f
26.000 1M. T his mach ine bas a cu tting speed of 20 ft . and a
re t urn speed of 60ft. per minute. Now. suppose thecoefficieu t
of friction of the table upon its ....ays to be 10 pe r cent {it
may be high...r with poor lubricationl. theu the pull req uired
to move •• e iIS 14.000+26,000
....IS ta ble -10 • 000 . 5 lIP~
tbe. _ ..,
furth er . tba t t ....o tool:o are at "'oTk. each requiring. say.

2 ,()OO lb!!. pull. then the pu n ....quiTed on the c utt ing s tro k..
is 4.000 + (2 x 2 ,OUO) _ S,OOO lhs.• an d on t he re t u rn stroke
only 4.000 11>9. As t h e table moves 20 ft. per mi n ute o n
it , .cu tting stroke. the power req u ired on that stroke i'
S.OOO X 20 _ 160 ,000 ft.lbs. J"'T minu te, or about 4 i h. p.
A' the table movee 601t. per m inute on its retu rn strok....
the power required when returning ls 4.000 x 60 _
240.000 ft. lbs. per minute. OT about 7i hop. It will thus be
seen that this machine requires more power on the re turn
. t ro ke tba n ...h.o doillil fairly heavy dutv, a nd ...x pe rie oC<'
154
5ho ws thi s to be the cas e. If this machml! ha s be en do ing

light wo rk. say, f'.n ish ing a p iece with one too l, requ iring
perbaps 500 lOll. p res.<;u r.., th e power required fo r returning
would still hav e bten 7 t h _p . ; b u t the pow!'r required for
+
cutting wo u ld have been on ly (4,000 5(0) x 20 _90, 000 n.
1bs. per m in ute, o r 2j h .p .
Thu s, to calcula te the horse power required by a planin g
mac hine it ill necessary to establi.m the num ber o f pounds
pu ll req uired on the table a od the speeds best adapted .
From th~ are obtained t he n um be r of foot pounds of work
p er m inute consu med by the machi ne . T o this mu st be
add ed a certai n perce ntage to make up for 10 Sll by fri cti on .
T b is percentage v aries according to tbe amou nt and kind o f
gearing between the mac hi ne pulley a ud the table , T his
ltiV9 the amouot o f powe r th e coc n te rsba u most give out.
This power also determin es the st rength o f the geari ng. I n
a rack machine the last motioo p inion sh ou ld have as. many
t=th &!I p racti ca b le, u rta inly n ot less than 20, if the
action o f the machine is to be smooth . The n u m ber of teeth
in the pinion m ulti p lied b y itsci rcu la r p itch gives the nu mber
of inches the tabl",travels per rev olutio n of the pinion s hafts
and from this can be determin ed th e number o f rev oluti on,
of this :iliaft per minute. The power required a1sodet.. rmines
that the driving belt mu st have a cer-tain width and speed.
Roth t h ese elements, bo,,""'ver , arc limited. If the bd t is
made too wide, liar., more than 6in., it will not shift freely
and qu ickly , and If the speed is too low the same trouble
will result .
Speed o f Belts of Planing M achlnea.- A belt should
run no t I~ than !.00Cl It . pe r minute to shi ft well. An
average speed fo r belts is 1,5OOft. pe r min u te for cu t ti ng and
3,500 ft . pe r minute returning. The r..tu rn pulley is
generally made sm a lle r thao t he cu t ti n g p u lley. !II) as to
make it run f.a$t withou t making the corresponding p u lley
o n tbe co u n te rshalt too large. But the difference between
th"'m must oa t be too great, as at the mo ment be fore
re versal the smal ler p ulley has to act as a brake and over
come th'" inertia o f th e lar ger pu lley, and If it had lit t le
levera ge the resul t wo u ld be sli p and squealing.
E ver since planinR" machines were drive n b y electric
meters it was noticed tha t a great excess of power was
required at the momen t of reve rsin g, especially fro m the
cu tting stroke to the return st ro ke. No d oubt it was noticed
be fore , on ly this p henomenon di d no t p resent itself in such
a.o objecti o na ble way as when a mo to r was used. The motor
PI. ~ N I N G I4 ACIII NES
15'
wou ld spark a nd heat, bum u p brushr:s a nd commu tator,
a ndcause endl_ trouble. Then these a te delicate electrical
reoording instruments that m ay be u!lCld to ind icate exactly
the amou nt of current a n y machine is tak ing . and per_
manent records may be obtained which show at a glance
the points WheTc most power i'J absorbed .
The momen tum of table and wo rk ts extremely small, a nd
capable o nly o f moving t he table and work through a small
fraction o f an in ch by their stored_up engergy. A simple
calculation will show that th" table o f the planing machine
me ntioned above would move only I . of an inch on the
cutting stroke, after the be lt is thrown off. and 11 in. on iu
tehlm stroke.
The speed o f the planer Is ZOft. o n the cutting stroke. It
would have acquired this speed if it had dropped fro m a
hmght . -111+21 in which .. is the velocity In Ieet pe r
second. In this case:= ~ ft. per second, and I is the
acceleration due to gn.vity in Iee t per $ClCOnd_ 32 : Ai
theufore ~uals.
I I
3 X 3 I 12
Z x32 9 x 64ft. , - 9 x 64x I - ..al'll
This veloc ity wo u ld e na ble t he table to c1!mb a n incl in ed
pla n e, o f whi ch the height again is.,!8 in. T h e runnin g o f
the table ov er flat wa ys. and against a friction 01 10 pe r cent
is equi valen t t o ru nn in g u p an in clin e with a grade of 1 in.
10, 80 that it mu st m n~~ or , ; ..in., be fore it stops. A
simila r ca.lculation shows how mu ch the tab le would TUnby
its o wn momentum on its return stroke.
The question no w arises, .. From wh ere d oes the planing
machine get t he me men tum which will d rive table and wo rk
for perha ps several Ieet ? .. Strange as it may seem, it gets
this momenhlm from the dri vin g pulleys. and, for a small
portion, lrom the gearing, and whatever d iUic u lty arises d
due not 10 much to the stopping o f the TUUning part3 at the
end of the retu rn stroke, but in sllarliJCl 1:W... Gl 1tU
kgi""iJCl ol tlle rtJu... st,oAe.
. It is the great amount o f energy that has to be overcome
by the belts and thM re-iaitiated in a contrary direction
eVl!ry time the machine is reversed that is the cause of lID
much power being ab!lorbed at th~ end of MCb stroke. and
156 PLANIN G M A CHINKS
which, consequen tly, inc reases so grea tl y with any increase

in the sp eed o f the pu lleys. Fo r planing machines the rim s
of the pulleys shou ld , the refore , be made of t he lightest
possible sec tio n, and preferab ly of steel. Ma n y American
tool makers use alu mlni urn pulleys, which, owing to the ir
li gh t ness, greatly red uce the po wer required at t he moment
o f re versal.
Cu tting and Return Speeds for PlunlnQ Mecn tuee.c-.
Cutting is or d ina ril y d on e at t he rate of 20 ft. t o 40 ft. pe r
minute, an d the speed o f «:t urn va ries according to the
size of m ac hi ne as follo ws :
3 and 4 it. wid e _ 100 ft . per minute.
S and 6 [t. .. _ 93 ft.
7 ft. and up wards 8Q it. ..
At one time there was a e rase for excessivdy high re turn
speeds, but these we re Icund not econom ical and were
gradually abandoned. As to what are the corr ect speeds
must be dete rmined en t:ifely by the conditio ns under which
the machine ill working.
F or ill5t&nce , in t e xti le works, wh ere there are many
thin castingll wwch generally have a lot o f bard scare, these
cannot be planed much above 18ft . per minute. but qu ite
frequently on e man minds tw o or even three machine$, and
actual cutting speed is not $0 much a qu esti on of economy
&lI is the lasting q uality of the ed ge of the cntting tool.
Tbis latter is a ffected in many ways-b y the speed, material
of the wor k, temper and quali ty of the tool, grinding of the
cutting edge, and the personal elemen t. Therefore. it ~
advisable wh er e different metals are to be operated on, to
provide the conntershaft with two o r mo re cha nges of speed,
lJO that the best speed for the work in band may be selected.
Ulle of Flywhee18. -1t has been fo und that flywheels
on t he countershefts give beneficial res ul ts . These are
running con tin uall y in one directio n, and the action of the
flywheel s ill to s te ady the running and assist the action of
the belts at the point o f reversal. It is DOW customary to
make the two d riving p ulle ys o n the co untenillaft with
hea vy ri m s Ior this purpose.
Va r ia b le Speeds ro r Planen.- All h igh-speed planers
should be equip ped wit h a variable speed device such that
while the speed o f the retu rn stroke is cons tan t and
comparatively bigh , t he speed o f the c u tti ng st ro ke may be
raised so as to be capable of d ealing with hard material a t
a slow speed a nd with 90ft materia l at a hi gh speed. The
,...... t arran Ji:em "nt for this purpose is a !Itt of ch anJi:e Je&rin l[i:
P LANING lliIACHUl&ll >5,
loca ted in the fra m e of the planer between the I,'ulley sh a ft
an d the rack pin ion so that when a slow speed IS desired it
is obtained on the principle of the back gear of a lathe.
whieb giVC5 the great advantage o f increasing the bel t
ra tio on the slow cu t. The following speeds of cut &n!
recommended ;
30 ft . pe r minute for work requiring a fine pointed tool.
as V-slides, na rrow grooving, or coughing hard material.
,10 to SO It. per minute for cough pla.ning cast icon. eac h
speed being favourable for heavy and light c ub respc<:tively
If a castin/l: is weak it pays best to cut last with a reduced
feed to prevent breakages.
60 ft. pe r minute lor planing wrought iron and mild steel
Tb e B ateman Hlll;b- S p eed Plan e r .- Th e IOS$ of time
due to the idle return stroke, led to the detlign of this
planing machine and embodied in which are two master
patents. The fint patent consists in a sliding Cil.Ck attached
h y mea.ns of powerfu l springs to the table. This IU'Tan ge
ment sec ures t hat the table is brought to rest at either en d
of the stro ke withou t shock or jar.
Thll essential features of the second patent nre the heavy
f1ywhcds, wh ich are fixed at either .aide 0 1 the ma ch ine.
These flywheels are brought a lternately in to actio n, and t h e
energy stored in them is utilised in s topping und d a rling
the table and gearing at the moment o f reversal. \Vith ou t
th ese the p o wer required b y such a h ea v y tool 8.5 a pl anet
wou ld be e xcessive a t h igh speeds. The ob jec t o f these
flywheels is to incrcase tho o utl?ut of t h e p la n er.
Planer ComparJsons.-A SImple moans o f asc ertaining
the earning capaci ty o f a plane r is to tak e the cycle time,
as in d icated be low ;
Time of cyc le_ ti me 01 I cut+time of 1 return.
L _Len gth of stroke ill teet.
T _ tilne o f N cycles in seconds.
N _ nu mbe r of cycles.
. ZLxNx60
Avenge or earnlug speed- - - T
A DlOreCOl'TCCt meall5 of comparison lies in the computing
of the efficlend... of planers when working under normal
conditions; this embraces all losses from countenb:dt to
table. Planer "efficiency" is arrived at by th", follovri ng
formula :
R _ ReV9. of countenhaft.
Pc _Circum ference of cut pulley. in I"",t, 00 couutcrsbatt
Pr _ ,. retu rn
' 58 P LAN INli Iol A CIlI N J< ~
Bc _ T ra VCl I"$e, in feet, of cu t belt per 1 It. of ta ble trave l

Br _ " " rd u rn . ..
CME C _ Ca lcu la t ed mean effKtive speed .
A M E C _ Actual .. " ..
CMEC _ (R x Pc -;.- Be) x (R x Pr + Br)
(R x Pc-:- Be ) + (R x 1'1" + Br)
101.. x 60 . . AMEC
AMEC _ T - E fflclencY-CMEC
Plan er Output. Calculating O u tp u t In S q uare
FeeL- F oT genera l estimating purposes it is desirable to
find .. co ns tants .. in respect of eac h planer in use. T hese
.. coostaou" an the ne t lin ear feet tooled per minu te, and
from them it is easy to calculate the time" required to p lan e
a ny job . Divided by the Du m ber o f feeds p<'T foo t , a
co nstant gives the square feet tool ed pe r minute pe r tool.
L x N x 60 Constant
T _ CoU'ltan t &ndfet'd f - sq. fee t tooled
e per oot pe r minu t e pe r
tool.
Owing to the va riab le ti m e-l 0Me8 d uri n g reversals a.od
accelera ti o ns on di fferen t lengt.hs of s t rok e it is necessary
to find t h e "constan ts" for v ariou s lengths on each planer.
The constan t on a stroke o f I foot will be co ns idera bly less
th an those for 5 or 10 ft.
Dou ble Cu t tl nll and HI Ch-s peed P!lmlnlt M a chines.
T o save the ti m e spe nt o n the idl e re t urn stro ke mac hines
have been devised to c u t eq ually on both fo rwa rd and back
wa rd strokcs. T h e two tools a re fixed in the tool box
precis,""y back to back ; in fact, the second too l is adj usted
by simply d ropp ing it in to the furrow made b y the first tool.
The back tool followa in this fu rrow ti ll tbe end 0 1 t he stroke
whe n it receives a feed motion ; it then cuts a fu rther
furrow in which its companion foUowa free, and thus, o n a
single cycle of the table, two fu rrows ha ve been cn t o f
eq ual width and equal d ep th .
A variable speed rev ersing mo tor d rive is used which can
be set either to reverse a t eq ual speeds for double cutting or
to drive slowly on one stroke and q uick t o n the other. The
m otor is regulated by varying the fiel strength and will
stand heavier intermittent loading at the lo\'.. e r speed.s than
a t t he higher. H en ce this m otor will ","'ert its fuU hol"$C
po ....er at all ~s, as the torque o n tht' Plotor shaft is
" L ANI N G iIl AC l li NK S 159
. l'l'ro.cJ IIUlle.y In Vlrrtlely proportional to the speed . The
result 0 1 thi s ~ that the s lower t he speed the t able i~ d ri ve o,
th e heavier is the c u t that can be taken.
P ower to Drive M a chine T oola ,
The follo win g table gives a record of some tests made
at th e BaJd wiD Locomotive Work! t o ascertain the powe r
ab80rbed by various classes of heavy machine too13. The
tools were driven by separate elec t rical motors, and the
power thus permitted of accurate measurement.
P ower Required for S ome H eavy M achine Too s.
- I ...."'......
~,
MO.
Nln.
.,,.,
".'
e
.,.,
-' 1...
,~ In
Mluih.., ~"'b l" ; : n , ~ ~ ~1'1 I... W '; " l~"

"
.
..
~ . I l.o ... p ....,., ..•• 62 In. ",1.5 ft. .. .. 21'1
" .... .. ~' Ib . '" 16 It. .. U'6
~1
::~:: :~: ~ ",," i:
1'1.... . , • . ' .•. . . • It' ~
8.m." t ldo n ..
6dl"r . J> ' o"t .. H~ln. "I ~ l t. Wro'tIT. " . IO'J
,.,.,,.,".,,
~~ ! .. , " I~lt . .. " l,-a
~61".X!4I1.. .... l~'~
\lI ~'~ lo.h~ .. ·· ' 110 In . Co.t . t • • I.
lI.aI.n t drlll tl n Wn, ', Iron.
II It ..
lIo;';'ull''''; drlU: :
,..
t2 It ..
Ra.IW drill ...• .. <2 I". .. ..
I ,.,,.,
1101'1"" mlll . • •• • • < II.. 0 In, Cut oUool,.
HI.. • In. Ooel lro ...
lUoiil.... '.:...e:b i.,; ~: <0 lb . '" IS I... Wro 'l lro b _
6 .... ptna -..dLi.. o 1. 1n.. 0t-01<.. •. ••
The table shows that a relatively large amount of power

"
was ablorbrd by the wuDtershaft and motor. An average
of the 16 case<! in which it '"'as mea.~uPd ga ve 2 ·35 horse
power fOT the motoT and shaft. as against 8 .g b org" po ....e r
for the working ~ine. or about 25 per ce n t even "';th
the machines running at the fuU capacity .
The following rules for o btainin g the h orsepower req uired
to d rive various clasge!l of machine toobhi,ve been com p iled
from lIoCtual practice by the W estingbou ee Company. They
.r. ba-' ou th .. a"8Umption th3 t tOtlI. m ...te n l wat...
160 P"" .. I<i< 1'0 1< II A C Il IN I< I OOLS
harde ned steel are~. Tb", ",v.,rage cu t ll O@: .pee<t Iw.s

been taken in the neigh bo urhood ('f 20 fe't"t per minute.
If high-speed st eels u" used. run nin g Ill . bi gh er c u tting
speed th an t hM give n, the increase in ho rse power sho uld be
approximately proportiual to t h" incr ea se lD s peed.
L a f he!l.-Lath es usi nll: o ne cutting t ool of wlLter·
har d en ed steel at about 20 ft per minu te :
H .P. _ ' I S S-I H .F .
Heavy lathe!! : H .P. _ ·234 S-2 H .P.
S_swi ng of la the in incb~
florln a a n d T u rn loit Mill•• _ For mi lls havi ng 30in.
!lwioj;( a nd above :
H .P . _ ·2S S----4 H. P.
S_ swin K o f m ill in iec bes .
MIlUn~ M llcbJnea .- For slab milling mac hines usi ng
....ater-ba rd en ed steel c utten runni ng .t about 20 ft. per
m inute :_
H .P. _ ·3 W .
W _ di danoe betwee n upnghts in incl:u::$.
Drlllini M a chlne a ._ F w nor mal m acb iol"'l ru nning a t
" perjph eral cu ttin g ~ o f a p proximat"ty 20ft . per
minute :
H .P._ .()6 S.
For b..avy radw drHling machines ;
H .P. _ ·I S.
S_cap aci ty o f drill in in chN.
6 Intter-s._ Non:wU crank llotten" llsing water-borde.ned
deeb at cutting speed 80£ fro m 15ft. h,2Oft. per minu te :
l Oin. stroke. 5 harM power .
18in . 7
3OIn. " 10 ..
6bllpCr8.- Sh apeu using wa ter_harde n ed tool steels at
cutting speeds o f from 15ft. to 20ft. per minute :
16 ill . su o ke. 3 horse power.
18in . ::Ii
Uin. 5
~II . 6.
P hmerll.- F or norma l planers using wa ter-harde ned
steels at cuttin g speeds 01 fro m 15ft. t o 20ft. pe r minute :
H.P .~ 3 W .
F or hea vy forge plane rs t-s
H .P. _ 4·92 w.
W _ width be tween up rights in reet
These formula e a re for planers hayin g a ratio o f cu t ti ng
to retu rn speeds of approximately I to 3. a nd cover p la n CTll
with t ... roohl n OJ>"'rati<m .
POWRK ~'OK NA C H IN E TU OI.I< Hil
Ratio of I'o w er to Welgbt of M e t al C u t.-PrO' eo'! "., r

Flathc:r mad e ex pe ri ments with la t hes of variou, sileo'! , a nd
a t various spe<:!ds. For la thes varying from 12io . to 26 in.
cen tr es. and 61t. to 81t. in le ng th. he fo u nd th.. ho r.le power
....h en ru nning em pty to range fro m -<l35 ho ne po wer to {l5S
h one po we r. a nd when cu tti n g metal fro m ·21 ho ne po wer
to -00 h one power. The powe r required to re mo ve a given
a.mou nt of me tal in a la the o r p laning machin.. varies
with the material and d epth of cut. b ut it may be a pp ro l[·
ma tely el[pressoed &!I follo ws;
H .P . _ -{l21 W fo r east iron.
H .P ._ ·035 \V for wrough t iron .
H .P. _ -009 w fo r steel.
Wb ere jW _ weight o f me tal ....mov ed in pound' pe r ho u r.
Professor F4ther gi ves th e following figures for powe r
req uir ed to re mov e metal with a mil ling machi n.. :
H .P ._ ·10 \V fo r bronze
H .P. _ ·14 W for cast iron.
H .P. _ ·30 W for tool steel.
Compari ng these figu res with t ho"" a bove It will be seen
that the m illin g cutter is much ICS!l elficien t a' rega rds
powe r absorbed than the di a mond po int in a la t h e or planer .
Prof. Fla ther' , formu la may a lso be ex pressed a l :
H .P. _ 7 ·32 S. D . F . (for , teel).
where S . _surface speed in ft . p"r m in
D . _depth o f c ut in in cb es.
F . _ feed in inc hes pe rn"".
See di a gra m . Fi g. 18.
T h e following may be taken a.~ r elia b le :-
La thes req u ire 4 H .P , per ewe. o f mild s tee l c u l a way p er
ho u r.
A lorm ula give n by ~I r . G , M . Cam pbell. in a pape r read
before the E ngineers' Society of w es te rn Pennsy lva nia, is
as follow. :
H ,P.=K W .
wh ere K _ a constant depending upon the ma te n .. l . W _
weigh t of metal re mo ved in ponn d'! pe t min n te ,
V :&!Uel! o f K m .. y be t&lr.en a!I follo ws:_
K _2 'S for h ard steel.
_ 2'() for wrought ircn
_ I ·8 fe r ".,tt steel.
_ I ·4 for ca'lt iroD
6 If.A .
162 P O W &R F O R MA C HINK T OOI-S
Mr. J. Miley in II paper be fore the Newcaa t te ASWCiatlO D

of Forem en E ngin ee rs, F ebru ar y. 1904 , gave the followin g
res ults of t he power required t o d rive tile elec tric motor
countenhaft and lathe at dill..re nt speeds. T a kin g a cu t
hill. deep and I in. fl'ed o n a mild s teel shaft:
Speed: Feet per minute 24 36 60 90
E1ecbical Horse-power 8·9 12·49 17·55 2 1·27
Testing: a 12-inch cen tre la th e driven witb a 26 H .P . motor
it was eteerv ed that 61 E .H.P. ..&5 required to drive
machine without =y cut.
.
•• ."
•
0
•••• ..
0
eo
=
",
•
• • , • , •
Product of S.D.F.
FIG. 18.
Taking: c ut j in . deep. n ino feed, cuttiog: speed 72 fed per
minute. 13 H.P. was req uired; i .•. • 61 H .P. to drive machine
aod 61 H .P . to remove 511bs. of cuttings pe r minute. With
a cnt f in . deep and 0/, in . feed and cutting speed of
65 fed per millute. 20 H .P . was required. III tbe latter case
abont 2 H .P . wa, required per pound of material re mo ved
as agaiott 1'3 H .P. in former caMIlI.
Ilg"VY TYPE M IL LI N G M"CtlU• .II:~ 163
Power for Lin e and Counterebert• •-Experi ments

by Professor Benjamin in six heavy machine- making
e!tahlishments in Cleveland showed that about 62 pc r cent
01 the total power Wall required to drive the line shafts and
cou nters. while in siI light machinery shops the power
absorbed in this way was 55 per cen t. See abo a paper b y
E. Langdon. Proc. Iust. Meeh.E., 1898 , o r M«IJa..ical
E..p~". Nov. 12 1898.
P ower for woodworjdng M a cblnll'ry .- :llachin es for
wood....orldDg generally COIl$Ume more po er than those
lor iron working. An ordinary l2in. or Uin oodtuming
lathe. llUeb as pattern makers U5e. absorbs more power than
aD engine lathe of even greater size. A band I.aW with
36in. wheels reqnires from I to I horse power. A 12in.
wood pla.ner requires from ito! horse power r un oin, lig ht
and fro m this up to 3 horse power whe n cutting. See abo
Mulla"iuJ E"!i,,ee~. Se pt. 17. 189 8.
T e llt s of III Heavy Type Millinil Macbln e.-In a
paper be fore the Manche~ter Associ.a tion o f Engi neers.
Novem be r 2,1, 191 2. Mr. P . V. Vernon gave the resul ts
of a series of tests made o n a powerful m illing mach ine.
The tool willi a h ea vy " single pu lley" hori zon tal o ne
of knee t ype and embodying the follow ing leadin g par
tic u lars: Longitudinal feed 42in., tra ns ve rse feed 13!in..
vertical feed 21in., diameter of "single p ulley" 16in ., widt h
of belt Sln., speed 0 1 "single p ulley" 400, belt s peed in feet
pe r mi n u t e 1,675, maximum gear ratio 24 ·4 to I, number of
spe eds 16 , ra n ge of speed 16 ·4 to 427 , n u m ber of reeds 18,
ra n ge of feed!! in inch es per minu t.. ti n. to 22lin., weight
8,652Ibs . The driving motor wall of 22Ovolta, direct c u rrent ,
compo und wou n d ,in t erpole type with 3 to l speed varia ti on
givi ng 30 b.b.p. at aU speeds on no rmal fu ll load. The
speeds of the motor ranged from320 to96O t u rns per m in ute
in 3(lstepa and the motor could be reversed when required.
The reaulta of the testa which were made on cast iron a nd
mild steel are recorded in the tables on pages 166 and 167.
The figurea indicate clearly oertain limits of output, power,
and efficiency which are of very great use for comparison
with other experim.. nta.
A~ a reault of the whole series of testa, it maybe said that,
on material of the kind used for the testa, c..rtain hroad
generalisations can be made, such as :
(I) A 5in. double belt driving a 16in. pulley at a speed of
400 pe r minute (100,531 sq.in. of belt per minute) geared to
drive a 4lin. cutte r at 70ft. per minute is able to re m ov e as
much all 48 ·1 cub.iu.of cast iron, aurl 24 ·31 cub.in. of mild
steel in a minute.
164 tf l':AVY Tv]'!': "' ". I.IN'; MACH I N ES
(2) 2,090 eq. in. o f double be lt passing over a pu lley in a

minu te will remo ve I cub. in. o f cast iron on a m illi ng
machine. '
(3) 4,135 sq. in. of double belt pass ing ov er a pulley in a
minute will remove I cub. in . of mil d st eel on a mill ing
machine.
(4) A 4lin. cu tt er on a 2in, a rbor ru n ning at 70ft. per
minu te is capable of removing at least 3.63 cu b. in., and
possibly as mucb 8ll 6·01 cu b. in. of cast ir on, and at least
2.125 c ub. in., a nd possib ly as much a..q 3·03 cub. in. of mild
steel per m in u te for each inch of wid th up to Sin., and at
a n y d ep tb of cu t from ·24in. u p t o 1· 1in.
These figures a re taken lro m the maximu m a nd m inim u m
o utputs of t he various t est cuts, and should be relia ble lor
comparison if the mac hine o n which the work is d on e is
reasoua bly efficie u t a nd has e nough po wer a nd s trength.
(5) A milling macb ine wben on maximu m outpu t .....iII
remov e about tw ice as mucb cast iron as mild stee l per
minu te.
(6) I h.p. is able to remo ve as much as 1·84 c ub. in. of cast
iro n, or ·7 4 cub. in. 01 mild steel in a minute.
(7) An all-geared m.achine need not be any less and can
be considerably more efficien t than a cone pulley machine.
The maximum power transmitted by the Sin. bel t d rivi ng
the I6in. pulley at 400 tums per minute was 42·8 h .p . an d
t he minimum 2 1 h.p., when taking the recorded c u ts, the
effective dri,';ng tensions working out at abou t 168lbs. and
S21OO. pe r Inch of width. From this it can be said t hat :
(S) A double belt can be made to drive at a n effective poll
of as much as 168100. per inch of width wh en t esting a
machine for maximum output.
These tensions are of course higher than wou ld be good
p ra cti ce for regular work, but are justified by the fact that
the machine was tested to a point fa r in ex cess of what
wo uld be expected from it in th" way 01 ordina ry ou tpnt .
At t he same tim e both the belt and the mac hi ne accom
plished the wo rk wit hout su ffe ri ng in a ny wa y, sbowing
that there was an ample reserve 01 strength. As a matter
of fact, fo r ordinary wo rk a motor o! 15 h.p, or 20 h .p. is
consid ered to be large enoujth for t he m achin e, althougb
a 40 h .p. motor could he safely used wbere beavy cuts were
tbe rule ra ther than t he exception.
H£AV\' TYPK
,
UI I.-L1NG MACJl INKS 165
T~!If ' with 4 , I n . H lib -.peed Oureer, III 'Teet.h , 1 I n .

Hole . M llll n ~ Cost_i r o ll B lock 8 In. w ide Ilt b()
t u r n s _ 70 n . per m in ute.
(Po we r required to lUll m otor a n d machine light ·7 ne t
H.P. h a s been deduc ted from the recorded H.P.'s t ..
give t he figures in the Table.)
Met a l Removed .
D'2:'"
of ut.
Feed
1\1 ea su red . Net H .P .
Cubic I n s.
per min.
Cubic I n s ,
perH.P .
,...
min .
· 24 17\ 20 ·3 33·80
·25 17 , 23 ·0 35,00 1· 52
·26 17 , 26·\ 36·15 \ · 38
."
· 30
In
13,
34 ·6
23·7
38 · 52
33·30
l ·ll
\·4 0
· 32 13 1 29·6 33·92 1' 15
. 3< II i 24·9 31·55 1· 27
. 3<J III 27·3 33 ·12 1 · 21
·375 13 , 22·8 40 · 50 1·77
·40 II ~ 27·3 35·84 \ · 32
· 42 II, 26· \ 38,22 1 ·46
. 4-\ 9, 23 · 7 32· 12 1 ·35
·4li 9~ 24 ·9 33 ·3 4 1' 32
·48 9-1', 27·3 35 ·33 1 · 29
·50 91 3<)·8 37·00 1 · 20
· 55 7, 28 ·6 33·00 1· 15
· 60 6~ 23· 7 29 ·76 1·25
·625 9~ 24 ·9 45·93 1· &1
· 650 91 30,8 48' 10 1· 56
·70 7 ,'~ 35· 1 4 \·60 1· \9
·75 6/0 28·6 38·80 1·35
·80 6~ 29·6 3:-1· 79 1· 3 \
·85 <l 27·3 33·15 1 · 21
·90 <. 29 · 6 35 ·54 1 · 20
· 95 <' 35 · 1 36 · \ 0 1· 03
J.1lO
' ·06
I •I
•81
3 /0
27 ·3
37 ·\
2" ' fi
:~2 ·00
32·54
29·Q4
.,.
1· 17
\·0 2
o
166 ' !lEAVY TYP E M IL L I NI' MACIIDlll S
T e ..tlS w ith 4i in. H1lth- s peod <ktt••r, 10 T • • th, 1 ill .

Hole. MlUlng Mild-steel Block R In. wide a t
60 Turns =70 ft . per minute.
(Pow er r~qllir c d to ru n motor a n d m a chine light ·7 net
H .P. has been deducted fr o m the r ecord ed H,P.'s to give
the figures in the Tabl e).
Metal Removed.
Depth Feed
• f Cut. Measu red. Net H.P. C ubi c I ns.
per min.
I
Cubic Ins.
p er H .P .
min .
·24
·25
· 26
"'
tol
I1j
30 ,8
29·6
39 ·8
21 ·84
21 · 75
23· 14
·71
· 73
· 58
·28 9j 28 ·6 20·44 ·71
·30 9~ 29 ·6 2 1 ·67 · 73
·32 81 30 ·g 22·72 ·74
·34
·36
·375
8tl
7~
42 ·1
30·8
24·31
2 1 ·06 ."
. fiB
71 28 ·6 21 ·37 ·74
·38 '1 30· 8 20 ·52 "67
·40 ',\ 27·3 HI·4 0 · 71
·42 6 29 ·6 20 ·16 ·68
·44 5 24·9 17·60 ·71
·46 5 27 · 3 18 · 40 · 67
·48
·50
4 1~ 28·6 18 ·96 ·sa
4t~ 30 ·! 19 · 75
·55
·60
OJ
4~
30·8
;17·1
21· 45
23 · \0
"
·68
· 62
· 625 31i 29 ·0 19 ·6S . fiB
·70 3~ :10· 8 22,05 ·71
·75
'SO
·IS
'3jI
2,
2!H;
32 · 0
26 ·1
19·50
20 , 80 ."
·(,i5
17·85 ·6S
·90
."
2~
2'
30,8
24 -9
1l' l' 45
U;· 15 ."
."
'·00 2, 29 · 6 17 ,00 ·57
1 · 85
I ·I
2~
2~
24 · 9
as.e
17 · 32
1S · 1.5
."
."
POW ER n:1< TAPPI NG.
I·"w.,.~ Required for Tspplna ._To ...erwil the

power req uired lor drivin« pipe bps on ~adia l drilla the
.<\meri ca n \ \orh Co., of Cinci nna ti, m a d e a seri es of
e xpe rime nts. t h e results o f wb ch a re give n in t he accom
panying uti". Th" holes ta pped . pr " ....am ed with
standard p ipe tap reamen! be fo re tappie g .
Powe r Required for T applnll.
Ncmln al Siw neVOlutions l N.t Hor- Thick n """
of Pipe Tap. per :'> Iinu te. Po w«. Me tal .
,
I nch es.
•• 4 · 24
I nc h6.
II
'I
"1
••
38· 5
5 '1 5
9· 14
II
II
3
·3 ••
3.., 5·i S
9 ·~0
II
II
31 ,5-6 7 · :0
,•
a"
"rs 6 ·"
5
• ..
17 , 8
7 · 70
e. 80
,.,6
- T . p png steel castmg : oth"r tf!$ts In ca."
z
2
'I
iron .
The h ....I "" p"' weT reco r ded w,.. .... a<l nif ju s t be fore the
tap was re versed . In t he ta ble, h owev er , is give n t he ne t
h Olse p ower, d ed ucti on s heing mad e for the powe r re
qu ired to run t he drill without a load, T h e matenal tapped
wa~ cas t trcn, ""''' ..pt in two ins tance., wh ..r.. ~t ....1 r.a sting
was tapp ed . It will be seen that nearly d ouble t he power
is req uired for tapping st ee l casti ng. The resu lts obt ain ed
will , o f co a rse, va ry with t he condi tions. ~ fo re power
t h an that ind lcatetl ill the tab! .. will t>. Teq\l;rO'd if t he
cast iron is o f a hard er quality o~ if t h e taps are not
p roperlr relie ved. Th e taps used in t hese eXli"'ri me nts
were ° t h e in se rted blad e type, th e bl..d es being made
o f hlgh-speoed steel
Power Rf'qulred for Machine Tools ._ln an e x
haustive r a per on .. Economical Features o f E lectric
~I ot n r Applications," read befo re t be American Society o f
Mechanical Engin~rs. Charlieoi Robbms gave the foll.,.."inC
ta ::.l= s ho...·ing the sizes and speeds of meters us ual ly
ereplcyed ,,'i t h tile a\'eragr duty indicated for mac~ioe
to<.>l•. Th.... on~tal:t-~peed motors are srlected with a
\"i~w to utili_ing spreds as mar as pO$'oibJe to those obui ll
able WI th 6I).(;)·cl", il1ductioa mo ton. By tIl is mea ns th ..
sarne !j:(),;O.r r illi e.. un be rm plo yed wi t h eit her duect
. " ""e., t _'On • • lfO-<;yy ,.. d\l ~t :l. Jao ton
'" Sir .... "n.\ S p ....· <1 11 e,r M Olo r" o n I ,n l h (" ..,
E n l>m .. La thes . Adju ~ lable sp ..O'CI, ratio I : 3 .
katie>
1:3
Spet::i.a.I Lathes.
Hone po • • r Ad ju..oblo opo<d

Car wbelll, 68 in. . . .. ac I :3
Dou b t< .ale, mod e. o to duty .. I :3
H o. .,. d u t,. .
" 1, 8
"
Dri vi n g Wheel Lath es
Sh., Ill . II"'.... po. ... . AdJu. toble 0fl"'0d.

R.ti o 1 ; 3
" zo
" U
1.20(1 ... .. . po r ",in ' .
I':" lall . toclI
~OT • .- T b.. anrage load (ac tor for motors dri \'ing
La thea is from 10 to 25 pe r cen t. On tom.. spO'C:ial machi n es
all d riving-wheel and car-wheel latbes, the c u ts a re all
hea ... y . . web Incr... . - t h O' ~ "'e noll" load ractor t o from 30
to 4Q por ee.1IL.
16 0
Sb.e!l a n d Spe ed s of M oto r s on Dr lll!l.

R a d ia l n rurs.
Sile Ft. Horse Power. S,...,.

Adju st:able Co nstant
Speed.
• 3 Ratio I : 3 I,ROO
s s 1,200
6 s 1,200
10 71 1.200
Uprlla h t Drill•.
Size 10. H one Power. S,...,.

Adjus table
S,...,.
Constant
Fric ti on I Ratio 1 : 3 I,ROO

l' I 1,800
20-26 1
1,200
28-.1 4 2 !,ROO
1,800
1,200
42-50
" I ,KlH)
1,200
Multiple-spindle D rills,
Size In. I
H orse powe r.!
Adjustable
S,..."
Constan t
Speed.
4_2
6-2
6-2 I.
7j
I.
Ratto 1 : 3 1,200
1,200
1,200
N'OTl!!:._Tbe load factor of motor-driven drills is about 40

per eent. ""hen the larger drills applicable th.. rr'to are u!led.
If the smaller drills are u!led the load factor averag~ 25 p"r
cent and low"'r.
17.
Sbe" a nd Speeds of Moton OD M lll1nl1 M .ebl••••
Horlzonral- P lain o r U n i versa l.
0
•
18
", Han,.
a
~.
R a ti o 1,3
' .1'. •.
1.800
,.,.
24 8
30 10 18 5 -7 j ·. ' .200
I ·.·. I -.
J6 17 71- 10 1.200
50 12 t o-I S
I
.
Vertical :\H llin g Mach ine•
Tabl.-
Di' '''~Ler,
h.
'"aa••
S pi nd le
Il ia....'e'.
'0.
••
'1
I
H~ .
Po .....
5
71
I.
I -
"~ "" b lo
Ratio I ; 3
·.
·.
.......
e-,......
~ ,.. "".
1,200
1,200
1,200
"7. 5
• ,.
15 ·.
·.
1,200
~lQ
-
LI g,ht, Me dium , an d H eavy.
- - -~--
,•.
..... Id t b 01 T abl Hone Pow•• . ,4.d i ~ · t .b l<
,.
SJI""'d.
2~ -30 Rat"" 1:3
60
36 ".avy
42 heavy
N OT I.._For the average milling o pe ra tion, th e loa d

fac t or averages fro m 10 to 25 per ce nt . On slab milli ng
machines ","h..re large quantities o f me tal a u ' removed it
will average from :W to -1 0 pe r cent. The WOIk on this
~ 01 mach inery is usually light, an d much Ume i ,
req uir ed in makinl! adjustmenu. Hene-- t he loa d fartor
U ra~l)' h'Kher til.:! 20 per u nt.
Stee s :and S I'Cl: ds of M oton. 0 " \' l: ~Il ~-al
"'
B o rin g :\tl ll s .
-1-11,,,,,, 1'. ...., .
24 -:lU in . s kat iu I : J 1,200

3f>--42 in. 71 1.:"'00
60 -90 i ll. IU 1.200
5 - ~ail
100 in. IS 1,200
5 - rai l
10 ft . 20 900
7 i- rail
I::! ft . 20 900
71 - rail
14 ft. 25 900
71- rail
16 ft. 30 900
10 - rOlII
r\OTK._For ex tension boring nulls,S b.p. mo tors are

"sffi. to mo ve the llOulIings on from 10 ft . to 16 ft . mills,
71 h .p . for fro m 14 ft . to J20 ft . mills, a mi 10 h.p. for fro m
16 ft. to 24 ft . mills . T ho load facto r of the driv ing mu to r
all boring m ill avera ges from 10 to 25 pe r cent.
Stae and
.
Sfl~' e tl5 o f M otors 011 C r a n k
Ll ~ht Med ium a n d H eav y.
S lo lti."r!I.
eo" .h nt
' ......
Si,e, In. H . P. lolo<\iulIl. Ad ju .t~ blo S pred
f. p.ln.
.0 3 5 Hatio I : 3 1,ROO
10-1 6 5 ,. 1,200
20 71 10 .. 1.200
26-00 IS .. .. 1,200
Geared S ioners.
24-60
---=
20 I :3 900
!'IoTI:.-lbe COOI <li tinns ~n<:ou nte,ed Oil t.!OU,"f S ar e

.....b ~ (,p6ce 172).
o.i ,"i:Lu \0 tlo_
172 S izes a n d S peeds o f Mo tors o n Planerli
24 )( 24 5 900 24 x 24 71 900
30 x :JO 71 900 4 2 x 42 2S 90Il
:16 :It; 10 900 56 ><56 25 900
4 S )< 411 IS 900 F roJ: anti 30 900
56 >(50 IS 900 $wito::: h lorge ..
12 ><1 0 1t .
14 >< 12 It .
eo
10 (rai l)
"...
7S
12 (ra il) 720
!lio n . On planed Ibe load facl ......... ar. Ioel...... 15 and 2 per
~nl l ' b ~ ","I, ... muM ho I"'lt" e DOU r b 10 re'·....... t ho l>Ml q Uickl y. ) " 1
Ib i. pea k l.....d OOCUnl lor sucb ,bort In l c r. ~1s l bat It _ _ IC....". ..
the . ve ra,. I""d per eycl< v.ry m uch .
Sh:es .. nd S pee d s of MO lon 0 0 G r in de rs
--
51.., . I Ho~ I'oW C-I" """on gp..-d .
I< ~ ....
per
'0. J
Med ium. II. . .., . M,nu t•.
lO x SO 5
5
. 71
71
1.200
1.200
"
10 X
10 X 96
10 >(120
5
5
71
71
1.200
1,200
I" " 10 .. 1.200
18 x 120 10 IS 1.200
ts x 144 10 15 1,200
rae ree 10 15 1.200
I8 x 96 10 15 1.200
44 in . car wh ed grinder. 30 900

- - - SI z eli andS p~ d •• t M o t ore on Sh ap eee.
S... . I L I H o..,., Po ....
Adj ...table
S.-d_ r,'.....
Ic-I UI5pd
14 - 20
,. 3
5
Ratio I : 3
..
1.800
1.200
36 71 .. 1,200
~
""" ,-T'!lC' .. "tk <Jon. on <hal"''''' i~ of a va ry i"ll ehu.CI... . Wilb light

......k , 1M! 1.-1 f""tOll" w ill DOt e . c~ fro m IS lo:ZO pn:c m l: " 'itb b..,vy
IfOfk. t he load bet...- wi ll ho as b i£b u.l(l l oer ceDI .
173
8bell ... d 8pef'dll .. t v rerore on Ho r l?:"..llI l 8orlni·

DrlIlin~ and !\IilIlne .\-rach ines.
''''~~ ' I • . \ .j " .t~b""

. Icon.,"p mSp""• .
sPftd t
31 ,s R atio 1 : 3 I ,SOO
•s 71
1,200
1,200
•
7
1•
is
1,200
1,200
81~e. and S peed. o f .M o t o rs o n Co ld Saw".
I eo..., an t
I. .
I
D,• • •• • • TlLi<h_,
1• .
Ho_
1"0 .. ..
I ,,....
" " jeOla b l. S~. R<va,.
,.r N i Qu' •.
17 A 2 R.ti o I : 3 I ,' "

..
"" .,10
I. 2
3
3
,.
·.
r.eoc
1,800
"" • s
' 71
·.
·.
I ,' "
1.200
1,200
32
as "I. 10 .. 1,200
Metal Rem ov ed a nd P owe r R e q u ired b y Lathes.

Th e dia cra m on t he n ext page, p repared by L. R. Po me roy.
and rep rod uced fro m t he " American E ngi n eer," p ermi ts
in fo rm ation t o he q u ick ly obtained respect ing t he a mount
of metal re mov ed by ;0 ma chine too l, as well a s the horse
po wer req uired . when it is operat ing u nd er various
eaDd i ti ons of euu. feeds. and speeds .
E",....plu .-The exam p le shown by the dotted line
indicates that a machine ..or king wi th i in . depth of
cut ~nd I in . feed. ~nd run nin g ~t 80 ft . pe r m in. cutting
lpeed. will remo ve 60 cub. in . of metal ~ minute. This
wo uld req u ire 2~ b op . for cast irn n and 36 h.p. for wrought
iron or steel.
T o indicate another way of using the diagram. assume
a la the has a motor wh ich will deliver 20 b .p. : and that a
cast-irc a cylinder iI to ~ turned at a CUttiU"lpeed of 60 ft .
174 POWER REQ UIRED BY LA TH ES.
pcr minute. If the diameter is to be reduced 1 in . the depth

of cut wi ll be of I in . Referring t o the di a gr a m , it will be
seen that 20 h .p . for cast iron is equivalent t o t he removing
of 50 cub. in. of metal a minute. Followin g on the li ne
through the point 50 up to the d iagonal line marked 60 ft.
per m inute cutting speed, a nd then directly a cross u ntil the
vertical line from i in. depth of cut is in te rs ect ed, it is
found t ha t a feed of about "l~ in. will be required to
de ve lop the full power of t he machine.
,. - (
g ""I
T
. -~. ~ . '
175
As tbe .tand. Td i~at jon ..,f par b is a m,, ~t im portant

ite m in a ll mach ine construct ion, the follo wi ng table".
which have bee n co mpil ed h om various so urces a nd
from ac tu a l practice , a re s u bm it ted as a J>uide on .....h ich
a " taQd Ard set may be ~. so t ha t similar parts used
o n different mac h ine!! may be al ike aad un ifo rmi ty ill
d l'llign thereby en sured.
Lo ck N ut. a nd Wa l h era
:::.:
r.
0. •8;;: \\ Kv.. " IIAerooo 1~ t
,- 0
~
l~
i -,
•
00 ~ o
'"
8;.'; ~ i 51.t• .
"
X
S d
a"5 \ .. 10...
in
W id, h
Flo...
~.;
;~
X
- - -
,,
In. In. In.
I I
In.
AXA ,, In.1 I, .
Ix •
In.
I so
II I -& x .\ ,, AI I' 10 I 16
,, io,
II 1'1 lox. II
I
~ I'
I
I
"II
lZl ,
I
I xl
Ix I
, I
,',xA
I,I
II
I, ""
Ii
Ii 21
IIiI 21 121 ,I
Ix,
AxA
Ax io
I x ,', ,se AA
,',
I' I
It: x .\
,', xA
AxA
II
I,
2
21
12
12
12
,, I,
I 12
It 2J I I x ,', I x ,', 2, 12
II 3 I I x ,', I x io 21 12
2 31
21 31 , *I
1 Ix l
IxI ,e ,II I x ,',
'x A
a
3,
12
12
21
21
3
oil H I
4c...LJ
Ix 1
HI
!x !
6
6
~
I,
1
,',
Ix l
"
.'. x it
31
,"I
12
12
12
.! t _ 5 f _t )~_ji .'_1_1 IxI 'I 12
A B ± IE F cl H I, I J K 'I~ I ~I
'--- -;:] - --
:r
I, . I , . I,. I, . I,. I , . In. In. In. In. I n. In. In.
I
1 >I I
j II h
21 >I
I
" hI
I ,\ "I I
h , 1I 1I I I
'I t! 21 h h I t it I'IIi
t I I •
l it!I
h
'I • 31 h ,\ I • I II II
Balanced Ball llundles.
A B C I D E I F
I- -c -
1, I, . I,. I,. I, . I, 10.
,II•
I 11 il 1I I h
II
I
I I II
• I
n
'.
21 II II I
'I I II II I I II
3, 31 II II II I 1I
'1 '1 II n 1I
- - " " -
PROPORTI ON !), M AClU NII. TOOL PA in s 17 7
lI an d <JC>
Wh "d". ()@()
<J:e>
I No of Arms
--irl+! ,
c
10.
D
In.
E
IL
F
In.
s
, ,a
' I
s6 A I I
I A I I s
s
i9 :I I I
I
I
I
I
i
I
I I
I s
6
.. "" •• I
10
12
16
Ii
I!
I II
t
I
I
I
I
II
I
"
"
6
6
6
"
I I 6
" , II I I I' II 6
I,
, II II
20 I 6
24 I, I I I, II 6
30 I, _ I II -2.1 6
, -,.
Ha n o.l le •.
~:..
~
Nnn.-F.,
e l l ' 0 c a e t -t r o e
. T n_ ~ A .
A G I ll
hI.. t I n.
, I
I
A I 2"
I ,\
~I ~I
17 8 PROPORnON S. MACIIIN K TOOL PAilT S
Knob s .
A
I B
I c I D
I E F
In.
I
I n.
I
I n.
I II I In.
,\
In.
I
I
I
II
I
I
I
tI tI I
I •
I
II
II
Thumb Wh eels
A I B C D
- E F G
~
'I
I n.
I
In .
1
In .
I
In .
I
In .
I
In
,\
~
I ,\
I
I1
I1 I I I
-- --~
I
•
I
•
PR OPOR TIONS , IolACHINR TooL PAR TS 179
~_ A _~ _
A B C
I D
I E F
10_ 10 '0 '0 '0- ' 0-
21 I I I ~ I
21
3
I
~
I
I , I I
A
I
I
,
31
I
A I
I
II
II
I
n I
I
'I I I II 11 II
• Stop Pin,.
A
IE F G
-,.
10 I ' 0- 10_
~ ~ I
I
I~
I -a
~
,
I
I
I
I
1
I
I
[
<•
~
I
180 PII OPO RT I ON S, )I ... C H I N K TOO L PA in S,
Doubl ~
Co n" •
D~arln Cs
- - - - -A - - 8 -j C D E I F
x e. I ~ ~~ ~~ :i' tIn. In. In.

2 I Ii Ii 2 t I
~i ill:
I I
II11
7 21
I> 31
3i
4t
4f
6
51'1
6~
II:
ft
I i
t• '\I
" .~ I I ~t
~_'_I_~ ,~ ~
4 7i 8 I
•
Square
End for
Screws.
., B C D
In. 10 . In . I n. In. In. In.
t
!
R
R
II
II
>1
2
I
I
I
:
:Ii
~
~
!
U
II 21< i fi
I I I u 1
Ii
Ii 3*
:i
"-
2'
21 II
Ii
It
It
i
I
i
I) I 2l 31 II II I Ii
I I 31JL-=l
3i II
II
l!
I
~
1
I
It
- -It- 2t 4i
-- -
IJ
---
P ROPORTIO N S . "'A CHI N a TOO L PA RTS 18 1
W.5h en for
End' of S hafts.
- - --
Dlnm.
0' A
Shaft.
B c
" E I Screw Pin.
,rf
, u. I. I• . I u. , n. I• .
'",I 'I I -- 1 ,\ X I -
'I
'I
'I
'I
'I
I, ,\
I
1
I,
I
I Ixi11 1.--x t.h
' X
j
X
I'' I
'X
21 ,\ I Ix l ,\ xi.
,I
21
21
21
•• , I
A
h ,,I
1 Ix
Ix ll
Ix l i
1*i .xi.
>' io
i Xf
" II • ,\
,,
I • ,
21 I X 11 IX1
2' I 3 I I xl i I tl xt
21 31 I I x ll xt
21 31 I 1 I
, Ix li lxt
2'
21
31
31
31
i I
I
I **I
I
'I
II
I X11
I x ll
I Xll
IXI
tox t
ltl xl
2'
21 41
41
II I
I I
'I
'I
I xll
Ix l lI
fo xl
Ax !
'I
41 I I I x ll l l xl
3
- -- - I
* "
NOTE.- Sha fts up to 2in. di.m. have mild sted was he rs.
above 2in. di a m . cast iro n was he rs . The pin is on ly
requi red Wl""l tr.~ ·... h~ .... or pulley run llo<>~e OIl tl.e $l'iIol t.
18 2 P RO P O IH lON S , MACHINE TOOL P A RTS
T -Slo u
',~:;' I A I-B~I~I-;:- G H J K
1"1~ In,: I I n,j In · ·-~-
I"•. -I-~-
' I". j-;-".
I -· -:-".
I -t-:-
I " .t-:~.
I"-I~I-".
U R l "II" - Ii I i I i
I
I '*i if I *r. 1 ~; ~1 i: il l! i
Ii I t 3} 31 21 3 5 I
Ii
I!
Ii
'*
I /,
l /r
2l
21
2*
Ii
141
11
Ii
<4} 5
I
31 4l
Ii
1 31
3J 13i
<4
<4.
21 3t 51-
6}
7i
Ii
Ii
Ii
- - --- - - -- -,
Mild S t eel C ullan
A B c
Inch Inch Inch
II
1
A I
II
I 2
II
I
II
I
I
II
I It 21
II
11
21
21 I
I
r - c---: II 21 I
I I 3 II
2 31 II
PR O P O RTIONS . MACHI N H TO O L PART S 183
N ut.. f o r SU deli
A -B- I- c- r;;-I----c-l- F- I- -;; H J

In. ~~~ --
, " .- --,,
I --I~ ' In In ,
i i ii ! t fl
t 11 Ii t ft t l t B
I Ii Ii 1 i ll "" -n.
i 11 If 1 IiI .,\ -It.
2 2 t i n
Il 21 21 11 I Il II /r -fI
11 21 21 Ii I It I Ii i ,\
Ii 2j 21 Ii I 1,,« Ii t l-
II 31 31 11 1 I HI li t l
2 4 31 i 2 -i I~ 2 t l
21 41 4, I 21 21 2l f I
2i 5 41 ' 2. 21 2+ 1 I
21 51 51 21 11 21 21 1 h
~_6_~I_"__I_I_~_3_ _'_l_..cI.
184 PR OPOR TION S. IIl" CH I NI rOOL I' ART S
SlIdlna Cotter Key.
P l;u;e preferable on d riv en

ahdt .
- --rcF
__
A
--
._I ~ ~~ _=J_:..J G
II J K IL
, n. I n, 111 . I n. 10 .
,, ;,2' I ,,
In . , n. In. 1Il. , n. 111.
I I Ij II I I II ~ ;, ~
'I I II I! I I, I I. I
II I 2 ~
'I
II
II
I
I
I
II
II
II
2
2,
2'31 I ,
1 I
I
2
2
10
10
I
I
I
I
!
I
II
2
2,
I
I
I :11
~t
:1}
zt
21
3J
3,
J
I II
I I
, III ,
2
21
I
I
21 I I
•
~
I
I
10 , I
NOTIt._ F or the ke yw ays alte rnat e met hod s are shown.

Wh e n space permits H may be greater than given in table
to obtain a longer bearing surface. 0" " 0 Q"OI", I sllould
IMU 1t~5 N .. ~d fo r .. drid ..g molicn fo r II macll'"".
So me makers d o use them for t h is p urpose, b u t this i!
very bad p ract ice . They a re only su ita ble for f.,.,.J motjl;l n~
PROPO RT IONS, MACH I N E TOOL PARTS . 185
' -"-'C--D
-I
Kn uckle Jo l nlll
- f - - ----f---f
E I.- F- - G r'fi T
In. In. In . In. In. ' Ill . I ll. Ill. In.
t t, l iil.~ I I
t f II ic i I I n I
I
f
i I
i
Ii
Ii
II
2
A-
t
f
I
I
i
I
11
I
r
J II
I.
II I
1
I
1I I*
Ii
II
It
Ii
2
If
2
21 I
21
2i
J
Ji
<I
i
Ii
II
Ii
tI
I
i
t
f
i
II Ii
Ii
H
J I
Ii
If
II
11 I tI-
Ii
21
2.
21
Ii
II
Ii
tl
2
I ' jl
• ;- J I•
t-
• • I"-
O~
K n llckl" J oin ts. F la t Gibs for CroM Sl ides

F la t Glbs for C ross S li de"
A I- " - C
-I D '- E- - F- Sere..
10. 10. 10.

II I t xi!I
II I I x 2t
2 I I x 21
21 II I x 21
21 II 1 xa
21 II Ii x li
186 PROPORTION S. M A CHINE T OOL PARrs
T aper Gib~ and St r ips
AlIi-T'OiDTE'-F-'GI H StUd ' Serew

Y;-~~ ~--;:-~j~1 In. Ill . In .
I t II I tt I • II: ,, 11 , ' 1
II I Ii I ti 1/l 1-? I • i x li
'I I 2 I 'I I I I ix I I
q 1 2 ,I ,I i I t Ix2
,I , I
,i ,
,
21
21 '.
,I
,1
,I
'I
"
I
I I
I
I
I
I x 2!
Ix
2,
2'
Ii j II 21 'I 'I I. I I I
•I i: x
2 'I 21 ,I II II , I
,I , I x 2'
j
21 1 ' I 3 II I 'I 'I U I I x3
Taper of w ed ge I in 48 .
= -
PMOI'OI<TIONS, MACHINE TOOL P A RTS 18 7
.. V " Strip'"
A , F
I,. I,. I, . I,.

--
I u.
- I,
I I
I
I
/,
I ~,
I
•
,
I I" l~
I I l. ~ I
I I. ~ I
I
*
I
1
H I
, •
I
I
I
/,
~
11 I /I I I I
II I• II u I I
II II II i I I I
I,
I
Ii Ii I• I I
2
21
I'
2
II
II
I'
II
I
I
I
I
21 2' II Ii
I
I I
188 P RO PO IUIO N S . NA CIIl l<K TOOL PA RTS
Clip" fur Dr.. ck.,b
A
I" c D E FIG H J K LI
'0.
2,
10. '0. '0.
,
10 . 10.
3
To. '0.
2
10. 10 .
,
10 .
I'
II
21 2, I I
I, II
, I ij 1
'I
lj ' I 2, 3 , 31 ,21 , A 1 1
,
1
11
, ., " ,
<l I I
" s"
2
3, 31 2'
3' 'I 2, 1 -
,•
., I
, 61 ., I'
I
II A
2' 'I '1 21 II II
6, , s
" I, A
2, 61 '1 a I
21 6, 5, 51 'I I
" I' I_ ~
,
71
• 51
I, I I~ ~ II
.L,
71
_" -" .. " 1' 1' 1 ~I~~ ~
P KOPO RTlON5, M AC tl I N F. TOOl. PA KT 5 18 9
Split Lo c k Nuts
A J B Ic iDf""FfGfilfIIJ K L MJ:i
: :: I:I: It::"I:I: I~ I:I: IJ
Ii 2, J 1\ 1\ t 1\ /r ,\ R 1\ I 1 '
Ii 3i I Ii I Ie t H ' /r "' 110 " t ~

2 31 Ii I *111* I h,. I I I [;
i 11 1
* * I ii"
2i 31
21 ~ l
Ii
Ii
II I
1h I i III i
11- I ,\
,\
I i i i 5
~~~ 21 _I _i ~I ~ _
I _I1~_1 _J I~
19 0 PIlOPORT IONS, " ~ C H 1 " 1t rooi. " "ltr 5 .
Eye Ro l 18
Column H gi ves a list of Sa fe Loads,

t he figures be i ng based on the follo wi ng
formu lae takin g the stu S'< as live tn n~
per square inc h .
4 x fs XRx I L e m o m ent of
Plb - Ine rtia
(D + E)xY
Y-, E
•
I
j
I •
I
I
c
I
I I
D
I
I •
I
I
ilit ' "
I
1 ,\
j 216
530
•! I
II
II
I
II
II
II
I'
II
~
I
I , II
II ~
6S6
864
1421
I
I 'I
II II 2 I 'I I 1944
II II II 21 I 2, I 2 120
II II 2 2. I 3 I 274 4
II 21 'I 3 I 31 I 34 54
II 21 II 41 I
2 " 3'
II
5682
"-r-oc-t
3 3 4 41 8480
.
_ _ _ _ _~
S~~~ ~ B u sh c s for Jig e,
te n d~.~'d'___"
~~I
I
• • • c
U p to
Ins _ Ins. I ns. Ins_
~ I I
t, h
~
~
,I
I
I
I
I
I I I
I
"I I I
1
1
I
I
I
I
~
~
II
-- I II
---'1- I
j
~
~
P KO POllTl ON 5, "' ...C HI SI': TOOL r .... T a , 19 1
Lim it Gaulte".
s OJ
A
Siz.. • o
,
Inch..... I nc hes .
H
I nc h ",.
I'
Inches .
A
I nc h" .
1
I
I
II
21
21
I'
I'
I'
A
A
• I
I
1
2, A 1
II', 3 I'
I' A I
a
I'
3
31
31
I'
I,
I,
A
•
f.
I
1
1
I,
2
3'
3,
II
II •
A
t
1
B RITI SH STAl'iDA I~ D WHI TWOR TH ( B .S .W .)

CASTLE NUTS.
T be illu strat io ns a nd table o f di m..r:sions 0 1 t he B rit ish

Stand a rd Castle K u t gh·..n on p. 19:1 a", reproduced by
p..nuission fro m R.. port :-00. 192- Hl2-t. " Di me nsions lor
Bri t: ~h SL... oJ....d Wh itworth ( R S, \ \' ) Hril<"h: H e xa gon
Holts . Set -Se r....-s and K u ts. Split- Pi ns. W UhC TS a nd
St uds," Th is supersedes portions 0 1 R.. port Ko. 2~
19m>, " N u h . Bol t Heads. a rid Spa nn e rs o f the n ri t ~~h
~tal:<1a rds h ...t itu li oD.. a nd to it r.,..d ~n a .... re fe rred :o r
fu ll a nd d eu.iled inl onn a ti Oll
w
I
~
' !'
-
.
-e,
., a
. ' . J.
!.- c
~ f--,."..,---'=::':::'- .---, -~
O ll ' UI IO ". OF N,,~ .
;
l ,
il ..
-i!
Widlb
l it
B
- !o
<
~P
I
;; l:I
Tolal
-a
e
1lU<:k.......
Thickness
o f H ou l ou Vi lm o l
ud 10
Bottom
of SlOI
M
Ca<ella,ed
~.
QRST
';
Appro <.
Di......·
... lio,," of
< Slot.
193
Meta l C u tt i n ~ Tool s.
Rake OU ~'iDIt: -&ngl e and Olearane.e. -Th.. "'''lCln.n
Keoen ll,. referred to lI.>I .. top r~k e:· th" .. euttl n!C a OKl.,"
Mid " c1eauo"",." "'li d alao" aide rat",:' IS...... 1"11(.2.1
In cr eMlo p: t h" .. top r& lI:e ,~ or .. side r e k e," rflllll" "& the
pr eeec r e on t h .. tool, bu t thi.o I.. done at the u pe n.. of 'h. e
~ t r"nitt h of tlUI tool point.
lnduence of Ma terial on Cutting AnIle.-The aogl...
ot catti nl( tcole n r r with the m"tal ope... ~ 00. Wl'Oull:ht
n-on he l n l/; to uJl:h ""luinl~ .. good top ",1;;" and phm t)' of
l ubricant to to rn ...."'1 the cuttiDII;. oth..rwiM the m etal
tend. to.c rowd On tbe tool lace and fhf' orl&OllIl:"''' tern,
Ctul I r tm -C&~t troD being l1.lorfl brittle the rupt ure
oeears mnch !<OOoe', &0 tbat a ~ ..ler cuttinll: anp:\.. can b.
used. It m u eh ral",. and .. h,,1.'f1 eDt iR u aed In eut II"lX1 It
0P':'0a th.. poree or the metal. with thfl ffollult that the &u r ' _
la eo.." red w it h Mad, "P<"'k". W he n tlnl.hioll: the 1001
ebould b,.... e pl ..oly ot surface and rob a little at the bat'k ;
th l' eloeea t h e poI"e.. a nd borni..b ..a the m.. taJ, Illakl n i[ h
...eh betler (or pol ishini[,
F UaTl.O To"''
r.7 g
oLlUlJfo fOt,L,
j ':.
.u.... T"n l..
!fL<;, I.
'/
Br a . , ,- I n wor ki nll: on b rass a

I
f
L_
"OS """I-
J
tool w It h m u ..h ed g e ~udll "e I,
po s hed off, a n ti th e s u d=e or the
...orll: becomlO' w av y, it is tbe n
dU'flcul t to ob r,ai n a fla t, ~mooth
f.a<,o, ; in ord er to ....oiri this the . ..". roo ..
tool. " t1 fte hi II:"pt 1'cry ama.Ull(l th al on ly a ..mall .",ou ot 0 1
metW IS opoe rated on, and tbe tool, 1'(·la O'l"8 ly to the wor k.
Is 1'lOf y . Utl' and <100& not 101'0 to t he rut.
7••
194 lolli/CAL CU 'CT I NG TO OLS
Ta ble of Cutt ing Angl es .
...,1_,
t1ultl'l
0., ,,",,
&ft Stoo l .. •. ...........
Mod" r&toI ly Hard St-I
ee
70 ••
Hard
lrcA
a..~ t
B~ I .... _ .•. ..
"ee
110 • 10
Br .
Hud GUll )( ~ t&l or OhUled Iro n .. 1 es •
•
Limits of Cutting Angle9 l'eeollllllllll<1 ed by Sir H. l'
Donaldecu for "tlllli and brIl.MR. -J' ro C. t Il Ht.• M",·h. .1£ •• 1110:-1.
LU.UTl; Of!' G C TTI N G A. N I< I.JI~.
f roll\
Cuttin &,_
I Bid.
CUUI.~.
:~roD t
(}:;; ';:
- - -- -
r ... _ W il e ...Ud __ I
-1----,--
....
._t.
d"g.
nttl M
- - - -deJ. - - - -
~'' I 33ton
'j" S 5to
~~M
,~
, .,
,.,
.,
For .... l UJl K 1II.c1..h• .IIl ~i to as M~~ 5 to 8 " $uU
r Dr caUl", b..-d _ I ••..
r ..r ."ttl"l oof1 1ello_
~ to 7& sa 10 re ,., I to ' ~ 3 t<> ..
• •W
r~:,~~~ '~~~~ ~:
""'rt II '" 7~ ~, . ~. "toM
.n toI Tt 70", U ~,
'lol !""'Jlj
r. oUUi"J Il...-d f oli o,",
mota! .... _ •••• .• _ .... , M~M fill . 111 1 I"" .100' "toM
META L I: UTT IN G TOOL:; 195
Oattlna; Streu: Best Tool .l..ql, ; Powor f.r

M a t erial Ont.-lJ r . J. T. NicolllOD , Prcx:.Irlllt. M.E. , lIl04 ,
rou nd t ba t the cnttl n jl; a njl;l_ wb ich a ho...-ed, tb.. low eet
. a lu e of cnttlnjl; II l r"~1I w"r" no t thcee ....hic h w itbll tood the
«TUt.",t a mo u nt of cuttlnjl; be fore re q uiriDJi: to be "'lI'r ollnd.
Th" most du ra h t" anll:lOA we re, lor cut tro u lmed lll w hard-
u....I•• hou t 8J ""r," a nd tor 11 1....1 (110ft t1uid .p r"
; 0 d ell:. Thfl eurr nl\' "trMa In thelll! two ea...e.
d ) abou t
a bout
80 toIle pe r eq. In. ror tbe ea~t Iron an d 90 too" for the eteel.
He aleo lou nd t hAt .0011t ! H.P. , incl udlu ll: lrl('tlon. w,"
1I!<ed pe r pou ud or maU-rial. "' hllt h er iro n or Ilteel. rem oYOld
p"r mtnete, I' or a Il;"iYfl U tra..erse tbe cuttl lllt fOIT. ia
Iliwply proportio nal to t be depth ol the c o t.
OishoU; 7 001&-1 0 the G ieh olt ey ~ tem the too le ara
mad .. to a ltand a.rd. bel nll: forged to a .. torme r to m. ke M
t he m a unUorm allape. an d j!;I'Ound to a Ib Old a Oll: l" on a

aped al Kri n d lo ll: 3luhin... Thia m" thod, .. I..·n....." r It
pe rmit. of ad opt ion, te II. Il:reat llolhantall:e, alS t he toolll ar.
r e!":lOu nd and k"pt In ordu by on" man. T h.. tool. an PIDA
, mel. n t from t h" lee t th"'t the y are of pro per ror m a nd tb•
..<III:" _m e to IltAnd 1000ll:"r fro m be i nll: machl ne ll:ro u nd.
The Gl aholt ..Udln ll: tool
ill d llf"rent fr om t h" Knll:
lia h ro u nd UOIIl , aho"" n
tn F Ill:. 2, bel nll: flit ronnd
a t :10 del':.• "'nd IIhllped ltk.
FI Il: . ~ . I t u k.. .. ~y lItU.
10TKlIIIl:, III Ila llily ~ulld.
a nd tor he ",vy IIltdl nll: la
ury e llle ten t . aa tbe c u t ·
t in ll: ec mee away m uc h
.~ lIier l b.au trom th", ordl.
lllU'y ro Ulld DOlI".
In croaa. or Tra Y-ora e Preferable t o Incre u e of
Bpe ed.- w be n IllidlD Il: III l.b " lat h ". a ""lImlng t be d ep t h ot
rut to be t!llllla me , do u lollnJl: t hll ra te o r t ra~ ........ d ON 1I0 t •
.. Ill often t houlI:h t.. abso rb double tb" drlv in l{ power. Th.
po ....er ~qu l re<\ va ..ree appro x iwllwly wifh t bea mou nt or
tool ed ll:e III &etion. T h u ... a."IID mmK a cut ot on e tb.irty ·
eeeond . ln~ ...ln p: t he t ru " l"lIf! t ro m on " thlrt Y·"8Cond
t o ODe aix"'e llt h Inr reMel the tool 0ld1l:1l In utlon Ir om
7 to 10 ... nearly All may be.. Thill Ie Itluatrated In t h"
rollow lnp: table. w h ic h {tiT",,, the ad Dal pr fl.wIDT"'" on t he too l
tor ..arlona dflpUtll ot c lttalld with one lhlrty..-.:ond In ch
a lld 00 11 ,u1.efta t h Inch trav ............... pecthlSly. It will be
_ It t.o.... dOH ly th.. la.at t wo col um na in Ih e ta bl. AJtre~ .
It t he , peed of re ..ol ation Ie doubl ed, tw ice the e aellCY I
",h_ hed . whUllt t he tool doooll uOI atan" 100 lonlT _ .............0 '
196 MIl T"1. C U rr l N G T OOLS
ot tho: e 1 U a ~ " r llO.«l ruhbln ll; .. ...ar tho poin t. l"T" ID t b._~
eODlJldllratlW\R II ,,, ol) " lollll ly mn C'h mora 6C01Ioml<'al In
remcvtng m eta l ...lIb .. lat he to IncnIa><e lb. tra'l'Olrle
fatl,,-r t ha n to In creaR" t b... IIpftO!d o f re volu t fon .
..c..c;-T-'--
'!"tIn. 1'r&"or··. o..kml&_
o.~ 01 (J'nt. .o\e" ..1 1'._ ".. P,..., I..
...'"
.. " T ool.
' 00 .. ,
,
.'r'o>. T ra y
116
.
'00'
'"
SO,
'"
.oo
!1 0
ao,
Standard Toolll.-F.x p.>.rlen ee poi n t. to the o.-lt7
...'"'"
of adoptln ,ll; .... "mAli .. numb"r of etenderd ..haPl"J and .~
of too l" ..... lJractl....b ltl. Il l" ' ar ""'tt"r (or a lDlL('hlll".hop
to '1M' u pou the side of h...·I" ll: too little ""riel,. In the aha pe
at it.. too l" rn t h('f t hAn 011 th" t o f b.. "lnjt too mAn,. llhapl'll:
and the en ('r lt1 of the do>pu t lllf'nt for matnr..nanoe of
tool" ehould he d irected not l ter towant lW!eutlUI{ an aIUpl.
and un Horm ",U pp l, of tool .. limited to .. fe'" IJhapeil than to
.. jtroo.t Tar l'-'I_ }rIg>!. S to 9 aho w the ahapElfl o f t h,
.r... ndard tool. w hi ch Mr, "' , \ \', TaJl m' reoommendJl., and
whleh 11",·. prov ed Notiafaerory on a p;rea t nrietJ o f wo rk .
Stan danl h...Uon rMllJ nll'llln a lIim pliflot.tlon . I t Is r..r
"Imrler to have In " arandard illlld ,hop t wo makM of tool
.tfocl t han to ha'l'e l!O mallM of tool at eel . and lar lIimplEtl' 100
ha ve al l o f t he too l" lV"Ound by on e w an to , few almple ho t
rl,ll;i dlJ maintai ned "ha~ tha n to h'lYe fIll.Cl1 maehinillt
'Pl"1If1 , po rtion of Meh day , · tbe p;rin dsto ne. J!:rindlnjl; hi"
tool. wt t b radle.lh wl oo ll eu rTee. and "'lIttloll aJIlllea.
menly hecau. bad Ailll.pet. an! MlIle r to I{I'lnd than ~
Principal Object I.n Bavine the Cuttine Edee of
Tools Curved. A. prDJI'!' rly df'"iKnM rouRh luA: lOOl ..hon ld
have tue li ne or ecntcur of llA eut tl n ll: edlll' "'u rv ed .... I'
appl'Oll,(,"nc. th.. exr...,lIle n~ of the too l m' that port ioo of
th ", 100 1 ,.." I..b enlln...,. a p:ood a nd lrue lI.nilOh of the wor k.
A tool ,..h oooe ,.,l1ltlnA: lld~ Ion " . a e ll1'1'ed line of n _ itJ
rNl IO'l'ea a ,,"avlnll which va rl ... in it... t h lc k n_ a t all part&.
Th", on ly type of too l hl,.,h can remove a f!lharinjl; o f
n n Hor m thkkn_ hi on", Ub a " tJ'lllllh t line en ttin;( edKll-
Thf' objert In b..... lnA: the line of t he cutt ing edge of a
roll>l:h ln l( tool eu rved ... thAt Jl'U"t o ! t he eut.dng edge w hiel!
dOM the t1 niah lnll; ill al'pl'OlU'l.....i . I" to t h in down the lIhAvin ll:
at thill poi nt to "neh a n exw. nt ... will enll.. re the flnill hinli;
,..-t of t hl' 1001 .....n .... ln inp: RhAl'JI and gninjured evlln
althotljl;b the main portio n 01 t h ", en ttinp; MjI;e may have
~ l'UlnNl t,hrollll:h nVl"r h _ t.In ll: or from 110m", other "'U9ll.
- - :-::l r.= ---=-~ 7"! --""
-
- 7·~ft D
'« ~~ "-J.I.~Ji~\\-\
' -:-- ...
I -.£. ......, '
-
. .
rr WIDTH or TOOt ..A

NORADIUS OF F'OlNT·R,
•
"
TH[N
>
~ -r
IRBLUN TTOOL R.. ! A-it.' e
o
'R SIlARP TOOL R.. tA - n" e
l
"" outtm. """ ..... &0<1 ..., ' ' '.,t_ ! i
•
010 .... l .-"d '" 11M rollo ~ " ' 1 ~. i ii
I "."Jo
I,.,....,. ...p ..,......, '!o f'" olopo
.1 11 ~
•
I, '.. ""'1_ - . - _
""I.,..
~ ..
,owl 0011 ... . :,
rIl<UI.>.u.,."floo
L7i":.....t1
W·-n
lbooo
II a...-..oo onpt"._ ... "" i/'.........
L
If
I ~_
· __
IUCT oun1JU O F W1'TIN G lon"
V I'<. 1i. -BhJlI t 1'ool f or Cutt i n l/:

OF OU R ur.... 0 ..... 0 II0U .. o
'" .... .,.

N OS ! T OO ~ !iI Fil a "
::"
iC
L If' _ .-
····2· · ·
1'Ill.ll. -S hMp Too l 'u. Cu ll fOil
H..rd S~O:lI and Cut Iron, :.ted lu,u and Sol t St.<.el. s
198 ~ I!.TAL CUTTING T OOl. S
V I •. 7.-Qutll ne ot Standard II". " It in. ltol1nd ·~

Hou,ll:hlll j( 1'00 1.
The broken lin...... how 8h ape of 1001 ..... IOrJ(<ld . The ..alld
lin.....ho w .hape o r too l all ICrGun d for l'u UI ...c ha rd lIoeel and
llaIJl IIVn .
~ I "" lI.-8bo.. lng Clt'>U"anee AD,ll:le. Ha c k Slope a nd stde ::5 lopoe

In ~l&nd.ar. Too l.. for Cuttrug C... t Iron an d Ha rd Stfllli.
FIG9._Sh owingClearaocc An gle, Back Slo pe and Side Slope

in S tandard T ool for Cutting Medium ilod So ft Steel.
MI!T " L C U TTIN G T(> (J L ~ IB9
Wave Phenomena In Cuttlng._ In a r ..per bef or e the

Ma neh ....to, A... oc;ation o f Fngin..eTS, i r, 1901 . Mr, De mp
ster Smith d i!lCu ssed M'veral ma:ten relating to the ac tion
o f lathe cutting tools. \\11en cutting C3.!1t iron or stf'el
at a slow speed it was observed t hat t he force on th" too l
was not constant. bu t rose a nd fell wi th tach successive
shear of the shaving. The cast ira n wall inclined tn crumble
and t he kiTe(! waves were coD3«[ ue nUy "",ne",b"t e ...... tic.
b ut the te rc e wave! for steel were Temll!kahly regular.
Tt was observed that with an Increase i n the speed of cutin!!:
t he pitch of the wave remained cOIl5tant, hut t h e l1iffennce
between the maximum and minimum torus diminished ,
"nd lh.8t at hiSh llpH'<Il th.. """v" tended to die a"'iW
altoll'ethu. Whether the force ""115 of a continuallv
v ar}'in~ or of a u r tfo rm chancter. t he ..'ark dane poe'r
revolut jcn was the Mme. On examining the shavin!!: it wa~
found that the Ireqeency of the te rc e peaks corresponded
with t he number of shean o f t be shavtng and t ha t as the
speed increased the shear become I~ c;omr1c te. th e
shaviojt" mo re compact and ultimately rese mb led a solid
rod . \ Vit h a cuttin!!: of the latter d~ription the crs.cka
ca nnot be cle-:lrly distinguished, and it cannot he sai d
whe ther the Ireq ueac y of shear fo r a given c ut remai ns
con~ tnot Or oat. The fr'"<ttl..",,}· o f shear, howeve r, d e.
creases wit h the de pth of cut and traverse, 80 t hat a
co nti nuous shaviojt" and fo rce is re ac h ed at a much s llowe r
speed for fine t h an for coa rse cu ts and traverses. For II
giv en cut t he freq uency of shea r d ecrl'a Mos a s t h e c u tti ng
IInllle of t he too l dec reases. a lso the ra tio of s havi n!\" length
to len gth cu t increaSe<! as t h e cllttillll ;\ul< l" of th e tool
beco mes kee ner . i.II.• the c u t becomes less d istort ed . The
shavi n!l; t1licknl'SS i. almost p roportional to the sine of the
cu tti ng angle.
F oret Trials on S o ft an d ~I edlum Steel.-~1r .
Dempster ~m lth mllde ol.,..,rva t io u~ o f t ile ve rtical, s u r.
lacioll" , a nd t rllvening forces actiog on a la the tool. 0 1
these tbe v er tical ccmpcnent _as by fu the greatest.
T h ere was 00 prooOtlnced difference in the ~'e rtical fnrce fo r
cuts taken with u.e 45 deg. plan angle ;,nd round-cosed
took, !o hi.. ra[""' Ioemulae are Iliven fo r the various
components.
Durllb lll t)· ....ltb Cutti ng An gl e _- DillC u"s ing thi.!!. ~ h.
D . Smith statC'S that the character of failan ...hen cutti ng
!toel at a high-speed is qui te different to lI,at at s 10'"
200 GI<INUING T O O L S
s peed. A t hil!h speed the ~ha. ving b coeuuuees . nd

co mp ac t . T h e bed of tbe c ut bears o n the uppe r s u rfac e of
t he tool at some distance back f rom t h e c u t ti ng edge, and
all t he shaving is twisted fro m the stock a rent runs in
ad vance of the tool point. T he edge ill thereby relieved of
m uch work a nd !limply deans up the ra gged bar behind
t he sh a ving. The p rell!lure of the cut a nd spe«( with which
it slides ove r the tool wears a groove in the tool face at the
part wh ere the heel of the c ut bears u pon it. The groove
d eepen.. a nd widens until it ex ten d s to t h e cutting edge.
""hen t he tool fails.
D urability with N ose R adius and Section o f Tool._
~fr. D . Smith states repeated trials showed that lower
durability accomp a nied smalle r nose radiu s, and t hat
beyond an increased t end en cy to chatter, owing to larger
cutting edge en gaged, t he re was no reason why the n ose
rad ius should not be as large as width of tool will allow.
T he life of tool wa s found to be ind ep en d en t of its sec t ion .
Durability and Speed.-Mr. D . Smith found the cela
tion bdween the lile and t h e sp eed o f a t ool, whether
c ut ti ng good cast ir o n or steel. co uld he exp ressed all
V U _ co nstant.
Thu s, if we k now V t he speed at which a tool lasted a
ti me L a nd we wish to find the speed VI co rres po nd ing to
a noth er ti me L I
T h"n V L _ V.Llt or VI _ V (~) I

lIardenlng and Grinding Effect on Cutting Tools.
As a result o f tests made b y t h e R easearcb Co m mittee o f
th e Manch ester Association of E n gtaeers. to ascertain the
effect oj hardenin g a nd grind in g on cu ttin g tools, the
following conclusion s are given :-(1) that normalising, t.e.,
heated ~Iowly to a d ull che rry .ted , and allowed to cool
.Iowly in a bed oj cinders, sh e ws no advantage fa t t u rni n g
tool s; (2) t hat a tool whi ch has only been ra.ised to the
hardening t em p era t u re a t the cutting ed ge will d eteriorate
on regrind in g , whils t one th a t has been o ve rhea ted at the
cutting edg e wil l p ro h a bl y im prove.
Gr inding Tools,-Th e following a re t h e important
conclusions arri ved at by Mr_ F . 'V. Tayl or with teference
to grinding tools :
)'UWIUI !'OK (; H UCI\ ING RI!:" MIl H"
\_} More t oo l.. AI"<) m in ed in every mac hine aho p tbrough

e ve rh ea tlng in grinding than {rom any other cause.
(b) T he most important consideration iA bow to g rin d
tooJ ~ rapidly without overheating th"'m.
(r) To avoid overheating, a stream of water a mou nting
to 5 gal... per minute should be thrown ,preferably at a slow
veloc ity, directly on tbe nose of the too l wh ere It i.. in
,"onctaet with th", emery wheel.
(d) To avoid o\-erheating where tools are ground by b&iJd
or with an automatic tool grinder, the eurtace o f the t ool
should never be allo,"'ed to fit closely against the su rface o f
t he grindstone. To prevent this, t001l should be cOMtan tl y
moved or .... bbled about during t he operation of grindi ng .
(~) To lesM'o the daol1;ero f overheating on t!..e emery wheel
and to promote rapid grinding, tocls shou:d be dressed so
as to leave the smith shop with a clearance a ng le of about
70 deg. , wh ile 6 deg. o nly is needed for cotting.
(f) Fl a t !>uriacell wupon tooill tend far more thaa c u rv ed
ecrtecee to hea t t001l in griading.
(,I Tools with keeD lip angles (i.". , steep side alopee) are
mush mo re expensive to grind than blun t lip an glell.
(II) I t is economical to u se aD auto matic tool -grtnding
mac hi ne eve n in n small sbop.
(j ) There Is little eco nomy in an a utomatic grinde r for a ny
sho p unl ess standard shapes h ave bee n adop ted for t ooll,
a nd a large supply of tools is kept al ways o n hand in a first
class tool room,!IOt 1mt t ools of exac tly tho MUle shape can
b e gro und in quite large batches o r lou.
(Ai) Coru ndum wheels made of a mixtu re of f': rit abe No.
74 and sile No. 30 a r" the mos t satillfaetory for jtrl nd iDg
ordinary ebop tools.
(/) I n grinding nat Illrfa.ce1 Pillul bu d IriDd en invari.
"bly keep tbe tool wabbling about on the fac" o f t be grind·
stcee in order to avoid beating.
Que n c hlnQ, Bath. fOT TemperlnQ, C u W n ll Tool•.

H . Le Chatelier, in RtlNU de ltfdI1 U"" u . giv..s the
fo11aw:ing mixtlll\"$ forqnenching and ~mpering bo.th,
for eo ttinJl t001l
'l O'l l'OWIl II 1'0 11 CHUCKING IIK"'MIU~S
Proportion. of Mixturt'li ro r Q ue nch lnQ and

't'em pe r tn g Do t h ••
1'~ . 1oa Te..,p*II".1I Nltllte 01 NUno ie 01
0<'11'''' Fd.. PoI ..-I ~... Sod lulD
W> ... . ...•. ...
0 100
'230 ...... .. .•• . 20 80
172 40 60
145 ..........• . 50 50
137 55 45
145 60 40
225 80 20
335 100 0
Higher temperatures than 400 d eg. F ab . Cll.n no t be
obtained ....ith these mixtures. At 400 dell. Fa b . po t .
assium nitrate freely decomposes. wb ..reu iu st ee b
where without extreme hardn ess a bsolute a bsence of
brittleoess is necessary 500 deg. Fah. to 600 d eg, Feb.
are ~mperltures mar. su itab le. The followin g bath
gives, o n fusio n a temperatua 01 500 deg , Fah. : -
So ld iu m cloride I p a rt.
Potassium c b olride .•......... .. ..... ...... I part.
Fused calcium ch loride 2 partt
H y d rated bari u m c hloride 1 pa rt.
Hydrated strontium chloride .. 3 parts.
For iii bath fusing at 700 deg. F a h . the 10110....iol: mb hlre
may be used :
H yd rated b ori c acid crysta.1.ll .. . .• I part
Sil ver sand .. ... .. II
Allbydrou9 potassium carbcnate.,; I
sodium carbonato I
When prolonged treatment i5 required a litUe cyanid.
or cbarcoal may be added to prevent luperfida l decarbur
isation ; but in view of the Itrongly cementing action of
cyanide this salt must be used with c.lu'tion .
Lubrladon o f Cu rtina Tool.II.-A mh<hlro of .....eee,
lOda. and oil fonns a good lubricant. Th. . . .ter ee.rri ..
Iway the beat and prevents tbe work from ~King ahape.
th e soda prevent! rusting of the work. and the oill ~bricates
the cutting edge. Accotding to Mr . D . S mith .... hen
operating with a lubricant the cutting speed may be in
creased by abon t 15 pet cent of that ob tained ...ben euttiog
dry for tbe -.me dnrability. The qniLlity 01 the lubricant
d ON DOt appear to have a.ny apprec:iable effect npon the
LU BR ICANTS FOR CU TTING TO OLS 20.
epeed or dUTl.b ility. When operating with a lubrican t
t here i, • .avin g of a bout 8 per cent of the power cOl:ls u m od
Wh8D cu ttin g d ry.
Lubricant' for Cuttin~ Toole,
~
-1- - Ta l' pitl,
.lb.orl&l. T<ItD.1a,. CIl""klq;. DrWlac· Ream.lel. !IoIillle l .
Too/SIMI DryorOIL Oil or 00 Lazd ou 011
Soda Watu
Soli Steol S"'£'' W':.'"te r Soda WUU Sa2..it;'a tec Lud Oil 011
Wreu chl lrou I D..,. or Soda WQtoc Soap or LHd 011 011
' Sod a w . te C! Soda W a ter
Aln mJn t u IIl K ••o","c. _
B..... I
Cut Ir oc
Copper
D..,.
Dry
Dry
D..,.
Dry
D..,.
1 "Dry
Orr
D,y
g;;
f llll.. tut1l
Dr y
r>..,.
~
BaLbltl Dry Dry Dry ~.,
GIaM
I
T urpentlne
Ku:.... I ""
°I n eo......h... drills .r. used for eutting off th. unl In eootlD, •
.. hieb "",an< • '~nnaot cutlin, by tho <!rUle, and eon_wetly a h•• tlD,
.1' 01 , he -..m.., .':'...... lor Ill.y be .d....ta.g..,usly used as. l.. bri.,.... L
!!IIialu.... ;. t Wud. P<!U'OJ,oUIIl. j Lud OIL Oil io Spo<Dl or L.ud, Spet<Il
pref.rabl•. Whe.. t.o lubrleoctl IlI1l ",.,,«oued tlMo fint io pRl.n.ble.
.4.nolbor DliIt lpecially "'""" do<! lot turn. latlon .ed aulO
.....ie """' hl "'.y IMo ... ad IOUo.... : 10 ,..Ilon.of wate., 21
,.110"" 0 ' pore lard oil, 71b1. 01 sod., 21b1. 011011 lOOp. &lIl hO«l",hl,
f Jr S hou,. ~ .I e r. U...
For CUIU" 11 Tbread, .- Afto••rvln, verio... ki.. ds 01 lubir~ .nl . 10
o.. 'i.in,lbr-e..a. 01> 'ooll~ ...... hin. 01",,1. ele., 0 wri le c I" .. Ma chl ... r, ··
b.. fo.... d tbo l com_ iord (eol lard o il) tni1ed wilb .bout one-Iblrd
InrpeDtin. b.... Ib' bat . .cl'" Tba tni1t.... may be al'pliodJwUb •
01ll&1l bRob..
M Jl Un!.t C u tt e n .
Anal e 01 Tooth.- Millin g cu tten! are us ual ly made
""ith t he front fac es 01 t he t eeth radial , thus giving no
e n gle of rake. The an gle of clearance should be 5 deg
The top of the tooth, when new, aho uld be fro m ·02 to·4 Of
50'
204 MIL LING CUTTBI<~
. n inch wide The tooth anl!le ahould be .vproximlttlll y

50 de g., a" ' hawn in accompanying sketch . Side teeth e nd
alao end t ee t h a re usually fanned "itb a 75 deg. cu tter.
Number of 'Teeth.c--Cu t t ers witb teeth of very fine
pitcb should be avoided. They simply scrape nther than
Cl;t t . and produce excessive friction. with a tendency to
lj:lan the surtLee of the wo rk a nd rapid ly dull the cutter.
:\ t eet made on t wo eattera of precisely the same dimen
'ions. bu t ~ving 30 a.nd 15 teeth f(llIpcctively, abowed a
saving a t about 22 pe r cent in power in favou r of the cotter
ha.vi ng t5 t«t.h... The 3O-tooth cutter had live teeth eon
' tan tl y in contact with the metal, while the IS-tooth cu tter
h a <l. only three teeth in contact. whichg~toehcw that the
mo re bi tell a cutter most take tbe more: power is required.
required . irte!lpec:tive of the fact that tbe IS-tooth cntte r
took a larger chip pe r tooth than did the 3Q..tooth cutter.
T h ill t est clearly demonstrates the adV&Dtage of a coarse
too th c ut te r for heavy milling. In addition to saving o f
power , a c utter o f thill kind is more durable and will
pe rmi t o f a heavier feed , especially on deep cuts. sinte
a mple 'paCC!! exist be tween the t eeth for the escape of
01 chips, wh ich would be im po ssibl e with • fine tooth
c u tte r. F ordinishing cute a finer too th cutter sbou ld be used.
The tab le on page 191 gives the number of teeth a nd
pitch for c ut ten from. in. to 19 in. d iameter wh ich ha ve
given good reaul ta in ac tual practice.
Number of Teeth and rltcb for MIWnll. Cutten.
lll. JIl. Pilch to> No. of
".u.....
l nch ~ ••
, a
~'
,
Tnlh.
,I 10
10
~l
"
,•
'1 2'
30
It 12 II 'I 30
a
,. '. '"
'I 12 H
,' I 14 U
'IU ,. .
9
32
32
'.,a
'I
14
16
~ 'I
II
,." .,"se
12
38
--'I'.11:~' --,--,U
,
,__-,"",--- '9
56
60
1lI1 LLI N G COTTBRS 205
To O btain Feed per Tootb._E...,"pZ,: Given th e
d iameter o f c utte r," i u. ; to tal wid th o f c ut, 9 tin, ; n u mber
of t ee th in cutter , 14 ; speed of cu tter , 48 turns, eq ual to
50ft . p er minut e ; feed, lin . per m inute; mat e rial m ill ed ,
mild stee! ; cu tt er m a d e from or d in a ry tool steel. From t h e
above data it is possible, by dividing the feed p er min ute by
the product o f the n u mbe r 01 revolutions a n d the n u mbe r
of teeth, to a rrive at th" amonnt of wo rk wWch each toot h
of a cntter i9 doing. Tbus in. the above case. we have
I I .
4S -x 14 - 2 x 48 x 14- ·0007 10 . p er tooth .
DI s tance P fecee.c-In pla cing c u tten on the arb or , th e
faces of the cutter and the arbor co llars should be care fully
wiped, a nd thus e nsure a t rue run n in g cutter. A v ery small
p i<;ee o f cuttin/il: or dirt between the faces causes a spring in
the arbour, and the c utter will run out o f true . Whe n m ade.
the fa ces of thMe eo lia n are carefu lly
b ro ug h t p a rallel wi th ea ch o ther, Of
th ey m a y b e sli ghtly hollow, and h ave
all sh arp ed ges care fu lly rou nded off ;
with rea3Qnable care they can be ke p t
in thi3 condition. \Vhen t wo c utten
are to be used for straddle work, it is
necessary, when the dista nce be twee n
the fa ces of the wo rk ill t o be of exact
diematon, t o have colla rs o f su itabl e
len gth.
Fig. 14 shows a n a d ju st able distance
piece for a rbors ....hich is in va luable fo r
use wh e n making up gangs o f c utten.
Tbe nut should be an easy fit on the
th reads.
Direction o f Feed.- The smalle r milling cutten wh ich
are carried on a u arbour are u sually d riven by the friction
hetwt'cn their fac es and the arbor co llars. Th ey shou ld ,
the re fore, be rotated in t b e direction which tends t o ti gh ten
the arbor nut. With the large cutten whic h are ke yed t o
the arbor th e direction of rotation may be either wa y_ F or
a given rotatio n of the cutter the direction of the feed
should be such as to fo rce t h e work a gai ns t the cu tter, a s
s hown at A , Fig. 15. When t he rotati o n and feed ate a s
above indicated , a ll sla c k or b a ck -lash b etween the nu t a nd
feed scre w is taken up, and the work i ~ forced st ea d ily to
its cut. II the feed is as shown at B, t he e utte r t en d s t o
'06 lU LLIN G C UTT B ltl'l
drag the work un d er it, an d as a result a ny s lac k wha teve r

a llows t h e work to move forwa rd wi t h an unstea dy,
Irregular motion as the feed screw ro tates . \ Vben the feed
ill as shown at A, the cutter teeth wo rk from the bottom u p.
lifting the hard .cal.., of ca.stin~ and forging. rather thaD
"'" on_ r. 6
FI G. 15 . D ia gra ms showin g R ela t ion of Cut t o Fe ed.

cu ttin g d ow n Ilpon it, as is the case when th e feed is as
t h o wn a t B . T h e kee n ed ge o f the cu tter lasts muc h lin ger
with t h e feed in the dil'ection in d icated at A.
"''h en the cutter is ope rating on t he end of the work as
sh own at D . t he teed should be u p. as indicated by the
a rr ow ; if the work was on t h e other side o f t be cutter, the
feed s ho u ld he d o wn. I n th is class of milling it is best to
feed u p . all t hat brings t h e pressure o f the cu t down upon
the table and t end s to close the join ts o f the tab le, saddle,
a nd knee, making t h e cut smoot h a nd s teady.
Wh en it is necessary to use both sides of the cu t ter at the
sam" t ime, a.s in the lower case in Fig. IS , the direction of
th e f eed should he determined from a consideration of the
amount of stock to be re m ov ed from the sides. If th"
rota ti on o f the curter is as ind icat ed, and the most stock is
to he removed from the lunace F, then the feed should be
in th o dinletion sbo"ll by tho arrow. T h e cu t o n the u p per
"1I.LlNG CUTTERS 207
s urfaoo tb ~o wods tel retard th e feed a nd the c u t all the
I.. "" " ,.."t..:o t o dnll.w t b... l"""<i. an" ain r.e t h.. cu t 011 the
upper surface is heavier than than t hat on the lo we r. the
retarding p ressure u great« tha n the drawing. an d a
smooth steady cut results• .nth a mini mu m danger of
inj u ry tel the work a nd cu tter. If the cut was heaviest a t
the lInr!ace G. t h e cutter should be started from the on~t e
end and the d irectio n of the feed reversed.
CuttlnQ. Speeds fo r MUUng Cutten.- Tb e speeds of
cutten vary coraiderably ..-ith the kind of ma terial
opeorated upon, . n.1 D O hard or fas t rule can be give n, The
aocompallyillg table gives the a verage cutting epeeda tor
machlD lDg various metals wiU. mil liog c"tton. \\'orl< o f :l
frail character. o r requ iri ng small cu tten o r smaD arbon .
will n eceseltate • comparatively light feed . a t t h e same
time o aiDtaining • good c e eter speed. I n the smaller
machines it is mo re statisfactory tel nn c u t ters up tel
nearl y m a,..imu m speed. with a comparatively light feed
tha.n to red uce the speed o f cu tter a nd overfeed the wo rk.
Averal1e CuWng Speedll fo r MllIlnll Cutten.
- - - -- - -- - Perl pbotaCS~
M.terl.o1. 01 C Ul ler.
ll. pe, mIll.
sore grey Iron 70
Machin e cu ti ng-<:a.st iron .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . 50-60
Cas t steel . . . . . . . .. . . . 40
Wrought ir on 45
Malle..ble Iron ,. . . 40-1$
So ft mA.r.h in ll ateel 45
Hard.. .. 30
T ool Itffi. annealed 30-35
.. " UI1aIlIlealed. . . . . . .. .. 20 -25
So ft brau ••••••...................•••••••••••. 12S
H ard .. 90-100
Hron l e 80
Aluminium ....•. 4 0(1...$)()
Lath e. v . MlWoQ. Machines for Heavy RoullhlnQ.
Work.-It is ve ry doubtful .according tel H . J. Bracke n
bury (Proe. I m t. M.E .• J uly, 19(0). if m illing uw:hines
sboul4 Ue u>tCltl. ,,,"up t in special u:MlO. lor h_vy rou ghing
work. as the po.... er required. to remove material wi th a
milling cutter g ' 'ery large ascompared tel toola o f the lathe
type. The actual consumption of po we r to remove a pound
of m.&terial wi t h a milling c o tter u a bo u t d ouhla that
rpqui .....1 hya lathe tool
208 PJ/:O POI<T IO I' S, MlLUN(; C U T 1 11.l1o.
Coaue and FIne Pitch Mlllln il C u tte u. - T he fo lio .. ·

ing tabl e! fro m a paper bv P. V. Verno n, rea d ~fore t he
i1a nch Nter Assoc ia t ion of Engineers o n No vember 23r d ,
191 2, gives the d imensions of a range o f milling cu tten
eultable for h ea vy rou gh ing work. and a l!lO t he correspond
in g lin e p itc h cutten used Ior light m illin g :-
Co AIl SK PiTCH !>IIL U NG CUTTKJlS.
t, 0 -
I
_0
I -
I 3..L:
~ ~ ,
..... ..... .. .......-" .
-
~_
21
3 II
a
.C D
I. ... '"I
I 1,1 11 I 80 103 I'
E
II t 80 103 I ' 26 • XI
,
,
,1x ,I
G
" J
de . _ d~l.
K ey •• ,
N"'-ol
T_ , b
8
8
31 II II ,I 80 103 I ' 26 I X,I 8
•'1 11 1+1 11 ,I 71
2 2,1 11 I 71
,I x 251 I X ,\
,\ Il 26f_*2-.lt
10
10
FIN~ PITClJ M ILLING CUTTER •
r". -u-"
- D I..... 01
C'"to•. A.
21
e
- - --
1
C
1•
D
I I ~\- R
•
, . ... ..... T U h ... ~, . .....
E ,
deg.
70
G Key••,..
------ -- -
.\ AxA
1 No.
Tee t,,'h.
....
3
31
•' I
II
II
II
II
1,1
1,1
I.
1,\
II
11
II ,I
II , ,I
'.\..'1. ' 70
7.
85
.\ ,I XI
.\ ,I XI
,I I X ,\
,I , i )( .\"
16
18
20
I'I<OI'OJlTlON S. MIL LING l:U TTIIK~ 2 09
1); _. I 8 I c I ~o.<>IT .I WId' 1>. ,

~~ -'-'-I---' '0.
:I ,I 1. I ii " ;,
~
:, : :: I :: I 6
51 ..\74 I
5. It 24 .\
e • 24 ~
7
• 30 a a d Ij
,
I
,•
a 32 I i end I t
,
I. II ~
32
36
.,
2 aDd 2 J
21 aDd 21
I
I
" II
• 3 and 3i
"
16
II
II
•6 " 3l aDd
4and6
31 1
Ii
210 .. 1i, Ll NG C UrTK It,,;
-,B r R
'- _ ._' '-""'-- ,
DclU.b 0 1
Standard Keys r C
and Keyways
, for Milling
Cutter Arbon· A
, I
.•
Die 01
..",.
I I
Width'" K. ,.
u d Keyway
&tid dpetb
of
~&D--
~ ,. .
.09 37
01&.+11"'10 I DI•. + Orpth
" 01 Ke y . 01 K'~. r.
,-
----:;r:ifs
c,
·43Z8
""'"'
of Ke,.
~Ke,.....J'
•
~20
I -09 37 ·5468 ·5578 ~O
I · 1250 <;8" .eses ·030
, I ' 1250
·250
·81 ~
! .W4
·8225
1·104
030
·035
II ·3 125 \ ·375 , .3S5 "'0
,'Ii
2
·3750
·4375
·5000
\·656
' ,938
2·188
+ '000 10. _ -OUS III.
T<>Ienonce ..Id tb of Key
' ,668
H J48
2-198
d ie. + height of K ' 7 + ·000 In . _ ·oo.!Iln.

.-id th 01 Key "' ,y + '007 In . + ' 002 I.. .
1 -050
·060
·060
n di e. + depth 01 Key..a y + ' 015 I.. . _ .00I,I 10..

• f"rom R. port No. 122- 193801 tb . Brl ll. b 51.lId.rd. l...mu ll".
00 MIlUuJ Cutt ~ aDd a..."'....
B. aDd S. Keyway
for Cutteu.
!lIILL1:HG CllTTIlR5 2 11
Ha lf-round Keyw ays ror C u tters.
(Pratt and W hitney.)
Siu of Hole ... I- I fi- H' i- 1 "' 111-1 U(i-2 2 /- -2/_ 121-3
Widthol Keywa y 71 A -lI A I I U
Keys for :'>f1U1ng-cutte r A r bors.
I 1
(Cinci natti Millin g :\Iachine Co.)
~ 8~- H ,tt.o!. "t
"' . ~ ,'·......··1· ~l i
- ;f;
"'-_"-"'. . 1 .'.
A B
-
C D
."" -----
I E F
"
G H
0·973672 h .~ 1 \ ·051
1·03779 h I ~ H1 5
' ·21875
1·4543
1·7 111
• j
j
" ~
j
I
11
1i
11
1·31
1·579
1·836
1·94734 ~ h - -2 2· 103
-
Stand a r d s t c r Mlllln~ C u tte rs a n d Rl.'llmers.-The
Briti$h Stand ards I nst itu ti on has issued an ex hausti ve
Rep ort No. 122 (1918) dealing with British Standards Instit .
ntion for Millin g Cutters and Reamers, and giving the
resulu ach ieved in th e st a nd a rdisatio n of the nomenclature
a nd definition s of these tools. The t ools co nsidered are
divided into five classes: (I) No n-Iorm relieved Cutters and
Arbo rs ; (2) End Mills and taper shanks ; (3) Form.relieved
Cutters : (4) Reamers ; (5) Coun~rsink5 a nd Cuunterbo res .
Definitions are giv en of t he va rious c1aMoC'S of "Iilling Cutters
and Rea m era, eac h type be ing accompanied b y a clear ex pla
natory diagram. No I~ t ha n lifty-ni ne tables are included.
givin g th e S tandard dimens io ns a nd tolerances of the
various tools, as well as the d imensions of t be Brown a
Sharpe and Morse T a pers. Standa rd dimeesio ns of Arbors
a nd Ke}, and K eywa Yli are also given. Th e report, which
Comprises 85 pa ~m, can be obtained hum tbe Institution
2. Park S tnf' t, London . W.1.
!lIILLJNG CU TTliR5 211
H.U-rou n d Keyways ror Cutten.
(PTatt and W bit ney.)
Si~ lI ole ... I- I Ji- ti J- 1 -A 111- 1U (i-Z
2/--21.121-3
Widthof Keywa y I l-A i I II 1_ ,_10_ _ 1_
Ke ys ror :'> flUl ng - c u tte r Arbo rs .
(Cincinatti Milliog :\Iach ine Co.)
m
•. .•.I
'. ·
· ·
~8~ -
j _hJI
'(l) ~. _ . l
•. H~ ~ t
.""E ""
:r l~ i I;,I
A B
-
C D
I
;, .\ 1
0·973672
1·03779 .- I /o HIS
1·05 1
1·21875
1·4543
1·7111
•"
I
I
;, II
I
I
II
II
1·31
1·579 3
1·836 1
I
!
I
1 It
1·94734 /0 ;, - - 2 2· 10359 /0 _,_ "
- II
gtandarde ror Mllllng Cutten and Rellmers._The
British Standards I nst it ution has issued a n ex ha ust ive
Re port No. 122 (1918) dealing with Br itish Sta ndards In stit .
ution for Millin g Cut ters and Rea mers , and giving t he
results ach ieved in t he standa rdisatio n of the no menclature
a nd definitions of these tools. T be t ools considered are
d ivided into five classes : (I) Non- form relieved Cutters and
Arbol"!l ; (2) End Mills a nd taper shanks; (3) Form _relieved
Cu ttet1\: (4) Reamers: (5) Countusinkll and Counterbo res.
Df,finitions are given of t he va rio us classes of ;\filling Cutters
and Reamers, eac h type beinga.ceompanied by a clear ex pla
natory diagram. No less t ha n lilty-nine ta bles a re incl uded .
giving t he Standard dimensions a nd to lerances of th e
various tools, as well ll$ the dim ensions of t he 8ro"m .t
Sharpe and :\torse Tapers. Standard dimeesions of Arbors
a nd Keys and Keyway~ a re also given. The report. whi ch
Comprites 85 pa ~e8. can be obtained (rom t he Ins tituti on
2. Park S tr ...t, l...,..d on . W_1.
U ItAIIl E RS
,
Clearance.. of Reamer Cutter• .
TABLJ i No. 1 TABLE S o- 3 . T An L E

TA B LE Yo. t. No. ~.
Hand Ream er Chuc king
Hand Reame. for for Ca.. h on Reamer lor ChuOkh ' R
Sled Cu tti nR an~ Brnnte Ca't I ron an~ Reaw e"
Cl••ranoe Lan d C"nl"r BrM.. Cutting for ~t""J
· OO.~ In. wi ~. CI.aran~ and Ck.ra,jce Lan d
. '1l2~ in. ...ide. ' 0 ~ 5 in • ....ide.
CittuJu
,...,
G.onnd .
-,
.,e 'f~ 0;
"s.
I ",
-s• .. "8e .,. ]8 0
~ •o
1 :;:!l "" "".
.-. ..
-:;~
.0 .1>1 ...
,~ ", 'S
o. o •
u. H ;; ~~g~
••
~ --
."
~~
""'" ';:0
"'~
~ ,;l
~
""'"
~d
0
",,0';:;;;I .;j'O
l:; "
<.I .. n .. .:::!
~ .. -e..",
I noh,
,•,
•• 'O l ~
' 0 11
'0 11
-012
I;;;'-
·on
·057
' 0~ 2
.oe-
, .,.,
in ch.
'032
'032
.osa
.@,
I;;;;-~~~-
'072 .~
·072
·072
~,
'09 0 -oe«
·O ~O
.,40
'040
-080
00.
' 100
...
'090
' 100
H
' 012
-012
'0 72 '0.'5 '00' .,.,
·O~O · 100 lOll
."
·0 77 '031 ~,
· 1 2 .~ '125
I .,., ·0 40 -120
,.,•
· 0~5 ' 12 5 '1 25
.."
·0 12 .~ '120 ·\20
.0 12
.01 2
'00'
~,
I ~.
'O ~O
· 120
'120
- 0 ~5
'U4S
' 12 5
·125
' 125
' 045 · \25 ' 125
·0 12 -rca 'O ~O -120 -0~5 -125 '1 25
.0 1' -rce ' 0~2 ' 122 ·0 45 · \ 25 ' 125
·Oll '112 ·0 45 '145 -050 ,so ' 180
" .(I I ~ ' 1l 8 '0 45 ' 145 .oso ·\ 80 -reo
·0 12 '122 ·0 ( 5 '14 5 .cso
" ." -180 '175
...
'127 ·045 ' IH -0 55
.-
·175
':t.
'175
" _012 ·\32 '0~8 ' 188
·Ol 2
_0'2
.ma
-137
,U 2
'050
'0 50
' 170
' 170 ."
'055 ' 175
·175
"00
' 115
' 175
·'00
'"
·U7 '0 50 ·170 .~ -200
_012 -cee -eco
:t"I ll ,
·152 -O S1 -182 -200
_012 ·\57 ·052 -oso
,
_012
_012
'182
' 187
'0 58
·056
.,"" .,..
' 18 2
-186
-oec
"00
·20n
'2')Q
-200
' 200
·200
., ~ ------
' 172 ,0 511 ·218 ·00 4 ·22 4 -225
·012 - 172 "00
--- -- 110- -
·260 -270 -270
'012
W ." ' 112 " 00
'IO~
'2RO 'll O -270 '270
."
· 172 ·264 -11 4
."
'274 ' 275
'Jl
."
' 172
·,n .,,.
· 104 -2a ~
·2 66
'114
'1 16
·2 74
'276
·2 75
'2 7 5
,•s"• ." 10(1 12
·m
- 172
'172
-ros
' 110
' 11"
'288
·27U
-278
'l1 6
' 118
·27fl
'278
-275
'275
II.i!AJ.li!R~ 213
Clea rlln(.~a 0' Reatnen Cutt er._Expe rllIlllot!l t o

determine the best possi ble clea nm ce!I for variou ~ styles of
r~amelll ha ve be en mad " by the Cincinnati Milling Machioe
Co. The resu lts obtained are given in th e table o n page
212, and cover four styles of rea mers, vie .: (1) Hand rt.am" B
lo r steel ; (2) hand rea mers for cut- iro n and bro nee ;
(3) ch uck ing reameT'S for cast -iro n and breese ; (4) cb uc king
reamen for stffl. The sk ekh .e:iven shows a band reamer
o n which the clearances are
B _. ind ica ted a t A and B. A
s mall land of ·025 in . ....-ide is
A left o n all band R'ameTS 'or
cast iron a nd bron ze, whil e
a land of only.()()5 in . is lelt
on band rnmenr. for steel.
Cbucking rea mers for cet
iron or bree se have 23 deg.
bevelled endll, and are pro
vided with t wo clearances
al ong the btarlell. (See Table
3.) The bevelled en ds have
onl y one clearance, equal
ling tbe seco nd clearance
give n in Table No.3. In
the cese of reamers for
H anu R'. 'M < .ho.. !~~ steel, tht knives are ci r
Cl....nctlo.
cular grou nd to ex ac t size
of ho le to be reamed. The 54 deg , bevel ends on ly ha ve
clea rances. (See Table 4). On all rea m ers 01 t his styl e tb e
knives are gro u nd fro m ·015 in. t o ·020 in. below size half
of their lengt h tow a rd t he shank end . T he front end of
all the reamers is tapered about ·005 in . in 11 in. The back
ind of the blade is al so slighUy tape red, so lUI to avoid
enjuring the hole in backing out the rea mer,
Brow n and 'Sbarpe:Standar d T apen.
(For proportions,!ll.'e_following;page).
..
214 Bro w n and Sharpe S t a n dard Tape r s
(See illustration s on previous page)
:;
• 1i 0;• I
o ..~ J~ ;Tap.,
.~~ ....
~ ~
! P""
: looL
! a
is til f.< ~ !
D K L W T t
2
"0
·25 I II
tl
l
t ·135
·166
.
h
I
i
~\
·500
·500
3 IU a ·197 i. -h- ·500
4 ·35 Ii Ii la n ·228 II it ·500
5 ·45 Ii Ii In t ·260 I ! ·500
6 ·50 2i 2i 2M: i ·291 ,.

7 ·60 3 3i 2a~ +i ·322 : I :::
8 ·75 3 f~ 3 +~ 3U I ·353 H ·500
9 ·90 4 4j 3I Ii ·385 i , ,500
10 1·0446 5 5i 4H I -&- ·447 -i« ·5161
10 1·04465 * 5 H- j5H l !'r '447 t« ·5161

II 1·25 61 6. 6.a 1 -,\ ·447 I\- ·500
12 1·50 7! 71 6U Ii ·5 10 I I ·500
13 1·75 71 7t 7& 1! ·510 I I ·500
14 2·00 ai 81 8ft 1* ·572 &- ·500
15 2·25 81 8r 8E I It ·572 ,\ ·500

~ ·500
16 2·50 9} 9) 9 It ·635 '"
'" _ ·500
17 2·75 9i 9. -
_ ·500
18 3·00 101 lOj -
215
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T abl e of euttl n ~ S p e(:d ~
',M.,'
Mill.
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----
T able or Cun ing Speed s '"
etlTT'"'' "UP ,,, I'1I:ET n. ",,, uu.
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s 5 10
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I 40 45
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25 '76 1.5 12.3 3· ' J.8 e.e 5·' 6· 1
es ·73 \·46 2·2 z.e ' ·7 5·' 5·&-1,6-6 s-a
I 5~ 5·7 6·' H
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28 -68 1·36 2-0
2 '7 1a-a H '·8 s.s 6· , 6·8
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28 -65 1-:11 2·0 ' ·6 e-o 5·' 5·. 6~
ao -68 1'27 1'9 I 2·5 3·2 '·8 a-s 5·1 5·7 6·'
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-61 1'2.1 1-8
·6 1·2 1·8
'58 H6 ) '74 z
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·54 1·09 ) ,63 2' 18 '·S
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50 .~ '76 \ '14 '-52 a-a 2-67 a-o s., ae
'3 ·63 ·95 1'27 a.a '·5 6 2·9
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80 ' ·9
7. '27' ·54 ·8 H I9 1·8 1·9 6 2-4 ' ·7
80 '24 '47 ·7 ·95 '1·48
·88 1·9
90 '2 1 '4 ·63 -84: J-14
1·7 1·9 '· 1
' ,34 1·54 1·7 ,~
~I
' 00 '19 ·38 ·57
110 ·17 .", ·51 ' ·0 ) ·2" I·, 1'57 1·74
.,.I .<7 ·85

I
1-·42, ) ·58
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1 ·16 ' ·1
1 ·14 ·29 ·87 r-ca 1·32 1·47
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·81 ·96
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~7
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) '01,1-1 9
·95 H 16
1 I I I I I
2 1S Tf.me Required for Cutting Tool to Travel
1 tn., when the F e ed ill I~31 In. per Revolution
CUTr1NG SPI' ED S PE R M1NUTB.
:~_"':~~ ~ !~1~ 45fl , I~~
17'2 ~0 5021 1~040~ ~ I~ ~ 1~ ~ 11 ~ ~1 1 ~ ~

1
1 :0 1 £8
0 33 0 29 0 25 022 0 20 0 17
3 I 15 I 0 0 50 0 43 1 0 38 0 33 0 30 0 25
41 40 1 2 0 1 7 057 0 50 0450400 33
5 2 6 I 41 I 24 I 12 I 3 0 56 0 50 0 42
6 2 31 2. 1 I 41 I 26 1 15 \ 7 1 0 0 50
7 2 56 2 21 I 57 I 41 I 28 1 18 I 10 0 58
8 3 2 1 2 4 1 2 14 I 55 \ 40 I 29 I 20 I 7
9346 3 1 2312 9 1 53 141 1 30 1 ~15
104 11 321248 2 24 2 6 11 52 L4 11 ,24
11 4 36 3 4 \ :I 4 238 2 18 2. 3 11 5 1 1. 32
12 5 2 4 1 3 21 2 52 2 31 2 14 2 1 I 41
13 5 27 4 21 3 38 3 7 43 2 25 2
\4 5 52 4 41 3 55 3 21 2 56 2 36 221 I 57
11 1 49 2
\5 n 17 5 2 4 I I 3 35 3 8 2 48 2 31 2 6
16 6 42 5 22 " 28 3 50 :I 21 2 59 2 41 2 I4
17 7 7 5 42 4 45 4 4 3 34 3 10 2. 51 2 22
18 7 32 6 2 5 2 1 4 18 3 46 3 21 13 I 2 31
19 7 57 6 22 5 18 4 33 3 59 3 32 1 3 II 2. 39 1
20 8 22 I) 42 5 35 4 47 4 I I 3 43 3 21 2 48
2 1 8 48 7 2 5 52 5 2 4 24 3 55 3 31 2. 56
22 9 13 7 22169 5 16 4 36 4 6 3 41 , 3 4
23 9 38 7 42 6 25 1 5 30 4 49 4 17 3 51 3 12
24 10 3 8 3 6 42 5 45 5 2 4 I 4 28 3 21
25 10 28 8 23 6 59 5 59 5 15 4 3,1 4 II 3 30
26 10 53 8 4:-1 7 16 6 13 5 27 4 50 4 2 1 :I 38
27 1\ 19 9 3 7 32 6 28 5 39 5 2 4 3 1 3 46
2811 44 9 23 749 16425 5251344 11355
29 12 9 9 43 8 6 6 56 6 4 5 24 4 5 \ 4 :I
30 12 34 10 3 8 23 7 I I 6 17 5 35 ' 5 2 4 \\
31 12 59 [0 23 8 39 7 25 6 30 5 46 5 12 4 \9
32 13 24 LO 43 8 56 7 40 6 42 5 57 5 22 4 28
331349 111 3 9 13 7 54 6 55 6 95 32 4 36
34 14 15 II 24 9 30 8 8 7 7 6 20 5 42 4 45
35 14 40 11 44 9 48 1:\ 23 7 20 6 3 1 5 52 4 53
36 15 5 12 4 10 3 8 37 7 32 642 6 2 5 2
37 15 30 12 24 10 20 8 51 1 7 45 6 53 6 12 5 10
38 15 55 112 44 10 37 9 6 7 57 7 4 6 22 5 18
39 16 20 13 4 10 53 [ 9 20 8 10 7 18 , 6 32 5 Xl
401 645 11324 111 II 934 1822 727 16 42 3~
15
Ave ea ge S peed o f Gea r C u tlers , B. e n d s. 219
(O RD I N AR Y TO OL S TIl& LJ
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3"2 II \60 73 135 "'..5 ' ·96 3·37

62 ]'031
Speed of Saw. for Meta L_ Circ ula r sa_ usually ru n

at .. !::phery speed of from 40 ft. to 50 ft. per minute, and
lhe eeds range fro m lin. to Iii-n. per minute. Baud !laWS
llSuaUy mn at the following speeds ; Steel, 160ft . t o 200ft.
per minute; cut iron, 100ft. ; bl'Ull, 350 lt. The feed abould
be regulated.a lhat a section of about 28q .in . bent thro0ch
per min u t e. High~ dee! circular ..._ eet mild SU'oP]
at 120ft po'r minute : bra59 500ft. per minute.
220 IIl GIl_SPEED T OO L STEELS
O ne of t b lJ most i mportao t adva nc O!l in th e art 0 1 ste" l
IIIJlk ing was t h e manufacture 01 sel t-hard e nlng or tungsten
. t~l wb ic h was first introduced b y Robrrt Mushet in 185 7,
and wb ich ba s since borne hill name, tbe cutting powe B o f
th is .teel greatly exceeding those of most 5t",15 hitherto
us ed , and littl e o r no advancement was made bryond this,
u n ti l at the Paris Exhibition of 1900 t h e Bethlehem Steel
Co., of Pbiladdphia, practically demonstrated that it
was possible for the speed of sted cutting toots, by suit
. hl.. ueatment. to be in creased far beyond w hat had
hitherto been consid ered possible, .. heavy roughing cu t
being ro-.d e OIl .. 110ft steel ahaft 8 in. diameter• • t ..
lin ear speed of 140f t . per minute, the cutting coming
a U at a red beat, as Wall p roved by i ts oxidi5iug to a
deep blue co lou r after leaving the tool. The process
b y ..bich this result was a ttained was 5obl!leqoeoUy
revea ltod in Patent No. 10 ,738 of 1900 .
.. Ca rbon .. and .. Al r-b a rden~ .. o r .. 8 ..11
hard enin g " Steel•. - It ma y be 3.$ well to point ou t the
d ifference be tween ordin ary " carbon steel" tools a nd those
ma<1c o f ""df" or " air-hardening" s teel. In the former the
too ls are fint ba rd ened by beating to red n ess , a nd then
.udd ..nly cooled in water, a ft "! which they a re usua lly
te m pe red by h ea ting a nd cooling again at the desired
te m perin g point; wb " reas "a elf- h a rdeniug" s tee l acquire a
d e fini te degree of h a rd n eaa wh et her cooled q uic kl y or
slowl y, and he nce t oo ls mad e of thilI m aterial require no
su bs equ e nt tempering after being forged into sh a pe, the
degree o f temper b ei ng, so to speak, acquired a utoma tic a lly
by c oolin g in th e a ir. The prop erty of "selt-hard ening"
I teel makes tools made of it aha ICllll liable to hav e their
" t em per" dCllwn by heati ng when in operat ion . As is well
know n , however, b y aU users of "self-hardeni ng " , teel, the
makers of it are careful to cau tion their c ustomers against
wor kin g it a t too high a tempera t ure in the operatio n o f
forgi ng, 3.$ b y 110 doing the spec ial p roperties of t he ma terial
are Sf'rioualy injured. The maximum tempera ture usually
co nsi d er ed ~ible is a. brigbt cherry red, or from
1,500 de(. Fab. to 1,550 deg. Fah.
Hl gb-. p e ed SteeL-The discoveries o f Messrs. Taylor
and White have shoWil that the limitatklD.S o f tem perature
h itherto considered necessary with "self"' o r "air-harden.
io g" steels were capable of comlden.ble modification.
<"!;peciaI.ly 'lII'it h steels contailling chromium a nd tungsten ,
and Uat if such ltn.b ...n: ....pidly heated up t o a whi te
h__ at and lubwquen U,. cooled ~ teadily ill a c o rn nt of a ir the
H IGH -SPE K D T O O L STEELS 22 1
endurance o f the tool. "&I inc~ ..-:I to • nlal'Ve-lIou.
ext<-nt.
."11 t he best ma kes of high-speed steds show a b ili t y to
withstand t he heat en gendered it! h eavy la th e amd phlne r
work to such a degree th a t they will do heavy cutting wo r k
with tha t part of the steel wb ere the chip curls off ac tually
red ho t . H ere comes in the distinction between a plain
carbon steel and the high-speed s.ell·hardeninK product
wheu a tool made of the Iortner bec omes so he:ated by work
as to .how the t<-mper colours it soften., aDd the cu tting
edge ill quickly rubbed off, while a high -speed tool similarly
heated retainllllulficient hardn... to d o the work required.
Perfected froc~ of anealin g admit of hilI:b-speed stffl
being as easily machined as most of the ordina ry ca rbon
gndes. and the h igh -speed qualities can thu. be uti lised
for cutters o f all k inds. The greatest advantage, b ow
ever, ..bieh 'lIch a steel possesses over the ordinary wa te r
ha rdening varieties lies iu the fac t that there ill very
lit tl e danger of loss in the hardening bath, where so
ma ny coetly tools meet their end, lor it ill o nly necess;a ry to
~beat such a s tee l and cool in an air- blut .....he n it will
ha ve Te.l!:ained t h.. hardn~ it pD8$~d belore a nn ea ling
The Working of Il lllh·speed T ool S teel,_The forfling
of a h ig h-speed tool s ho uld be done 8.t a good yeUDw o r
forg ing h ea t . It Should never be worked below a b right red
heat. It ill be tter to p ut the t oo l in t he fire seve ra l ti mes
rather t ha n d o t his . Wh en fo rged th e poi n t of t h e tool
should be p laced in lim e or as h es t o coo l. In heating up tha
tool i t sho uld be done grad ua lly . It should no t be plunged
<:1irectly in to a b ot fire. I n ha rd en ing t h e too l the nose
sh o uld be he"1<>d slo wly, if possible in a muffle, to a brig ht
red (5'1)' 1,650 d ell". F.} a n d th"n rapidly t o a ...h it<- h ea t
(abou t 2,O(l() dege. F .} a fte r which the tool sb ou ld be cooled
in an a ir bliloSt, or, if in t e ned ed for c uttin[ll: 110ft matuials. it
may be cooled slowly in a dry place. The tool sh ou ld tben
be ground to a fin ish . To a nneal thfc tool it shou ld be hea ted
in a muffle to between 1,25 0 degs. a nd 1,350 d egs. F., and
kep t at this heat for t wo hours, and the mu ille then s lowly
cooled in ashell.
Di scovery of HI Ah-Spet"d Too l S trfc l.-Jn tll~
p residential address, de livered be lo re til" America n Sod d y
of :\fechanical Engineers in D..c . 1906. !olr. F . W . Ta,·lor
funrished the foUo ...ing interesting a ccount ot t he d ixovn-y
o f the T a ylor ·W h ite hig h-speed tool st ee l :_
.. In I M9A, .:xm aftllT nndertaking t he reorganisation o f
t h.. mana ge nle nt of t b. Bethlebem St ....1 Com pany. tbe
'"
HI G El- SPEE D t OO L str.E t."
,",ite r (Mr. Tay lor) d ecided to co ntinue ex periments with

a vi e w t o ascertaining whether so me be tte r tool $to:,,1 had
not t>-o d e veloped. After testing se vera l makes o f t ecta,
o u r experi me nts indica ted that t he Midvale self- ha rdening
toob co u ld be run if properly heated at s lig h tly higher
speed, th a n t h oee of a n y other make. Upon decid ing to
adop t t b is steel as ou r stand a rd t he wri ter had a n u mbe r o f
tools of each make 015t«1 carefully dressed a nd g rou nd to
e:ll:acUy the same Bhape. H e then called th e for em an a nd
supe rintend..nts of the machine s hops of the Bethlehem
Steel Compaor to t h e experimental la the IK) that they
could be conV1nced by seeing an actual trial of all o f t he
tools that the Midva.le steel was, on the wbole, the b<ost.
I n th e test, ho wever, the Mid vaJe toolsJ:roved to be worse
thaD those o f a n y other make. i.... ey ran at !dower
c utting speeds. This res ult was rather humiliating to us a.!I
experiment..n who had spent se veral weeb in the in
vestiga ti on ,
" It was , 0 1 course , t h e first im prN* ion of the wri te r tha t
these tools bad been o verheated in the smitb shop. Upon
careful in qu ir y a mon g the sm itbs, ho we ver , it seemed a.!I
th ou gh they bad tak en special pains to dlTY t hem a t a low
nea t , a lthoug h t he matter was lef t in m uc h d ou b t . The
wri t er, t herefore, d et ermined to mak.. a th ro ugh in vestiga
ti on b e for e fin all y ad op t ing the Midva le ateel as o u r shop
s ta nd a rd t o d iscover if possih le some b roat tl"f'.atment wh ich
woul d restore Mid vale tool~ inj u red in th roi r heating
(wheth er til ,,! h ad be en nnd er -h eated o r o ve rheated) to
th eir original good cond ition.
"For this p urpose Mr, WlIite and the writer s ta rt ed n care
fully la id o u t series of expe riment!!, in whic h t ool s wer e to be
heat.,o at t e mperatu res in creasi ng, say, by about !iO <i..g. a ll
t he wa y hom a black heat to the melting point. These too ls
we re t he n to he g round and ru n in th .. experim..ntal lath e
upon a u niform for ;:iog 50 a.s to find ;
(<I) That h~at at ....hich the highest cotting speed could be
atlain<"d (which Ollr previous experiments had shown to be
a c he rrv red ).
(") To accurately determine the exac t dange r point at
whi ch if ove r o r under-heated these tool, were seriously
in jured ;
(&) To lind some heat treatmen t bv which injnred tools
could be restored to t hei r forme r high cuttinll: speeds.
"Th"" e epe nmeno corroborated our p reviOus ..,.,peri
meats made a t the works o f Messrs. wm. ~ lIers a Co.,
showing t ha t t h e too ls were -mu~ly broL eo dow n or
H IG II -S P J<);;[) TOOL STEELS 22 3
Inj u r. d by ovub....tinlj:. "y, somewha t be tween 1,550 deg .
Fa h . a nd 1.700 deg . Fah. ; wi to ou r b"aJ s wrt riSl. tools
Iwdta up to or " /w." til, Aiglllltat of 1,725 dt~. 1· 411 . P'CltM
bdt" Illan q ..y of thou lIeated to til , lus t PJ'wwus " ",p,ralu ,e,
vie., Ii b rig h t cher ry red; and from 1,725 deg. F a b . up to th e
inci pien t poin t of Iusion of the tools. 1M lIightr t"q twU
1muld II., lIi glu. ti, ' vlti ng spu ds at wh ich they would
run. Thus the <1 iM:overy that phen omenal , " ulh could be
obtained by heatin g tools close to t h e meltio.'; point, which
was so completely revolution".}' and directly the op posi te
01 a ll previous hnt treatment of toots , W1U the indirect
usult of aD acc u ra te 5Cien tiflC effo rt t o investigate as to
which brand 01 tool steel was on the whole the best to adop t
as a shop s tand ard. neither Mr. '''lIite DOr t he wri ter
having the slightest idea that overbe.a.tiD~ beyond the
brigbt c herry red .... ould do an)·thi ng ecxept Injure the tool
more a nd more the higher it was heated:'
The M an chester E x per lmen tl.-Some interesting
experi me nts were mad e by II jo int co mmit tee a ppointed
by tbe Man chester Assoc iatio n of Engi neers and t he
:'tlanchester School of TechnoloKY on rapid-eutting steel
tools, the resu lts of which were reco rd ed in a report by
Dr. T . 1. N icolson. rea d before the Mancheste r Associa
tion of 'E nginee,'5 in October. 1903. It ....as d ecid ed to
confine the ex perimen ts to lathe t001l. and t o ree::ord t he
weight of material re mo ved . area of surface machined ,
cu t ting speed , depth of cu t, tra\'cn,<l per re volution , dura
t ion of t rial , condi tio n of tool a t e nd of tria l, a nd pow er
absor bed during the triaI _ The sha pes 0 1 th e tools were
left t o th e makers. The material s operated upon were soft,
mild. and hard for ged steels, a nd sof t. medium, a nd hard
cas t iron.
R el a ti ons between Speed of Cuttln a and Area of
Cut.- Th e following simpl~ ap roximate expressions indi
cate t he rela ti o ns between of cut ti ng and area 01 c ut:
Let I' _cut ti ng speoed in eet per minute, a nd
" _area of cnt in ~Ilare inches (produc t o f cut a nd
traverse).
1·9 43
Then : For soft eteel 14
" - "+0'01 1+
1·823
Fo r medium steel" - " + 0.0 16 + 5
,, _ ·171 _ 5
Fo r ha rd steel
" + 0·027
For cu t iron t he r""nlts a re no t ol!lO limple a character
224 H I G B -S P E EO TO OL STK K Lb
but the following linear expressions g ive !p"""ds wh Ich may

proba b ly be a ttained as a mallimimum :
For ..aft cas t iron II _ 115 - 13<1.
.. medium cast iron ,,_ 63 - 85&
" bard cast iron to _ 40 - 400.z.
Maximum Speeds Attained w ith Different C u t s .
The following tables give the result' of those trials only in
which the tool ran for the whole time specified and at the
highest speed of any t oo l, and show the maximum SJ-'9
obtained for the varions cuts employed : -
SoFT STKE.L [Whitworth fluid compressed).
l u le D6ed Cut Actual ~. loin . Speed DJ We i, b'
,~ ....
u.d Trave. ... of Cnt
Sq. 1..._
·00325
SOD·lall•.
f ... t PO' M'...
149·2
MewDvcd.
Lb • . PO' !lIiu..
1·72
,Ix' ·OH)6 111·0 4-137
'xA 74·0
,Ix I ·0215 5·""
IX I "",IS 54·5 7·35
MB OIUY S T EE l (flu id co mp ressed).
-00225 109 ,",I<l8
• xA
,Ix. ·0 114 eo 3·17
.Ix I -02275 51·4 3·88
Ix j ·0418 ss S·Sl
H AR D ST BKL (flu id com pres.'lt:d).
Ax ' ·00381 56·2 0·'
·0 124 41·20 1·70
,Ix j ·02 19 50·' a.a
• x
I xhj ·Q.452 20·8 3·092
Son CA ST IR ON.
,Ix. ·0039 109 ' ·3
3·617
,Ix' ·0 124 99·5
.I x I ·0 1575 72 3, 1
Ix j ...59 SS·S 7·458
ttl.DIUI( C AST 1110)«.
-0033 1 59·7 0 -69
,Ix'
• X • ·0115 49·0 1·73
,I x j
Ix I ..."
ern
HARD CAn I li ON.

33· 1
2./0·35
2·23
3·32
n.47
·00359 "'~
,,-9 1-183
,Ix.
• x • ·0 1173
,Ix I ~202S 2H 2·842
Ix I ·(l.f,SP 22 3·2
I'IIGH - j; r • •D TOOL s r I- leU 2'l5
Advantalle a (If H eaTY Gull.-The figure!! in th.
pr eced in g tables ahow how very greatly the weight removed
inc reases a s th.. cuts become h ea v ier, and iuclieat'" t h a t
heavy cuts will be much more economical in po wer; for the
waste work is a much larger proportion o f the whole wo rk
uquired at light cuts than at heavy cuts.
In !10ft eteel, for example, the average bone-power
req u ired Jor ac tual cutting at ,\; in. by -n in. was 3, wh ils t
at t in . b y i In. it WM 15 . T h e fri cti on b ors e_po wer of lathe
and cou ntenhaft used in t he tests was about 21 b.p. T he
_igh t re mo ved w .... about I051 bs . and 445 1bs. pe r ho u r a t
the light and heavy cuts respecU\-ely. so that the _igb t
remo ved pe r ftI"OSS bone-power h our ..~ 19 ·) Ills. for the
light and 25·3Ibs. for the heavy cut. Neglecting fric tional
loss, th ese figures would h ave heen 35 a nd 29 res p ectively.
I n the CIUIe of cast iron t he ga in in po wer a t the heavier
c u b! it still more collSpic uous, Here the effec tive ho rse
power was ) ,7 and 5·5 at the n by nand t by i cuts res
pec tively . the wute hone-power bring about 2. The
we ights removed were 42 1bs. and 198 lbs , per hour, and the
weil{ht9 per hora e-p ower were, t he refore , t 1·35 Ibs. at the
light cu t a nd 26·5 lbs. at the heavy cu t,
These results are o f ge neral a pplication, a nd sho w that
no t m ere ly ca.n more material be remo ved in a given ti me
with a heavy cut at it5 proper speed than with a light c u t
at the highest speed which tile new steels can take, h u t that
this ca n be d on e a t a smalle r expe nd it u re o f gross pow er
per to n of sh a vings rem oved.
In connection with heavy cu tting, it ....ill be interesting to
re fer to the powerful la the which Messrs. Annstrong, Whit·
worth a nd Co. Ltd. constructed for the purpose o f d emon.
s trati ng t he powers o f "A. W . "steel a t the Liege E xibition,
1905 , The la the, wh ich is 18 in. ce n tres , wa s d riven by a
60 H .P. motor , and the follow ing table ,"vill con v ey some
idea. of the possibilities of the cutti ng powers of high-speed
steel wben v~ iv a tool of such m assive proportions :
I R~uctle" F<'<'<l~. W. lf;~ t
,-, I
Braah. · Met al re_n d
~~I~~~r' l I:~ ' 7b:~or

"A,W ," F o rged Steel )60 t In 611
" .-,.W." /
" A.W."
.. 100
42
2
2 I *t 2.545
2,140
"A,W." 38 1 t 1,935
, ..
: A.W: ' 32 2* J 2,039
22A IIK. IH,I'I>IU) TOOL S T H I<LS
~ ." :.
.......
. !:'..
r-r 1
f
..",
.M
F)
:t
:8
"
.•
.. "
.
0 0 )- ___
I
-
.
"
_
I .. . .
•• I
" .. o f
r • 0 .... 0 ... ,
- ,
"'"
:.
e: 1 _ 1
I
I::." T ~
.... .1 -
-I'
H
-
I
I
M
S: • ,!,5oO fT " ~,;;;j
IT
b:;'-'~: ~k ,-,j;-i
~, ";::j
.. :-l I
, =.
c.o.r. ,__
I
I L"~;
I
....., -
I
.....- LJ...----'H ..Lj
-e.,
SOTII: . _ Th~ fi~ res alon g the t op gIVe the flies of cob
.
and feeds. e!.• ! x .J means ,\- ln. cut off each !lide and
.J in. traverse .
U I Gl l-l.PII E D TOOL STJ1IlL.5
-
Diallrarnlll.- The two d ia grams 011 the preceedmg page
sho w the results in the fonn of curves, a Dd ena ble for emen
and t u rn ers to see a t a glance wh at speed. the lathes
should ruD at when they know the ki nd o f ma~rial to be
machined, aDd the sizes of cuts and f~!1 have been Iix ed .
CurtlnA Prrlllilu re on T ools.- The Ma nchester expert

mente show that for steel the cutting force is si mply
proportional to the ll«=il of cot, and that this forec bas the
following approximate values :
For soft .teet (fluid compressed} 115 tona per sq. in .

•• medium .teel (fluid comp~) l OS
•• hard.. .. 150...,
For cast iron this stress may be specified as follow. :
For «lft eut iron.. ......•...... 5 1 t ons pe r lKI. ua re ineb.
.. medium cast iron •. ... . . .• 84
.. hard cast iron 82
Endurance. - I n the Ma nchester experi ments trials we re

mad e to test endurance of t he new steels upo n a lengt hened
run with a uniform shape of tool.
These tria ls show that a speed o f 90 ft . per min ute may he
main tained for a considera ble p eriod with a ,\ in . c u t b y
,\-in . trav erse u pon materi a l ~imi l ar to the fluid:Compressed
soft steel operated upon , as only three ou t of seven tools
failed to full i! the e xp ec tations o f t h e com mittee. They
aloo s how that the new s teels will cut more t han twice as
fast as ordi nary Mushet steel, a nd m or e than fo ur tim es as
fas t il-~ ord ina ry wa ter-h a rd en ed steel.
\\'it h reJlard to t he endu rance tria ls on m ed iu m cast iron,
t hree ou t of 13 t oo ls t ri ed ran for an hou r, or longer, at 34ft.
per minute with a ,\ in. by -k in. cut ; b ut no t oo l co m
pleted the intended run of two h OUB - duration.
An o rdinary Mu~het tool ran for an hour o n this ma terial
at a 5J>Md of 19 1 ft. p"r minu te, whilst ord i"ary wa ter.
hard en ed tools fa iled in from 4 to 9 min. at I 'lft . per mino te.
M as&l ve M a chi n es Neede d for Ill llh Speeds .
Undoubtedly high-eutting speeds tend fa r more than slow
s~s towards producing minute a nd rapid vibrations in all
parts of the machine, and these vibrations are best opposed
and .baorbed by having large ma.~ of meW suppo rting
the cutting tO<'lI and the head and tail stocks. "''hill' it is
228 "'/'INII.AlING. FORGI/'IG ... /'10 IU.SOSN ING
true that in many cases ... "ety grca.t gain un be ma.do b y

merely speeding up a. machine originally delligned for
1IIo.... -speed tools, this increase in epeed .lmOBt in va ria bl y
produces • corresponding incrrase in the vibration o r
chatter, and lor absorbing this the lathes and ma.chinell 01
older design are in many ca.ge'lI too light throughont.
Co lo u r o f Chlps.-When ,teel of any kind u be ing

tntuN, the speed and feed should be wt eoouRh to tu tu aU
hiptillO that they will show a blue colour. 00 cast iroo,
bcwever, the ~ and f..ed must be regulated according to
the baldness of the castmg. 3S thi s class of mat..rial van.,
II:reatly, and it b therefore impoMible to give any defioit..
idea of tbe nombel' of feet at which it (10 be macbined,
AnoeaUn a, FOfl1lna. Hardenl na, and Grlnd loll

Ul ah- speed Steel T o ol••
The fo llo win g notes are extracted from a paper 00 •• Th"
Prac tical Uee and Eoooomy o f High-speed Steel" by Mr.
J. M . Gledhill, of M~T:'l . Aruatroog, \\'h.i.tworth .t: Co.
Ltd.• before tho Glasgow aod West of Scotland Fo re m ..n
E ogint'ffll· and l ro n worlr.el1l· A!ISOCiatioO:'l, on No ve m be r
n o . 1905 ;
Ann e uUna.- When m a k in g tool ' that requ ire to be
machin ed or cu t t o form. it is of course uecesaary to ha VOl
th e ,teel ca refully and uniformily anoealed , or so rte ned , to
fac ilitate mac h iomg operations. The p rocess of annealing is
one of much importance, aod is best performed in specially
designed sealed furnaces, 0005UuCted u " Mu fOes." .u that
the required heat is obtained uoiformly by radiation, and
the flame does not impinge on the steel.
10 addition to 8Ofteoiog the ~teel and rendering it easy to

machine, anon-ling has the effect of bringing the steel into
a more uniform and bomogeneDUs condition by eliminating
the molecular Strai05 which are set np in hammering a nd
rolling. 10 that ....hen the finished ~UeJ is heated p reparatory
to hardeniog, equal expamion Icllcws. and also eqna.} COn
traction when cooled.
It will thos be _0 that shoDld the steel be oot annealed
u nifo rmily throughont, risk!! of tool. crackinl{ or warping
iu hardening are very considerably incnoued.
GRINDING, HARDHNING AN1> TKIolI'I!IIlNl> 229
~i or Iinl"I'ffl aDd "~p ..ns"·,, t"", I, af intn' at .. or i""j( ul,.,

ahape W ..hich u oeq ual expansioo ILnd ('ontnLCt ian ar"
likel y to operate sudd..~y, it a advisable to re -an o..,.l eucb
took bd,,", bardening 10 as to rer eese a ny strains that may
ha ve been ... t up by m&cbining, a nd thus leave tbe m etal in
as normal a coooition .... possible, .. minimi~iDIi: any
tende ncies toward' cracking or warping, especially the
lattel, after hardeoing.
Foralnl1 BDd H ardenlne.- J>rocooedin ll: uow to tb .. reo

cn¥lI o f fo rgi Dg aDd hardening. ~ ..hile _ntUlly a
simple matter, rrqnin:s care and skill tcIfl:f!ther with the lise
of suitable appal1ltus if the bet results are- to be obtained.
The steel should on no account be broken cold nnl~ havi ng
~n p..,viously nichd mond : preferably tbe boI r sh ...o ld be
cu t throu gh at a lorll:ing b..a t. B.,fotl' for!tnR, the steel
shoul<1 be slowly and thoroughly h"atf'd to a v ery brigh t T1'd
-vef"11:in8 in to yellow heat-Cahoo t 1,8S0 df1:. Fa.h.), at
", hicb heat it can be forged easi ly a Dd rapidly. Ha m mering
IhOllld IK'It be continued a fter the t empera tu re ba.~ Io wtored
to a mediu m red, say 1,400 d eg. Fe ., "'hell forging 'hould
cease a nd theltelll be , e-h ea t ed . R e-h eatiDK for s ubseq ue nt
forging mar be e ffected !IOmew ba t more rapidly tlul n the
initial beating . When t he d esi red -.hape ill Obtained the
tool s ho uld b e cooled &!I ' lowly ILS JXMSibie.
Tools bave have bee n bent, or are 01 un f'lual /lec tio n, such
WI are eo me ti mea used for planing, slot c u t ti ng, partinR. etc.,
are improved by h eating to a red h e..t (befor e hardening
and WIthout b la st ) and a fterwa rd s pla ced in lime or bot
cinders to coo l.
Wben hardening, the cose-c-o r cuttin R p ortion -of tbe
tool o nly ahould be gradually raised firs t to a yellow h eat,
aDd then fairly rapidly to a whi t .. mel ting heat, and with
d rawn lrom tbe fire and cooled as rapidly as poaai ble by ai r
b last-the .tronlj"1"J" the better.
Grlndlna , -Th.. question of ll"ri mHnR loo ls is oee of
coosidf'rat,le im porta nce . for if th.. grind in R t'f' no t properly
carried ou t, the results cannot be sati8laetory, while t h e
tool may auffu p<"fma.o." lIt injury from cracks, etc. The
best and lOundest al.'el may be ruined by injudicKms and
unskiUed opetatou on this account.
For grinding high-speed 5t 1 . Dt1l' ..g i$ q.. ik so toed ,15
,rott...
by "'M
01 _l!-stleWd ftlrl U ..4stllfll. , d jA, Icol$
p••" .... \Vhf'r" ~uch etce..... "'th., not obtai n
tl Iu..r_
230
able or d l"$i'<t<I. IDd emery ...heel , aTe 0 "",,,. it i~ &d~ i ..... b i" to
rou ghl y gri ud the tools to s ha pe lHJrff' barde uieg , whic h
grinding ma y bfl d o ne mec hanically . By so d oing t b" tools
req uir e but tittle gri nding after hard ening (wh ich may be
do ne by hand) , and only !Iligh t fric ti onal beatiag occ urs, so
that the temper is not d rawn in a ny way, o r the c utting
efficien cy 0 1 the tool impaired. when t be tools a re ground
on a we t emery wbee l a nd uooue p ressure ill applied , the
h eat generated by the great friction between th .. toolaod
the emery wbeet causes the steel to become hot, and water
playing on the steel whilst in this heated co ndition ten ds to
prod uce cracking.
H a r d en ln ll and TemperlnQ. of Specially Funned
Tools.-With "1:ud to the hard e ning and tempering of
specially formed tools of bigh-epeed s teel, luch as wilting
and gear cut ten, taps . sc rewing dies, rearcers, lI.Dd othe r
tool, that d o pot permit of being g ro und to s hape after
hardening and where any mel ting o r fusing 01 the cu t ting
edges would be fatal, and must be p revented, the method eo
bardenlag is as fallows ;
A sp ec ia lly arranged muffie furnace heated e ithe r hy gas
or oil and consisting of two cham ben lin ed with fir eclay is
employed., the gas and air entering throu gh a series of
bu r n ers at the back of t he furnace and 110 u nder co n t ro l that
a tt:'w:r t:'ratu re up to 2,200 deg . F a b . may be stea d ily main
t .. inc in the lower chamber, whibt t he upper c ha mber is
kept at a much lower temperature.
The m ode of procednre is now as follow, : The c u tten are

lint pl aced u pon the top of the fu rnac e u ntil they are
warmed through , after which they are placed in t he upper
chambe r a nd thoroughl y a nd uniformly heated to a tem
perature o f abou t 1,500 deg. F ab., o r approaching. say, a
hright red-bea t, when they are transferred in the lo wer
c hamber and allowed to remain therein until the cutter
attains the same hea t as the furnace itself, vi:., about 2,200
dcg . Fab., and the cutting edges show a brigbt yellow bea t,
having an iI.:rpearance 01 a gla.zed or greasy surface. The
cutter ehcu! then be withdrawn whilst the edges are sharp
and uninjured, and revolv ed before an air hlast until the
red has passed away. and then ....hilst the cu tter isstill ..rarm
-that is jMSl permitting of its being bandfed-it should be
plu nged into a bath of tallow at about 200 deg. Fab. and the
tem perature o f the tal low bath then raised to abou t 520 de g
MIl,II- S P R R l> 1"W I,>I UI <! (. I-:> 231
Fa b ., 0& the attainmen t of wh ich the cutter sbou ld be im

me<lh.tdy ...ithdn...... llud plung".f in ""Irl "ii, or f' re ferably.
if the cutter ift. la rge one. aUo.... i t to cool with the ta llow to
normal temperature. \\"hffl blast is no t available sm all
cutten may ~ hardened by qu enching ill o il fro m )'0110'"
he;J. t.
There &rD. of ooc.... varin"s oth.. r ways o f temperi:'JR . a
good method being by means of a .pociaUy arranged gas
and-air stove into which the articles to be tempered are
placed, aDd the stove then heated up to a temperature o f
fro m 500 deg. Fah. to 600 deg. Fah., when the gaa ill shut
off and the furnace with its contents alio...wt to I lo.... l}" cool
down.
It is moet. im por.an t that the initial b.....ting of the article
to be hardened sb(lu ld be slo ...ly and thoroughly efff'Cted.
for um"'" the h ...ting be uniform the expanaton will be un
eq na l and the risk.8 of craelting and warpi uR greatly
inc reued.
HI ~h-Speed Twist Drills.

l '",ha ps 011.0 of t he mOlit usPfn l applk.atious of hillb-spet"d
steel is in th e ma nu.facture of twist d rill s. We he'd r 01 rec ord
cu tti ng speeds and traverses suc h a. fin . rlr iltft he ing pu t
thro ugh cast iron bl ocks 2in . thick at th o rate of l tlin. I?cr
minute. a nd l in . drills cu tting throug h cast iro n 3lin. th ic k
a t th "rate of l 2ia per min ute. b ut such spec(!s as th ese e re
practica lly unattainable under or dinary wl>rkluK ~"\> uditi" ".
Fo r in pr ac tice t here has to be taken into conaideratlon the
,'arying qUll.litie. o f the metals and the ch arac t er of t he
wm ll bei n~ d rilled , a nd also the ~ igidity and excellence o f
the machIne being used, and speeds that may prove
le;ui b:e i .. ono IIhop ca....ot bel .. n t ..rtSl;o M in a nother.
H i,gh.-sptled d riDs posseas great to~sion&llitreogth!lOthat
besidlll "!hning at higher periphery speeds, they a re
capable 01 standing salely a m uch coarser f eed tha.n the
ordinuy carbon steel drills. Fo r instance, where pre viousl y
" teee! of 100 revs. pe~ inch of travcno "'Da oonadered
correct for a. Jin. drill. now we find a safe feed ia 75 per inch.
or evftl 60. and in tests they have travelled at the rab- of 32
Here we see the importance of a wid e feed ran,!" with small
graduationa IK) that the feed used cao always be the 00.
_ h i" h ;. m .... t "ffident
232
H igb -flp ud d ri lls can be n m witb good r....ultll und...
great ly va ry io l( cutting speeds. lllI ins ta nced by the results
o f t esu given in the follo win g tabl,, ;
Tl"st of IIlllh- apeed Drill" under COnll h m t Condlt lnns.
_ _ _ (J. M . G led h ill.)
~'0
I 1\.1 0" ,,01 OnlJood
j
s
,,
.. 10'8 60 O"od
,,
j
II, 'S
&1"3
6 ~' O
18'S
32"!i
.....
..
10"11
10'8
10'S
10'S
10'S
ee
so
"so
28 K Ild 01
drill
brok.
U 2 iu, " ... t i rnn 631) 12B'O 811 18 400 Oood
"II\1A'
Non :.-497 ... volutions represe nt the ma xim um epeed of
machine.
Notes o n U l!iIe.- 'Nhere the wor k ill !luitabl. al ways u,..,
a moderate speed and heavy feed . Chip'" take teee po we r
to produce than powder.
I n ueiug lubricant eee you have a good stream
[)on ' t try fancy speeds, hut !I« you have fadliti"", for
aettiDIl the work rapidly .
A I in . diam . h oi.. drilled in mild ,teel at the ra te of
!t In . per min ute absorbs 10 borsepower
'"
C A R BI D E TIPP ED -roor.s
The original experiments with Tnncsten Carb:d e
d emonstnoteo:! v ery d early t bi.t this ma terial Wa,9 to
occupy AU im po rta.o.t place in the field of machining
m"t.;o13. E.uly d c:ydopmcut, oowever . ..h.eWfld t ha.t tlK
first ca.Tbides we re cf li ttle use in the machining o f any
type!l o f sltel. for rea.sons whie, ill that time...ere DOt
apparent. This li miti ng feature o f the early hard metals
repr eeen ted a eenoue handicap in the deve)opment o f the
"""of cacbid".tip~ too ls. bu t as a result of wo rld -wide
research the cauae o f failure of t h e oripnal tu og>nen
carbide to pe rform .tisfactoril)" OIl steel wu established.
bu t a complete and sat:isfac:ory expb.natioo of thO'
p hen omeno n ball neTeT been forthcoming .
It "'u obolorvod tbat t be.e early toni. fJliled by wha t i,
now known as .. c ra tering. " TlWJ p heno menon is due t o
p ressure o f the chip on t he u pper su rface of the tool.
Where the c hip impinges the surface is eroded. Tne
.. c ratering .. effect onl y OCCUn! when turDing steel, a nd
t he p roble m, therefore. d..e~ no t ari~ ll w ben turning
cas t- iron.
This cbaracteris tlc wa H event ually o verco me by thll
addition to the early hard metal s of one or more of t he
carbidea of t itanium, ta ntalum, niobium a nd mol yb,.:;enum.
These ..ddi tionn certainly l'rev PntP<1. th e formation of the
ch ip cav it y, a nd a.!I it. result s ue!!. complex carbi des wou ld,
nuder ce..t a.in conditions, wor k for p rolonged periods when
cu ttin g steel. T h ey wer e fou n d, ho wever, to be relati\'ely
brit tle compared .,..jth the uormal t Ull ~Il. carbkl".
previo u.!l y used, aDd for the mCCCl$5ful ma.ehi WDg of steel
with t he$O al lo ws oond ibons bad to be lI:u utI .. ;u. lin"
feed . a.lld high speDb.
The Brown-Firth Reeearc n Labcratcnee ha ve carried
ou t ex!u.ustive investigation ioto t.hU complex system of
earbid.... ..nd as a. resul t o f their wo rk impro ve men tll
ha.ve ~n incorporated in to their .. MITl A .. b rand b&rd
m etal , .hich now elfers a grade suitable lor almost ilDy
set of wud itio.... The latest addition to t he lil t i,
Grad.. "TA .S"· _roth may be wd to cornpletll t ho wnea.
'"
eARnl D lt l'IPI'KD TOOLS
This grade, whi le sho win g the greatest resistance to

.. crate rtng." has t he st reng t h a nd toughness to stand up
to the most nrduoua cond itions. In addition, t ool s o f this
g rad e will ta ke a t op rake, a nd heavy cu ts ca n then be
ta ken at b ig h s peed . Use d und er ideal co n di tio ns this
grade w ill p rove o f grea t va lue in t he rap id m achining of
heavy Iorgtnga, etc. It possesses, t oo, t his advantage
that it can be s uccessfully ulIf!d on machines and u nder
condit ions wh ere h igh s peed stee l normally wou ld have t o
be used, and with great ly incr ea sed t ool life.
lbe speeds an d foods reco mme nded for Gra de "TA.S··
vary con sid era bly, d ependi ng u po n t he quali ty of the
material bei ng c ut . F or low carbon steel the speed should
be 125{200 ft. pe r min ute, while t he feed way vary from
.(l14 ins. up to ·125 ins, per re v. Fo r steels having a
ten'li le o f 40/6 5 to ns the feed s used shou ld be from
·011) ins. to '100 ins. pe r rev . Steel!l of higber tensile
ha ve t o be treated mo re indi vid uall y. a nd in t hese cases
advice a nd assistance s hould be sought.
It shou ld be c1l"aJ'ly understood tha t in ln tr od ucmg the
new Gr ad e " TA.S: ' it is not suggested that it in any way
supersed es the btber grades o f carbides whicb Thos.
Firth a: Jobn B row n L td. man ufacture, bn t is a necessary
addition to t heir a lready wide range of cu tting a1lo)'ll.
It il of p>lr ticular value in dealing with t bole qumeroull
jobs whicb call Ja r a be tter too l material than hlgb speed
steel. but " 'here the normal grades oj carbide cannot. due
to the conditions, be applied. W here cond iti ons are
good t hen t he o ld established grades should be wed since
their su perior hardn.... and wear resistance will. in such
cases. allow ever greater speeds to be attained, with
lon ger pe ri od s be two:>o:n ~nding .
It i!. uooeful a t tbi!. atage to clusify the wbole range 0 1
the Firth-Bro wn Carbide Steel-c u ttin g grades in o rde r
that t he value o f each can he properly assessed. It
should be noted that t he grades are given in the or de r o f
toull:hnesa a nd ha rdnel!oll; the first grade is tbe toughest .
while t he las t grade i!. the bardellt ;
GRADII .. TA .S." A heavy-d uty grade for the rough
machining 01 steel under bad cond iti ons. To replace
high speed steel on machines .. here conditions cannot
materially be i mp ro ved. For machining at relatively low
sDeeds, heavy !ft<dl\ a Dd for Intermitten t cuttmt
C A RB I D E TIPPED TOOLS '35
GRAoa " TA .· A geu er..1 pw poM ~Ia.de /.or machining
aL"",l und er no rmal cond ;t i",, ~ o n machin es where
reasona bly good CO.ll.ditions an' main tained. W ill . bo w.
ever. satisfactorily rough machine forgio v . etc.• bllt ha~
not t he shoc k resista nce of Grade " T A.S" and will not
wit h.rtan j the abuse for which th.i9 latter vade (" T:\ .5",
is desilt'ned. Grade" TA." is partic ula rly su ita ble for the
machiniI:g of alloy at,eel bar and fOrgings.
GltAoa "TE. IO," A grade harder an d more ..ear
relistant than Grade " T A." . Fo r ro ugh machining und er
very good conditiOQ$, or finUh machi.D.i..llg wh ere (OU
ditio.... partu-nlonly machine ccnditicns, are no t as good
as they might be . Particularl)" useful 0 0 mild ,tee'" an d
10" alloy stee ls. This grade ha!I proved to be especially
effective for t he machinin g 01 shells 00 mod ern IlbeU
tnrning lathes.
GIIAO & .. TE," Fo r finigh mrn ine all da.Mell 01 s leel.
Cooditioos should be good and fin e feed s employed. It is
possible to use extremely high speeds with t his grade due
to ita extreme hardness and wear resie taece.
Th ese g radt'll an desi gned lor cuttin~ steel, and tht:
senes is compte red loy Grades " A." , D. " " C" anel
" D ,l .. designed lor ma chining cast- iro n. non -Ie rruue
meta ls, gla ss, potttle)', s yn t hetic eu batances, etc
238 HIGH -S PEED rw rs r V 1oI 1L L.!> .
l:J peeds lind Feeds for " A. -W ." H igh-speed l 'Wltt

Drills for Mild Steel ud Soft C&lIj Iron.
01..01.<>1
"'ill Roo... p.>'
Ifi n n l&.
F_ In In •.
R•• o\~~lon.
,.,
r. oJ I" I".,
Wl.. n••.
1400 '0072 10"1

1120 '0078 8'75
'"'
'0 0
'0083
'00 87
7"7 6
6"96
"0 '0091 e-sc
, eta
"0
'00116
'OO ~8
6"86
6"40
",
sse '0101 6'06
,65 '010' 4"7 <1
"I
US
<1 86
860
'0 107
'OI Hl .,.
H7
" '0112 4"08

sse
"sasa 1
1.
'"'61
'0114
'0 119
'0123
a-ss
,,.
H.I
" "" 288 '0 127 S'0 2
..
38 1. 216 '0 131 h3
U 11
'"
lao
'013!i
i H38
2"IHI
2'48
."
18 "
2"
2.
10.
'"
'"
i lt n
'01H
'0 146
2'S7
2"23
2'12
..""
01
70
21
2.
2.
2'
res
'u"s
12O
'OHi O
'015 2
"1)165
'01 67
2'03
1'94
I"S6
)'77
2' 107 '0 16 0 ) "71
13 21 102 '0163 t-ee
" • ae '016 6 ) "68
T he speed. p:!I'en a re tor mild sltd llnd sof t cast irtm-:

I<'or braBi the y ma.y be l ll cr ~""ed 100 per cent.
For catlt , r "", thll'Y Ill/oy be !m,reaBOO by 20 per eenr lor a ll
drillll ever f in diam ,
<.:UTTlNG lIf' II I1:U~, HIGIl - SI' H IlU TOOL S T F.II L S 2:i7
Wh en drilling slul maintain an e ffici e n t su p p ly of lubri

cation. wuen d rilling hard materialll o r d ee p hoi.,. red uce
speed and feed to sait.
Gri nd drl1.ll by machi nes. wet, if potMihle, ualn l/: gentle
preesu re : don' t force.
F or " Novo " high-speed d rills a cuttinj{ speed o f 70ft pe r
min. i. recommended. with feeds for d ril ls I in. a nd up
wards of 60 revs. per in. Cammell. Laird et Co. Ltd. give
the followinR; for their ,. 0 172" high-speed drills:-
CalIt iron SOto SOft. per min, ; 2li n. to 04iin. feed per min.
:\Iild steel 60 to 90ft. per min. ; 3in. to Slin. f eed per min.
For feedl and !!peed9 of" F irth', Speedicut .. twist drills.
see pagr 2.19.
Cutting Speeds for Use with Hiah.Speed

Tool Steels.
TurnlnA. -See tabl.,. and diegna ms on pap 22. et 226.
Drll1tnQ..- See table aD page 236 a nd diaRfam page 239 .
Ml8c.,IlRnfoOus 5peedll f rom Actual pracrtce.L-Tbe
sJl'f'oos indicated bejow are those of regular practice, but at
th e sa me time it may be stated that eYeDbe t ter resu lu than
t helle are po8lIihle, 0 11 small shafting cu t ti nl/: speed, of 200ft.
p et min . being attainable.
Turn lnll..- T he c utting Spl!I·,\9 for ro ugbfng-ou t lImaU
a nd mod erate ai~ 01sh afts vary from 60 to 8Ort. per m in.,
the feed s av era ging fro m hin. to ' in. , a ccording to t he
depth of c ut. In many cases a spe ed of RO to 120 ft . pf' r
min.• with hin. feed, may be used.
T urnin g pi ckled castings, 120 ft. pllr min.
Turn ing malleable iron, "0
ft . per mi n.
Hard cea t Iron rolls, SO ft . pe r m iu., li n. feed , /, in .
d ee p. RoU, abou t 20 in. diam. by 6Oin. lo ng. A tool will
t urn three or four rol ls without g rin d ing.
east lI ee l.-30 to 40 ft. per min , feed va ryi n Ra ccord ing
toent.
Mild 5t"I.- 90 ft., 1 in . feed, 'in.
deep.
Drillinlt.-4 in. depth per min. up to 11 in . d iam., cast
iro n. "'TOught iron, or cest steel.
Plantn g.-Ca.st -iro a and steel, 36 I t. per mi n.
Pla nlnA.- H .Hd usl-',,,,".-Cntting spPed 40 ft. 1 in.
f~,l in. cut.
Soft &4SI-j'OlI.-euttin~ speed 40 ft. , 1 in. feed, I in. c u t.
Ct» /-i 'OlI.-Speoed.34 ft. per min.; depth of cu t I to lin.;
feed, nino ; tool wt)rks 6 houn witbon t grindin ll".
238 C UTTING SPEEDS, H IOII - S Piitto TOOL STEE LS
Mlllln ll .-So/' e/UI.tf'01l, with cy lind rical c u tte r, 4tin .

d ia m . Cu t ti ng speed. 140 ft . per m in. Dep th o f cu t, 1\- in .
W idth o f cu t, 6 in . F eed, 31 in. pe r m in .
Ca d· in,.,. : W ith c y lind rical cu tter, 2t in . di am., 21 teeth,
ru n n in g a t 81 It. per mi n . Depth o f c u t, /r in . : width 21ill.
feed , ee in . per min. _ 0 · 195 pe r t u rn _ O-0093 per tooth.
\Vi tb same cu tter fin i$h in R cu t waa taken 155 turns per
min.w Ll l It. ; depth of cut, .'~ in. ; feed, 6' in. pe r min.
M~di .."" r/U,-i, Oft: With face-milling cutter 4' in. diam.,
cu t, A in. W id th of cut, 3 in. Feed 8'

with 14 Inserted teeth. cutti ng at 70 ·7 ft . per min. Depth of
in. per min.
Af6di..... r4.d-i,0fI: With face-mi llin g cutter 9 in. diam.,
, 12 in serted t eeth, cutting at 80 ft. per min. Depth of cut,
i io . Width of cu t , 6 in . Feed, 8 ~ in. per min.
M tdiuM r. sI-i,,,,,,: W ith the MIDe face cotter u th e
. hove, cutting a t 75·4 fL per min. tn-pth o f cut, 1 in .
Width, 5 in . F eed, 7·57 in. per m in .
M edi..m us, -if'Oft: With face- mill ing cu tte r 12 in . diam.,
with 16 insertvd teeth, cu ttin g 15 ft. pe r min . Depth of
cu t , A in. Wi dth, II in . F eed , 7 ·5 in . per min.
M ild slu l : With cy lind rical cu tter 21 in . diam., 2 1 tee th,
runni ng a t 72 ft . per min . Depth of cu t, It in . W idth 01
c ut, 3 in . Feed, 1 1 in . pe r min.
M ild slut: W it h cy lindrical c u t ter 3 in. di am., 10 t eeth,
runninK at 70 ft . pe r mi n. Depth of c ut, It in. Width,
11 in . Feed, 3 in. per mill .
Mild stllt l : W it h cy lind ri cal c u t ter, 3 in. diam ., run n in g
at 68 ft. per m in . D ep th of c u t, j in . W id t b, 4in . Feed ,
Sin . per min.
Gear Cu ttinlt.-5 pitch . Stocking cu tter, 3'io. d ia m .,
cuttin g cast-iron spur gear from soli d. Cutting speed, 15f t.
pe r min. ; feed , 14 in . per min.
At t he ti m e the observation was made 5 ,000 teeth, 21in.
l.mg, h ad been cut. The cu tter appeared to be in as geed
co n dition as after cutting the finlt 100 teeth (thirtee n a.[Oj
half bo urs, nearly).
$cf't1IlI M i Ui llG.-84 screws, 4in. long , lin. diam.• 4 p itch,
were cut at one setting; the finish of the last lIC fe W equal
to the first. and perfect fi t to gauge.
Speed of c utter 150ft per min. Feed 21in . per min.
Ch4er QptliuUi<nu I1j higll-spud sIul an of a varied and
ex te ns ive character. embracing many field s o f industry,
rangin g from macbining stale and marble. and to razors,
For lathe OI!ntres. steadies for high-speed turret IatMs,
circular lIaW!l, and cutters fo, wood-working macbinerv
bigb-epeed .teet hal been fo a nd to lut much lon&,,,,," thaD
on1inary .tMl
239
Speeda end Feed. for •• Firth'lI Speedlcut"
H1llh.apeed Twist Delila.
The accompanying diagr am gives t ho approxima te
apeeds and feeod.lIuitable fo r drilling mild steel wit h "Firths
Speedicut" Twist D rills. F or soft calIt iro n use the Mme
lee<! pe r mi n ute, but decrease the speed 20 per cent. The
dia gram show. that a I in. d rill sh ould run under the
following conditions:
Mild steel_Speed 280 ",VI pe r min. , feed 4J in. per mill .
.. feed.'
Feed. per revo lution -0174.
aa.,.,t I ron-Speed 224 revs. per min., in. pe r min
Feed per revolution -021.
,
,..
~
,~
:i 1100
'iluoo
S" 1lO(I
'1 \lOO II- i~
,.. . 1
-',§ TOO I'1=1+1-:01'"l.'.,.
- 1,.. s
~ - ~ .
~ &OO 1;'
.....
I .'>00 •
1·00
• ••
00
• I
r- ~
t i l l It It II I' l l If 111
Ola m.lef 01 drlll l"lneb".
.
If the material ill thin, as in the case o f a boIltor p late,
Doth Ieed and speed C&I:I be increased.
If the matf1"ial is ha rd decrease both the feed aod tho
speed.
_'I_ay' run WIth lub rica nt if possible, e xcept in the C3$l"
of ClL$t iron. II no lubricant is used, dClCn!Ue both feed
and 1Ipc.""d abou t 25 per ce nt.
Wh~ possible aIwap keep the feed pe r revolu tion the
same as given o n the chart for bo th steel a nd cast iron.
Never decrease t he feed below a minimu m o f, say, 3in.
..r min"t,. for .. 1 in . drill, the oth..n in til<,. proportion.
240 HI GIl - SI 'KKU TWI ST DRILLS
Heree- p ow er nnd gorces ecttng on Twlet Drills.
I n a paper by ;\1r. Dempster S mith and Mr. R. Poliakoff.
read bef ore the In stitution of Mech anical Engineers in
March, 19W, o n " Twist. Drill E xperimentll made at the
Man chester School of T ec h nolo gy.' t be authors found that
for conatant diameter d, a nd feed t, the horse power is
proportional to the cu tting speed : for cousta ut speed and
diameter the nor se-power d oee not increase so fast as tbe
feed , b ut v a ries as /0 ·7 : fo r consta nt speed a nd feed the
bo ne-po we r d oes not Increase 90 fast as the diameter, but
vari es u dO·S. The hone-po wer pe r cubic inch of m etal
removed is independ ent o f the speed a nd inver sel y pro
portional t o dO·2 ' 0'3. H ence a Iine feed gives greate r
cu tting pr essure than a coarse Ieed . The powe r requited
to drill a given ho le when OM drill only is used , is g rea te r
tban that required to drill the same ho le in t wo opera tio03
with drille o f different diameters. Th" Il:reater the differ,
eece In the drill d iameters , the greater th" saving in power
speed and feed remaining the aa me throughou t.
An id ea o f the great p reMu res let up in modem higb
speed drillin g will be evident from the following table
prepared b y lob . T . V V. Greene from the r",nl ts ob taind e
by Mr . Dem peter Smith in hisuperiments re ferred tc ebcve
Thi$ table is reproduced from a paper read by Mr. Greene
bef ore the Co ve ntry Eogineering Society.
Hor-ae-power and atre•• e. !Jet up by
I, . . . . - li.-. . -
Hll1b- apeed DrlIUnQ,- (T V Gun.)
---
~
-,
........ - it,.• -"
'< ••
..Ill. . ... ..
. . . . . . . . ,;
~\
_ _ ]h ...~ . 1 ill "" -.
I"' . t:!!
~.
~--
.
~- -
... ...... .........

- - -- -- --
~~
-
IU. I no "" S'li uoa u~ o
D"'f Hlt e-oe
'" .. ... .
.'I. l> •.• l~
C.I. r 911 , '11 1:!.xI f~ 111 O'SI
'" " ... .. .. '"•• "." ""

M' ~ 88 6'11 1100 lIS 7·S l'U'
n o. i'i
" ... ".. -

80 10'12 I MOO 140 S"'f 0' 411
..
. . ...." ..•"" ..."" """ .'""'"".. '" ,.. ".
"1 4 ~ , ~
M,'
n,
• .a
n,
'" r H'
1, 0 0"
,,~
~ w
o•
Il'S
a
ItH
tl H, ,,~
M,' o. 1":7 '000 , ~
, ;' 1 ~1)1 ~ 8' S O'U

M' IIi'» 700 j IHI ,~
C.I.-o...i 1.--. .'I .ll. _ K ll cl llteel

Th e reeds and speed'! given are quite within the limits of
abop practice a nd should be obtainable under ord ina ry
_ o rkinI' conditiollll. with p ro!>,",ca rf' T b.. f..llnwi n>! p<li .. t s
IIlGJl -SPIUtD ST .... L.~ 241
may be not iced lrom the table. Approximately the "",me
hOBe-po wer (6 h.p.) is req uired to remove 4 cub. ill . per
minu te in mild steel witb a I·in . drill a nd 13 eab. in, . pe r
minuu in cast-Iron with a 2-in. d rill. Abo the same borse
po wer (7' b.p.) will remove 5·4 cub. ins . pet minu te In mil d
, t"",1 with a 1 in. drill and 16 ·2 c ub. ins. pe r m inute In cast
iron ..·ith a 21-in . dIU!. Bo th torque and en d thru!lt for
mild steel is about 1·9 times that lor cas t- iro n. Ho l'9I':
po .... er lo r mild steel is abou t 2· 1 times that fo r cast iron,
Large d rill and coarse feed re mov es mos t meta l per nnll
horse -power. (See lllAt col u mn in tab le.]
Cuttlnll Speeds for Flnlshlnl1 Cutll._Result!l of t""ts
made at the Univ ers.lty of Sheffi eld b y Mr. Geo. W . Hurley,
and recorded by h im in a paper n-ad before tb e
Institu ti on of Mech a n ical E n ginee n in December, 19 19,
show that there is no practical c utting .peed bel ow which
it i.I impossible to obt&in a sa tisfactory s u rface on plain
urban steels by m~D!l of ordinary la the finishing tools,
whether made of the plain carbon, ordlnary (DOn-vanadiu m)
hijj: b.~, or superior (va nad iu m ) high-speed steels.
There is, however, a maximum limiting speed a t o r abo ve
whic h a satisfactory finish cannot be obtained on acconn t
of the tendency of the tool to piuck at a nd tear the eurfece.
For the finishing o f mild stee l, this limit is not very
different for eac h of the three varieties of tool s teel
referred to, a nd is within the ran ge of 48 ft . to 58 ft . pe r
minute. For the finWllng of hard steel this limit does
depend somewhat on the variety of tool steel wh ich is
IIlmployed , and is wi thin the range 01 23 ft . to 28 ft. for U'l)
plain carbo n steel. 17 ft . to 21 ft . for the ord inary (non
va nadium ) high-speed steel, a nd 28 ft . to 34 ft. per min. for
th e superior (vanadium) high -speed steel,
Rou lthinlt Tools .- Aeeo rd ina: to Mr. Ceo. W. Burley. iII
a papo:r fad before the I ns ti tu tio n of Mec hanical Eugineen.
the most suitable angle of .ide rak e, for maximum
d urabili ty and cutting power. for a hlgh~ lathe
rou ghin g tool wo rking on .tel!i depends o n the physical
properties of the steel. For mild .tee1 turning. it lies
be tween 20° and 25°, whilst for hard steel turning it Is of
the o rder o f 10 °. If these angles are either increased or
red uced there is always a de preciation o f c utting power ,
T he eff oet of raisi ng a rou ghing tool so that its cu tting
ed gl) is sli ghtly above the h orizontal p lane passing through
the la the ce ntres is (accord ing to Mr . Burley ) ge nera lly , to
increase the cut tin g power of the tool slightly and to
reduce its n et power consumption .lighUy, wh en compared
witb its normal position.
The increase in the cu tting po .. er o f a h l8h-spe~ rough
ing tool res u lting from the U$I! of a given stream o f _ ter
24 2 HIGH-SPIU<!> ,H RKLS
as a coo ling agent i.9 (Mr. Bu rley ~tate8) greater with small
CUG t han with heavier ones, indicating t hat, with heavier
cu ts, heavier flows of coolant should be u3ed" The veloc it y
of flow uf a s t rea m o f coolant d o"",, no t v ery materially
affec t th.. improvement in the cu t ting po wer of a tool due
to the I,l~ of the coolant, provided that the v elocity is not
s uch as to cause e xcessi v e splashing of the coolan t,
Oo mposj tfn e o f Hlil.h-s p e e d Tool St« ls.-A bulletin
on "Th.. Ma n ufac tu re and U se of Alloy Steel," prepared
by H. D . Hibbard, and issued by the 1; S. Burea u of Mines,
gives the foll owing information res pecti ng the compositio n
of high....ceed steela, The analyses given in t he table are
considered to be good commercial steels.
--- ANALYSE S O. H 1G1I-Sl"ItE D 5 nBLS .
.'
0_
.~
o~t
.... r .,
- - - --- - - -- ------
I~~·
crs .-m
O·S.
" , ..
.
O'I!
,
'
""
.-
...
,ro •••
". ,.,
,~
'" - ,\•--se' - -----
.,.,-., ... ..
"' I . ~.

- p.c,
I S' ~J
...
.~
O'G'
~
1-;0
.., ""'"'
' fi ,- ~ ,-~ ,~ ~ ,~
.-~
'"' I .ro
. ~ 0·11 0·17 S'U I f'si -
OM O' tl O'lf O'OS 'M ,~
6'&1
0-75
,0 -"'28 e-ss
O·Sf
0 -02
-
,-"
t' 10
IIl'Qrj
19'00
0'10
0'76

0 '6 1 0'2 5 C-35 0• • - t '10 17 ' ~ O --
0'72
0'71
0' ~ 1
0'16
0· 18
C-21
0 '\)3
0'0 2
0'0'2
0 '02 I 4'bO
t'06
18 'SO
l8'rit
' 00
"50
l' SS -
0'07
o·e t
O'M
0'16
O'2~
0' ~0
O'~O
0'2P
0'2 0
0'02
0·02
0'02
"" I ••
0 '02
0'01
t'~7
l'OS
I S' ~~
10'10
\1'71
I'CH
o'st
1'22
-
-
0 '71 o'a O'2e 0-. o·o~ "07 I S'11 0'Y7 -
Cal'bon,_T he proportion of carbon aim<>d at in lngh-apeed
tool steels i~ aoout 0 65 per cent.
T ....gs" ...- The best prooortion of tunKSten lies between
16 s nrl 20 pe r cent.
Chro-mium. -Chromium acu B-3 a na ro ee er , en t erin g into
t be d ouble carbide of tungsten and chromiu m whi ch gives
the p ro per cutting edge. The proportion of t h is element
present in hi gh -sp eed steels varies con siderably , and is
us ua lly never less tba n 2 per cent or more t han 9 per cent.
Molybdno ......-The use of mo lybd enum in h;gb--speed
tool steels is being generally discontinued. The effec t of
mo lybdenum i.9 similar to that of tungs teu , b ut is wore
intense in that 1 per cent molybdenum i.9 c u rren tly co n
sidered to give a bout the same or greater hardeni n g e ffec t
thsn 2 per cent o f tungsten. It g i~ • fin e c uttin g ed ge.
Valladiwm,_Vanadillw is used for high-speed tool steel
in varying amounts. most makers u.siog at least 0·5 pe r
cent. although some run the vanadinm content up to Ii or
I f percent. or even mere, considering that such an addition
increa.8'tS in an important degree the value of the steel fo r
BIGH·SPEED STEa LS 243
tool". T ho effect ot vana di um i" considered to resem ble in
so me ways th at 01 chromium in increasing the hardness or
red-hardn ess of the cutting edge.
Cobalt.-Some exc ellent hig h -speed steels, containing, in
ad dition to the u su al ingr edien ts. a bout four per cent of
cobalt, h a ve been obUlined. Th e valuable effect 01cobalt is
clai med to be that it inc reases the red-hard ness of hi gh
spe ed tool steel, enabli ng the steel t o cut at a higher speed.
Copper.- Copper bas been considered to be highly in
juriou s in higb -spe ed tool steel , even as little a.q 0·5 per
ce n t being lnedmtssable ; a n d it is thou gh t to be particularly
harmful il much sulphur is prescn t in the steel; abo the
high er the carbon content the more harmful is the copper.
Sulp hur Q7Id P hosp hOf"us.- Sulphur and phosphorus,
which are so del et ..rlou s in simple tool steels, are considered
to be somewhat less so in high -speed st eels , in which the
effect is modified b y the large quan itities of other ingre
dients. Some commercial b ra n ds o f high -speed steels have
as much as 0·0 5 per cent 01 each o f these impu riti es. to
wh ich n o in ferior q uality is a ttributable.
Oompcsttfon a n d H e at Treatment of Chisel~.-After
consi d erable u p eriment in the sh ops of the Midland Rail _
way, steel fo r chisels used for metal c utting is, according to
Mr . Henry Fowler, the ch ief mechanical engi neer (Proc.
I ns t . ~f. E., 1916), obtained to the followin g spec:ifications-
Ca r bon 0·75 per ce nt to 0 ·85 per cent, the other constituents
being normal. This gives a co mp lete analysis as foUows :
Carbon, 0·75--0·85 per cen t : manganese 0·30 per cent;
silic on , 0·1 0 p er cent; sulph ur, 0,025 pe r cent ; phosphorus,
0 -Q25 per cent. The chisels are carefully heated in a
gas·fired fuma.ce to a temperature of fro m 730 d eg . to 740
d eg. C. (1,346 deg. to 1,364 deg. Fah .) ac co rding to section.
Up on attain ing t his tem pera ture they are quenched to a
depth of i in. to -l in. (rom the point in water. and then the
whole chisel is immersed and cooled off in a tank containing
lin seed oil. This oil tank is cooled b y be ing immersed in a
cold-water tank, throu!l"h which water is COD5tantly ctrc u,
Iated. Alter th is treatment the chisels have a dead hard
poin t a nd a to ugh or sorbitic sh a ft . They are then t empered
Or t h e point "let down .'· This is done by immersing them
in another oil b111h whic h h as bee n rai sed to about 215 d eg
C. (4 19 deg. Fah.j, The firs t resu lt is, 01cou rse , to drop the
temperature of the oil, which is gradually raised to its
initial point. O n approaching this temperature the chisels
are taken ou t a bo u t eve ry 2 deg. C. rise and tested with a
file, an d a t a po int be tw een 2 15 deg. C. and 220 deg. C.
(42R dell; Fab)_ it is found th at th e desired temper luis been
244
rcacht d. tJ:io ch~elll are then re moYed, d caoed 1ft ''''1' du_' ,
and allowed to cOQI in an iron tray .
Dcillin~ a nd Borin g Metal.
The Flat Drill.- 'Ihe ordin ary ftat d rill 18 a Ill! llfll l tool
tor roujI;h work or fo r ca...t !ro n , bt-e&uee It NlD be ea.,oIly made
and tem pered, hut It hlllI the drawback of drilllnp; hoi.... that
a re n...l the r round nor llt rtUll:ht. a nd whoooedl"m"ter seems to
boeo.r no re la tion to t he diameter of the drill. The cotti ng
edl':'t"'l have n o n.ke to Id ve them a t rue Curlinl!: ecuon, but
h"ve Df'oItl'th'e m l;:e which C3U._ them to screpe mthlll than
cu t. The ehtps ere coIl.'<e>quently n m"h broken Up. and ~t
proAAu re U!. requIred to fome the drill to itll work. TheM
circumlltAnOO!ll prevent it from cutrtne with much speed and
occasion oollRldera.ble lOS!! of po w er , If the two ed~ of the
drill be bo t b ~und at e xa ctl y the l'lIme anjl:le to t he llIm.
bnt the point w h&'ll the,. mee t"be DellI'ef one lltde of the 101M",
titan the oche r, 80 that one cuttinp; OOWO Is
!oDjl;er than t he othl'r. lUl ~llown In Yip;. 1, the
d rill wtll be guid ed lj(lll'l y b,. Ita poi n t , s u d
tbe radiU3 A wi ll ret{Ulate the d iamet(-r of
the drilled hoi... a nd not the d iameter Ii.
Advsnt3.ll:e is takl' D of thls fl'lltlll'e in some
Apecial e&se8, such lUI where " lon jl; h ole roe
qulrea to be 90 drilled t1ULt In th " central
porti on of its Jenl/:th It Is IlLrl/:er than at the
I' m . 1. two end w, Thi" appH A!< mo re pI.rtlcu]arly to
drHlln p;In the lathe. The hole Is l1.I'>It drllh 'd the proper Illze
tor the requlred ,H"tnnce, and then the unHymmetrlCll.I drill
r.~ pa M Hoo Into the hoI" and cut" out the required a mou nt.
A reMt sU'MI"1l the drill naa r to the work.
Twist Drills.-For rapin and 11:0001 ,",ork, t"la t drtne
are now almost univerMlly adopted. Th e " landH" ot tne
drlll present n c)"lindrlcal euerece to bear " !l:aln"t the Mldes
of the hol e , ~ nd I f t h" drill is I/:Uld ed by '" IUlrd ened bu!lh, at
the point where It eoteee the me tal, th e hole will be RCCU·
rately loca ted , and will be quite true Rnd lItra i/l:h t. To
reduce the friction In t he hol e the h.nd B of the d ri ll are true
to Illro on a TUln'OW portioD 001,.. the rema in lnp; portion
belnp; s lip;h t ly below th e size. T he spiral p;rooV6!I r rovide
ample rake. ",hi"h C>1UBfl9 tbe ch l pll to curl Instend 0 being
pulverlll6d, t hIDI 1_ po wer is requIred t ha u with Oat dril1ll,
and eu ttln!l: pr'ON'll'ds a t a hijl:her speed.
Grinding Twist Drills.":"'lt is eseenuet, It good work 1/1
to be obtafned a nd bl'f'ftk/l.;.nlll a. oided . the d rllls /lhoul d be
properly s hn.rpooed by means ot a fluitahle jtrindinp: mac hi ne.
It Is n ot po!¥'lble to .uind t h em Mt lAfa ctor ily by han d. In
)l:Tiodln ,ll.', t he foll owi n jl." points require to be carefull y
wat~hed : (1\ Both llps BhonJd be exactly the !'ollme len~h.
(2) Bot.h li pllllhould h a ve the ....me cleN'llDce aDI/;Ie. (3\ Both
lipe ehonld be eq ually in clined to the asia of the drill.
While grlndln p;. ca re should alwaY3 be eserclBed. to aroid
undue h l!\llt ln p; of the d ri ll lip6. I n the majorlty ot machines,
'01' th...... lr .. " , 'lOnvl'!nl"n ..... _ dry 1lllIl" f ... h<'o!l l. '"llolOTf'<!.
TWI ST DRILL S ,<5
It ... of IIOl t ~ .ad .., a nd ruWl a t .. mooera t., n ~ . 110 tl'al
w ith caee it u.qu lte IIlltiH lacto ry for t he ~lIlall..r drl ll.... All
t he la rKer IIlaell require the removal of lu uc h mo r e me tal ,
t here Ia Ill'\'ftte r danger of their tem per beln !\, l mpulred.
Another Important m atter in jl,'r! ndlnfl: III thl n n lnp; t he
poin t. \ \-'lth IImall eteee It is Of little ro nllt'qu en ce, all th"
centre web Is of little t h lckne8ll, but wi th 1aJl(e on ec It III "
"'etT dilTefPnt thlnl!:. !'pecial machi nes are to I"" had fo r t h lll
pttrpolK' alone. but all that 18 n~ry eau be d oOll hy hand
On a lIUlAlI e mery wheel, care beinll: taken thnt an equal
awoun t I" ltl'Oond teem t'ftch side to avoid thro wln l{ the
poin t ont or eeutre, \Then the operation III propl"rly per
formed , the effective eutttug len¢,b of the II~ Illl nrTtlfUled.
the ""'ilttaUl'e at the centre ill /(tWotly d.imtubehed, and the
drill requlrea I"", power to drive. The tc ree requ ired to
JlUAh the rentn.l part of a tw let drlll into caAt lron I" clearly
shown In t he acrornJll'.!'.ytnll: table.
~r lil... l",wa Pre-l'n> <Ill
'" OnD ,,, _ OrtJI _b.l"PN.u..
"' ....'mum
Drllllnll: Ori D ..LoU. 11r1Ulll&: wtth
FuIl I.J"'met-or oj llrUL
IDcb_ C.C'C.C~C~
:::. :
j 400 IbL esc.roc lbe.
' 900 lb&. 800-900 lbe.
I 1,1001be. 80Ml00 lb..
I 1,450 1be.. 1,000-1,15011>0.
__Ij 1.800 1be. 1 , 000_1 , lMI ~
NOTK.-AI"ayM re lleve l eed Immtldh,t..,ly the l,o int ot t h e
d rill p ro t,r ude Mtl1rou l{h the etoek d rlll ... d. A t, t lIl.l lllon llm l
th e drill OlIlC h t to 8l1a"'e IIIClLt1y on ly , ot.her wlllll t he IIpM ,lIiel
cllu lI:h t. ln tlo.. fallh ot the hoi " a nd t b e drill rllJ'l op<l n In t h e
ce nlre.
Mr . C. M . Bl lQl;er , III Th e I ron A ye IIta t"" thllt when
ahalpt'n lnll:, c1..arance s ho uld a lw a ys \..t; tak eD In to con
srd ere t ton . T h e anp:l e of l:r a t t he perl phll1'y bu been
proved to be the best for the m!\Jorlty of work:, a nd the
anK le of tlle cuttlnK edlCe, &l'I "how n In 1" 111:. 2, s hou ld be
/.)0;10 ~ ~
~~ t:7\) ., ' I
"
-'
..
' \1Y'
(
I . ,. ~
IllIr " 'ith t he dead eeuee line 11 and DOt 1_ t han 1~0
The e uttloJt edge A and A ', .... Indkaloo In Fill:. 3, mDJIt be
of t he ....me anll:le and line w it h ",latkln to the centre 0 1
the drilL For pnenJ ork W I. ~pted lUI t",iug all
.. ...rl", ~ UllOM1ht .
'46 TWI ST OIULLS
Speeds of Twist Drills (Carbon Steel)

(!t1omm C0l1l'AN Y.1
~"'_ !~I~ri.~I:i~~ I fr~~~~1

.,
,
~(IOn.
ll ll~
:1056
20;16
~l~ :~_I ~
3056
1529
1018
24H tHO I 183~
122'2
8 1S
1070
714
Ill '
611
.."
-(1112-·005
·U04
, 1528
1222
1018
764
61 1
:\.00
611
489
408
535
428
357
~5S
367
306
·005
·005
-coa
•,. 874 U7
:l~2
349
eoe
306
2~!I
262 ."",
764 229 ·00'
679 340 272 23 11 204 -oos
6 12 31)6 '24';; 2 14 184 ·00'
iI 555 l!n '22'2 194 167 ·00\)
S08 '254 20;1 178 15.1 -010
• 47 4
4;1/1
237
219
190
17 5
166
153
U2
131
·010
·0 111
• ~0 7
;/112
359
204
191
HIO
163
153
144
142
134
126
122
115
108
-Oll'1
·0 11
.un
-] V. 340 110 1:J.l1 J ill 102 ·01'2
, I. 322 161 12>1 \ 13 910 -012
' v. 306
29 1
153
U6
123
J 1&
107
102
91
81
·01.'1
·013
' , "' I
VB 139 III !7 83 ' ·0 14
265 133 106 9'2 79 ·0 1"
,, '" 254 127 )1)'2 119 76 .ors
'II
' Ii
I ~.
l:y"
2H
234
;: 11:
226
122
1 17
1 13
97
94
90
:~
85
Il2
79
~~
73
10
67
~
."
-015
-015
."
,, ,PI, 20 4
197
102
98
81
78
71
69
6.
59
·01"
,0 1"
19 1 ll5 76 66 57 ,0 15
- - - , - _.
TW IS T DIl{ drill. ccnst r uct them wlt.h a tlure havlDlI: ILn
lnel"e&~ twl~t from the ~h"Dk u p to the poin t. Il1lser tinll
that thl.. varylnl'\' twl~t tm peovee the l'nldeocy 0 1 t he dr lll.
nrtu..h wal<e" u.u"lIy eouatruct th"m with" l'eJi(ular t whlt .
In the former the eutttng anjl;le ~"'e>llllore ohtulI8l1.ll the
drlll wean down; In the mtt.. r It r..lllalnll con..tlult. Twill t
drilllllU"e nlAde ItfII.llually thlcl<u 10 the web from the po in t
to the .h.. nl<. to render them IItronl( to re'lillt to l'fllonal
lIt.-. and"'" thbl I. l;lnfavourahll' to ddlvery o f chlpllo.
the Inc~ twl~t I" used to o .....recuie thlll objection.
With n';Ulrd to the conxu.nt IInll:le drill", till...-ould be t l'e
~t form II "n n"~l&1JI and alIoy& .I'·lllAod...:l a ro nlll&nt
cottlnlt lUlll:le. hut all tllef do Dot, ,,11,1 II.ll the "I~ration of
"nll:le 10 the incl'$I.&f'd t ... ",t drill~ I. only about lOd~. In
the lenl'\'th\ the IIUppo8f!d adO'antap:.. of th.. colUltant a nltle
apr-n UI >6 on~rn.t...:l.
Th .. "nKle In..ludlld berw....n the cuUloj( ...:l1\'ef1 of the drills
n.n~ from 11),1 d ..p;. to 120 d~ The :\Ionoe drill" "",, made
to an ""l(le of l UI dell.• and thi" la the mOBtecrnmcn, W he n
drills "re jI;round to lhe angle for whk h th..y ano d eJfdp;ned,
their ('uttllli!: N1ges are approdmately lIt.ra4tht ll llllrl. W hell
ot,hl'r 11.111(1... are adoptt'd t he Iipllo h",oonJe cu rved, a nd, by
t1,..lr hookh'i!: action. tend to proolul'e lrrt\l{u h. rlty In the
holt".
Twillt drlllll Ullually hAve a very ~Ilp;ht
...m ou nt o f taper III
tbel r 1t< I1 Kt h\ I>l'ln Ot Ilmallllflt nearest tue ehan k.
T he ohjoot
III to gtvc e ""rlLnOl w hen In " 11011'. lLnd lhe tIl fll,r III abou t
1m in. l)(Or flo
'nu, f''I'I1 of twl,,! dr lll s req ulroll to h" rJlrt,f u l1y propor.
uo ucd , 116<~1.l11l(l an unsuitable mt.e 01 feo,l III" Irt,que nt "aU lIl'
of hrllllk"Jl". "q will htl !lOOn by a llttl" OOILIII,],'rut.IOIL Willm
a drill I" Itl,l tOO llIJlt. the reeuu III to la k o .. oAeper d,lp,
a nd the torlllenAi strt!Hl'l re t h er~h y inrJ'eNl('(\.. ~hou l d t.he
stmln be ...' ... -re, the d rill will Llmd to un t wlll!,. aud will
momoolarllylUCl'eAI'Olln diameter. It ...111 t l"' n hind 00 the
IIld\'lll of the hole. and either b~k olf IIhor t. ectn up the
centre, or t,.l"t the tanll: olf t he ta JNlr IlhAnk. Ano t her
nlI\>KIn III th"t lUI IlO<JO "" tbe feed t ra\',,1'fI(\ \" set In motioD
the drill lip" COlllIlIt\U.-e to reeee a IlpiraJ. It IJI more or 1_
Ilt;o,eP. IU'Mrdlnp: to the propor t ion het"6I'n t he ro tary " ad
dnwnward mo ..elllentll, and, o"O'lou.uy. If the rellet or
elearam'lll 01 tll" ..uttllll( edgl'flill nolln eJ:ClllIIII ot the aplJ'll.I
'l.O df!l!lCrllM!d. tller. cannot cle<Ll' th ..m ....h-. " "d ...-t11 JIlm b
and break 'he onll.
S.Lipped Drill-All eet ..rred to "ho..... ll:rnt fl r _ Ure II>
eJ:erte<1 in torel"Ot the central portion of " drill thl"Oullh the
holl'. What b fouod to be a ,Il;OOd pbm I" to IlN ordl ll&l'J
drillll up to 1 Ill. or 1~ Ill. diamete r, ...no th ..n folio ... with a
tDoJ .hkh TMIlrubll'lll the outer portion 01 th. twblt d ri ll. MO
""
w .... II..... "nh,,,, action III C(lIl,,,,",ed, btU liN
~hreo or ,uor"
nl.ttil1~ edgee. lUld I~ wore ~melent BIt a en tUniC tool. Ih
centre te p le n t y thick enoulo(h for great !OlfellJ(th. llolQtl
abo'fll ilin. db,meter ca n be d rHled t,,"tl! f by t he UI\ll or Il
~ u h. r drill rollowl"d hy th l.. d r ill, and hot h of tberu pu shed
to tbe limit of their ('Apao:lly, th&1l is po""lbl" wh,~re the Cu ll
diaUll"t...r ill d rilled from til .. eoltd at .. Illnl':le 0Pt'ra,Uon.
Such .. drill iA found Yeryu..e(ul for drlllinJ;:' out eored ho l_.
for which PUrpo!le a t-llpped drill aho'lllot never be ueed,
Oil T wis t D rills . - These are drtlll!. lu,vl oll: l ubet! let
Into the lan,l.. of t he d rms, or el"" havl nR holell r ljl;bl
t hro ul/:h t h o IIDlid ",,,ta l. The 11116 of a ll rlrill" "'".. know n to
t he a ucient.., hut w ry little 11116 WlUO IlUI.<h., or tilll! knowle<1ll:11
in .. pnLcL,eaJ w.y till the advent of the hl..yde and of
m&<"hln.." tor produd"r t~ In quanUU.... Thilirobjed I.
to pro'"lde • Illl!an~ o lubricallon directly at t he ..uttiuM:
ed~ of tbe d rlll, ...hkh bJ ordinarily a d~lt maH-e r In
d ee p bolell owing to aco:umulatlon of ('hlpa. Two ~
Mr",unfl of 011 or oth.... Illbrll:lll.nt un be fon:<>d under any
pr l'Mure dealred to th" point of the d ri ll, n o m a tte r how
deep tho h oi" whleh Ifl 1,..lnjl; drilled, a nd oonlMlqu <'ll tl y
il: ee Jlin jl;th<:'l ..uttlnjol ..dgcw eool,,,,,} 10relujI; out the c h lpll.
To Break up the Chipa.-Th .. polntfl ot drillll ......

OOOIl,,~tlm<!'fl lormed with IItepe 11llI~ of atraljl;bt Un"",
Th""" hfflll" up th.. chip", .. nd 1. ,",Ut" t.. thei r removal by
th" 011.
Cut t in g Speeds tor T wist D rills.-T h" apeede 01

d r llll ll jl; vlI.r y ronsld'!l'Il.bly; no hard and I.... t rulee a re
pofU<ihl... T hfl lo llow in p: table 1P. :t.:t~l jl;iv~ the cntttn j!"
llrM'e d .. and flMd.. for ordinary "·(ll'k moomm.mded oy the
Mol'lOtl Co. for Ulle .. ·It h carbon «teet drill ...
Sensitive Drllls.-ln d rUli""," ..mall holO'8 '&l\glnM" from

~ In. to i in . In dllLlIIetl'r, oottct end lalll"r wo rk call
h" d" l1 1'1 I,y drl vin M" tho dril1~ at a .."rr hi.ll:h ..peod a n d
taki uK It lJp:ht cut I hlll) oy drhlulj: at speed. propor tional
10 thO'Ol' u " " d ... It h 1 1I 1'jl; ~ r ..b ..d drIll... This h... led to the
"J:tellllll.. e adoption ef hlfl:b.,.~ drillll for "wall hole., a nd
thE! better "'"ldt ootaln<Ml1.8 due to th" lad tbat .. ith .ltr,:ht
l e.....t t here III 1"l1.li preseure on tbe point of the< drill. a nd
he nce a be ttfl r ebanee of the ~lill:nm"nt being pre&!"ed.
U nd "r tbe Inrluenee of end y re88ure the drill Ie loaded lit...
'" pill ar, a u d pillar '" of ~m:l.1 dlam"t",r are r e lll. t lvel y much
wea ker than thn 8e of la rl!;lIr dh.m"t"r, MI t hat amall lUiIll y d..ilooted . Un tlu' other hend, hl/Ch.,r
periphQu l lIJN'Cdl I'.&n be adopte<l ,vlth 8meU drillll ... t he ,
,
rWIST D R l l. l.li 24"
8veOOM 0 1 Tw111t Drills (Car bon at.een.
[)t ORS. C OKUIlT .]
- - .- -, .-
-~ --
-- 1-
~n.
--~ ~~~-~
"-<
'-'
;r:~ !,::;" ~
"'''- ,~- <&.
". n. ••
..., --
• • ••
. _~
- ,- 1= IrE! .
.....
-
,. 1m. ~
'1 12 = • ~"
oOOZ ·""""
\00 1 .12
1IOSOl ~Ul
,m
•, - ~ ».
,.,
Z2.~ ~.
• »Y '" .n
- .m
I ~~ ~
un
• , ... ......
••
1=
-
»>
..
,~. r.. ,~ ~.
-..'"
". '"
'"SH m
- ,
~; 101ft lIU
- .. - -......
n.. y,
'""' 'K ."
~,
• •• on .
,~
0' m
, ••
~
'"
~,
~ ~
•, •• '"
...
IIID
10 1 ~
.n
••
no
~ '" ~
~, ~
. .
S21 ~
'" ..,
" ". ., •• 'K '"n, :04 '" .n
-
:~1
• , ... ». ... ,r.

~
,n
.. '" •• •• ,. 1~
'" '"'"
no no
... ...".
lU
."
."
.. -"'".
-, ". ••
" m COO l
."
'n
." '" ,.
- '"
•••
m
'"
...'"
JS'
~, lH
m
rn
17S
'"
,~
,~
11.\... ...
."
. '. ,.,.. ,.'"'"
I\, ~
, ••• m I~
~. 1~ no w. '» '" ."

."
'" ", ,.
,.
......"...
n.
OM
'" ."
1~ ; 'M
'" ,.
'" n,
,n
".
m
" '"
"" •• •• ,.'us" ,n
. , - ..,
"
"
•»
- .....
w. n. ,Y
, '"
", '"
~, '"n, ,n
'"
I n'n, n, ......
--_~ '»
"" I I '"
pre-en t. 1I1l:1"eILl .. r lIurfat'fl for tl,,,, aht<orptlon of heat In pro
l.:Inl nn -to t h" am ou nt of m e tal ",lIlo.. Ni. 110.. IIl1r(ace or ..
<,yli ndrr h.-[nl( propon ion al to ItSi .-l i.ruN .... while I t II ron
UO uU lit e I.ro!'onio".. l to th e ..quare 0 1 rue d iam et er.
Comparlni/: t1,e i -In. lind , _1 0. d rill. Ic r exampl... In I b ~ • • Y.
th .. H n.rl r. lIl'........ntJI h.. lf .... mu "h . uri_fur ahlonr hhll[ or
25{) Decimal "lIuIYIII.. nt ~ 01 t'~r.. Uel S bank Short 8 e r lCls
'" "Jn b boer ")
S,.... . ""'
Whe Dnd L.... t .. r Twfs t Drtlls••
SIZE. S,.".
Sb~ l't o... ci=1 S hOlt .D ecima l Short Decim
wee. R'l u lva. Wire. Equ h· a· IL e tter . IE q " i v
" "' (>r
' Jobb e~ I _ _ _ 1 lent .
--- --- -- - - - --
'Jnbber' lent.
,.sa ---
---
' J ob ber '
0' 0 13 5
le" t .
o-tno c i 0 -242
""-nza o.nso
0'0 145
0· 0 1lJ{) (I'll SO
•
D
E
(J ·2~6
0-250
'"ss a " 0 '0180
0 -02UO
m .tn . - 0 '11 3 1 G·5m.",. -<, 0·255
'" 0·0 2 10
• "-so Q' 120,1
0 -1250
II -H
G
0257
U·261
""n 0'0225
0 '0 240 es
0-12 3 ';
0-130;\11
0'265
0·266
0 ·0~50 3'5m.rn. -aa 0-1378
, -<I
0' 272
..
0 ·](05
"es" 0' 026 0
-
tn _tn . 0·275
'" ,
0·0260 U'14Oll 0' 277
o-rJ2~2 0 'l4~0 K 1)·231
0·0310 ""as 0'14;0 -i . 0 ' 23 1
(1·2&0
M"es 0'03 20
U 0330
00350 "-as
0·Wl5
0' 1520
(1'1540 7 ·5m .rn .
M
o.esa
0'~~5
(1·295
"ea"' 0'0360
U'03 70
0'0380 •
• "-
m.m.
Q-l 56 3
0 ·1570
(1'1 57 5
,•
lj -M (1-302
-- (1'315
0-:112
,
, nUll.
at
-eu 0 ' 0 3 ~(I
0'039~
(1,0<100 "ao.s 0'1590
(1'1 0 0
m.lD.
D 0·81
•,,
P 0·32.~
-"
0'1 660
ss II -
.",,,,
0 -041<1 tl· t !W5 0·:128
ss 0·0420 II (1-1719 Q
(1'0-430 -
• "
se
-ss
([-().I SS
0 '04 69 4·5lll. "' . -""
(1'1750
0'1770
0 ·1712
8 ·Sm.tn.
H
R
-
0· 33 .
n ass,
0·313
,
" 0 ·0520
0 ' 05 ~ 0
is (1'1300
Q-162f1 e "'.m.
s
0'343
-"sa -"
0'35.
I·~.tn .m c.cssr rs T 0 ,3.58
I< -
(1'0 59 5
0· 0025 • ra
0-1 850
0 ' 181~
(H 890
iI -
U
0 ·359
,,
0 '3 ~
.
0-(16.35 n (1·19 10 (I'31 ~
51"so 0·0010 ru tH O~5
3·5m.m.
i -V (1'315
,
u-ses,
0 -0100 s 0-1960 0-371
"-" 0· 073 U
0' 0760
s m.rn. -e
,
0'1069
0·1990 iItIl,m. -
W
0 ·390,
-X
" ro
0· 0 7 ~1 0 '2010 O'3~S
, U -e
-"
0 '0 785 02031 0<397
m.tll. 0·0787 0·2U40 Y 0 '404
" 0 ' 08 10
,s 0'2055 H -z 0 '400
"""
0· 0820 0'2U90 0 ·413
0 '0860 e 0 '21 30 l O·5m.m. - 0'413
0-08 90 5·5m.m. -
-,
U'2165
IIm .m. - U·421
-" "
0 '0935 0'2188 n 0·433
--
0 -0983
"
0· 2210 0 '43,
-"'"
oceeo
0 -0980
---- --- ---
< (1·2230
"
11 ·5m.m.
iI
0·452
0·453
25mm. {l-{)'M 4
-
" u"
sa 0·0 99 5 LeLle r . 0'468
aa 0'101 5 --- nt.lIl . 0 ·412
~j! ml ~
(1·104 0 -
-"as
0· 25 40 0'484
36 0'1005 0·2 844 12·3m,rn . 0·492
~ 0 ·1094
(1.1100
0'2362
0·2380
I
rs m. m .
- 0-500
U·511
• Reproduced b y Ion fro m Report No. 328 01 tb e British Stand ~

lIUltitll lion, 28, ~ Stuel, London, S .W.I . to .. bleb nwien or
..jerred for InD dotolled info rmntioo.
.... H ...... ~ "'" ... " .
\\U011 ~C H EW S .
,".,
~.
G ."~.
D,.
S~.n k
". U"II '" ,
~W
IJ"U
.."
""so
.~ ~ ~
." . ~,
~
-
~,
- ." ,."""
-cec ~" ~
",, .",
'010
....
-oea ~,
-
~.
.~ 1·5 ... ...
•• .~ ,
.,~
' 100>
·'' 13ol
M
"
ae
"
."
,••
·,n
. ,~
rsc
' 149
-ree ..
~
"
°110
. us
~
"I
••
·' M .,~ ~
"••,
,~
-\18 -rse ' 141 ~

n
""
,~
,~
=
·2 , 3
.~
c,
·151
·\11
. ,~
",..
" .~.
'2 01
·251
.= , 'UH "",
"""
.. ·'2M'
·2 48
~,
.=
.= C
.,,, •,
,3
ao
.." '218
.esc
.",
' B:lJ
.esc
·818
N
0 ·U ' •
..
U
~.
"" '418
'U 4
au '473
ea -e~
ee -s~
'8l 2
"
11_20. 8 _ 20.
"n~leol ..k " _ 90~. H _I O.
r .... ",.. ,III 01 • o;ouotuwok ocn_ 01 """"1."00' . ,11. ........ _d
,. muou.-.d Ito... ,be lop 01 , II< COCD nlc.
n.. "",«'II of • "",nd IIe&d 0<n'I0" ;. red ,..- - II." 11<>" .
F_ ' e. _ w" _ it>deb l<ld to :If G.-C. K""" • )&.... "" ....... , O>l , w .......·
_ . - ....... - bo .... > M~ ' , .bl.
252 MORSE rAPER !:lH ... NKS AND SOCK ET S
....dl&lIoj( a " y I"' al R"lI .. n, l ~ by l r lctl o n wb tle It o nl)

~mll T .. ~ olJ... rourtb as Ulu r.h mOlt.a1 per I"fIvolutlon at th~
~"m" t"'<d.
DrtiU ng Ma.t:hjne Peede,
I....'" <4
" "'Dd l.. fIo.up 01 P - "
,.
,,
Nil."
RewL p"" ,~
c....
,
~t . 80, lOt. 120
ll~.lill ,
," 18,
20, as, 50, 80, 1,10, 20a 0
,•
l ~f
" 10, n , 24, 36, s s . 83. US ,
.",
'j
'j
ae. 60, 80
40, 7H, 101,
"
'" ...... He
5, ' 0, 20, 30, t o, 410, ItO,2t O
,•
8
• 16, 82, 64, 128 4
Morse Standard Taper S oc kets fo r Drills

I.... I...
Sor ~et No . l nt a all drllh. tronr ,\ to If dlaruOltOl r
NO, 2 t n
Nn . H 11 .. 1/.
NO. 4 ' ... 2
N o. .'> 'l.h ,, 3
MOr&e Taper · Shan ks and SOCkllU, -With thl~

.ysl .. m aoeul'1ltti drUli ol/; CAli be e1l'ee«d. The spin d le is
bored OUI w ith a taper ho le to sni t t be Ia.rtfNt dia m eter l ot
w h leh the nlA("hin e is d M ;RJll'd. The drill n..
a Ilhank with
,. oorr~poudi"l/; taper, and CIW boo ti tted d irectly Into plaoe,
t he tapoor at e cce elrectua.lly Ol'lItreinll; It, an d ~rovldi.ng the
princi pa l drhillp: grip, w hich bo _ _ lIy Ilunlclellt without
anyadd l li oll . 'Che drill is pro 'l'lded with a t.anp: at ilA u~
end ....hic h COmM op pcs:ire a eeuee hole in th• .orket, Kl that
tt... d rill . C>lll boo ... ..:I1t"d out with .. drift witbMU atrah'in~
HO ltlNG 1111 T llK L.... T H II 253
t h• ..x:l<al:"~ t be d r UL T he tanp:, .. bile pr hu"rhy Intoeadet1
to t""lli u.te the reru o.....1 0 1 the d rill. alRo !WIlsfS In tht'
dri "." Of 00 0""" If tilt! ""':ler
fa iled to li t w ith eDu" t lt ude.
the d rl ..lnl/; StraM ....ould fa U ,.hn OOll enU",l y on the t.. niZ .
... hirh Illlll;ht be twiRled oll'" "" a ecneeq ueaee, !-'or oon",·nl.
enee of Into:orehanlt _ blllty drill Illut.nk. and Rocket" a",
eo""trurted In tin s tandard '1 1_. kno..n '" ~Iorooe S talld !U"d
Tape"" a nd incl ude .. 11 ~ i J:l'I'< or drill.. rrom .'.in. to 3in.
dl"nleter. .-\11 d rill...",lllQCkels do not een rorm .. trlell y to
the Mol"'Ie stAnda rd , a1thoup;h .8U\lpDll('d to be marlt' t o Lhe
llOUoe. hu t dilr~ r vpry " UI/;htly both In dll " ..,,,,lo n,, aud ..nl(le.
For Illfttance, thll drll1ll made by M ",, ~ l"'I . Smith nnd
Coven t,r y L td. . l'rll",chllHt "r, !ll'tf Into rchnnll:Mble wlt,h t,h..
M or K(l ~11 ..nke and HOf'ket R, l\lt hOllj(I, m.ul.e to a unlfu rrn
tApgr of l in 20. wh '·....Kt he :tl ol'lle t"p"r .... ri ef! HllKht.ly In
~h " IJ:«, "'or re l8l'UDee. t he propOrtl ona M m...-le hy I,h..
two lInns l\nl given nn Pl\ Il:M :!:ifI t.n 2.17.
The I!IOCIi",t at the end of the splndlp Mh ou ld be al"'ays
!ur nl"hed with an e lUm alot. 50 that l or hMY'}" d u t y Rueh '"
the drh1n,g: 0 1 borlnil: ba rw.. &:e.. a r-tlttrr ma,. be used to Il'l"e
a po.,lthe drl" e and re li r ..e the tanlt 01 .. II "t..,... wh llp
allowlnp; the taper to oen t re t he M r. To ..n"ble the n"f! of •
small drlU In .. lafltll IIOCket lnt~m,,·dl"'e Ill€'<".. ran he
em ployed. Drill Rpind les ..hkh h "re be"'n or4z:lnall y pro
vldOJd with the paf'll11..1 SOl"liet and .... t-ttCf'O" '" can h" ada pted
to I1fIfI taPer lIMnk d rill .. hr mfllln ~ ol RP"'<'la l Rockel& Th _
h ..... a p ..rnll el eoltd end, ..nd "",! Dire 1.0 be e>t.refally tanlOO
to lit the 1l;ri8t!n,g: " p illd lll to eTL"Ure th" t t,he ta t><'r "h,,11 he
t rll ly In line wh.m In pl/LC&,
Borln g in the LAthe. _ B'J~i D !l l n t.he tathe IR "lUu'"

t11l1~ done hy 1I\llans of flat d r ills, whi<'h art' eeu
· 0--'
tll rnd ll.t one Imd "nd l{f'OU n ,1 at the other into e ither
"polnt ," " ro u ll;he l," or " f1 niah "r."' '~I"I .: . 3.~ Greal
eaee I. requlrt"d In ~t tl nll; the.., drille. "R~s.l lr the
.. dniJIh"r ," ..... " " "n on,....... r, it 1&-"",,, loup: ti me, an'd can
GJ·_·· ::":": '::., :;:~"t. 'I~

O
- • •han..., Dr the ot he r
it ill rat" h t he cu t
lI t, and ... 1lI be
pUMhod ......y. ..Ith
I,h.. re R>.Ilt thst th ..
hill" b, bi p:ll:e r th..n t he
d r ill. Th e'r &<'Cuu"y
!"lo. ;i. ill Il:on rtali y p:auj(",l
by restl llJl,' th e ctmt,rll,1 end on /I l'on"d l'"l ut fl.l:.. d tc /I b.hl".
all,1 w it h one eor ne r ",..Idnll: 1I. m ark. 0 " tur n lUIl; t,h,' d ril l
t-tl t.il.. ocn.. r <'n ~'"," It ..ho a ld OOm" nn t h,. ~" m " ",,,rll:
,5< 801llN(O 5 1'1lKD~
Anothu nlllthod 01 t ""t IDp: ill to jllt<t 8\.lU"t t be drill a nt:!

lla""olTthll head"toek; i t the d rtll "hake... the bo le II!blll:ll:llr,
t b e l'OI"D1l1'1l are ....mOll;. On brlnp:l np: u p t h.. d r ill aj(aln,
It ahould be noted ..hleb IIlde III JH]Ilherl away. &>I t llnt
ecenee l'equil"M ItTlnd!n!/:.
The "l"011Jl'hllr" and" llnlshllr" h."" a IIhort put pallt the
comer ps.r&llel wblch p:uides the drill ror ....t r:di/:ht bole l
...he!"I.'aJI if the point drill we", n-'- to .. eo.-..d hol.- lt wou ld
lolla... the bend of therore.
The point IIIjl;l'Ound to an anp:le ....rr1np: from 9,; "' .. p:. to
IOO d~. , and when sued tOT wroul/:ht Iron,llllllippeod • little
to makelt keener.
TheRe drilill work well at 20 ft. Jlf'r Illtnutto. and .. t.nVllnte
of 150 down to 30 revolutionll per loeb.
Boring with Bar and Outter. - Lar'll:er hoi.. a re

8 110a lly bored wi t h /l. bar and eutu.r. All lafl/:e • b&.r M pee
eible eheuld be u sed for tbeMkllol atllTn-. I n t he Illmpleet
form. the entters are held in the ba r by. wt"ll.l/:e. (Flit. 4)..
•
. '
c
ll'T l~ . t .-Intereru.nll,"llll.ble I3or;nlt L'utU-N for QuIt Iron.
Borin g Speeda.-Borinll," cutters lItand well for mORt

wo rk at III ft. til 2J) ft. per miqut" with carbon 8!eel t001.ll
and a feed of 40 per chin roughing. Ill) pe r inl.'h I1nillhinll,",
.nd 00 po'r Inch ~kim f1nishinlt. Cylind~n of 3 ft. .nd
up.... rd.. are generallj- done at II cllttinJ/: 1I1"'ed of 1:!ft.
per mlnutt" and a traverse of 10 pe r inch rouJ/:h1nll: and 3 pe r
Inch nnlllMnll:.
The bar In IIOme C&'!oe!I l""l two (laU milled on It, and to
thlll IA lUted the cutter, which l""llips made to lit bet ...een
the two nats. UiJterent Rized eurteee may thUII be used and
Mch will bto lJelf-<'leDlreinp.-. A mOll! -«un.te "Y8tt"m ill
lIbown In Yilt- t. A I" the bu, D III e~hUy 1_ in diameter,
and hAIl 1..-0 ItJ'OO"M E and Eo Dill aoc1Il'1I.t.ely ~nnd to etee,
ThfI Mill.... n h.u I'" lip" ~und to ft' n. C I.. rh .. ".....I1l"
for boldinR the cotter up Solid.
T A P E R SHAloOKS AND SO CKETS 'l5S
DimeDsiODIi or Taper and Sbanks Socket8

"' • • • Da BY THI )t OHlll TWIlI'I' DRILL &"0 M& CHl lll ue., U.l:l .A.
,.
r
1 •
TAPER SHANKS AND SOCKllTS
Tap<,lr Shard!: and Socket, ~bowillK Ootte r for

Securing Boring Bars (Smith and Cove ntry)
T.oPr .. j ,,,, 16
~ ~~-_
~=rz
,.
~
; Z22 ,.r :.1 - :
c _'e!.
H;~.~~: -u
Dimensions of Taper Shanks and Sockets for Drills
and Boring Bars,
,
••
•
~
•
•
,
I." 'I'
I " •
IS .. 10',
I i. ,. I
I,'. .. S
BBOAClIING 25'
BroaehlDC: · - 'rne procl!''''' .II.no.,. " ....., br~ I"K ,
or thp m ac h ln ln ji( of llU rr&l.'ell by a tool havlng anu m ·
be r 01 eaeceeerve cutlln",. teeth of jtTadually Incre&ll·
Inll: aiM', is DO.... helnl( tlxteDaively adopted, all, the
UlleS to whkh It CA n be put are Innunluable,
C1rrular bo lell are t1nillhed by broeching In",t-.:1 of by
reAmerlUI(, as are IntertI.&1 lI:l'atfl And al l maonl'r of
llhaped holM, and In ce rtain raM'1l where the sllape pe r mit.
the work to be In contact ....lt h the broach, It Iuup"....edlnll:
millln",. on external work. For round hole", rnanyep",.lneen
hue adopted hroacblnjl 10 Pftfl'l'ence to reaml"",., partly
o....ln",. to the lIu per lor flol llh of hroa.cbinp: and pa rtly on
eeeouat of the economyetfOl<'ted where Ia rge q uantities o r
repetltlo p work are tu r ne d out. A rea mer ott",n h... a
te nd ency to chatte r and tear at some po in t or the llu rfal'e,
eeu sed by the flow or m e tal ha lnp: a t ri",.h t a np:lee to the
cu tlhlji( ("(:I'e or the r ""mer, thlll chatte ri ng louln jl: ve ry
pron ou nce In breee, brouee, a nd allied me taill . I n oro al'''.
1nP:, h owe v er , no cha tt er eun ttlko pla ce , llli t he Jlow or t he
metallfea In tho lla me dlnICti o n all t.!10 p u ll of t l", bro adl ,
and a amcotb an d t ru e eu rrece u-e rerore reeutts. llllbbit
li ne d hol ell ca n be f1 nillhed to lIh1e, a nd comprellMed at the
same time ],y u~ lnJl: a broach lIa ,·i n!\,cuttl n",. all d burnl~hlll Jl:
teeth. F u r the r, a broac h will reta1l1 ItM lll~ Ionger than .
ream er , Among the m. n y advanla4tell ill the .h8ence of
cb ucklnp:. Generally th", work raq ulrell no fastenl nJl:,hull ,
simply ellpoed on to • bushln~ on th", broach In • IDOII4I
man n"'r. 'the wo rk becomes fMtt'ned In 1\.8 proper poooltJon
lUI soon lUI the mll('hine III started. As there Is 00 dam~
In",., th"'re t. conlloeQnl'ntly no dl~tortlon in the ftnlehet hole.
In moet t&IIl'lIl only one operation is required , and but one
minute'. tim", fa COWiumod to cut a key way IJJ a bol e,
Sometlm"", t hree or fon r pi........ ran be done in aile ope ration
a t the &arne time, tbUll conlliduablyincre....lnp: the prod uction.
Broac h i ng III done by two "",thod.., the" pull ~ and the
,. pUllb.~ The pull type IIImeet common ly u se d , .nd It la
lonjl;er than the pURh type. Gene.-.Jly the push broaeb Is
UlIl'd In h yd rau llc, llCrew , ILlld ell'en h a n d pree-~. All u /led
In th e latt..r, t h e tool In Itll o rlp:lnal fann W&!l k nown M a
H
"drift. W hon ualnll: bl'OftcheM In r-.... t Iro n,lL _p cutti n g
com poun d I. u lled , lUI thla p:lvoM the b roac he d Hur f....e" hl Kbly
pollxhed nUIHh, I:'or chrom e nick el etoei II geed gredo of
CUlthl"" oll will gt ve ll" t lMfac tor y rell u ltM.
Standard Steel a n d Copper Alloy B ars for use in
Automatic M achines. -He port.. NOll. :I~ a n d :l!> o f t h e
Brit is h Standar('lll In stitu tion Include tahll'll of IIttllHlaro
i111.e.., marglnll of m ann fa l't u re , end teet requlre m..nbl
of 111"",1 and co ppe r alloy hal'll res pec ti ve ly of rou nd, "Quare
and bn:ap:olIllPctlon for Ul<O In automatic mac hi ne e, The
repon. can be oblai ned from the 101lt ltu t ion . ~ V icl orl.
Street, London, S.W.
, v.
SCREW THREADS .
Tb.. pnnelpl"" lovolved til worklnll OUL a u" iD 01 eh " I1;':"
_boolll tor I"IIW threadlllLl"ll j\l>lt t loll MUlll all thOtMl App lied
to other a r n ~luenbl ofl((lftrl np:.
V &r1o us F orms of Bere w 'fhreada. A eere w Is a cyllo ·
drlcal bar on which has ueen fonotld a hel kal pro jec t.loll or
thread. The 8CftI\III' fit8 aocurat<:IIlloto Ii hollo w oorr.... polldl ul{
form, termed It.. DUl. Pain 0 elellHmt.. th us fo r med ILI'tI
used In mechtnery .... fllStenlnWl, tor Ad/Ullllnl': the re lative
poeltloo of two piElOM, lind 101' traullm ltt nil:tluel)ty ,
1<'01' manulaet urinl( 1'tlfUlO 1U.. It III Im porta nt that the
lloould be .. unlfnrm sylltem .... to th" form ofllM"1:'''' th'"-<ill.
IUId the pitch of the threAd fOl' tlIOCh dlaw"Lt!r of IICI"II.... I n
t he ye&r JlUl Sir J. W hl t"'ort h proposed a lIt&ndard "ylltem
of ~re_ thr....n.... which lIa1l been unlvN'Il&lly adopted In
thl.. count ry for all the more IOlport/mt pIU'te of mechtnes,
For wI'Oul/;bt·lron ~II tubes a IIICruw thread of tlner pitch
cuUlog 1_ deeply Into tb e metal, III u....d.
The W hi t wor t h thread III t rlao(p;lllAr IOlM'Cllon.th.. a0ll:le
bel0l( MO. (See F II(. I.I Dn e-etxth o f the thl'OlOd I" rounded
oW a t th.., to p and bottom. to Ieellt tate the c utttug ot tlie
thron.d, and to re nde r it leeallable to Injury. The pi tch and
number of UJre"dll pe r In ch,lordl tr,.....nt dl ll",.. t"," of flCre W",
"r<l l/:" ·en In t h e 10Jlo ... lnl/: table on
Whitwortb Screw BoltB a n d N Ut!; .

i._.p--_.: , VOIUl UL A
:• -55 • •i:-~
- "'---
.... p - V l l<>~ " -;:" , ",'" " ,, ", ,
,,-... th...w. ....... Illoll
b .. <t. p t b_ p l( 'uon
= ... 11<.. _ JI l( ·u,•.
II _ O·900S l( p.
l'm. I. - \Vhit wor t h Sc..,... 'l'hr-d.

The llC.., Rurfaee oot helol/.' at r1l/.'ht IUIl/.'lefl to tlo., tor<:e
doe to eere tng up, has the erT'ect of jl;1'I'lnll: a blU'lltlnll:
pnlllllure 011 t he nut. Tbill CIlU_ greeter trlc:tioll between
the two thruadll t han ill t he caee wi th a thread of 1Iq1l4re
llectkm. IWd therefore lese tend enc y to bt<ome llUHenlwed by
'fIbration. The pitch of a V threed can be made 1_ per
lltnnl{th t h a o a equere thread ; therelore t he lnellnatlOD
..Ill be 1eM. a nd al 'lO t he te udeney to COlliI' unlll"nl\lll'ed. i"or
thlll re&!lOO line threads are u se d 'fery Jrequently In Ihe
lock nn'" Ioand on pans of m achine 100111.
a ..lu"h ,"l tll Dll ,-, r d w n tt w o e ur Scr f'w Tbread...
'"
----- ------
h ll
No . 01
Th ... d. ,
I D . . ..
0'
1l!lleeti"" Il CO""
,~.
S6CtJOoal
Are. u
I)'.,ne<o'
." , I
loc h.
Pi'cb, Tbend Oiamele'. Vi .molor. &no m
0'
1 1><• • 4.
I
ID~ .
('25)
:1
20
In . In .
1
.0500 .032 0
10 5 .
·2180 ""'-
-1860
Sq . Ins .
-0272
•I
I.
(-3 125)
(·375)
('43 7S)
J8
"rz
14
"OSS6 -0356
·0625 ·0400
·07 14 ·0457
·276 9
·3350
·:19I.'>
·2 4 14
-2950
·3460
·0458
·0683
·0940
! (·S) -0833 ·05:'1 4 ·4466 ·3>1 33 · 1215
•
I
K
(·5625)
('625) II
('68 75) II
rz 'O83:l l'O534
·0909 -U582
·0909 ·0582
·509 1
·5668
·6293
·4558
·5086
·57 11
- 1632
·2032
·2562
·61 19 ·3038
,, r
(·75) 10 -100° 1,004 0 .6b6Q
I ·3679
K 3125 10 -1000 ,·0640 ·7 485 ·61:144
'875) ) 9 ·1111 -oru ·ti039 ·7327 ·42 16
II
It
(1' 12S)
(1.25)
8
,, · 1250 ·0800
' 1429 ·09 15
· 1429 ·09 15
'9:'WO
J ·0335
, ·I SSS
· 83~
·9 420
1·0ti70
·5540
·6969
·8\l 42
Ii (1'3 75) 6 ' 1667 · 106 7 1·'l683 1-1616 J-05!:!7
\i (1-5) 6 -1667 -106 7 ! ·3!:!33 1·286 6 t-sooi
Ii (1,625) 5 ·2000 · 128\ 1·4\l{j\l \·308\l 1·47 18
IJ (l -7S) 5 ·2000 · 1281 1'6'l 1!:! J ·49 39 \·7528
2 4 -5 -222 2 · 142 j H l577 \ ·71 54 2-3 111
2t (2,25) 4 ·2500 · 160 \ 2· 089 9 1·9 298 H r249
2i (2'5) 4 ·250n · 160 1 2 ·3399 '2- 17\18 3 ·731 8
2J (2)5) 3 -5 ' 2857 ·18:l 0 2 ·567 0 2·;184 1 4 ·4641
3 J· 5 ·2857 · 1830 2 ·8170 2 ·6:1 4 1 5 ·4 496
3 1 (3'25) 3-25 ,,1077 · 1970 3 ·05:l 0 2 ·8560 6· 406 3
3 i (H ) 3-25 ·:lO77 -1\l70 3<lO30 3· 106lJ 7 ·5769
3) (3-75 ) 3 ·3 333 ·21 34 :I·5:1 IlH :-1 ·3 23 1 8·6732
•4' (4-5)
3
2·875
·3333 ·2134
<l478 ·2227
3 '7 ~6;j 3 ·573 1 IU·U272
4 ·2773 4 ·0546 IHll ra
5 2,75 ·3li3 6·2328 4·7072 4· 5343 16· 1477
5 i (5 '5) 2 -625 ·;iS 10 1.2439 5- 256 1 5·0 12\ 19·7301
6 a.s ·40lJ0 ·256 1 5·7439 5 '4l'l77 22 ·652 1
,
. -
Re p roducod b y ~rm,.,,(m (,om R op " ,! . CL (MI ,27(1, J u ~ e . 19 19 .
ll fl ll ' b S tand u d .,. ' brea d ,. 01 lh ' BTlti<;b ~ tanda ,d. Ins . it u tl o n,
t n ...bieb ,.ad .", 10,,*<1 to r fu ll . lId d etailed l o (om .a u oD
260 SCREW THREADS
BR ITI SH STANDARD WHITWORTH

IIEXAGO~
--
-,- -_. -"' --- _
_.
......
_. _
. ............
AND SQUARE HEAD BOLTS A:-lD SCREWS
.
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m m
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11 C>m
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11-110
.= .=oeeo e-ss
res .,,,1·]6
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e-es ~i(\ 1 1
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ro ...••
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r.eec H~ 1-71
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1-175 1 -61 0 .~
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1-670 ' 00
r.esc ) ·8i S HS ,~ oro om
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1·42';
\·5>0
, ~;
1·810
acso
e
s
s
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aeso 2·175
2 -410
a-sac
2·580
2· 750
2·700
2·365
2·31
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2 ·78
'00
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J.l9
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3·41
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1-17
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3-550 3490
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a-s e.oeo ' 00
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a 5·180 scec '00 'm U
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5·550
'm '" sea ,ro 'ill
-
7'37
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s 2·150 tooc 1·175 ,,~ om ,m
-- ,= ,m >= rt.ai ,.,
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~
e.s s-ec seas 10-91
, u.ss .~ .ill
no- di meewo lls I« BIad; BoI.Is &ad Sue...· M D.S 9 111 DOW eaten b
-=>!.6nisb tytN$ • • wdl.
"To be cbopeMtd ..-itb _be<>ner ~b la.
ReprodtlOOd b, ~nniuO<m fro<n B .S. lIll:! 19M. of the Britisll StaDdudo
1Il1tltutl"",.,0 ..bicll ..... den ......f'Of~ for lo ll ...d de tailed InlonJlatioo.
SCR.EW T R R EWS 26'
""'lI l t \\' o'lh 5 1"".1 " ...1 llullS >t n,1 N lJU.,
S;tfc Luu,' in Pounus .
_~:~I r:~ I ~~~a 1 \ [ ~ rr.o'~ 'I ~ ·?_:·\" I I O: ~ ' " P:~" '" A t
~I'l Bottom Ilotto" ~ OOO lb 5JO\Jlb 6 00u lb 7lJ<JUlb t<lI)l)lb, !I'OOO,~ .
50 M " I I p~r "'l P''' ''I p..... 1"" "'l 1"''' S<l P"'"'1 _
It>
I
T broad
u"U;1j
Th'N'; InOb
--- --- ------ - -- - ~ - --
," "'l't>
(} 027
' '' oh
11>
' 09
lllch
lb
13 5
"" b I mc b
Ib
W.
io oh.
Ib
IR'>
lb
21R
I". ~~ s
" o- ~41 0 0 ~6 1 8~ :l:I<J 27d sn 36lI <10

I , O"7l/ 5 0 OI.R' 2n 3tO ~ OS ~ 76 5« r 612
,J, o-aoo O,ml( 376 HO SOl OM 752 ' uti
• 0-3.13 0'1 ~ 1 l ~l W. 12>1 8~7 96ll 1,_
A O'45R 0'163 1;52 8 15 1l7S 1, 1(1 1 .3 0 ~ 1 .~67
I 0,5011 0·2{;.\ 8 12 1,0 15 1,2 18 J,l21 1,62~ 1,827

It 0· 57 1 0'256 I,02 t r.aan 1,536 1,792 2,O ~ S 2,30'
I o-/ln (} S'H 1 ,~ '8 1,5M l.8:lt 2, 128 2,342 2,738
ti O 'lI8 ~ 0-30 8 l,H2 1,6( 0 2 ,2<6 2"nO 2 ,9H 3,J1 2
, 0·7,13 0' ~2~ 1,6l:lll a.uc 2,532 2.~5 4 8,876 8,19 8
I .8~O 0'55( 2,210
2,77U 3 ,32-1 3,878 4,432 4,9Htl
Ij O ' D~2 0'61>' 2.7 R6 8Atl.~ ~, I 82 ( ,8 79 5,576 ~,l73
It 1"'667 0 ·891 1,576 4,~70 5,3"4 6,~~S 7, 152 8,HO
II 1·181 1·00) 4, 240 5,300 6 ,.1' 0 7A20 6 ,l60 11,54/\
II 1-287 1·30') 5,200 6,500 7,800 9, 100 1 0,~ 00 1I ,7lN1
II 1-3<M1 1·4 ?'! ~.RRII 7,360 6 ,8:12 IO,SOt 11,776 13 :H 6
I' 1'~9~ 1' 75:1 7,0 1l 8,765 10,5 18 12.271 14.02 4 15,711
1 1·7 15 2'3 11 9 ,2 H 11,555 15 ,86~ 16.177 1 8, ~88 ZO,79'J
11 1'9 30 2,915 11,700 14.625 17 ,5 $0 20.475 23, ~OO 211 32 5
21 ' 2' 1'" !·7!2 H.928 18,660 22,3t2 26, 124 2'9.656 33,568
', I 1 2 ,584 4-464 17.856 12.3 20 26,71U Bl ,Zt 8 35,7 12 ( lI,176
Z-83 ~ 5' ~5(l 2 1.800 27.25<) 3Z,7JO 38,15<l ~J,600 ~9, 0 5(J
" IZ '856 IHfJ6 ZS.6Zt 32,0 30 38 ,438 H,8~ 2
51, 248 57,654
'1 "10f1 7 · .~ ~ 7 ao.aoa 37.885 45,<162 53,0.19 160,6 1(1 &;,19)
~ I 3 ·313
8'5 73
8~73
10'0'17
3 t ,692 43, 36 5 52.{I,'l8
til, roe SO.135 60,182
60 .7 11 169 .3 84
70 , 189 80.216
78.0 57
1Ill,2U
4i H l55 12'91Z 5 1.8l8 8~ , 560 77.'72 OO,3S t 103 ,2!16 ne.soe
• I Hi'4 18 · 118 6',592 110.,.0 96,g~ 113,0:16 129,1 8t 1~ ~.3 31
.. HlI l U'-730 ' 78 ,9 20 198 ,650 11 18.360 ' 13lI, 110 157 .840 1, : ,.'>1'0
• .._ ' U'~2 I lH. _ , I ' I
1
11 1lu a.. H I,, 12 l M .5OM. 1'lBa,J16 I" .....
• .
262 S C RE W rIlIl.KA 1)S
A ........." t l,cead Is Mo wn In .I'll(. ll. Lh . ....rl....., 01

thtl t hread Is n ormal to t b e aIlAl terce, aKAln"t which t h e
......
Il"n'lW aebl, an d h enee thue b no c bllque or bu rst i DIl
1. IlGLI 'f lll .AP. ! R II U ' S IIU. n

f,'ig. t.-SqUAre Threads.
p re88unl on the lint, as with the ttlanll;u lll.l' or V thread.
Th..t'1I le ah.o 1_ fri cti on a nd 1_ ...."",r With thl'(lOd..H of t,h ls
form, but th..,. an! m uc h more 6:J:pensi "fI to eut In the h.the.
They are chlel\1 used to tl'anll. m it m otion .
Reduction of Diameter of Bolts, ete., due to

Whitworth Threads
No. 0 ' Red""Uoll So. '" Rod llctlon

TlIr..<t.o ill TtH,... d. ill
PO' ln oll.. [l1...... w. I'<'r l noh. D1...... toT.
"
0'8659
I 10 0'1281
,.,•
0'8201 11 0'1164
0'2 8 46 I' 0'1067
0' 256 1 If 0'09 16
•7 0"213 1
0' 1829 I is
18
0'0800
01)71 1
•• 0'1600 20 O'0\l40
O'06U
0'1423
"
FiDe V Threads for Lock Nu b! on Ydaehine Tools.
ot..... _ 10 I..u... lOa, 01 Tb......... IncA.
20
ie
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t t"I ·518
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2'341 '0 560
2 -587 u 1,250 2 -SOI
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3" lICI · 0 5 ~0 3'344 1·375 2'75
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3·700 ,OSIlIJ 3 5~4 3,0 0
. 1'950 .osec S'!l3 ~ soo 3 '00
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4-20 0 -oseo 4-0H4 I'SOU '00
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1-,625
3'25
3' 2S
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• 5-4-5-(>
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11' 450 1l - ~ 9 0 2500 5, 00
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1.168 0
~. 12-290
13· ~20 • 2'11<">
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l ull d, om olor 0 1 Ih _ Standard n.al e "'~ '" ~I " ••

I
aooo
s.roo
I
. 00
.00
wbkh t ho co np t- f . '0 be " ....d .... lh. p ip<' 01 th., ii , • . i. roq " lo. d t o Ill ;
It ma y . tl>oT<;/oro. 1m ail I'r""l1«1 p" rp,-".,.. t><, ...... d. J • • I b, I " U
dia mo le< 01 lb, co"pl • • sen....
T br. .d. ' r' 01 Wha ..." , l " lo rm, ,t><, .n.l, l.. t ",.. n IlMo .101'''
"..a.o L,,'d In the u ••l pl.". i. 55" ; I ho th .. ad . " .. ",.."dod ' q u . lly
., . r~, ..
and rool_. \..y ;n. a dopt h 0 1 Ihre.d ' 1'1""Ilm'loly <qua l
,n "_"4 tim.... 'h.
p llch
' R, pr<'(" ,,-<<\ by /",r "'i ..io n li n", fl<I"' '' No. 21 Illrlti. h Stand""l
1'l'" TM.. d , "" rna ood SI ..1 Pi pe lod Tut "I 01 ,b _ IIrtti.b
S.. R<lardll ., .. ,,, ..,,...n . ,•• ~~k h ,•• ,l~ .. . ~ ,. /., •• d ' ..... ,,14om1 d.,a; l. d
' .I~ .....,;...,
, . Bri llsh Stftnda rd Fine screw Thr...Ilh•. •
" .
}
.,,11I...
DI__
No. o f
,.
T bread'
l oell
1. .,,,
01 EII...,th .
I c.,, ~
Pit<:lI- tTbread DUo"'. . or.. o........,••
"""
s-.:tio<l.l
AT<'&
1Io1lOCD
0'
at
T b... d.
- - - - - 1
I ~. ID. ID. lu . 11M. Sq. IlliJ.
;,
I f ZI88
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2S
26
-0357 -oT'..8 ' 1960
·0385 -0246
·173 1
'2007 1 -03
'Z"-S4! ·2320 16
1 -()235
;, ee
,• ('21:11 3)
1'3 125) 22
'0385 00246 t -2566
-()455 1-029 1
.(l500 ·0320 , ·3430
.2S;H
0{).423
·2543 ·0508
~I
'37 5) 20 ·0760
;, -437 5) 18 ·0556 ·0356 ·40 19 · 105 4
I (·5) 16 -0625 -04 00 ·4600 -4200 · 1585
•t
)
H
(·56 25)
25
·687S} "
16 .062Tl-HlO ·5225
·07 14 ·0457 i ·5793
I ·4825
·5:135
· 1828
-2235
I"
) ·07 14 ·0457 -641' ·5960 '2790
1 "5}
12 '0 833 r 053 4 ·6 966 ·&133 ·3250
H ('8 125) 12 -0833 -0534 ·759 1 ·7058 ·39 13
i ('875) II .0909 1-0582 ·8 168 '75!l6 ·4520
l lO · 1000 ·0640 '93ElO ·87 19 ·597 1
II (1· 1251 9 -1111 ·07 11 ' ·0539 '98 27 ·7585
I ) (1·25) 9 · 1111 ·071 1 1' 1 7~19 HOn ·9637
I' ( 1-375) 9 -1250 ·0800 \· 2950 ) ,2 149 \' 1592
II (1 '5 ) 9 -1250 .lI8()() 1·4200 1·3399 1-4100
I ) (1'625) 9 ' 1250 -csoc 1·54 50 1'4649 H'85.
I I (1·75/ 7 ' 1429 1-0915 11-6585 1·5670 1-9285
a 7 ' 1429 r O!H 5 1·9085 1·8 170 2·59 30
'I (2·25) 6 1667 ' 1067 2'14 33 , 2-0366 3 -2577
2 1 (HI 6 -1667 -1067 2-3933 12-2866 4· 1065
'I (2' 75) 6 <-1667 1. 106 7 2·6433 2·5366 5·0535
a 5 ['2000 -128 1 2 -8719 2-7439 5 -9133
- R e p , <>_ I_
.. ...." ... . - . ....... r.nod f .... t.olI _ ..:l d oleit.<! 1~""'III .'_
265
British Standud Hexagonal Brlg,ht Nuts. and
Rolt_H eads._
9rlcb l Nuts. I Il<iI:hI I Briab!

_ _ __ _ ~__, Lcd< NUlL ' Bolt -Head.
~- --
British Standard Black Nuts , Loc k N u t s , a nd
nou -necus.•
Bl ack B lac k
Black N nt._ Loc kN u ts . lloll -ll • • d
--
Width
in !
•• I
i ,
,"' .
Dl arn e.. r
0'
Bolt .
aero"
Fla t • . ~,
Thlo. ·
n"".
Th ick ne.. 1 fblC~IJ' '' '
Mu. MiD.
API'·
Ma x_ Mai .
1
~l lJl. I MU .I Mm . 1 MH .: Mi~ .
I DS. In• . 1m. ]n•. ,,;;:-,,;;:-r,;;: ,,;;:-, ,;;:-r,;;:
• 1'25)
I, '3 12·' 1
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'OWO
' 505
·; 00 "'
' 09
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·21
'33
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'3 1
·19
'23
' 17
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·24
'2 9
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I ( ' ~7 5 )
(' 4375)
(·5)
"5 ~ 2 5 )
'7 10
'8 ~0
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1·010
'b90
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'90 0
·990
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H \G
1'17
·40
' 46
·52
.se
' ~8
'44
·50
'5 6
·2 7
·3 )
·35
'40
·25
' 29
'33
·3 8
·35
'40
·46
·51
·33
· ~o
·44
'49
I 1"«'25) J-IOO I 'IIHO 1-27 ·6 5 ·63 ·44 '42 -57 ·55
)·~IIO [-180 1·39 ."." ." "sa -sc
' 69 -ea ." eo
"
'h3 7' 1
1'300 )· 2HU [ '5 0 .ss ·06
,"
j 1'75 )
~'Hl~ 5 ) 1·390 1·370 1·6 1 '00
sa .
.".aa ."...so -." ." ."
" ."
.."es. ."." t-ot ...-ea
i '875) H80 1'460 1'7[ '00
1·6 70 1-<l50 1·93 I ' O~
1'00 ·00
l j (['[25 1 t-sso I 'H ~O 2' [5 [ '[ 6
1' 13
l t 11'251 2 -050 2·020 2 ·37 [ ' 2~
1'2 5 1-12 [ ·09
11 ( [' 375) 2'220 2 '191) 1-41 [·3 8
2 '5 6 '9 ~ J-23 1·20
[I 11-5) 2·4 10 2-380 J ·5H [' 50
2' 7H 1'03 I ·UU 1·34 [ ·3[
111 1'H25) 2 '5HO ~·5S0 2 -98
1'6 6 1·63 1· 11 l -lIH H S 1 ·4~
,I 11,75)
21 {2-25)
2·760
3'[ 50
2-730
3' 1 ~ 0
3 -510
J· 7H 1'7S
3'19
~ '0 3
3 '64
2· 2 ~
2·00
1'2 0 1·1 7 1·5 6 1·53
1·3b 1·33 1·78 1·75
1-53 1·50 2' UO [·97
3·550 4· 10 2 '2 5
2j {2") 3 -890 3'950 ~ -5:1
4-49 2 ·5U 1·70 1'67 e-aa 2·J9
21 iP5 1 .'130 4-140 2' 7~
4· 83 2' 75 1'86 1·83 2·44 2·31
s 4' S31) .'490 S'~3 :J'03 3' 00 2·03 2·110 2-66 2·63
:JI f~t-25 1 4-85 0 . ·810 5·6 0 3 ·28 3 25 2'211 2'17 2·87 N H
3 1 13, 5) 5'180 5 '1411 5' 8 8 8'53 3·5 0 2 ·30 2' :1.3 '00 3·W
:Jl 18'7 5) 5·550 5 ·510 6'4 1 3' 78 3-75 2 -S3 2·5 11 3·3 1 3 ·2 H
•
41 14-5)
5'8 '0
6 ·820
S'9 111
(l-77 0
ij'H7 4'0 :J 4'011
;·88 . -54 45 0
2· 70 2 '67 3-53 3-5"
3'04 3·0 0 3' 9 8 3·84
•51 (H) 7'HOO
8 ·850
7' 7'>11 , 9 -01 5'04 '>-011
8·800 110 .22 5·5 4 5·50
3 ·37 3· 33 4-42 4<18
3· 7[ 3'b 7 4 '85 ;-8 1
• 10' 000 9 -8S0 [[ -55 6 '04 6 00
, 14-04 ; ·00 5 ·28 ,S-25
-
' R ep ro ,ll lCr d by permi"ion l rom Repmt No . 28 {lJ d l i.b St a Ddar.d
auto, bolt -hrad " an d 'ponD'''I. o f tbo Britis h Sta "da,,-l, Iml itu t io n
'" .. ~iob "ad." ... r<t.".rl 10' full and ~.I> il.rl in lor'llation _
~C Il B W TH aBA D S 267
Multipl e T hrfI&dB.-bl con.-.ldllrlnl( thOl durabUity 01 a
'r."
lICI'etl' thread we ah ould r elUIllu OOr th..t th lJl r.hllltly dllp.md~
Its depth-t'!!'t Ill! upon thll"'lUount ot bMrinp; ~u rlaoo.
I ....e deepen the tlll'llll<l wel_n the cylinder, from whl"h
t he IIl:re w would be torn 11 It ~ve way-80 that a deep
threa.d weaken. a eerew. Fig. II show. a 1lC1'Il .... ha ..lnp:
three dl lferwlt thr<lllolb_Inorle, double, and treble, but all
hanl the lIII.IIle lead-that I. to My. wou.ld l.Ta.. eAe the nut
the MW" dllltauefl fOl' cae r"volutlon of th" BeI'llW. They aU
ha.. e th" Mwe Inclination, beinl( cut by the Mme combina
tion ot chan~ wbeels, hut Mcll h&e a dilrerent eeet.lon ot
t h read. Iu th" double thread a cut Ie lint taken a1onl( Ita
lenKtb with a tool only on" b",lt the ....i dtb ot the alnp:le
thrMd tool,lI.IId the cut Ie taken only one half the d .. pth.
Thill would I...e a very thick th~ between the t ....o
"paces; and another cut (,. tberefore taken oot of thle mcta.l,
etartlng trom a point diametrically opp:Jllite the tint lIt&rtinll:
ro ln t, the relIult being two parleet equal'll threads to the
eed, A elmUar operation take. place with the treble or
othl'll' moltlple thread. The advanlllfCe of the multiple
t hreads lJI In permlttlnl( the U9II 01 ~ree pikh lICrIIwe
without t&kl nl( away too much ot th" IItre ol(tb of the
cylindr.t at t h e bottom of t he t bnlad.
Acme Standard Screw Thr e ad. - A lIlodln......t1on 01
th" equare th roo, 1 u ..ed .."ry frequently III maclllne toolH
wh ere a dlllllnl(llKlnll.' nut III required te thAt known .... the
Acme StandArd . or:t1l dll~' ecrew t.hread. It h .... thll ~"me
d epth , but ....Ith the eddltto n o r '010 In, "1"" ran,,e at top and
bottom of t hread, all a square thr ea d, end 16 alMo MtrOl'lI.'er.
Th e II ldee are a t a n Incltnat.ion or H ~ del(. , or t9 (lell;.
Included "nl(le , whlcb "lIl(lll III the ...."'e ILII DOW ll;ene rAlly
ado pted 10 cutti ng wor me.
Buttresl Thread.- wnee a IIcrOl W hall W reKlllt • rorce
actlnl': alway" In one di rection the modIfied trlanKUla r
thread , termed the buttress thread, I" IlOmeth"""", UaM, It
l'tt>. a.-l:lutt.re0J8 Thread.
lI.a" one .an...... nonual to the axle or the lJlTIIw, like the
1oQu~ thread, and It ..hoDld be Doted that the "h.riug
etn.mjil,"th tor .. I(i ..en 16U~of uut i8 twlOP .... ~t ... th.t
of • ...:1 11. ...... th..-t.
268 SCREW TH READ S
Sellers' Sc re w Thread.- I o t h e A me ricA' l, or Sell er s

"yllte m or screw threads the "'idell 01 the t,hrllad lLfll Inclin ed
a t 00 d e g., &",1 t h e anJl:le8 at the tor.
a nd bo ttom a re t run.
cated to lor m .. nat ~th of the pi tch D w idth The n ombel'>!
of t hreads pe r In ch to r the dllf"noot d lam etll~ of ee re we,
w hic h ve rI n earl y corresponds wltb the Whitworth. is p;iven
In the table o n IIIlKll 2.'iO. Thill tbread 1118lem ill adopted by
t h" G01'llrllmllot, and ill term ed t he United States sta n dard
thl('.d.
Acme Standa.rd "c re w Thre&d .
r"...."u .
· ;'-p -ot
F· ... ~....:, .
·: .
:
p .. pltcll .. "~"''"=~~,
-. aoN6d1l par (""b.
<I .. 4 "J'lh ... P + 1110
.. ll&t 0 .. top 0 1 thread .. p x "' 70; ,
Wknb 01 pol"t 01 I.0oI lo r ..,.... "" ... ~
lb.--t .. p " -rrt11 - 1lll6t.
The aecow p"'Dying table lI'h e ll tbe proportion. of the

,
-
...r IDue '"....
Ne>. of Thd...
\" .
II......
",,,.
• " ......
" ......
Width .. t
Topol
Width ..\
Bottom
0'9......
lito:"; . 1
~.
" ......
ThlckD._
.. I Roo t
"'ft.-.
I 'rilOO 3707 'a5~6 '5298 '684 6
II "860 "278 0 "'128 " '1 ~O "'1 7 2
2 " ~600 "1858 "180 1 '8 14 7 '8t 99
• "1767 "12.':15 "1183 ' 209 3 '2 H O
• "1350 "0 927 "0876 '16 73 ' 1626
• -n ec "0141 "0689 'lUll 't il l
,•
OIlU "06 18 1)Cl66 ' I OU '1101
1)814 1)6211 "0 41 8 '081111 1)9Cl I
,•
1)726 'Ot es "OtH '0787 1)8811
"0656 'OUS ..n 116911 075 1
10 0100 ' 0311 "'10 'OlI n '0181

269
-
AMERICAN NATIONAL FORM OF THREAD.
H_O'S660p _deptb of 60·
sharp V thread
b _0-6495p _deptb 01 thread.
H b
'~O' l083p _ - _
8 8
I
p - , --:-::-- , ----,--:
No. of t hreads pe r inch
•• Thr....d. ~ ~. ots"
m oe. of
~~Ji..... per Inch. Bot tom 01
Bolt. 'r uee... 1 Bottom 01
por In<lb .
Th read.. Thro.o.d.o..
- - - 1- - 1- -
I 20 ' 1 8~ 'I '1 1'0&1
t.
, 18
'" 'I • 2 '176
•'. .
...
ie '2et • ~ '426
" '3H 2 "628

I
,
I'
ra .-eoe
"(00
" 'j 2'879
•"
~. 8'100
.\ 'j
II '1 3'817
,
I 10 '6 ~ O
• B 8-1187
I
•• '781
'837 "'1 2'
'I
S"798
"028
II 7
'" '1
" "2~6
.,•
'"'..
II 7 1'064 4"480
• 1 lea 4"780
"
II •, I -aea II . '968
,
II
.\
1"4a9
I'TII
'1
•
II 6"203
" 6'428
FOT tul l in for ma tion On American Sc rew Tbreads COn

sul t the B u rea u of Sta nd a rd s Handbook No . 28, thig book
CB.D be obtain l><! fro m t be B ritish Standards Institution,
2, P ark Street, Londoll, W .1.
- 270 SC REW -r H RE A DS
.international Standard Thread (M ETK le ~ 1I'" r lnc ) .

T he I nl",rn"tlon",l COllP;re8R for t he S t a od ...rdil.atl oo 0'
Screw 'I'h , ,,,,(III. which wall h eld in Zurich , S wlt Kerl1llld,
O<:toner 2.4. l ~. recommended'" IIlectio n 01 th rea d . per
tlcola", of whkh Ilre u:iyen i n tbe tollo wlo l/,' tallie . The
"'DRie ... w"ll "" the Ita t at the LOp of th l" t h read te the
_"'"le _ the Selin,,' or U.S. Standard, b ot the ltf'OO 1'fl a t the
bottom et the threNi ill M u nded , and not n.t .... 10 th ..
Sell",,,' ",."tem.
lawroaUonaJ SU, Dd&rd Thread.
Ao..l. 01 11'1..-.1, aoo; lI.ton t.op aod ro ll.odlld ... bottom ~ DI phc b
mo_
-
[)I....._
llt ...._
n. ' n• • n""
lUlU·
m. l .....
."' ,
m ol.t...
~~,
JIIlU·
_d. . .
lilIlU· .im·
mo,_ IfUl i
-
, se .,es
.....
1'0
0
""0" ' 0
,,'..
"eo"
0 "
I."
•
"
11
I""
.
j :u,
21
aa
,,'"..
••
. "" 0
"
.. ."
0"
"
II "
2'0
.'".. , ""
"" " "0
British Institution Standard Thread. -A "tandard

fo r ..m all "crOW l!, lI uc h All &re u"",d by Ojlt.lt'lIlO ll and In
t e lpJl:ra ph l.. w ork:, 1 1!I ~ h",en ad op t ed on t he r aport ot a
.7'
comm lttM of t he Drit l~h In sti tu t ion . T he thfilad hRJl a n
a n)l'le of dllll'., a nd IJl rounded 01T to p a n d bottom with
II. r lld hul tw o-ele ven th" 01 th e p itch . T he to llow ln " tahle
Kiv" " t,h" IIlt...h ",,01 o1 lam e t.. r ot th_ .. thr.... o1":
British I nstitution Standard Thread ,
nu' Dl..... n u.
)01 , ...._ . \ wl:-':i... 1II!lli"..trw. N..... boor. IIIIUI_ t ..... 1II11lim&to"...
, ,,' 00 , .0 0
,,'
"0 0'"
, .,
I DO
,
t 0'.8
.. ..
O'U
0 '81
• ""'I "
,•,
o·n O'U
"I
"0
I 0'66
0' 69
10
11
0'15
0' 81
..
~
~.
._
Q
0
~ ~ ~i ~ i ~ =~ ~ ' t ~: ? ~ ~~~~i I I I II
'"
C
z
0: ~
e,
l:J••""_...."'.....
s~ ~~- ~~ ~ 8~ ~ ~ ~ ~ S N N ~ - - -- -
.,...,. ..,.-:".,. °9°. C ? ,? o ,?
" o" ••
9°9999°<;>
_o ~ •e •g
<0 .
<
" p
% : 1:~ "'''' - ''''''.. .., ., z~
:~: ::!! !~ : * ~ ~ ; ; ~ ; ~; ~~;~;
-'. ,
:t :~ ...i -. <0
~ ~ ~ e
~ .
_! ... _2"' ''' '''~''' ..3... '''...; .... _.•-l"''''
~ "' '''
...... .......
_ '" .. ~ _ . .. ''''
~o ~ _"''''
.;..:..:. ' . . . . . .. ~ : 9<;'0. 9
<, t
•~ •.-•.•
Q
~
.' %
Q
."
~
• ..,• ~~
.. ~ ~ ..~
.~ ~ ~~~ ~ ~~~ ~ .,. .,. ..,. .,. .,...,. .,. $ ~ 9 . ~ 9 9'?

~ m ", ~ _ "' ", "", ,, _ o
.....! ..",,,, •
:" ~ :.:~~i~~it :: ~2; § I~ ~ ~ ~ ~ j ~ij ~ ~

~~ ~ ~ . . ~9 99~99 ~ . . ~ $$ . ~~
i0
"0:
~ 1!¥;~~ ;; ; ~;; ;~ ; ~;~ ;~;~7~$ ~9
.1 !g.. ~ _ . ~C "' ... .. ...... _ ...... ~_ "' ... _ . ... . . . _ O
•• -1--..... ~ .. ... ..
-~ : _ =! ~Q!~ 9 <;>
· a•.~ a, $ S 9- -oo- -
.99.,0;> 9
•">
g 81 -l i~~ ..,. ~ ~ "' ~ .. ..
~~ ~~ 9.~~ ~~ ~
i ~.n • • R... -~. ... ..~
~
B . ... . "''''.... .. - - - - -
l o _ .. _ • • • _ • • ~ =~~ ~~ ~~~~ ~ ;~~:;

272
Screw Cutting•
serewe a re cu t eith er in ... l"t he, or in a s lleclnl threlu:l
mUl1n1l ffilU".hin6, Or by mean8 of dies, operated by mechines
Or by bAud. In t he latter C>Ule It te p r lLl'tl cttl ly lm poesible to
IDll.k e a m illta ke, but in eaclJ of the Ioemer ca>lell It Is necee
8lLl'y to AITll.Il!lt' .. train of wheel" to con nect the leadlnl/; or
KUlde IlCrew and the spindle, 80 that t he advance of the
CBrr!allealid tool per revolution of tbllllpindle may be eJ[&Ctly
equal to the lead of the I!I.7eW to be eut,
Screw-cu t t ing Lathe. -F or euttlollllCre"'lI of differe n t
o umbtors of thread8 the Ist.he requires to be Hpecially del!llI:D ed,
being litted with a leading or jl;ulde ecrew• • swing frame
t1tted with a Mud to carry the eha.nllil wbeels, a ca rrlajCl'
mrryinp: the eulUuK tool and havinp: " nut attached 80 that
It <'an be ~dily put in anrl out of ~r w ith t he leadiup:
lICrew, and a reve~lng motion 80 that the leadlnp: IlCTtlW
may rotate In either direction for euttlnlt r illh t or left hand
t bl'Mdll.
F lO.•.-A rrauKemelltof Chanltll Wileelll at En d or

Lethe Bed.
t"Ip:. 4 Rhows the UIIUal arraop:emeo t o f ehanJl:6 wbeete 00

a lathe, J K L beioJl: the revenlinJl: wheels driven trom the
eptndle, F the chRnp:e wheel Or drivlnJl: stud, aud X the
IOO!!e etud carried by the IIwinll; frame. A compound t rain
of wheels III shown in the fi~re.
A 1I1OJl:16 traln of ehan~ wbeelll oonsillts of three wheelll
'liz., one wheel, A 00 the ehaoJl:6 wheel stud, llO\I.led t h e
dri Yl\f : one wbeel on the lroid f' 11("1'8_. called the d ri ven
SCIUtW CUTTING 273
..neer, alld al,uwn 111 t b e dotted u eee 1J; and O l.l~ inter
mediate. carriNi. on til l' swinl{ trame. to connect tll_ two
wllllelll, called t.he IIt ud wheel, I n a d ou ble tno.ln four
"' heelll are u -'., '''Iother pinion hel n~ p l&eed 011 t he sleeve
r u n n lup: 100I0ll ou the stud X by the aid" of t he wh"",1 on
the u ri n jl; frame toll p:ear Into and dri ve the wheel ou tile
II:Ulde rew. Th" wbeela a re t b en Mid to be eempcuu ded,
the wh l 00 the ch a nl/.'e w heel st ud l' heln l/.' til" t1 ~t. drinr
A. th" lItud w heel U the .ll~t dri ven. the s t u d wheel C t he
IIeOOnd drlv" r. and the wh eel I) on the J{Uid e ltCreW be inl/.'
the R«lOnd d ri ven wheel.
To lac llita te t he eban l(inl/.' of the whet!l lI thll u"U&i he J:ajl;un
nn t lalOOmet llllell "-,pla Cl'!d, and with advantajl,'e, by a n u t of
the d~riptlon lIhown In F1p:. 5. Thla la pn:n 'ld ed "'lt b a
larjl,'ll k nu rled eou c-, which al !lO takee the pi....... of a 100Be
washer . by w htch It may be r t'ftd,ilY llC!"ewed up 111' hand to
th... wh "",1 when the latter ia in pleee, a n d tt"m . epen ner
11-' on the IIeX&f(Otl pa.rt to Idve it a IInal tnrD to loek It
Reocnrell . Another de vlot'l w hich IIIeve n qulck er, III th. t in
",bkh the end. ot the IItnGII and I"" di nl/.' ltCrew are LAppl'd to
reet'l ve. IletlK' re w "m al l e no ugh to allow the wheelll to Pl'88
over the head of the IlCre .... A 'l'l' A>lht'r. ha vh ljl,' a ploce cu t
out ot one "ide, hanoe8boo IIMpe. l.II "Upped over th" IM."re'"
body . and the IM."rew then onl y reqnlrM • pa.rt la l tu rn wit h
the llpann" r to lock t he "'''&her and whlWli in pla ea
'"
l'1o. 5.-Nut for Cbauj{e-w}lool !:lh a t tll.
Uaua l Set of Change Wheela. --Se tll at "h"nK" w beelll
In Hrl Uah 1Il1.1".", I{('nerally OOllai>lt of 22, rl lllnll: b y tlve teeth
fro m 20 to 120. a nd illc!udl npo; ei ther t wo 40'11 or two 00'11 for
euUJU,ll.' eere we t he llaIll ll lead &8 t he 16lldiujI,' ltCfeW. Th l"
IIhould be borne In m in d In workilllt out t he wheels. The
n um bees ot teeth of tbe wh eelll ehou ld a lwaY1l be d ivillible
by 5, a nd eome wi t hin the ran~ of t h" eer provid ed . Moat
of the AmHican Iathell have the chan l«' wheela arran~ in
mull lp ll'l'lot 4. a nd t be It'J&dinll;' llC!"eWII ulln a ll1' have el t h""
four or &i.J: tllrM.dll per Ineh. ... b i",h o f eoune af tenl l he r&tio
01 the IICI"ew". but not the method of cakulatinll:. lUI thill
r em al n ll troDd for aU ca-.
To cut a screw the wheels may be art&DRed two
waJ'1l viz, :
(I) W it h Single Gear. See Fig. 6, NO 278 , or
IS) With Componnd Gear. 8M JI'II T. p;l'lll T1V
"C IUl W CU TTI NG
Plkh of t1crewll. l 'h e p iteh of a ""rIO .... 1& u"llally

Iu p. . - l ill on e 0 1 t wo w ay&:
III So m llllY Jneheol pi tch , or 1/.lIld .
(lll So 1I'''ll y thread>! per Inch or !'1IIKt!t-
It Is adv i_lJIe that ill a ll ~ of !lCn' W" h.avinll: "'!uare
t h reW " the lead of the ecrew be eJlpr - t by the "':l usll" M
Dr'dIM140Oll traver'-t by the nn l lor on" rev ol ution of the
"" re.... While to I(ive the n umber 01 th r6ll<lll pe r loe b te
pe rfeetly r lll: ht Ilud clear lor eere.... with MlnJ(le t hread/!,
... ben the threads aro to be d oub le OJ' In'hle, .!te. • thill eapres
aton lead>! to oonfuMlon IWd unOl'rWnty"" to tile real m6lln
Ing. )tor 1I1&14noo, tllke a ""rew d.-a/'rlbod &II havl o ll:
"three th...,.d& per- Inch. double theeed," quite a ecmmon
oet' U1Tt'IlOO Iu M.hO p practlee, and let u.. aml1y&l:' th .. llIM1llnll:.
A 1II:nI.... (call It A.) with th ne thread .. per Ineh 18 eq ual
to Another flCI"ew (M y HI ,In. 1N.d, i.t., lor on .. revolution of
the eerew the n ut wou ld tra veJ"le ,tn.; but II H W all 'In,
lead double tbeeed, t he nut wou ld ..un tl'll,·er>lll' 'In. for one
reV(llu tloll 0 1 the eere ... , hut the &eetiOIl 01 the thr-d would
Duly be on e-half tbe l18etlon 01 t he I h read ot a Mlnll:le-thl'M.ded
sc re w, alld there wo u ld be t ...-tee ee IllAllY tllrNLda in on e
inc h ot length, vii. • 8ix. No ... , take the first CAlle,
where A hlL!l th ree threads per InclI, d ou ble thread. This
may mean either ot two t hi n Kll : (1) th"t the 8Cfe W hall
six thrends ot the lI&llle -=:L1on n.8 in the ~nd Calle
of H, and be 'In . load ; (2) thst the eerew III l i n. lead.
and th a t th e ..ere w hn.II t hree thread s In one loch ot
length with II. llOOtJon equaltn arM. to a thread 01 l iD. plteh.
Thh~ may seem rath er .. far-tetehed " to JIOIIl1l1 bu t It III a
CII.!'Itl taken fro m actu"l practl OO,allll that la ..... hy thi" point
III made of always el[pret<8lull," a eceew t brllolOd by t he aetn a l
lead.
Pitch and Lead.-Tbere I" aillo freque ntly a lll!lluodllr·
eteudtug In the IlSIl of t h ese two t<.-.rmll when Appl!OO to
screw th reads harlnll," multiple th read... Wltb a .inglt
thread, pi tch and lead have the same meanlul{ aud va lu e,
bu t w it h A m ultiple lhread, pite /a bo usually!aken l1.li the
d i81anet btttrt~ any two t/artodll. lIud le ad til A1way/l the
distance t raversed. by t h e n u t f or one r evolution of
the screw. (See page t43 . )
Ratio of Required SCrew to Leadinr 5crew.- T h ll
tint !ltep In the eeleetion of a train 01 ehaoJfe wheel. to eat
• ~w of a ~ven lead i3 te find the r al io between the 16ad
of t he req u ired acrewand the lead 01 the leadlnor; acrew. It
the rat io be sneb that the lee.d.lng8Crtlw" rotatee turn lor turn
with the spindle the thread ent u pon the lICt'tlW' blank: will
bave the lIame traverae or lead u that upon the lead.ln ll,"
ac:re"'. a nd the aame number of threoads Jlt.".r Inch. II the
lea dl n ll: arnl'" rota' - twk:e w bUII the lIp1ndJe rotal_ on ce.
5C RJl..... C UTt iN O:>
the th.--d c ut ...111 have d ou b te t he trav., ......o f th. t llpon the

Ie... iin ll: 1ICI'l! ..., and 001,. han t b" number of t h """rl" per Ineh,
If the leadlnll: IICI'l!W rotates once w hil e t h.....piDdle rot.telI
t... tee, the threadll cut will have half the tn.V..r'1lll 01 that
upon the IMdlnll: IICI'l!W, and twice All maol thrM.d1l pe r in ch.
Coneeoquffitl,.. In thllll.twr C&8lI, thellllllU ('I' number In t he
..tlo drivN the 1.1'K"r number: but If the ""1ull'l!<i MTe'" i .
eo&l'lM'r th.n the leedtng MTeW, then the ll:""Lter number In
the ratio drivea the osmaller.
To find the ratio....etee down the III'&d of the required
'OCn!W • • nd und.....It the lead of the lea.dlnll: IM,YtlW. All
Lead oleerew to be "to
L-..i oIleadlull: KTe....
The lea.d of tbe required 8CnIW. aa well . . ot' t he 1ea.dlujI:
IJCrt".. mulll both be eJ:pnlIlIled In tbe..me ....,.. That I. to
"Y. U the lead ot the required eerew III eJ;preMed In in ch....
then the If'ftd of the le..dlnf IK'nlW mut be up..-l In
IncbeL On the olher hand, I the ""lllired .:re... llleJ:pl'e88eId
in I h r t Brl6 J~r inch. then tbl" .hould be tranllfomu~d In to
t he equ lvAI.mt I........ A (e ... e.xampll!lllwill make the meanln ll:
eh...... . . nd for tile JlurllOlIlI ot lIJufltratlon W fl will &fIIIUlIU! the
leadlnJ( ...rew I" tin. lead. or ptteh, Of. w ha t III the II&m e
t hln ll:, 2 t h.,.,.d" per Incb, the f1tandard plte h In llt'iUllh la t M
precu ee,
(II Fi n d t h" 1'. 110 tor" IIcre w ot li n. lead:
~ 7 2 14 ;
H... t1o = -~- = g X -f = T = T
l:ll I<'lnd 1.1". r"t. lo lor a aere w 1ft In. lead :
II Jf 11 x 2 l!2 11
R"t,lo = T = T = l f T =1f "'4
(3) I<' ln d th" ra t io for" 1I~f(lW l in. l ....d :
• S 2 ~ 3
KAt.lo = T = a x T""e=.
141 trin d the I'1I. tlo lor . "" feW 2' In . lead:
21 V- 17231 Ij
KAtlo=T=T =axT=T"" 4
In the eeove eumpl"" th e lead 01 thtl reqnired aczew u.

upre"'led. 111 Inch...., and It wilt be noted tbe 1....llljI;..ae.... ill
t'IPI'MIIt'<i In the IOamtl ....I y, vi lli., ll&~.
Sow conllld..r • ftl .... r&!lo6ll in w hi cb the lead of thl" required
~f'('w I~ upn.-d In thl'f'llldll per tucb. t he leadinll "" ..... w
beilllf t iD. pi teh
276 sc ....ew CU l l iNG
if we tlM '1I a certai n nam ber of thread.. In lin. 01 l" ol':t b
the pi tch of thOll8 thread1l mUlit equal I d ivi d ed by that
uumbee, pro ",ld ed 01 (':C)UI'1l6 that t he thn-ad1l Are "lop;I,,_ as
a1rMd1 ref"nwt to, Therefore, n",t CODVllrt t he Kiven
nomber 01 th" thread" Into the equivalent lead , wbleh equa l..
1
Dumber of thl'MdH . a nd proooed . . In elIam pl611 (II to (4l.
(51 Find the ratio to r a screw of l! thr.....ru. per Inch. Con
..ertlop: the number 121nt.o the lead, we K"t n.
end the
Ratio = y= A" f :: ~ = i
(Ill triad th" ratio tor .. screw of 2~ thread .. pl'r Inch. Co n .
..ertlnll.' the number 2.Into thlliead we p;et ~ =~. and the
Ratio=~=~" f =~
Right a nd Left. Handed Threa.da.- lIa vlng found tne
..atio, note whether the requ i red ee rew III to have a rij(ht 01'
left handed t hread , IUld whether It Ill. 001\l'1li'1' or !lollr in pitch
ttl .." t h" leadi oj( screw. 110 t bll.t milltai6lt are ll'I'oldcd in
lJetl.lnp; u p the ... beele, If the req u ired RCrt'W III to have a
rlp;h t -ha n d threed, then thO!l lood lng er.re w , wh leh I" a lwaya
rlp;h t -h ll.o ded, mUllt rotata in the seme d lroctlon lUI the lathe
aptndle, a nd th o cut wo ul d IItart from t ho 100lIIl headlOtock
a n d trlLvel to Wardli tho fa"t h ....detcek. It a left·handed
threa d III required, tho lea.dlnp; ecrew WQui d retete in tho
oppcett e dtroetton , an d the cut woul d start from the flUlt
hen ds tcek and t ravel tow lLrd" the 100l!IIl hel\dJJtock. T he
re veree motlon of the p;ll.ldeeerew I" obtained by the t u m ble r
wh eels at the end of the flL8t head>ltock,
Selection and Arrangem ent or Change Wheels.
The lIIllection and errangement of ehanp;e Whllllill to cu t any
eequleed !!oCrllW will be best nndUlltood from 00" or two
practlc:ai exampIlllI.
(7) Find t he chanJl:e wheel" to eut a ~W ot n thread. pa r
Inch, the leadlnJl: ~W being ~ in. pitch.
We _ from e:umple (5) above that the ratio Is 1~ ' and
.linos the requil'l'ld l§CftW iIIllner thall thelCUlde litre". the :i!
dri .. ee the U.
Theretore
JJrheZ' :i!
Driftn - Ii
A.lt Islmp...c t leahle for a wheel to be made with two t e e t h
multiply both numerator a n d denomlustor by aDy eon
"'e u leu t number, .....' 16.
SC RIlW cur-nac 277
It has alrtoRdy been 8ta..t.6d tbat the Dlllllbe l'1l ot teeth lu
dllUl~e wh oolMrille hy5, theret,,", 5, 10.15. 20, and \IIi &ftI t be
uumbo,.n to multiply hy.
W e thoo lI:et
Uriver =:i! )(10= -!l
[)riveD t a x m I ll)
Tb1ll k eep. the ratio t he same, and gtVe8 wbeoe!a whleh an!
lnelu d ed In the lMlt o( chan~ wbeel. provided. The "'ha"l
with lJ) teeth 18 moun ted. on the ehan~&-wheel stlld. driven
by the t umbler ",hoolA. from the 8pindle, and the wheel with
the 11lI teeth on t he l.-llolt IICreW. An intermediate w heel ot
&01 oonvenleot .1&6 111 mouoted on thel~ .Ind auTied 01:1
the . wl oll: fn.me, ..... to make eceneeetce between the
" beew a n d dve rotation to th .. guid.. Ila'6W. (See Fig. 6.1
In tbiAwwblnaUon w.. should onl y have a "a1nll:le- tnln
of whee!a, and It ma y be here pointed out that any nnmber
of iIltfonned iate w h"",l... ~h mOl1oted on a "'p"rate stu d.
m.kee no dl tr..nmOl" In the ratio between t he whell l on t he
spilldle or ehange ... beel etud and that 00 the leadlnll: IICl'eW.
I n }ole:. 6 IIiIl OOehcwn (by dotted. Ilne8 ) II .. eompound or
donbl e t:ralo 01 wheels for eutUD~ the IIIUIle t hread , via.,
12 per Inc h. I n th", _ t h e extra pin ion b planed on the
etoeve to drive the wheel on the I... adlllll: IIt!'eW. Thl>lll"
wh ....18llre found all Iellcw s : W e ha ve lM!CD tha t t htl ratio III
2 d h f Driver l!
12' all t 61'6 ore Dri vell12
Now mu ltiply both numerator a nd denom ln ..tor oy any
s imila r number or uumbeee, 80 a s to ke ep t he raUo the 8&OIe.
un t il tl l" tlll:ur.,s repr6ll6llt wheel s of con v.,n l"ll t 81&6: lor
tneteneo s
(8) .!x~x 25_ 40 x Zfi
12 20 25-24Ox 2O
10 t his e&AIl t he d ri ven would be _tl~factory wb eele, hut
with the dri ven w hee ls on ", would be too Ie rg e and the
other Zfi woul d not be rontained In the set, Now m ul tlply
z.w x 20') = 6,000, And ftud t wo other factore 0 1 thlll n umber
ronYe n leut on.... belnll: III x , 5 = 11,000 : and &lI theee are In.
el uded In t he IIOlt or change wheel... th_ would be q uite
.ultable. and the tralll of wheel8 wou ld be:
~=40x2S
DrIven IJJ x,5
I ta 11M In the peeeent e:nmple would be to Rive & lat'JI:&
..nd lItronll:\" r pinion fnr the driver. I n W"OI'klnll: out cballll:e
_ bIoels lt la often the CILIIoe that 88Yerallll'!tacould be IIO.'leo:ted,
all of whleh would cut the Mme thread: hut the choles in
p raetJ.ee III reIltrlct«l oy tbe ...t of cbanll;tl wheel. .....J lable
aDd tbe arraagewent of the ..lode ..nd . wlnll (ram e ..t tbt
.nd " t th .. lathe
'" SCRE W CUttiNG
1111 !rInd rne .. h"""18 to r ... ..all'" of ~ In. 1....c1. J'b" ....Uo,
we _ 10 thl. ('lII..lj8, with a ,in. plteh IMdlnll: ll('f'eW i fro lD
KI ..mplfl 4 abo..el. t. rt -i. and thll I'llqulred .eTflW belnll
than the l-.dlng ecrew, the 17 drheol the 4.
COIU'1Il'I"
Tbllre'onl DriTer Ii
UriTen "'-.
,
,
~ ,.:.\ -,
\/ , \
\, J : \
Q..,L--L..
- -'-I -
' ...< ..,
--A( ~"" Dt; lk. ...
,
,/
-, ,
- _/
£till. (I,-Two Arrallj(Nllenta ot Change W heels to Cu t •

Sceew with 12 Thrend.s par Inch. LeadloJl: Sere... ~ in .
Pitch, 1)1' LMd.
When one or the numbers In the ratio III odd, a. in thi..
""""" It wUl IIOmetlrnllll be foond amYNlI",nt to take haU of II
and multiply It byl!; th_:
17 _'S'5" 3
"4 -""TkT
~ow ,. .
10 lbawple III multiply both nllwerat£Jf and
denominator by lUIy lJimU&r OIHUOOrll, 110 ILlI to keep th'"
ratio the BalIU! until the ftjtUrN ~D re~Dt wheels of
coonuient 1I1M!; tor in~oe;
8'5" ! '" 1l6" t '" liri~ '" 116~ 00
." 1 4Ow 1 4(1 .. 10 «I"1ll
SClUtW C UTTI NG 279
Th" Ietaee fraction Kivetl (our w heels 01 oonvenli,n t ..\. ....
...h lch m"l be ueed. and "'I ~ . 7 eho ..... two "'''111 in ... bkh
th_ whoolll Il,ay be J(ea.J'ed. The only point to note h. that
the numerator 1I1011'M must repn8lnt the ... hacl on the
eh"'''j(tl ",'-I s h.. lt and the driver on t h" ..t u d, the de
nominator 1l.j(Uf't'16 the wheel on the I....dlnlt ....I"ll.....nd thf.
dri ..en wheel on th" lItud.
-'-
I"IG. 7.-T...o Arranj(tlments of LlllUljl(l W heele to Cut ..
SCI"llW 2i In. L-d. Leedln g Sere.... il n. LNod.
,
(10) lI'lnd the ... heele tor a lin. 1Md-. The ratio we ee" In
thie c...., with a ~ In. 1eNl.lnlt llCI'6l'1' tro 'n Kum ple 3 aho ..e
ia I . a nd "lue" t il" req ui red lM:re '" I. filler thau t he IMd lnp;
"""Tew, then , by the rule , th e lImall er nu", b" r dri ...,.. I,h e
p;re&ter, i.e.• t h,, :-I drl ..... the 4.
There fore Dr h e r '" .!
net - en 4
. ..lId al nee:l i . all odd num ber, It ...1Il be coII,e n lomt ec u lu
halt of It a nd m u ltipl y b12, tb ue
S '" ~ = 15~ _ ~ 4,fj ,, 1lO
4 4,,1 oWx l .fOxJO l 20 x 30
The llUll (rad io ll l{iTM" oompound tn lu or wheel•.
lu th'- cue l'I'e might aleo ha ..e taIlU,D the raUO$ I a t !..
Til_ are both the ....me ... t. and mulUplyiJlll: by 10 w"
..bould ..ton"" un Rot ..... mtable ..inll:le pal"" ot l'I'h.,.l. lIO
llnd 110 or IilO loud 100 U.IDR aDy eon .... nlent lntermec:llal" by
which to make tbem ll:eu.
To eepredcee the 1-.:1 Dr the lea.din"" IJ('rew the noUo
would be t=t. Tb....., tenD" m nltiplled by M "'iii;
th,,",
rore M upon the ehaulte "'heel. Illnd and tlO upon the [_,l1n ll'
""...... will ",uradue.. th .. lr.ad of th .. l.....:li". "","",w .
280 scaaw CUTTUllio
Com pl ex .Ratea.-It 6hollid be noted th!.t All tb.

!actol'>l oontatned In the Dumber ot threadJl to be cut must
be ront&lned In the driven w~l.ll. If It 1110 dl'l8ired to eut 6,
ce " or. m u ltiple ot 5, threadlI to the inch, one of the d riven
wh ee 8 m us t contain /lOme mu ltiple of 5. It It III d.,..ired to
cut 6!, 13, or 26 you m us t ha ve IIOme multlr,le of 13. w hen
t h e ooll:'inner d esirtl!l to cut an odd t hread Ie muet IIret BOO
If the t !LetoI'1l can 1>0 fou n d In h ie Whlll:llll; it no t , h e nee d not
Wll.lIte time In trylu p;. Ill< it eennot be done by compou n djug ,
or lWJ oth...r meene. Furthe r, all primt numbel"ll wh ich
h a ve not an equivalent wheel. or do n ot eo ntain factors ot
8OJJ\8 wbool in the eee, cannot be cut. Prime nurubeta a re
those only dtvistble hy unity. and ecme of the low ODe8 ...r e
3, 5, 'i,ll, 13, 17, 19, 23. All thelll:l M.Il be cut, beceuse an
ordinary set of w heels routa.ha multiplet! of them . \'\hell
s uy pr im e n n m be r above 23 familiA figure In the calc:ulatioD
we at once kno w that the desfred ratio cannot be found, hu t
lor "II prac tica l pu rposes prime n u mbers above 2:l have no
cla im 011 our atten tion,
Co arse Pitch acrewa-c'rc find th e ch anjl;e wbeele t o
cut a ecrew of very 00lU'Se plteh It is nooellMry to """'Ulne ""
man y pain of w heele "" will autficiellUy reduce the alze of
the ilJ'lIt driver. Tbue, to cut a IICrow of IS m. lead with a
leadinA" ""-row of ,In. lead the ratio required, will equal
.'i _ 12 X ll _ l!-I
~-"l""i<"T-T'
a nd the deno minator mU8t be In cr ealled by m ultl plyln!,:

by HOIUIl 1I11ltable number to obtAin a wheel of pro per ets e,
and th e numerator must, of course , he tn cr ....1'iOd In the
.....m e pro portion , fill)' W: th en
:M 20 4!jlJ 61'8t drlVI'l"
T x :!if''' ~ t1not. driven
U two pai r'll of wheels are lUIflumed, It ..ill atAfld thua :
~x;. To reduce the ",i$<l 01 the dnt driver, d1l'lde
t he ftnot. driver a nd the aeoond driven by 4, which ""1II ~:iYe
12~ X ~ ' t h e n, by add ing a not,her pa ir of wheela to th e
t,rain . w" ahould ha ve
l00"~,, I OO
.
20 00 100'
a nd, to aUII furt h er reduce the eree or the nree d river,
divide the tint driver and the la.at driven by f, which ,..m
l(ive the wheelll reqnired:
60 aJ l00 _l!-i
=2ii "ii x 50 -1'
SC REW C U T TI N G 28 1
Such COM'"'' lICreWIl l)&IlDot be eat in a n ordi nary h, t h" , all
t he lItl'll.ln III too ~eat on the chan ~ w hee ill. 'fhl'y are only
required In exce ptional ee see, and a re MIller m lUed. \\' he n
they have to be done in t he la the a IIpecial arrangement ill
riAAad u p a nd the lead in p; screw it6C1l j,~ d ri ven l ro m t he
oounteJ1lhal t, the eptndle beinp; d riven th ro uj{h the chanp:e
....h ee ls,
Some lathell ~ provided with an arran~ment o f IIhlftln p;
whoolJJ for connect.lnll: the cone pulley to the ehsnge wheel.
for coerse ~w cu tt in p:. ThIll ill Rhown In FIll:. 8, the
pinion A bel nlt CA~ble of !!lidi njl; ",lonp: the abaft D Into p:.....r
t"19. 8.-A rrRnp:ement of Wheeill tor Cuttl np: Coane

Se rl'WII,
...i th either or t b" pin ions B a nd C on the aptn d le and cone

pull",. J'Mpectl vely. The re ill no mech a ni c "killed In lathe
work who will not ad mit t he Importance a! t blll moo_ of
connectlnp; t he trai n of se re w-c o tting wheels with the con e
pll1ley of the lathe, OK) as to tncreeee the nlvolotlona of the
&ere '" In pro portion to the relative speed!! of the cone polley
and spindle U'hl'n tlu bac k I1Ml"inl1 ill itl UlI'<'-M 9 to 1. for
eJ:ll.lJlple. Thb. enables sere"'s ot CO&l'lMl f,iU'h to be cot with.
out CJ:celIlIlve lItra,in on the train of ....bee R.&II the lead of the
lICnl W ....oul d the reby be Incre&!led 9 times. In the ahove
e:lllI.mple It wo uld ha" .. done aWIIY ...Ith tt.l' third pair of
_ hM...
282 scaa w l,; U Tl I N G
.ik:nble a.nd. Tr eb le Threa.da.- 'Iru' tll~ l""""'" 1Joto ' ...... n

the centres of the th reads o f .. ACre... 18 Dill y on.,.h.. [ f th",
II.Ct usl le&d In a douhle-tbreoo.d llI:'rt" .... land one-third th e l$d
in a t re b le-t h """d IICrew. ,Sroe FIR. Z. pap;e1l43.)
In euttlnp; a douhle-tbeeed screw, a Blnltto threed III tltHl
cu t, the tool belnjl; the req uisite ste e tor a t hread one -h a ll
th e p it ch of a "'Dlde th rIMd. A mark la t htm " "" t e OIL ..
too th of t he IlrHL drlvl np; Challl(ll w lw el of t he 8et and on tbe
"pace It oecuplea In ure tint oIrlven wh,'el : ti,..,
eh" " !te
wbeels are put out or gear and t h e 11IIt he aplnd le I.. t urn ed
round , and the wh~lll repllLC(>d In 1l:6Il.T a t one- h.l f thf'
num ber of teeth In the wheel b010nd the mer ked tooth ; t h e
lat he Is then ready for MJttiOf( the IIeCOnd th read . Three or
more threads are cut In .. IIhnUar ...y. W hen eut UIIjl,' a
double threo.d t h e whld On the chanll'e-whool s tud sho ut t!
ha ve an lIYen n nnlber ot tooth to divide ",.2, an d wh en eut
tl nl( a treble thrMd It "bould be dl " I"lb l" b,. S. Fo r e xe m ple,
In eu t tl nll: a 2i In. le"d, treble-threa d tlCre w t h", t rain o f
wheel.. sbeuld he placed 1\11 tol1 o w ~, ..hown tn FIll:. i . J.I"I/;O
2tlO at Ih e r lICh t.haml " Ide:-
Dr lv~n J"''''d
Orinr A IJrlv~ r II Driver C ""....... 0
~ ~ ~ ~
To Cut Engliah Screws on a Metric La t he.
The l :!i lootb ..-h"",1 would become e d r lv"r an d wo ul d be
Inconvenient. Au aflpro.rlm.llon to the ra ti o 5j ll!7 ma,.
t ben be ulled. ThI .. t.. I:i5IlllllO. the ...rro r bd nl/; lelll'l than '00 5
pe r Ineh, The eh.nlle wh""h. ""lulred are then:
Kllll'lIl1h lend to be cut l!11IO Dr iven
GuMe "c row 1M({ m /m X -1l5 Foll ow" ",
!t 1[amp l". To cut I ~ thr'\rul" per lm, h - I·\:' In 1"11,,1 on"
m etr ic I"tho wlt.h "uMe S('l'eW II mlm I"".d .
1112 2100 Il rh""" 2160 30
~ x 85 t·oUo .. ,,", 7l! )( ll5 Il3
T he ll:i toothed wh~1 would not do lor eh&n lfP- w h~1
..tu d .. .... It woulrl not dll'lde Into threfl "'l ual pu1A.
Simpl e Rule (or Chaqe Whee l&. - H the r u l..
Leed of IICl'eW to be cut Dri ve",
........1 of load ln p: IIl'"I'llW - Uri ven
I" 11;" 1'1 In m in d, no dlftleu l t,. s hou ld pow a rl!le In worll:lnp:
ou t A l l ' com bination of eha nl(e wheel.. requ ired. ~'or con
- ec te nce, the tollowhl" tahlt'lll hav e been worked ou t , an d
wil l be fou n d . ullt"tul ret..-ren('Jfl, but It mUllt he rem"mbered
that th e wheel.. !then th"re wa,. req uire modltyln p: to lIuit
t he arranjl@ffient 01 8winll' lrame and IItudL In the ta blllll
both the n umbs' 0 1 thread. and the 001Tellpondlnll: lead are
ll:i veD ; In the III'11t table the nwuber 01 th'-<ie Is placed in
the fI ....t col u mn and tn th .. --.:In<l tahle ttl .. le&d IN plared
In t.he ft ....t rolum n
SC RaW CUTTING
Ta ble of Oha nge Wh eel ' for Sc rew OuUi na.

LU OINO Sa. .. 'II" PnclI, OB L....o
TABLE No.1. TABLE so. ¥.
•
.
.. u 0 0 o n
:{, '"'" .
- - - - - - - - 1 , - - , - -
"sa t
h 20 IllO all
20 70 se
20
""
'OIl
,' 80
OJ
I.~
eo so 80
"so !lXI 60 ""
"" z d
50 so
.
00
"" "
00 00
00 ""
""'01 ,"u " I i.
70 ~ eo
16 "" 00 , 00 00
13"
"11te ~ :
70
es
71> '"
so
I GO
.
' OIl
,eo II " d• ''"'""
50
55
it es I. : '"
00
" eo l••• '"sc''"'""

.. 110
10 , " eo go , 100
J' 70
.
!.,, I eceo :s
:;
:
• I
00
8J
70
1
00
50
. .."'"
MJ
, "'" i1 i § Iia,
80
'" "ss
00
110
j
70
"
00 all 70
"
," "
," .,
.!l 70 00 00
~ 00 " 60
"" l ~
00 OJ
'" ""
00 so I:!~ 40
:...
~
00
00
: "
~
00 10 120 00
00
" '" OJ
, 'OIl
110 "40 ' 20
1:00 00
t.
1
00 ao 1:!O ee
es .,ee
00
~ 1 "
00 '00
•
70 :ll
00
01
11lI
, eo
' 01 ..
284 SC RE W C UTTING
'file l o.llo wln !'l l.<l.blll ill l or .. la t h '" h a yjDl( . 1,,""11011. e eee ...
wi t h 8 thrt'ad.. JIO' f Inc b. T he Mer" ... h,," ac tWlll y 4 th read..
per Incb , but t here I.... ratio of l(6af oo t w"",n the Rpindle .. nd
CbllDlI:e wheel ..tu<l of l! to t.
Ta ble of Chanlle Wheeill
,.
'''='
t;..~ ..... .........
........
-.. !0 0111"l1'
~. Wb......
.•••- ._-.....
I." .=:.
•-
• -- ~I~ •
0 0 0
-- - -
I
.." '" .. .
"".. . "" .. ..
--
ra 80 1"
,
II ll2
. " "
80
. '". Of 80
72 I i8 '0
. ..... .."
'I
"•/
•'' 1I
""" . Of
".. .. ", "

so
"
80
88
72
104
se
"
..
ie
ie
20
22
ae
az
es
80
88
80
80
80
80
ae
"." ". .. "as ., ee ..

ee 2O as 80 104
Of 72 aa 80 na
••7
80 30 80 Of
• .... "I" 48 40 " """.. ""aa "aa "seee neus

72
30 ", 80
na
. ..
0 80 72 32
10
u
It .. 80
". 0
eo
88
"
" I " " '"
sa
" " "" . se ne
us
"80 "
80 "ea ." ..
ue "
li7
285
No ..... ta ll., eue fu rt he r lllLtlmple frum th~ la th" . t h tl 'abl.,

lor which ilI l/:l ve n OD pa~ 266, and find I,he whe el.. req u ln 'll
to eut a IICI1lW of three th re ad" pe r lne h. Th .. plt cfl of th e
lMdl nll:!lCNlw 19l1flul..le nl to e1llht threed.. per Inch , or lin.
piteh, The p itch of the ""l ul ..""t "" f ew will hot> ., In.• and
a"lnli: th ... formula
I-d or ICI'llW to be cut _ UrI" .......
IJMd of 1N.rl ln li: !!Crt'W - urr;;;;;
.",,1_ ,, 8 =lL ratlo of .!. .
• 3 1 11
LooklnJl: a t t h e 1I11t e n ~ :£'i. we _ that th" wh...,l" aft!
a ll d ly bdblll hy 4; a nd we Dln"t thlll'tlforll mulUPlr the ratio
of Lbll whNl . by IIOWll n umbel' that ... 1Il .1110 be d Yilliblll by
4, 8IIIJ12, IlO t hat w e the n Ket : -~- " ~;- '" : -. 11>_ _ t ll'",l "
won ld cut the required th read u~ In .. Ainlt1ll tnUo; bu t on

reference to the ...heel liI't we .lI. nd t hat there I" no ...h flel
wtth 36 tooth Included, flO that it l.erolllM lloceMl'ft ry t.o n~
another whoolln lh place, and bf oomroundlnl/: th" ....h .....lll
81111 koo p t he r>\Uo th e _IDe. ~ o ..· m ultiply the a6 b y Z.
wh lcb p:lveIJUII a w hee l with 72 tooth, anCi lllloontained In the
!let, ' \' e IIhall tlum wlllnt anoth er pai r of w h0ll111 with a
ra ti o of 2 to 1 to '-'Quallllll, uy IJ) ",nil 40, a nd the 80 woulil
ta ke the place of the IIl'ICOnd dr iver on thp Ml ud, Ti,e whM I"
wou ld UlNI lIU\nd as
l>rI Ters = 00 " 110
Driven 7~ )( oW '
T o Prove Cbange Wheels.-To pr o v" tll a mrrl'l' tne,,·
of ehange wheelll for lIerew cuttlnlC. UIM'! the for mu llt\ :
(Il Driven m Ultiplied tolt et h er No. of t hrMdll of IfIII.rl ln l'(
Drhf\tll m u lti pli ed tql:'ether " ecre w
'" num ber of threa.d. to be cut.
()rll'UlI_m,ultipUed ~her_ "lead of I.....ln l'( 1ICTtI ..
Driven multt plted toj;t'ethu
= leAd of llCfeW to be cut.
Taklnjt the w heels in Itumple7, ... to have
~ = 12!1. '" 6, a nd 6 " It = U thl'6ad" pt'l. loch
UrI ven ill
T.~njt the ~ or Example II.
Drivltl'll 85 " lll;l. "l! =E.. ~ Ii In. Iu d ,
IlriTNI 40 ,,30 11
'''''Out.ting Screws with Metric
SCK,KW CUT TING
Pitchell,-The prohl"...
ot cuttlllJl: ",,",WII with metrll' pltchetl 0lUI be lIOhed In .. very
IIlmpleJPanoe, to .. very clllfle d~ ot appnnlmatlo n. The
metre ill 3Il-:l708in. long, Thill III only about ,i,th of ILlI
loeh 1_ than :Jgfin., whleh for Pl'1l.Ctka.lllll."rn.. -cu ttt eg e&J..
ell 'AUo IIII "",y he tai"'n .... thfl equhalent. the error in ..
IlCnlW lOin. loujl; being llCaroe1y more than the ,n.th pIlrt of
a n Ineh.
Siooe there &nI 1.000 mm, In the ......tl"8, r.e., In 3911n. , there
,.~ 8.000 mm . In min. x 8 '" 3Uiln., and &llI'Iumlnjl;" I~
f1Crewof lin. ploch, this 'WOuld btl eqllhalf'ot to 315 x 1 = 600
threadllin SUin. = lDJ threads in 8,000 D'm .
HellO$, It a .en'" of I mm. plkh .a11 reqnlred, the rat i o
bl!'twePn the nlqllired IlCrew and the IHadloll; weft... ~lIld be
u
llI:IlJ : 8.000 = 6S ; IlOO.
As I qu n. ploch I" 1_ than the pitch of the leadlna lICnlW' th e
OIm.llpt number driVeR the IUflII,tN, t.beret~ l.!!'!~,! '" ,_
Driven l!OO
ThU ll, III workloll: ont the chlll1.ltf" wheel" lor lUly eere w 01
m tllimPot,re pitch, thl.. fl'1l.Ction I~ a 00ll~ta.nt number, end a
8p(\c\ft.l wheel havinlt 63 teeth, termed a "t.r lLn!lh.U n l/:"
whl'(l l, m us t he used. In a f~ ... odd CIUIel:I thlll wh NlI m n be
omitted, and a ""leedon from the ordln/Lry set u sed wh ic h
will gtve th6 _me ratio.
To flnd the ch"ulo(e wheels, Illul t./pl y t he oonst...nt by the
pitch of the 8CreW required.
K z a m plr .- 'ro llnd the cru..nl(8 whoehl to cu t a th'llILd ot ~
mm , pltc h:
: " e I'eIlOlved into fr&et ion ll hnoolnM : : 1~
and by addl nl/: .. cipher to the number 15 /Lnd another to the
n nm oor 10 we 11:"1. the required lIthl'el.l M
Driver 6.1 x 110
Driven == IlO" 100
Accnra te Metrie Pitch Screws.-MOOII al'Cu ra te "",g ltll
can be ObtAlrled hy the uee of .. tran"latlnJl: w heel havlnJl: 127
teeth. All \$ w ..11 known. there are al mOllt ex.... t ly 25' . m m.
In an Inch. and 1IO wtt h e teedins ecrew of Un.lt'OUl, and "".th
chauW! ""hl"e11 of 10 and Z54... ~ ... of I nUD. pitch would
be cut. A.!l a lUattn of practl,.. thill ill simply modU\ed Ly
InAtiDl/: the llllLdlnlt ...rew of 'in. load and the to:lrTellpondl DA'
ebao,", ... h.....l of 127 teeth. The t'Nait II that a I().toootb
... h...,1 on the ch"nloCfl.whl"elllbaft ...lll cut I mm. rltch. a u
II-tooth wheel 1'1 111m. pitch, .. IS-tooth wheel "Ii m .m .
nlc.eh. a noi 110 on for eVflr,. dfll'lmal of a mllllm"ll"$. Tb l
~ R Il "" <;;UTTl N G Ui7
pr OlC I~ h,lll 01 thift rl.l..thQd w t n be Ilee n "h.", It Ia Illl a ",
lltood tha t t htl ..r ror would amou n t to onl ,. OVOlN7 of a
mlllim t!tre = 01lOO35in.. or l'1I. Uwr le>!o!l than ,"-Ith of an ine h
in On" me tt"8, an a mou nt w h ich III quite w id.in the li m ite
of the p~h. i o ll of ou r kn ow1ed >l:e of the tr ue rc tatfon o f t be
metro a nd the In ch . an d d ou btless .....11 ... ithi n th.. lI ",i tll of
&tt Ul'1l.'7 of th e 1~lnFt ....I'l'!W of .. ee meueretallet h... Und ..r
theee clre u ffilll.anc.wo. therefore. there _mil to be o n KT\'a t
re.utOll for aotit&tion ..boat the eq ui pment of IathN wi t h
me t ric lea.dln>l: IICreWIj wht'n but on e elltra "ht"elillrequi red.
sod it is d lrtku lt to _ how th.. "itlll,tloo could be 1I1111plltied .
Tabl e of Change Wheels [or Millimet re Pika
1.... 01110 Sea... t ll'. Preen .
I I
I' ltch '"
Th r...ulIl
11 111_ ......
I~
..... 01...
Il"heaL
" ~.
Urlnh Il"hool.
OQ !>I'el.
B
Drl_r -
~wL
0
'Ifh...,J
I _I.., ...
----- --- --- ----- - ----- -- - --
Rule for Mil lim Btre Pitches. - The ( 0 110 ... 101/: ruJ... wHl
I/:ive th.. eha nll:e w hee l'" requ ired for nutttm e tre p lu h"", :
' II ~= 10 x pitch of 9UllW 10 mlllimetl'EWl
lJri . en !'!;' 1
or it rna,. he ,,00 esp~ IIll folloWll lor 1I.lIf! ... lt h la thes
ha ..lnp; th e Jeadlnjl: 1ICnl'" lI:"eared to the !lr.JOdie at an,. ot htor
than a n equlLl ratio. IIll in the A.m..riea.n ath.:
(ll) DrI... ,,'1I_
5
n..h ..n - t ll7",n nmb6r of tntDA pe r Inch 01 II:"DJde
, !It're ... x the p itch In nlll\hnetrell of
th", IIt'n'!W to be cu t..
2'" SCRE W CU TI I NC
d:.;a,,,pl ••• - !l.tl4.uJr6l1 the wheelR tv c .. ~ 0 ru .... pl teb .

l",..rllnll: ller....... ~ In , p i tch :
(11 Ur lvel'll =lO " .! = 50 =:il:'l "tIU
Drfv,m Illi I 127 111 40
(II E!.1..erll_~ )(!x.!=50= 25x~
DrI ven -127 I I l in 127 40'
Th ...... no of t hese wheel.. la i~ '" O"3W7U to I, ud
lor the ",une pitch with a t raollia l ln j( wheel of t'i3 teeth th e
"" t lo I" I~ = o-3Il:r.5 to I, the dl lfeJ't<oce bet wee n the
...tlo& be lol( bardly perceptible.
Quick ChaDging for Screw Cutting.-1D nrr l ew
Hri t i8h lathe. h. t h", ord inary ",,,,thO<! of eh an¢oll: " 'heea
for ~~"" t'u ttl op: departed from -tbat . 'I'l L , ....hIeh la
etreeted t hroulCh the med ium o r a I wlol( fram e "'""T1Djl:
l i n d . on w h teh t he 1I1np: le oreorn pound wheel.. are plaeed to
ma ke the con nection between the ehanll:e- whee l BIUd and
th e It'«d ln p; IICrt'W. For each It('psnt.t e 1..d w hlcb may have
to be cu t tlo.. ehange wheel s have t.o be ..e lected, ot be r
wil .. ",!.. .. re ..loUIII, u~ rem oved and repleeed w it h t he
rnqu l....u 01' ..... Anrl. th_ the n tried round ",,"1'(11"111 tlm ell to
"'''Il they are rorred ly lu I{ll&l'. Thll" 1M Mt....nd a r d practice
110"'. just ... It WlUI yl'l8" Ilf((l. On the oth er h an d , the
Aml'rlCft,n" . a lwaye all t he lookout lor 901ll11thlnp; w h ich w ill
IlRve time an d bellevlnp; t.hll time required for thefoo opera
ti on" to ~ worth " avln l/.'. have llJTanp;611 In MOIIl6 0 1 their
la t h ,,,, allxll huy WhtJ611lo in CClIln('(\t1on with the chanl/.'e
Q;lllU'lulo\' which will eaUHe th e leAd of a ae r ow to be doubl ed
Dr trebled: &r;c., by the elm!? le mo veme n t 01 ell d lnll a wheel
or 01 a ,,1I11 Inl/.' -\""y uiechaniem. ThUllo a en"o ller number of
whoollllU'e re quired , and alMa \1_ e h.n.n l/,'efl. In otlwr hotheM
a hox of wh.",I II I ~ a rran l{"d In t he form 01 a co ne. Into a n y
Due of wh ich. wh eel may en~.. a nd Jl:\ve llll m a n y ehalllo\'ell
all there "re w h"",ls in t he COlle. and the llu 'ube r Dr thnwle
which "n y one euch eomb in a tl oo 111 eut Is JOven 00 "n
Indu of IlOme kind in s uch a y t h.. t the in deJ:ln ll
l'Ilin cld N ... Ith the m a king of the chanRE'o Tb_ ehan~
ean be mad.. In m Dllt taeteneee ... Ithout 1I10 ppl n l\: tM lathe.
Th e dptallll of dllflll'lmt maken.. of rounoe, differ. hut the
principII:' 1MIIlmll ar In a ll.
The Hendey-Norton Change Wheel System.-Onl:'
o f the bellt know o arranjtt:' me otlo III Ill " llyllle D! of change
ll ri llP: tpeteuted b.. !olt_ S orlon In I~ " nd ahow n In Fig.
1I) hlch lIIa y be ' d..... r lbed. &II co oalllti nK ol a eone of
eh a n lolll whee l.. mo unted directly on the lelld lnl( eeeew 01
the l" the. a n d IWlClI.l"ed t h e reta bv on e key. t.h....hnle bei o p;
>;CR.I!W CUTT ING
~ ILC JOKt>d "r

III .. """" Or W1, wWch 1&1. 01100 for"... t h " ...... fo.
th.. ... h....h•• ,,"d t he bee rtnsa at tllth"r end to r th .. llefe "".
the top lMlnl( QtllUwd lL!I a tray on ... hld, lOOlOll tool .. <'"&II \",
la id. I II the lowe r pIlrt of t his hoI: 1/11 IIrrallgod a dri~lnll
.hart w ith bea.rl nW' parallel to t he 80:'"''''. Thlllllha t t hu II
keY'.... y the Iulllengtb of the rnae r Ilid.. of the bcx, and h...
Ilid loJl: u .,on iI." lItal'J dr tvlng pinion. 'f h;", ;lIn ion heal'll the
proper ....1"Uoll to all the ... b....br. In the mne to cut the
re,tttlar list of thl'N.G ll from II l(l :!D. Ju. .......:tlon ulathe to
the wh6ll111 In the con e betng con trolled by a handle, t he
mOl'r e nd ot whic h III a forked Cll.!ltinll: .....t h beartn!" on
either alce of t he pia loo ; "nd in a n upper ut"ullion of the
aame fork are the o..nnv;a for ..n inter",,,,,llale or tumbl...
whl!'flJ, w hleh la Wfllhed wi th th e slldlnll: pinion. and I .
t hrow n 1::1 orout or the v...r ......" _I._I. of thll 000. b) .... n_
or the hand le.
f he la de . plat e on t he front hrur. not mee or flulDcl en t

dept h trJ reeeire an d gutde the handle and whNll In ptr lec t
lin. with th ........nfl wheel "anted. t h e t ilresd " h l,,1! t h e
combin ation wlU cut be lli@: marked ahore each note h. T he
Lauh for hold lnl{ the handle ~ wbeel In ptece la arran ll:ed
l(l eeeure the ....n dle w ith a llpri n jl; eate t.. Thla pnl,eol.fl
an y JlO8iiblUty of the handle beinll: thrown out fror. t he
illation of the ahaft or whe-ela whl'n runninlC. and a.IlJO holda
th" bandle in poIIitlOD ....henl Ja.t WI«l . Thua rar the de vioe
.. deeerfbed "" onry cu tt in g the 12 ~ll:Ula r UJrtwJ.. from" t o
:ill \ w h1ch Include aD the onlioary th~ :n dally a ee , a Dd
la aoeoopllahed without ehan jlll aalde from the mOTefueut
of the If'l'e r from eee notch to the othe r.
Th. d:iv lojl; ahaft III drhen from the la tllllflp lod le tbrouJtb
bevel wh ...l. arid e,Qtcbeoo.. whkb er-e It • motion alth er
10lU
290 SCRRW r. UTTI N G
rl Jo(h t o r 1,,1t band, .. ud then by m ea" " 01 eq".. l wb.ool .. on

t he outer endll of the ij h ll.~t8 .. ud la r g e Inte rmedtete wheel on
.. IIt ud . It will be seen that by ch " op;in jl; the rat io o f t neee
w beo-l8 t he liAt ot t h l'<'Arl.~ w ill be r.h.. njl,' ~.,j ILCCOnl iull to t he
ra tio of the lI"hools tL'ted. Wit h \)Q ~ two d'" 11jl,'efl:ill different
pitc h.., ranlljinjl,' from H to tltl thread.. ptlf inc h , ca n be co t.
Xotw lthKta nd lu lI: t hi s perureuent form of geertng. t b..
reten tion of t he intt"rchangea hili ty or t he outOlide change
Jl:eari n )t t hull wsk"" it pooJ!li bJe to ohtllln any p itch not
s how n on the in dex by t he use of .. 8pecia\ w he·el or wheel .
wh ich m"l be employ...t w it h t bcee II.1r.-ad1 mounted.
Mort.'Over. t .. il l be apparent t ha t lIuch Rdditiolllli change
...b ool. will not onl y co t the pi tch 8P"Citkally required, but
,.-ill furnish many ditfer"nt ehalll{"", lUI they can be uJloe(!
in eomblnatfou with t he outsid e r han ll'll wheelA regu la r l y
em ployed and t he ..·h_la of t he cone,....eh ad a ptAt ion ¢vin g
12 eben g ee, So any thread which ran be cut on any ordinal']'
Illthe can he cut on a Hen d..y ·:Sorton, and man,. more.
Theee re llu.rl" . will, of COUI'lle, apply .oq uall y to c:han~ of
feed, lUI" t he l<II. me &lTangementll u e nlltld both for l!IC..... w
eu ttlnp:a nd t n minl/:.
The con e 1/:6'U'in p: is clearly ..boWD iD the d iAjl;l'am Fig. 10,
A be lnlt ~he f1rAt dri ri~ pini on I18t:v ri'd 1.0 the feed !!tnd
<;:;' r- ~
iL ~
,
..,-. Ill:. -
r
.. .. " ,':"s: " r-;; "
,! >}'G
~ U
".. ,"
. J'
w.::: .rr ~ , .
[§
,.- , '
!'.
.•.. ., ....... "... ..• ,.. ..

l-
l *i'; ... ;; ... -
"
,i,
l!e n
'- >- ~
3
t' 1 ~. 10. - P &rti " u !.ars of [hI! ceee u-r...
and U the _w hoo l lUI on the lead i tll( scre w ot ILU ordinary
lathe. C \I. th e cone ot It wh eel.. in t n e ~IU' box, a nd D ui e
alidlllll:"plllion whleh IROn th...h a ft with U. and may enl/:l. lI:ll
TAPRR T U R N I N G AND BORING 29 1
orlth "ny on., or th., wheela fn theeone. l:Jyp laelap; tihe Mldl nr.
pin ion n w ith the r l~ht·haod wh ....l of the ee ae th., ow:TeW II
even l,. lleanod . "nd IlpeMal thn-adlllllll J be lIltUrM wi th ease.
...
...
-.
.... ' A
. ••
~
..
FIJI:. Il.-I nd e'l P la te for Win . La t h...
1'h e pitc h eat ...Ith a n1 p.a.nl" u lar eom blo&lloo m" J be
fouod hr o lllnp; the folio _ lo p;fo rm u l... in whl c h I' ....prellPn tll
tbe lea< of the le ad i o ll' s crew and the otb. r l",Ue "" tl,,,,
...h eelll &II on tbe "boT" di a gram ;
A"n ..
'lJ""i<C p = 1-.:1 of requiNd ..rre...
E;r'lm,..t".- \,"bAt le&d will tbe w heer. eut when plAoed all
IIhown 10 Fi lii. 10. th" le&diol/: sc r ew haTl n l/: IIh t l, rMds p"r
inch and A and II :f6 tf!eth en eh I
JlIl x 1lO x 1 =llo Ill<lrl., or 12 thrMdll J)<'l r Inch.
:«1 x flO " II 12
What wooM he the lead If A had 144 T
ll\l\d, or three thr.""l~ I~'r In ch .
se e eo e e = la In
144 " all " 1
W it h t1lt"ren ..e to t h e eiz 68 of th ., l"thllll p; lven In t he

d lap;r am , It IIhould he rllJllemOOrM t h" t An 'erk",n lathee ATe
d Merl hed hl the "8",1I1P;: ' which III tw lee I,hl'! Urlt("b
meeeure of ' cen l.r"II: ' IlO that what ill tb!'", k nown a" a
~ In. I"" hll ..ou ld here be <"Ailed a 10in. centre la th e. It
mil/:ht " I!lO 00 mlVlt lon ed that In A m.. rlca ....Jr.-.eUnll IlIt h",
a re tenned "enp;1 n e" I"th_
Taper Turni ng and Borl nr.

By Change Wbeela .- Th e Inrn ln Jl: &nd horlnll: of taIM'"
can be IIOlXIlupll"hoo In IIe TN'llI d iift'lTent .... JlIo Th e aeenrac,.
...It b ...hleb lI\Jeh ...-ork may be dn n", d~Pl'Ind" "lmOflt .....t1..eJT
on the lae llit iell for dolnl/: It. and ... hen t111!&& "re i noonl plet ...
the job mil,. be 'l'll1'J' dllTlen lt of aceompl1Bhm~nt : but _ It,b
the PTOpeT facl.litlllll tap"" ..ork ee n be t n rn ed an d bored 11.8
"""liT all JIllrallel ...-ork. Some lMT~w"'ll lllna: Illrl"YI ~
pro 'l'ided w ith " eon nection be tween tbe I ln ll: ........"'. and
t h .. blle k ~haJ t (lor the feed , b.. a -er.<;l nd t tn of " ha n O! e
•
292 T A l' ll1l TURNING AN t> aOll l N G
w heelll pl ..eed .t t he rlp;ht- hanrl end of the bed In th.,

m" " n..t " how n In Flit. I ll.. Th e "lidina merton he lnj:( then
t .. 1I:1II1I fNlm t he 1e&riln lC sere ..... and the , •• r facina mo t io n.
t n-, I ll- A rran l{Nl' fln t 0 1 Chanll:e \\'heel" tOl' Ttoper 1'lIr n ln jl:
" lmu!t,an"ou 'lly from the b/I.C k " ha lt, ,. d l"froolLl reo.UltaDt
I" ob LlLtnoo, th e proportio n between th" two mot ion " (or.
ID otll (,r woNl .., t he .. m ou n t of taper) f 6llu ltlnl( from &ny
eciu btn a tton of wheeta eale ulated lU I HIIOW Il bIllo w. The bac k
"hllft hI d riv en by cha nl{1l wheel .. from t he lOlUllnl( scr e w,
an d f or thl " p Uf JlOllll an (lJ[U'A 'Iwl op; f r ll.lIle 111 p lacod .. t t he
lllld of t.he la the bed . A wor m on the hack "h dt d r lv lls ..
w hool on t he end of the 8urf",clnll: lICrew, IlO HUl l wh en t he
Of taper I" form ed InllteH.d of .. J!8rallll.
F.""'red
bll.Ck ah.. rt lIond th e lea d lnll: IICf"'" ILrt'I tql:llther a co ne
I n t he ll",l pl~ It ill nec..-ry to lllld a rolllltant for the
la the - i. e., ho w Ulany re vol ut i oll ~ the bIo.ck ehatt make8 to
mOVe the t'rotIlI.traver>toe allde halt an Inch, whIch &q u ail.
l iD. In d lalllete r. whUe the llalTlJo.a:e I. 1lI0vlnll: l i n . 10n ll:I
tud l na lly.
To n od the oon~tant, we p roceed ... foIlOw.:
Loot C = the oon ..tant ;
T = n u m ber 01 teeth in the "'orm _h1'81 on the ~u r
I seiD II: 8CreW ;
:0; = n umber of thre&dll In th .. WMm. elth",r ..In l(t",
or do uhle :
p:= I~ 01 lSurfaclnjl: lICrew;
o = lead of leadin~ screw :
R ~ thll diAtance of tra ..el 01 ~-tn .. .,noe llilde U)
equal li n . dlam•• or \ In .
TAPaIR T U R NIN G AND Il0RING 293
Ttlll ~ C='1"ltU>< N
For e .....m Plll nlUl th" tolllltant lor a l.. ~h" "'I ~h th~
to llowill ll: detal l ~ ; ~\Ur..dDK""""w i ln. 1-.1, worm wh_ l ~
teeth, wonu ll1nltle lhma.d, le&dw lt ..,,,,,w
,in. lead.
Tlen . II.OOOrdinlt to the formula..
c = l".) _" .:1 " 11 = aJ" "5 = Ill.
-s " 1
10 othll.'l" words, ror" one "".,.olut,lon 01 the back &h"'t It..
~~trav" ..... .Jlde ",ollid '"'0'0'"
1 1 1
;,l) "T=40 la ..
aad It woulcl thN-etore requi"" to mue -fO t .trUI> to ""OTe ~
1l11d~ Doe Inth and l!O t o m s to DID"" it half an Inch. A. ttA!
le.di.nlttICrew ia ' in. lead, tW. would req o.ire to make t we lun a
~ 1I0Ta tha_rrl"Kfl one Inch, -.nd all the cnrrlajI:e n.o..t DlOTe
one in ch lCIIIM:ltudln&lly w hile the Il1 lde m ove-. halt a " Inch
tTaIlsTenely, the ratio bet....eea the baclI: IIh.. rt and t h.
llllldlnj,( ItCnlW mWl~ be ~_ = 10 to I = Ih.. fflnHt.a.DL
To Fin d t he Change Wheels for Taper Work.

p~ hy the M llJe directio ns Illl !thun for IICrtlW cutt in ll:.
l"lNt, tin" the ratio beeween tu" eu"',I.&l,t and the oon o to
be turned, aud theu 8lliect t he requ tred w heel ...
(Min = 1J.! 1'y~ = Con s ta ~
Driven Gone
L"xum" te.- Fl nd t he eh ..nge w heels r.oqulr"d 00 ~urn I>
.....11 l\ IU n. d l&m. a t one e nd and 31n. dtam...t the other, alld
WIn. lonll;, t,he lathe havlo,J; a CUI"'t.a ,,~ ot 10.
\\i6 lio d by dl vl dl ojl; th6 dl tf6!'l"lloo In the d hu Il61d"8 ot th e
OOn" ln l.o the lenath, t.c, ~-~j = 8. I,ha t the eon e III I in Ij :
then , aDllOrdiD jI; 1.0 the n:lle,
R.t.t1o == ~
S o"," "",lec~ a ~raiD ot wbeel. ....h ich will connect the IN.di n li
....... 1.0 I..... back a4att .... d be in the ratio ot ~. M1 ch ...
llrIv," _ 100,. ~ or ~ x eo = ~
DriT", - ';'0 .... RO .. WI II
•
294 tA I'K k T U R N I NG "NU lOUR IN G
TalUu~ UJ" nt~t train at w hooiJl, thl' Oil" wlt b lUll tMtb
wou ld 1m plll.Ctld on the llJ"'dlul{ ..crew, or (a " In t he IIIUl1tn"
t ionl on t he COUnter Mt nd, dri vlln by a pair of l'q ual w h~lI
tro m thll loa<Un>¢ sc re w. and the wheel wit h IlO teet h on thl'
back I ha lt, ttl.. tlt).tooth w heel being "Im ply a D Inttm lllKl. latf)
to ma k e uf. t he d hl tance. T he IlOOOnd train of _hoola wou ld.
of 000 ' - , '" co mpounded, either the 5O- toot h or the llO-lOotb
whtl&\ be loll: p~ On t he l ead.lll~ sere....
To Pl'tI" " the wheelll;
The eeee '" Uriven ~ulti plied toglIth...r ~ Coullt&n l
Dd ,,61'11 multiplied tOI(.. thtl!" I
To J>ro'l'e the wheel. in the example:
80 x 1lO I II
100 x 60 x T '" 8, or. collen! I lo b.
By 8ettiDg OYer the Loose Beadatock.,. - An alw c.r.t
l10 ivenal method emrll)]"ed for taper ulI'u lnll; W by ee ttlng
the I~ he&dlltOek 0 the lathe o,·u In "nch a ma no<;r lI.R to
l.hro w the "l..ck. Of l.&il .~ OIlIllre nul of une wit h the live
centnl t IlO that , thou~h the turuilljl; tool iA travlIr-'. pa rallel
.nth t oe lat he bed and tho 1a&t hoadlltack IIpindlo, tll" w ork
l>et WlO8II tbe eentrea ill turned to the t&p..,r req uired. A ll the
amount of IIldo adjustment i1~ llmited to II IImall n.n jl;e oub
IIll Kb t tepe ra ca n be prod n 08d In this mlLllner. and eopeeially
110 in CILIteII where the work III 101lR. Th u" II t il" t..11 ee n tre
call bfl lltlt over Un . , a n d the w ork l.lJ ... ft. lOU R, then it wUl
ll<J tUfIlt'd l!J n , 8w lLller a t tho tall C<'1ltJ'e e nd than a t the live
eeut.r e end , which w ould RJvo a ooue o f liln. IMII' roo t. If the
work W6.8 1ft. long It would hnv e /I roue 01 llin . P6r foot.
Tho prtnclp...l objection to t hI s rn"t,hOlI or lltplll' turnlnjl; iB
that tho cen rree of t he la t he 110 10/l jl;er pctu t. toward Mch
othur, and tllll centre be.t.r i lljl,"lI ln t he w ork do not th erefore
oo...r property u po n t he m. 1'hlll fr equen tly l'1I.U_ "seessive
wear on t ho bear ings , a nd 1lO111"thll"" th ro w II tbt! w ork ou t
of t r u t h. Th e en ds of lilt! work lIIu "t I>e laOlld off' po., rf ectly
square, or otherwi se It III sure t o ru u ou t w hen hul d on off" Ret
oentr8&.
When cylindrical work on ly III buhljl; t u r ned t he correct
u_ of t he cylinder iB not in t he leMt n"lr red by the heijl;h t
at ... bl eh the tool ill Ret. t hou p:h t he ~uty of the lIurfao&
lIIa y be .......ry llIuch atfected. Hu t t he tum lnjl; 01 a conical
\Wt face Nq u.iJ"ell IlpeciAl canlln tUb reepect., lin d it ill of t he
b.ijl; bsst importanoe that the hftlp:ht of til" teol point should
De eu.etl ylevel with the centro line of the work , otherwilM'
a true COOl' would not be pnxIoeed.
For boriOA;tapefllOn -orne l.lhf!8l\.1lv.nta~IIIoccasionall y
-.r.
taken of the JIOboIibllity of lIettl njl; eve r the IlUl l b eadlltock.
Tbill, bo ....ve e, ill n ot lOd,.i... ble, ILII when t b e r... t hH.d.tock
IIplud l. I" OllCO' all lCllH s- rall.l with Lblt "Udinll: of thf'
T ",PII" TURNI~G ANU ROItIN" 295
bed It "ll l/u id be _"rely l.....t ell<'l1 dow n I nO( &jllIU.1I dl,, ·
turbc>d. oth.......I_ t.rn ......ork WIll nO( be arM ....It ho u t
con"ld etlObl" rAN' In the r...o.j u..tn,en t.
The compound I'1lOlt ia the lu"''';!! llI'lt to WIlllur ahort tapen.
ei ther borinll:' or tumin!t..... th, eonatrnctl()n of thl" .llo....
the to p a:ldr wh ich carri<lll t he tool to h", srl.nd "l.'C ured .. t
t.u y .1I~la r polIlt loa . thWl ena:'lin~ t he bori"lo, or t~inll:'
0 1 any t.ap<>r .... matl ..r ho.... ~ t-P. ,."'" tnol ma, be fed h}'
ha nd or by a ratehoot mot ion w<)rked lro m A ~k l nll:' lIba ft
o...& h o:vul. Soll'e IAthflflll.n' pro\'ldl'ld wit h IO('Ir-4lctiul( mallona
to th" to;a ,,1M.. for taper work.
Taper·tumiD , At taehment&- Man y lalhl"fl ...e pro•
... lded witl, taper ~tAehJll enu. by whkh ...tema.l tapen
m. he turned w ithout orr.ooerthlR th" In.-I,_ b toc k , Thlr
1_ the tru" """n n l':!' on the C'!"ntll'lll. and d~ not r - .
.lta~ tt.e difficulty of hA\'ing:o adjl1llt th e d.-l .... nrre 101
puallel : u m ln ll: eae h. tim e a tap>r job "- been done, 1aPN
attaduuenta 111'0:1 II:'lveo a mneh wider raDll:" thlLn can be
Obtained by throw :nj( the lcoee hl'lldMtoo::t o\'er• • ud IlPe
eqUAlly ... u ....ru l III loor l,,~ tapered hoi.. or in tllPninj!
..xternal tapel"1l. III all tAJlO'r att&chI1 1"ntl the meo:-lu..oIi" m
la . ueh all to o Jlt'm te the ..Iide r6llt d l roc t from a I{ui de or
rormer ba r IO('t At any Ilnl':"le with in IUlllmlta ... Ith the Blidi nl{
wa y. 01 the IlLt h " h<>d And Ind epe ndent of t he eTOl'II'.food
>,,;rew .
Tl'" ".. I" .. I" l.IolI lor ""ttilljt la lh .... to t.ur n !.&p"'r 1_ m IlA" II.A
rollo.... ;- \\'h llll th e wor k i.. to he tur ......:! (&\WIr I,h" ... h<)l" 01
lte le n jl;th , the 100M' heedetoe k , t.he oo",polilld MUd" eeet , or
the llljler att ~l.Chm ",n t ..r e III't oa t 01 ltno wtt.h th e III!.he bed
to un amoun t which NlDILI .. one-h.. lf of th" 0011"or ....per to
be l(i vell 10 th", wo rk.
1'h., 10110....1lll( 1,f1hlo~ ...r " """""nl"nl tn r U,I!I1V the
~rlLdu&\ed elre l.... 011 com po u nd ......Ul or t.llf' Il1d<l:l68 On t.&pet
Iltla.eh ml"lIt ll.
'rhe ..n l{le r llf"rrerl to In ti,e tlr ..t tahl.. I" 1,1,,, to t...l .n!tle,
a nd ...1",., ....·tU ., jt Ih e top elide the poil1t .. r i" mo...ed t.hroujZh
h al f t h" num\)('r of desree.. er-en in thi" ta l>le to l{iH! th"
r eq u irod <"On... T h.. i!i" J'T,u n , fl'br. 13. el_rh "ho"l"M... ha l
III m"", .. t hy .. A ("(me Or l In a. ~
~
~~
top mq" l 11.7~/e res!' b_ ser TO.
11'1.. I I. ~ V I",",.. m Ulq"f.ra'lnO!" eo.,....r I In 1I
29E' TArER T U R N1"'G A N I) BORING
Table of Cone Anglel.
.., d.,.....
~
I m
I ln
"21 "I
"m ~
leM '"
"ss...
I
1m
Oone 01
lin '\
,
_.·1,
1 .I:.,[u.l..
I"" t 1.0
'I
81
Ool>e " I
-H-
I ill
I ill Hi
- ---
-
Sq u.l...
"' n t In
....,
.,"••
I in 1 ill 7
'.
" I 'I 1 iD is
1 in
I m• ,
lin 71 7. 1 ill 18
"171 I in
1m 8
7, 1 ill 11
•' 'I I •'I61

I i, 1 ill 1 iD 18
"
I m 31 'j
., '"I"
1 in 19 I
I m ,"
lin lin 1 ill 20 '1
I in
I i,
'"
"I
1 iD
1 1 in
10
l0~". \
,
lin
I tn
U
30
•"I'
.,
'1 "I 1 in 11 .\ 1 ill 35
I i,
I in ,.,•• " 111
1 ill
1 ill
1li
12
I in 40 I'
I m
I i,
I m .,
'1
10,0.
101
10
;
1 in
1 ill
1 ill
1 2~
13
IS , .,
'1
'1
Tapers Per Foot a nd Correlpond ina: A ngles.
J.llil"le w ith
Oelltr, LI.o...
In,. Del\". Min... Del(. Mini. l ~. P elt". MiM. Deg.Millo.

I
I I
o "
"
o IS
36o
21
•. \
II
14
54
16 ,"
, 08
~
16 36 , IS
I " o "
,,•'1
I 4i o 53 18 54 , 27
·· . .
I. 2 or; 21 It
I
I
, " II
I
"
'I
17
23
sa
32
•
10 81
11 1ft
• " ,, "" ,, " Us

"II
I ee
" •, 10
7 32
36
" ,
31
r;2
1G
18 26
II
I
,
·
, eo
"
..
08
10
11
Ho
49
It
16
20
, 22
" "
38
31
2iJ7
Decimal Equlvalentll of .. Stubll .. Steel W ire . . d
Drill Gll u~e.
No. of !ll.... h. N o. 01 9u in N... nl Site I.
-..
Wire Dec:ilDo..Io Wire Dod""" YO:", DfodlD.l.
G.,,". of en loch. G.,,~ 0 1 on loc h. G. . ,r. 01 eo 1",,"
,,• -rrr
·2 19
~
m
·' M
·' M "n
M N'
--.......
,
-n t m ·m ·N'
•
I ,.
,m
.
.", M
"n
,••
....
.~ ' II S M ~
·m,
. ,. .."
. M · 112 m
.,
' 110 -cse
•• n
""
."" ..,,,
' In ."
-.....,............
- 1.. 4
.
·ltl .n
""
." ..,...
' 10 1
.
"" ..".·.n
·'M
·,m
M
n
.. ,,,,,. .,.. "" . .

-178 .~
·17. on
rr ·on
..
. ...."
.·n. "
.."" ."
."
.."""
' 111 1 ."
-
'U7
...
."
.."'"
-t .. ·0 1.
.oes n
n
""
· 1 ~~
'U I
.... "
' 0 1.
-Ou
'""
'U8
· U~ sa '058 ·ou
-143 '055
"
Decimal Eq u ivale n ts o r .. Stuba .. Letter Drill
~" lIge.
Lell er at Ori ~ Ga ",• .. ......

Sin In Dod ""l' 01 an hleh .. .
A
·23 4 • c D
•
, '"
' ZU 'Z 48
leUr. of PrlU Gau..

Si.. lo Derimalo of a D h'eh.. .
P
'1.51 .", .... ·n,
G H
Lellor of DrlII G,o., ........•

Slu bo Dedmalo of .... I., b .. _
K
·ZII1 .... ...•, , ...
L D
Leu or nl Drill Gou.o

Si.. bo Decimolo of aD l..,b ...
Le..... of DrIll e n.. ..
,
'81.5 s, ~
• ...""• .n T
=-:::....
smol.. Ded lD.lo ol. n ln:,.,., .,•. " II V
·S17
W
·886 ·m
X Y
' 404
Z
4"
298
Precision G r in d in g.
The Use of the P r ecis io n G r lnd ln ll Machine.
Because of the accuracy dema nded in the man ufac t u re of
machines and pa rt s, the precis ion grinding m a chine has
become a n indi spe nsa bl e too l ill all enginee ring wo rk s hop s,
no matt er what the class of work t he partic ular shop rna )
be e ng aged upon. It makes ve ry little difference whether it
be wo rk d e m an d ing the closest acc uracy, or fin e finish, or
lIiu ven a, the grinding machine can be made a very im_
portan t prod uci ng factor, a nd by the su bstitution o f
grinding for other and older methods of machi ning, shop
pWCe5IiCS ca n be sim plified, and greater acc uracy and a
cheaper p rod uct obtained. Old methods m us t , there fore , of
necessity give place to newer methods, which, wh ile they
ma y not t h row a ny grea te r burden u pon the wo rke r, yet
yield a vastly increased production. T he grinding machine
ill not esoon tiaJIy a machine for repetition wo rk.. It is
probably one of the s implest machi ne tools to operate,
and wi th its many couveuieccee req uires less setting up
for any particular picece of wo rk than any other machine
tool, therefore a minimum amount of time is consumed
in changing fro m one job to another. The relative timl'S
for fin ishi n g cylindrical ....ork on the lathe and on the
grinding machine are as 10 to 1.
Reason fo r It, Ad op tl o n .- The replacement of a steel
tool by a grinding wheel was first adopted to deal with
the proble m of hardened work-the correction of distortion
due to the process of hardening. In ita early days, grindina.
altho ugh It gave more accurate resul ts than tumiu,:
and p roduced II superior surface, was so tedious owing tc
the lac k of reliable grinding wheels, that it was confined
to those cases where the requirements warranted the
e"'PCDSC, '.g., the spindles o J machine tools. But since that
time the operation of grinding has obtained ever-increasing
recogniti o n, because it is well k nown to all e ngaged in the
manufactu re o f macbines and tools of p recision that the
lathe is incapa ble of prod uci ng cylindrical work efficien tl y
even in the softer metals. and in operating n pon bar1 e- ned
. urfaces it fails a ltogethe r. The tmprovemenes ma.!e in
the d esign o f grind ing mach ines called for reliable grinding
wheels that cou ld be used on them, and artificial abrasives
",'ere. there for e, introduced from which wheels could l,.,
made that had a greater cutting ef ficie ncy a nd were
capable of bei n g duplicated within fai rly close limits,
I'Il KCISION GRI NDING 299
GrJndln ll a Cu ttl n e ProceIil8.- T he operatio n oj

grind ing in wbich metal or other substance is removed
by contact with a rapidly revolving grindi nll: whee l is
nothing more Or less than a cutting process. The cutting
edges are bard. sharp particles o f a b rasi ve ex tend ing'
fro m the wo rking face of the wheeL Wben these sm all,
sharp pieces. harder than any substance they are called
upon to cut. a re moved at higb speed into contact with
the material to be ground. each particle cuu iu OWD
minute ch ip from the work. A modem grinding wheel
Vi just u su rely a milling cutter lU if it were mad" of
eteel. Under the microscope the material removed reo
sembles the c h ip from othn we1l-knoWD machi ne t oo ll
o n a larger .eale. being very similar to thoee p rodu ced
by a milling cutter or lathe tooL
Grindin g, Whe ela.- A grinding wheel .. made up
01 two kinds of material-the " vi' ., wbich il the cu t ti n g
ma terial. and the bond that balds the grit together. The
,..n..., rffidrrl&)f 01 a wh~ depe nds on the grit. After
the abrasive ma t !!rial, OT grit, baa been prep a red , it it
crushed in to .mall pieces. These p ioces are t ermed "ai..s.
The c rad, of bardn!!" depends largely on th e fonn of
bo n ding ma ter ial used t o hold the grains together to ma k e
th e complete wh eel.
The ,rain and grade of a wh eel refer to the aile of grain
and bard oees : the grain num ber indicate' the number
of m esh !!' per linen! in ch throu gh wh ich the grain hu
passed . T he ail e5 of grain in use are numbered from
" t o 200; fine r than 200 it is called flour, a nd d ll'aignated
h y letter, F , FF, F F F . T he g,ad~ 01 a wh eel ill usually
d esignated by letters , a nd means the d egree 01 hardness
of the wh eel.
An ideal griding wheel is one that co mbines correct
te mper of a b rasive grain (i., . a g rai n tha t will eaaily
fracture after the cutting point has become dulled, thos
presenting a ne w po in t to the wo rk ) and the bond just
SlIfficiently hard to hokl the grain u util it hu pe rfo rmed
its malrim um amount o f cu tting- then to release the grain
and present ne .... cutting points to thp work. A grinding
whec:1 is too 10ft whe n the bond alIOWl t h e gRin to break
away before it has become dulled, multing in ra pid
wear, and too hard when the bo nd holds the gnill after
it ha s become duUcd ; i1lo this condition the whe-el becomes
tku,d, fe8Ulti ul in slo w cu tting .nd heat ing o f the work
300 PIlIlC !S IU N G Il IN i>I N v
It i .~ no t practicab le to g ive a list o f s uit a ble grains

a nd gmdCll wh ich would enable users t o make a select ion
o f t he correct whee ls for t he ir wo rk, o wing to th e va ryin g
cond itio ns e xisting in di fferent sho ps. The select ion.
ho we ver . can he oa JTowe<l du wn t o th e £ol1owing:
C Y LIN O R ICAL G R IN DING.
Hard e ned Sled __..... Grain 46 to 60 Grade J to L
Solt S te..l ."_. G rain 46 t o ~ G rade L to N
Solt S tee l .__.Grai n 24 Co m b. Grade L t o M
I NT Il R N AL GRI N DING .
H ard en ed S tee l _ _GIIIm 46 to 60 Grade J to K
S UK 'Aca G IIINDI N G.
H ard en ed S tee.t __ Grai n 36 to 46 G rad e G to I
So ft S teel .Gra in 36 to 46 Grade I to K
Grad e of Wh ee l-EJr. te nm l G r ln d lnl1 .-The grade

01 the wheel is dete rmined by t he mate rial to be grou nd .
and t h e rigidi t y a T o therwise o f the wo r k. and wh ether
i t ill of larg e or Imall d iametu. At the same ti me sucb
wbeels as are re ferred to above will cover a ve~ large
ra nge o f work, in fut it is Vl'ry un us ual in ge ne ral machine
work to require m ere than two wb~ to a mach ine, o ne
to grind all classes of s tee l work, a nd the o ther to d eal
with al l cast ml'talll. CkJoser gradin,ll: can be done ...-her e
the wo rk is al l of one clau , a.. for ins tance, a machine ma y
be employed wbolly on cast·iron p istons, cranb shaft.
or p iston -rod li, a c., in ...·hich cues particular grades o f
wheels can be employed. bu t for ge neral mixed wor k a
couple o f ...·heelll can be anangerJ to efficiently cove r th e
range.
Abra s ive M at eria ls are 0 ' t wo kinds, natu ral and
artificial. At one time, practically aU grinding ,..b~
were made o f ,,,,.,.,,, the best 0' which came fro m the
island 0 ' N"axO!I in Greece, eccie from Turkey, and some
fr om Ametiu. The principal elemen t in a n abrasive
wb eel which gives any appreciable cu t ti n g action 0 0 m etals
is crystalline alumina., and the percentage of t his oxide
in emery is very low . Anothl'r natu ral abrasive is
&MUMU"' , the best o f which comes from Canada, an d
contains 95 pe r ce n t of crystalline al umina. Corundu m
possesses the a dvan tage of beinll: quite uni form, and apart
fro m the diamond it is t h e hardest kn own su bstance.
hi work it is very du ra hie, and ill fast a nd cool cutting.
I'IIBCIS ION GRtNDlNG w,
Th e u ti fjcilll abrasives are the prod ucts o f the e lectric
fur nace and IHe gheu v.. riou~ tr...do namN. Alundum
is manufactured by the Norton Co.. and is n.a de b y fu sing ,
in inte nse heat. a so ft. clay-like substance, called beauxite.
Beauxite is the purest form of a.luminum ollide. Aloxite
is an utificial corundu m, man ulac tu re-I by the
Cubonl n1uffi Co. Alundum. aloxite, and ccruudam
(America:a emery works) wheels are all o f SlIeh han1 DeM,
sharpness , and te mpo'r as to make them especially suitable
for grindl'lg steel.
Crystolon, carboraadum, It.nd carbolite abrasives, b y
t h.. above repeec tive maken, are artificial products more
brittle tlan the above mentioned, and ""bile bard and
sharp, they are not 10 tough. Grinding wheels miLdo
from them are suitable for grinding work of lo w tensile
s trength, such as ea.st iron, brass, rubber, otc.
Vltrlfled Silicate BDd E last ic Wh eel s. --Grl ndi ng
whee ls are made by three p~vitlified. ~iUeate,
an d elastic. I n fJilriji,d It'hU'!s the abrasive ma te rial .
tog ether wi th suc h materials as form the bond, is placed
in power·mixing kettles with sufficient wate r to fo rm a
plastic mass . W'hen thoroughly mi lled It is d raw n off
into ir on ri ngs of the r&<Juiretl. <liz amI p laced in a dr\inll;
room . All soon as t he crude heel s are dry e no ugh to
ha ndl e. the y are remo ved fro m t h e fo rming rin gs a nd
shaped to the approxim a t e size a n d shape o n D. machine,
sim ila r to a potter's wheel, a nd a gai n p laced in t he d ryi ng
room until the y lire thoroughly dry. They arc then
packed in fir e-cl a y receptacles, placed III t il.. lUlu a n d
su bjected to a high temperature. approximating 3.000
de g. F ah ., wbi ch causes the bon d to fll"'" an d Vitr ify.
A kiln b. kell fro m one to three weeks to burn, accord ing
to size. After t ru ing they are graded. and then tested
fOf sa fet y at 0,000 lIudace f.... t l'pr min u te. Wileels
mad e by the vitrified process are in genelal use fo r l:lOllt
kinds of precillion grinding and for d~ng CMti ngs
a nd forgi np, boile r plate, structural iron....ork. ote.
In the siliUlte t'fX4SS the abl1i.Sive material ill milled with
cla ys , flulled with lrili.....at"nf 5.lda in kneadillJl: machlnee, and
when in a plutie state is placed into moulds and tamped
by haDe.. They are th..n baked at a low heat for about
20 houts. and a re then ready for the truing room , and
a re treated from tbis point the same as vitrified .~h.
Silicate .h~ls are 11,00 chiefly on dry tool grinding and
302 PR.II:U SIUN G~ l~ l " .'u.
s im ila r wo rk . There is al so t he adva nta ge th at wh ee ls

u rtlently rNIuired ca n be completed in three d ays by the
s ilicate process.
El astic , o r .. s he llac wheels," a re bo nded b y gu ms
lIuch as tu b ber, s he llac, and resins. The mixture 0
a brasive and t h e bo nd is hea ted, then pressed in mo uld s .
Great l uength and e lastici t y a re im po rtant facton. I
is possible to m ake wh ee ls by tbi' proce!l!l as thin
,y in . Th ey aTe used chiefly for saw gum mi ng, grinding
betwee n the t ee th of gean, sharpening moulding cotters
and woodworki n g t oo ls, cutting o ff small stock, slotting
and for roll grin d in g .
No rton G rade Llst.-The follo win g grade IUt is used
to d esignate the d egree of bard Ue!IS of vitrified and silicate
wheels :
E Soft
F
G
H
I Med iu m Sof t
IK
L
M e<11u m _ - - M__.._.__.. . .M ed i u m
N
op
Medium Hard __.Q
R
5
T
Hard _ U
V
W
X
E:lltrem ely H ard V
Z
The in t ermediate let ters between t hlJl'e d esi gnated
as soft , med iu m 9011, <le.. indica te so man y degrees harder
or se tte r. , .,., L is one grade !lOIter tha n med iu m; 0 , two
degree!! harder than medium. but not qu ite medium gard.
Elastic wheels are graded as l ollo~ : I. II. 2 21. 3
4, 5, a ud 6. Grade 1 is the lIOft ed and grad.. 6 the hardetlt
P RECIS IO N GRIN DING 303
A P rec is ion Machl ne.-At on e time the on ly machine
for producing cy lindrical work WlUl the lath e. T he
cylindrical ,ltrinding machi ne WlUI introduced to . uppleme n t
thl! lathe. and by pe rf orming t he finishing operation to
p rod uce a more nea rly perie<::t cy linder t ha n WlLS po:omble
with the lathe alone. Th e cylind rical grindi ng mac hi ne
produces p recision wo rk-not perfect wo rk. a nd it i4
able to produce t bis precisio n work in m uch less ti me
than the lathe Ulat it supplements. therefore a finer quality
of work is obtained a t much less cost than the in ferior
wor k that preceeded it. The surface p rodu ced on the
work depend, upon its nature and whe re it is to be used.
It may be a finely ground surface, no t necessarily a fin ely
polished one, and generally knOWD .., a .. oom meTciaJ
finish, " hu t often the work is o f such a na tu re that it
d emands a mirror finish, whe n more ti me must be a llowed.
becau5l'! t he work must pass and re-pass ac ross t he face o f
the wheel many times to allow the polish to be b u ilt u p.
T y pe s o f Mac hln es._ Th e grindi ng ma ch ine i, u ~ in
every branch o f en gineering industry, coll5ol!<l uen tl y, the
machine' a.rc of d if feren t types, eac b one ada p ted fOT IIOm e
spec ial purpose. The earliest form was the U .. i v e~ f al,
which, as Its name implies, is ca pa ble of pe rform ing
a lmost any gri nding 0r ra ti o n, dealing as it will with
extern a l work-paralle or taper- intern a l work. flat
wor k held o n a face pla te or in a ch uck, and of sharpen ing
ce rtain classes 01 cutten. It has s wive l m ovemen tli
in a ll directio ns and is usuajjy pro vided with a va riety
of a t tach me n ts . It is a m a chin e specifica lly s u ita ble fo r
tool roo m, ga rage work, a nd wor k of a miscellaneous
nature.
T1I# U.. iversal 11'00'11 H ead (a part sec tion o f o ne type
being show n in Fig. 1) is mounted in a rigid manner on
its base, a nd grad uat<ld in a complete ciIde 110 tha t it may
be swivelled to any angle. The spindle carries a two step
co ne pulley a t its front e nd. Thi4 Tons free ly, a od is
provided with a d ri ver for the wo rk whe n gri nding o n
.. d ead centres." Between the spindle bearings the fixed
p ulley is located 110 8.5 to suit the belt dri ve ..hetber the
head is in line with the tailstock or se t a t a n a ngle. A
loccng pin in the rear housing provides for sec u ri ng
the spindle when it is not req uir ed to rev o lve. Th e
bearings an 01 the capped form, .....ith split bronze bllshes.
and adju.tmeut ia made ....h en nece5lSary by ICrapi ng the
30. PRRC t g l O N G IIIN01111G.
cap sea t. s lightly so as to a llow t h e bushes t o c1use as much

a.3 may be need ful. The loo se pulley is b us hed with
bron ze. T he t a i15tock of a ll mac h ines has a sp ind le
dro vided with spri ng tens io n to allow of expans io n of the
wo rk d uring grinding.
T h e unive rsal machin e a n s were d al l req uirement for
a time, b ut fO T continuous production on a manufacturing
basis, it is necee....ry t o have a machine of more ro bu st
cuild, and the pia; ... grinding machine was introduced
more massive in its construction and carrying a wider
wheel. This cnsbl"", all kinds of plain cylindrical wo rk
to be handled economically and may be rightly tenned
a .. high !!peed " machine.
F IG. I. -Unive rsal WOTk H ead.

T h e inlernal .grind in g machine was develo ped as a
s pecial mach ine for fin ish ing h oles in all classes o f work
and various materials. Its outstanding featu re Is the
fac ilit y with whicb h oles may be accurately s ized, makin g
tru ly interchangeable wo rk at very lit tl e cost, and what
is al so of importance. mnch less skill is required to reach
the desi red end by grinding than by any other me thod .
The internal machine is built in two fonns. In one,
th e work is rotated, and in the second, which is inten d ed
for work of large sire and awkward sh a pe that cannot be
conveniently rotated. the spind le ill rotated with a p la n e
tary motion.
P R E C I S ION GRIN DING 305
Su ~f<u:' grinding mac hi nes are used lor fia t s u rreces o f

all ki nds. The spindles are bo th horizontal a nd vertical.
an d each o f theM' types is a ga in 5ul:H:1i'\'ided. IIOme h aving
rec iprocating tables and others ro tary tables.
T b ..re are also Jp,cWl machin~ for wor k slich as ea rns
lor gu a nd oi l engi n..s a nd ati tomobi l~, and m achines
for gri nding irffgu la rly·shaped q·lindrical pit:'Ces by mea ns
01 fo nn e n.
Importance o f Accurate AU Qnmenl.- Th e prin cip les
governing the construction of a grindiug machine are
di fferent from those of any other .mubine tool. Most
mac hining operations are of a primary charac::ter. the
ultimate finishing being done by other means, such as the
file o r a IOCraper, whereas t h e gri nding mach ine is a fin ish in g
mac h ine , a nd the work p roduced needs no fu rt her cor
rectioa. It natu rally lollows that al l the slidi ng su rfaces
of t he grinding machine should be perft:'CUy tru e planes.
o ther wise accuracy 01 product is Impossible. The Rrea tes t
ca re hu to be u.ken in construction to see tha t th is end
is attained. The sliding surfaces are always ve ry 10n R, an d
with proper lubrica ti on, tend t o distri b u te th e waer ev enl y
over a Wile su rface, and t h us preserve the alignme nt
indefinitely.
Importance of RIQldlry,-Rigid ity in any m achine
tool is a necessity , but in no n e m ore so than the grinding
machine. The wh eel h ead in particu lar sh ould be held
in the most rigid mann er , for any weaknessiu this portion
tends to ca use vi b ration and makes t he machin.. unable
to meet th e d emands of wo rk bo t h as to q ua lit y a nd
qu a ntity. This Is on e o f the re asons the maj ori ty o f
mak era prefe r to ha ve the griding whe el carried on a
stationary part o f the be d, and traverse the tabl e a nd ....o rk
past the wheel. H eavy grinding wh eels can t hus be carried
witbout vibration , because the ...heel h ead a nd iu sli de
res t upon a IIOlid base. and as thi5 part of the mac h ine
a iM! e&rT; '" the cross feed lOt:'ChauUm, there is less liabiJ:ty
o f torsion and intermittent mot ion of the ...h....l head,
th ereb y e nsuring a sensitive control t o the f eed at all times,
The wheel bead itself must be heavy enough to carry
t he la rgest and the broadest wheel with which the machine
may possibly be fitted, and also to overcome any possible
wan t of balance in the wheel itself. For the same reasons
the sp indle and ita bearings should be of ample proportions
t o with5t.and the above forces withont requ iri ng freq u en t
306 P I<II.C IS IO N G RI N DIN G
adj ustrue n ta. I t shou ld be e mphasised that the wo rk

pr odu ced on a grinding machi ne is only a reprod ucti on
of th e gri ding wheel itself. and tllat for cy lind rical work
the gr indi ng wh ee l must be a pe rfect cylinder c r good
wor k can not be produced. and "nl_ a grinding whee l
he ad has the necessary rigidity to overcome possible
ad verse condi tio ns in the wheel itself it is i m possi ble to
m ake t he whe-el perfectly cylindrical , and failure is the
result. It is for this reason that a grinding machine
caunot very well be impro..ised. Many attempts have
been made, to convert the lathe into a grind ing m.acmnf'
b y mea.M of attachments, bu t such attempts can c nty
m~t with ~~ moderate res ul ts owing to the Jack o f t h e
necess.uy og.dity.
FoundatloD a.-A grindi ng machine is no t usually
bolted down. It stands o n three fee t only . which permit
i t to sland on a ny form of floor. regardless o f its cond ition
or irreg ula rity o f surlace, there being a foo t o n either
e nd a nd d irectly unde r the table, and a third foot directly
back an d un d er t he wh eel . M is well known, the three
po in t bearing is the o nly one upo n wh ich anything can
res t on irregular surface witho ut s training or distorting
the machine or roocha.ni sm.
On ma chi n es above 10 feet lon g, mnltiple feet are used
Le velli n g blocks are generally supplied with the mal:hine,
adj us table to keep the bed o f the machine lev el, even
if in course of ti me the fou nd a tion sh ould sink, or giv e
wa y at any point. T he fo u nd a tion e n tirely d epen ds on
the natu re o( the gro u nd on which the machine ill to be
placed. If it i' a t al l o f a solid nat u re, tw o or three fee t
of concrete is sufficient.
Spindle C o ns t ructlon .-TJIe spi"du o f a gri nding ma
c h ine i9 a n e xample of the highest class of wo rkmansh ip,
and be fore sending out fro m the manulal:turen i t ill tested
aod t uned u p to correc t ru nnin g fit. The adjustme nts
sh ould oot be tam pe red "'ith, a nd any adjustment required
to take up wear s ho uld be un d ertaken by .arne one with
a knowled~e of the cons truction 01 the bearing. a nd
the condibons u nd er wh ich the spindle Mould sun.
Spindles are known to hav e run Ior two y..ars wit hout
requiring adjustmen t. T o be in good running cond don
t he beari Dll should be at a temperature o f 100 • 120 deg.
F;Lh. T o maintain the tem perat ure constant, a grinding
wh .,...1 spindle is II mally I..ft run ninK all day long. evec
~.I«:IMO" GIl U lllr NG.
whe n all o th er motion s are s to pped. Lubrication is of

""
vital importance and m ust be attended to or the beat
s pindle will btl quickly ruined. There sho uld be a constant
film of oil so that there is no metal to netal contact between
the spindle a nd bearing. A medium heavy-bodied oil
should be used, of su fficien t viscosity that it will not run
away a t the temperatu re above men tioned. The oil
should be perfectly clean. and the oil well d rained
occasionally.
In o rde r to maintain the close fit necessary on the spindle
bearin~s . the y a re d esigned taper on the outside so as to
be easily adju sted by movemeutj parallel to the '[apiudle
a xis. This adju stme nt has the ad vantage of giving
• , •
•
FIG. 2.-5ection of Bearing for Grinding Wheel Spind le.

perfect control with long life a nd prese rves as nearly as
possi ble the original a lignm e nt , which is of the utmost
im porta nce with the wide grinding wheels now in use .
Split taper bush es ha ve a tendency to d ose in on the
spindl e at the poi nt o f severence, in depend ent of the action
of drawing in by mullS of the adjusti ng nu ts . Th is is
an objectionable fea t ure in the spindle of a grind ing
machine. as it is essential t o t he true a nd ste ad:r runn ing
of th e whee l t hat a uniform fit is malntnlne all over
the su rfac e of t he bea ring .
T o counteract this tende ncy the top part of the bush
is provided with a dove-tailed slot in to which a re
fitted . t wo dove-tailed steel pad•. These a re held in
1108 PRKClSlO:O ",R1NDlN ..
positi on by cheese head screws whic b, a fte r t he bearing

bas b.."n finally adjusted, are drawn up ti gh t. The act ion
o f t he inclined faces of the pads causes the s pli t bush
to be forced apart at this point and p revents any tendency
to close too tightly on the spi ndle. When wea r takes
p lace t hese pads are ~ackened by unscrewing t he screws
FIG 3. Wb"",,1 Collets. FIG. 4.

wbich hold them (the y are not taken out), a nd afte r the
bush has been closed in b)' means of drawing it into the
taper, the pads are once again drawn up tightly into
p""".
To 4djwst 'M be4ri>lg shown in Fig. 2 to a closer fi t,
first sla.c:ken off sc"'ws AA and nut B, and then tigbun
nut C. 'ruee lock up the screws AA and but B in the
PRECISION GRINDING 309
orde r given. If not sufficien t. repeat th" POOCe55. To
..ase off the bearing slacken S(:~...ws AA and nut C. Tighte n
nu t B slightly. Afterwards lock up screws AA and Dut
C in o rder given. All screws and nuts are usually rtgbt
ba nd threads.
Wheel M o untln g s .- The grinding wheel ia usually
mo u nted between iliuIges on a collet as ahown in F i.:s.
3 and". One ill for the ordinary type of wheel. and the
ether for a wheel ..ith recessed sides as used for cranksha.1 t
work. The collet fits the tapered end of the spindle. and ill
held in piece by a left·hand lock not. A Woodruff key is
employed to p revent an cbance of tbe wheel coming l()(l$e
if the spindle should be suddenly stopped. The co llet can
be re moved from the spindle in far less time tban is
required to u nmount tbe wheel alone. It is good practice.
therefore, to have extra collets and to leave the wheel s
perma nently mou nted. This saves considera ble time a nd
tro uble whe n cbanging; a nd is &Isodecidedly economical.
iIo3 it ob v iates tbe need for truing the wheel after every
cha nge, whicb is necessary whe n it hu been detached from
the collet.
Compressible washers of pulp or ru b be r. slightly la rge r
th an t he fla nges, should be used between the whee l and
Ilan gee. Th e y di...tribute t he pressure ev",nly whe n t he
Jla nges are ti gh ten ed by taking u p a ny imper fect ions
in the wheel or fla nge.
Co mpla in ts are sometim es ma d e t bat th e collet does
not fit prul'erly. Ope rators ha ve oiled t he taper of the
spindle nose be fore fitting on the colle t , with ti le res ult
that the collet is never ri gid . T he collet should be fitted
to the spindle nose perfectly dry, and care should be taken
to ensure it is a co~t fit on the taper and not fouling
the key.
Wheel S p ecds ._ F or external cy lindrical wo rk, t he
su rface speed of grinding wheels va ries from 7,000 to 5 ,000
feet pe r minute, and a useful speed range is 6,500 to 5 .500
feet . Belew this speed excessive wheel ...ear is liable.
For intern&l grinding, the speed ranges !rom ".000 to
1.000 feet pe-r minute, and much sUlXeS8ful work is done
a t speeds ranging from 2.500 to 1.500 feet.
For su rface grinding, the best all rou::.1 speed is abou t
4,000 Ieet pe-r minute. Owing to the greater amou nt of
.u rface in contact, the .. -heel grading on su rface gri n d in ll
310 PRE CISIO/; GRINDING
dem ands closer atte ntion than it does on cylindrical

gri n d ing. F or the same reason there is no t the sa me
ma rgin of speed. an d the on ly remed y for a wheel that
is t oo bard or to o soft is to ch a n ge it for a wbeel of t h e
correct grade.
Table o t G rinding, Wh eel Spceda.
,
Re ..... per !(.v• . per H""". pe r Hew, pe' I' ev •. pot
Minu te lor ~Ii " ,,\ . 10' ~ linu te l or Min'Hu lo r ll i" " tu for
• er
Di~lII • S urlace SurLice ::;utl~"" S Old a". S " r f~.o
Wb""l. Sp""d of Speed of Speed of Speed 01 Sp eed of
•• 000 ft. 5,000 ft. 5,500 It. 6 ,UfI I) fl . d,.~OO ft .
In .
I 15 ,279 19,089 2 1,0U9 aa.ste 24,829
2 7,639 !:I,S 49 10,504 1.1,459 12,41 4
3 5.09:1 6,3 6l.; 7.0U:l 7 ,6:!!:! 8:.!7Ii
,•5
3, 820 4,775 5,253 5,7:30 6, 207
3,056 3 ,1tW 4.202 4 ,584 ·Ull,1i
2,546 3, 183 3,502 3,820 4,13 f!
7 2, 183 2,7 28 J,UOI 3 ,27 4 :1,547
10• 1,910
1,528
2,:11:\7
1,9 10
2 ,626
2,10 1
2,865
2,292
3 ,103
2 , 4 ~3
12 1,273 1,592 1,751 1,9 ro 2,0 69
1. I,O!;!I 1,364 1,5UO 1,637 1,773
l'
16
955
..9
1,1 94
1,06 1
1,3 13
1, 167
1.4:12
1,273
1,146
1,551
1,379
1,241
20 76 4 955 1,05 1
955 1,042 1,129
22
"
26
'9'
637
5"
'"
700
73J
",
'00
955
87 9
1,034
955
eas 751
2R
30
ea
'"
509
en
637
596
701
tlSI
Ill!!
7..
71'
'"
827
776
"ae36 .,.
..9 56 1 '1' 674 730
402
531
.,.
501 553 '" '"
.s ~ 4
603 653
.... ...
•• 38 2
36. m
526
.,. ",
500
573 621
59 2
" 3<7 521 564
542
50
332
31'
see
4 15
397 '" ''"9' ,g,
437
4 11 459
517
''''
PK~C I~lO N G RI MD I 1'lG 3 11
Wheel Sro~ed muse be malnta lned.-It i", 01 t h e

'ltmost impo rtance tha t the epeed o f the wh eel be
maintained during the c uttin g operation. no matter
what the speed may be, and the d ri ve should be su fficien tl y
powe rfu l to prevent s lowing do wn du ring momen tary
bea vy cutting. No t ooly is wheel wasted b y being allowed
to slow down, b u t what is more importan t, the whee l
face is destroyed and more freq uent truing up is nec essary
The speed of a correctly-graded wheel ha.!l n o d irect
influence 011 the output of the machine, that i i, a COrn'Ct
whee l will give of its best over a iJp«d range a.!I mentioned
above. Economy P a determining factor in whee l Jpeed.
ani! it is decidedly more economical fro m the point of
view of wheel "'eu to metal re moved , to keep the speed
up 100 that softer and freer cutting whee l'" can be ueed,
the speed enabling them to stand u p to hea vy cu tting
withou t undue wear, a nd there is. fur-ther, the add iti oual
ad vaotage t ha t ",uch wh eel bave very little trnde ocy
to gluing.
Wo rk Speoed l :
For external cylind rical wor k, 40 t o 80 f.,.,t per minute.
For internal work, 120 feet per minu te .
Vertical spind le su rface grindio g machines with
recip rocati ng tables, u p to 15 feet pe r m inute.
Horizontal sp ind le surfatt! grinding machines ""itb
reciprocating tables, light pattern machines up to 15 fee t
per min ute, heavy pa ttern machine'" up to 50 feet per
minu te.
Lubrlcant.- Water and lubrica.nta of va rious kinds are
D>led in order t hat the h eat gene ra ted when grin d ing
should be qu ickly dissipa ted so that tht! work P ke p t at
a nearly u niform temperat ure during the passage 0 1 the
"'heel over the en ti re length bt'i og gr ound. It i", not
necessary that the wo rk shou ld be ma.in tained a t any
particu lar temperatu re. but it sh01.lld remain nearly
constant fmm one e nd of the pa... to the other in orde r
tha t it may rem ain straight.
Inc reasing the temperatnre fro m Doe e od to the ce n tr e
will cause the wo rk to spring and the wheel to cut ou Doe
Bele of the work deeper than on the other sid e: then whe n
the work returns it will cut o D the opJlOllite si.de ; theo the
ceet pl'A it 'llti.1.1 cut at rigbt aIlgles an d 110 011. as lonl!: as
grinding shall continue with insufficien t lub rica.nt or with
. . .h _ 1 too hard for the .ork.. o r both. It is. therelo~
312 PRECISION GR IN I>lNll
essential that the supply of lubricant be ample in volume,

but without force. Ample supply neve r yet limited
production or spoiled any work, and a machine will be
cleaner with a good flow of lubricant than if on ly a trickle
is used. The best lubricant is one of the soluble oib.
These remuks apply to all classes o f extemal grinding ,
both cylindrical and surface. With Internal grindiog
there is more frequent gauging, consequently more cleaning
is o«essary, all compared with external work, and the
use of lubricant becomes a disadvantage, all it clin,lts
to the walls of the hole, and brings round the swarte
to be churned up again by the wheel, preventing the
latter from cutting freely. A greater production can.
therefore, be obtained by dry internal grinding than by
wet. Water is ouly used in ternally on such work as
riog gaugell, or aeroplane cylinders, whell'! a high degree
0 1 accuracy and finish is essential.
I n grinding ~as engine cylinders o n the inte rnal cylinder
grind ing mach me, it is customery to run water through
th e jac k et , o r over the outside of the cylinder to dissipate
th e h ea t as q uickl y as possible and mai n tain an even
tem pe ra t u re . 'rhe purpose of this is to keep the cylinde r
from c hangi ng shape on account of heating u p.
C Rulle o f Dilltortio n lind Vib rati on of Work. - -Qne
o f the evils to be guarded against in g rindiog is local
heating of the work and consequent distortion a nd in
a ccu ra cy . Low work speed is directly co n d uc ive to such
conditions, a nd is t h erefor e to be avioded. The h eat
created by the cutting actiou of the whee l must be
dissipated or distributed all quick ly all possible, a nd can
only be d one by a high-work speed and table t ravel a ided
by an ample flow of water. A very good illustrati on of
this is the grinding of hollow work, where thell'! is no body
of metal to abllorb and distribute the heat. Such work
can only be auee_fully ground by a combination of hi gh
table speed and ..ark a~ covering the whole area of
the ground aurface u quickly .. possible. A good exampl e
of sucb work, although amall, is the grindinl\: externally
of rifle barrels.
This is an e:ueting cl&55 of work , dema.nding bo th
accuracy and quick production . The object aimed a t in
the grindin, operation is to bring the barrel to ccrrec
shape and ~ze without in any way distorting the straight
PRECIS IO N GR INf)JNG 3 13
Df)SS of the bore, the latter being in /I. finished sta te wh.m
bro ugh t to the griuding machine. and the out-ide surface
more or 1e.'U eccentric to it. It is Imperative in suc h
work tba t local beating be avoided, and high speMs
both to work and table are essential. a lonl> with an ample
water supply. T be work speed adopted is approximately
400 r.p.m., giving about 80 feet per minute surface speed.
the reciprocative speed of table is 16 foet per minute
and a barrel is traversed the whole length in approximately
eight seconds. Such work wodd be impossible of
above explains in a ~'ery clear manner why low "'OTk
speeds are limited, owing to possible local heating.
On the other hand, the limiting factors to a high work
speed are l-ibtatio,"s in the work itself and disintregation of
the grinding wbeel. Both these fa.ultl are more liable to
ceeur in la rge diameter and heavy wo rk than in small
work. It is much easier to control vibration in sma U
diameter work, a nd it would be almost impossible to rotate
it at such a high spt'ed as t o disintegrate the su rface o f
the wheel. but the tendency would be to cause unnecessary
wheel wear, and if the table ...peed was such t hat the
traverse was ICSlI than half the width of the wheel, the
latter would wear more at the corners than in the cen tr e.
Yib ratlons on heavy wo rk are m uc h mo re d iffic ult t o
con trol, ami much depend... on the machine and method
of supporting the work. No definite r ule ca n be laid
do wn, as so m uc h d epe nd s on circum!ltances. Fo r insta nce,
it would he both permissible and advisabl... to run a n 8 in.
tu be a t a hig he r su rf ace speed than an 8 in . solid shaft:
~h e lim iting factor in the tube heing a surface speed
suc h B.I would cause disintegration of the wheel face,
the re being no heavy body of metal to set up vibration,
whereas in the shaft the limiting factor wou ld be a su rfac e
speed sufficient to set up an oscillatory motion d ifficu lt
to control. and which ...ould prevent the shaft Jro m being
ground to a perfect cylinder. This same detect cou ld
alto be obta.ined by using a too slow surface speed, d ue
not to a want of balance in the shaft itaeU. but to in
sufficient dlS.!Qpation of the heat created by the grinding
...heel. Between these two extr..mea there is a wide
margin of ",rface speed at wbich grinding can be success
fully carried on, but enough has bel"n said to indicate
the best practice. and that it is not a factor hich governs
production as compared with other facto .
'"
Depth of CUL-The d ep th o f cu t muat d "~lld upon the
grai n and grade o f wheel and speed o f ....ork su rface. as
wen a s the power a vail able at the wheel spindle. \\'bile
some c1a.Me!1 of work are rapidly produced on ly by
rela tively deep cu ts, in mostcases the maximum prod uc tio n
is obtained by us ing the maximum ...-idth of whee l face
t hat the machi ne will carry. aod the ma:rim u m trav erse
speed for that width 01 wheel. in order to COVeT the wo rk
wit h the maximum number of clltting particles pe r minute.
The greate r the number of ca tting particles per min u te,
the less depth of cut necessary for a givell amoun t of
material removed. The cross feed to the grinding wheel
shou ld o perate at the end of each stroke in order t o
d istri bu te the ....ork over the who le 'll'idtb of the gri nding
wheel. The amount varies from -0005 in . to -00 15 in , on
the work diam te r a t each reversal.
Aliowam' t"11 for Grindina .- G ritl ding is reepoeeible lor
cb t"aper turning , a" it is 1I0 t necesMry t o turn wo rk smooth•
•t rai gLt, or correc uv to !lint wh., n p reparing it for th.,
f!!:ri nding machine. Th., q uestio n i,. olt..n &!lked-" \Vbat
amoun t should be ldt o n for grinding. and shou ld the work
b<! t u rned with a coarse or fin e traverse 1 " In ma ny
ahop~ a great deal o f t ime is wasted in t urning too clo~e
to lin ilr.hed sile a nd wit h too fine a tra verse work that
i,. to be af te rwa rds grou nd. A s moo t h piec e of work
with o nly n s ma ll a llowa nc e m a y t ake u long to Llisb in
th e gr ind ing machine as a ro ugh- t u rned job on which
more metal is left. Certain fac to rs m us t be a sce rtained
before ti,e curren t all owan ce can he d eterm ined.
F o r a ll wo rk turned b..t ween ce ntres, with the excep ti on
01 th at whi ch is to be carbon tsed fo r cue-harde n in ~. a
coarse traverse is a l....a ys aevocatod. where work c as
to finish in a I!I(lft state. ,..,"Y CO&r3C! limits can be all ow ed
fOT t h e t urnin g, say from ·020 in. to ·040 in . or e ven
greater o n large work. as when ,. aha ft or o ther piece o f
work h u been rough turned to suc h a limit the grindi n g
machin e llIill remove the 5u'T"los metal quickM than the
tool.
Where .halts o r snindles are moi¥1e from a steel which
has to be heat treated iII c r de r to in crea se its tcns.:.le
stren gth. the same conditions bold good , a varying amoun t
grou nd from the surface DOt affecting it in any ...ay. But
wbere they a.re mad.. from ~bardening ,t<!'el aud have
to be cue-hardened, then co nsid eration b.. ro be ~iv ..,..
PIlBC IS ION G RIN DIN G 315
to ti le turning hm it . in orde r no t to grind away the wb u le

o f the bardened su rface, Such work must be tu rn ed
with a fair ly smooth Iinish $(I U to adow regular pe ne t ra tion
of the cuing compound.
In te rnal gundin!! where the work is rotated is mostly
co nfined to the fini.ming of boles in hardened ....ork. bu t the
grin d ing of h e lee in unhardened work ill gradually
increasing. The amooot left for grinding out varlPS with
t be class of worlr., but is generally about -oos in. to ·0 15 in.
in diameter.
In 1h'1lll1htenlnla w o r k afte r ha rde nlnC, internal
rtrtS3H are inevitable ...t up. These lln' liable to be relea.lled
to scrne extent by the action of grinding. and a very dis
turbin g unlmown quantity ill thus introduced. Unlesli uu. is
borne in mind and carefully guarded agailUt valnable
" 'ork may easily be spoilt in the final proct'M. T be best
and sa.Jelt p ractise to adopt in grinding work ....hich h as
been bardened and su~uently rtr.aighkned. is to ro ugh
grind it all o v er, and then lay it aaide for a time to"~n."
This gives it a cbance to recover from tho stresses induced
by th e straightening process, and red uces the risk o f
ch a nge after finally fioishio g t o size. If n o delay is permis
sib le. all tha t can be done is to be careful t h a t no part is
fini.,hed to size till t h e entire p iece h as been roug h grou nd
over. This p rec au t ion will frequently ma k e a ll the
d ifferenc e bet....een good work and h opeless scrap.
C lea n lnl1 and OlUnll. Grlndini\ M acblnu. -T he
gre atest ca r" ebould be taken t o keep a ll working s u rfaces
clean and well oiled. T h e beat machine oil should be used
and t h e ell-can sboutd be dust-proof. It is well to ma ke
a practice 01 oili ng the slides each morning, and cleaning
the mach ioe eyery day. The few mio u tes required for
this will be time well spent. and will amply repay the
t rou ble taken. The plan will assist the operator to keep
wo rk u p t o the ~k both in q ua lity a nd amount: a nd
the machi ne will not only benefit. but will reflect credit
on the one who tuU it.
Machin e Ceatre•• - I t oeed hudly be said tha t the
mac hi ne centres must be kept in perfect condition at ..u
ti mes. Due attention is not always paid to this matteT
from the idea that" dead cenue8': will not cause trouble.
This is a mi!ltake. n", centree nave a coutant tende ncy
to ..ear .. ou t o f rou.od "; and. if allo...ct to d o so. are
apt to occaai_ bad ..ark the c.au... for wbich mA " a ppear
3 16
obscure if this fact be ov~rlooked. To avoi d Utili danger

it i.I well to grind u p the centres periodically, and 50 keep
them in perfect condition.
Work C eotre a.- At ten ti on should be directed to the
cen tre holes, as good work can only be prod uced 0lJ good
ce ntres. They mu!<t be properly drilled up, and the angle
should conform to the machine centre angle. One ind irec t
result of the use of grinding in a works is the standardtsa
ti on and malmeaance of a coastant centre angle throughout.
B elt J o lnt a.- Au )"th in g ...iUCh produu,,, vibration
either in the work, WhM. Or machine, it likely to cause
chatter marks on the surtace being ground. It is, therefore ,
im portan t that the beJt drive be as lUlooth as possible,
and the type 01 belt fastening must be eeleeted with th.i!!
require men t in view.
Grlno.l lna up to S houldeZ"*.-Wb..n work baving
shoulden ill to be ground. it is customary to turn a sm all
groove next to the shoulder so that the wbeet ma r com
p letely cover all the necessary portion without touchin g the
Moulder. Although reversi n g mec hanisms are ve ry
exa ct . it is safer no t to allow the wheel to ruo to the
shouhl..r. It is also a com mon practice to feed the wheel
di rec tl: r in to the work c10!1<l to the shou lde r u nti l the
d es ire size is obtained. and then to com plete by tra versing
in the u sua l way.
A loose wheel spin dle d oes not cause dlal/n. It ca uses
the work to have a more or le811 mot tl ed a p pearance when
ru bbed in fl. bearing.
Points in S election and Use of Wheel.- Grinding
wh eels are judged by two cardinal points-lint, their
cutting power, and second. by thei r length of life. The
best grinding wheel o f a certain grain and grade will be
useless an d condemned as bad, if selected and ceed on
wron g work, The tags attached to erin d lng ....heels
should be preserved. 50 as to enable duplicates oj good
wh eeb to be easily secured, as without that 'information
it becomes necea....ary to guess and try differeDt grains and
grades to again secure the most satisfactory wheel
Ha,d ",-heels are used on soft materials, Jike mild .t«J
and •.-rought iron; soft wbeels on bard materiala like
hardened steel. .The 5cledion of grain and grade ue based
the _0• • to be crouod. Th.. 11:,......., U" .r.. .

0 0 the area of surface in contact hl-tw ....o the wheel and
of contac t.
I'KIlC1SIUN G ~IND1NG 3 17
the softe r o r CO&T$O'!r mu~ t be the wh eel, an d t he s mlllier
o r narrower the co ntact, the ha.r<ler IW, I al!IO fine r ILr.. t h..
wheels required.
Conti.uinl thi~ further, in ordinary gri nding plac ti!le,
compareuve y the harde~t wheels are used on extllmaJ
cylindrical grinding. a little softer grade 00 plane su rlace
vindiog with a eylintt..r wheel. a lOner vade o n in ternal
gri nd ing. and. still softer grade on lurf.ce griding -nth
.. cup _3~1.
Never mount a wheel withou t lOme compressible
, substance between the wheel and the nangll, lua as
blotting paper. hut preferably robber.
Neve' force a _beel on Its ,,?w<lle Of Lolder, bu t _ it
elides 0:1. easily. Before moueting tap it ligh tl y 'Ilf'ith a
hammer. to make sure from tlle tone of the riug th.t it
ill not damaged.
For precision work , wheels shou ld be kept true with a
d U...nond. For tn,thfn l ac(:Ur.L:e work.. aed lil:ood quality
of finil''', a true waeel surface is imperative. The "' h eel
~hou ld run at the sa me speed as fo r grind ing, and there
sho u ld be a good flow of water on to t he diamond.
Sometimes a wheel, condemned fo r be ing eithe r too soft
o r too hard, ca n be t urned in to one that is just ri ght , by
simply e ha nglOg ttll speed. (III cl""-5ing the apood of a
wh eel makes it appear ha rder, an d decreasing its spe ed
giv es it t h e effoc t of being sofler.
If the grain o f .. wheel is wearing a way too fast and
the grade of the wbee l appears to be too 110ft, increase its
sp oo<1. If it iR too harn a n n gla zes. red uce the sp eed and
d ress !hll wheel, wh ich re sharpens it by openin g ou t Irfflh
cutting points. II the _peed of the spindle is fixed a nd
ca n not be al tered, change the wbeel fo r one of d ifferent
grad e.
\ Vhell a ...heel it designated a.a .. ccmbinaucn," it tLeaot
that it is made up of two or mere w(fe ,ellt 8il.es o f , . ...in•.
A wl;~l o f coarser graio wiD always appear softer thau
a ...hee: of tiner grain in t h e 153me grade 01 bonding. For
eu mp le-, a wbed ,mn No. 46. Grade !d , is IlOfter ttan a
wb~1 (11 grain No. 80. Grade M. This is due to the d05e1
and mo•• «aml"'et hody of Cle finer !trained ..heel.
Coane grained ...heels are used fo r fa.u rougb griDdjng.
and the filler lIf&iued wbeen lo r preci.oiGli ..mil.. tool
griodi"8, .tc.
Hart wb"",ls cot slower, are apt to glaze, and ch.nge the
te mpera t ure of the work. They aha requi re 1ll0re ro",e r
'"to PR Y.C!SION GRIN OIN'j
d o the !14m., amount o f ...ork compand with . .. Iter

wh eel.
Soft wheels are usua.lly more economical. they g ri nd
cooler and give better and bigger production in the same
le nRt h o f time ILl the harder wheels.
Vib ration in grinding wheels oeceMitates the use 01
hard er wheels. A softer grade of wheel can be used mC're
d ficienUy on rigid machines.
I n cyli ndrical grinding, the eoe.neoe!lll or fineoe5i!l o f the
,nodiog whed i.!I not alon e responsible for the finish
obtained on the work. Quite OO&I'se grained wheels will
give • .pendid finish for commercial work with the proper
W't'rl< speed and traverse.
WheD .h",1s are reduced in diameter they appea r to
be ~r towa.rds the centre. This b no t m . the faster
weariDg of the wheel being caused because the su rtace
speed has beep reduced Il.lI the ..bed ha$ become s malle r
in diamet er. The most economical plan to use up worn
wheels it to transler them from Jarge to smaller mach in es
th a t are usu al ly built for h igher speeds.
Th e d wnlbiJity of a wheel ill in proportion to its speed.
A wh eel ru n a t 4,500 fee t per minute wil l not last near as
lon g ncr give as good satisfaction as a wheel r un at 6 ,000
fee t per min u te. I n other wo rds, a wh eel that wo uld
gi ve en tire satisfaction at ita proper speed wo uld be qui te
ce rtain not to giv e satisfaction if run at one h alf or two
third ll s peed. T h er e is, t herefore, a co n st an t loss 01 both
wor kman 'lI time and grindin g wh eels wh en t hey are run
mu ch bel ow the proper runn in g speed. Oftentimes a
wheel t ha t does 'not work satiafactcry can be m ade to
do so b y cha nging the speed. The stress on a whee l
ru n nin g a t t he fac tory test peri pheral s peed of 9 ,000 fee t
pe r m inu te is abou t 250 Ibs. per square inch. The stress
on a wh ee l ru n ning at 6,000 feet per m inute ill about
108 lba. , he nce when wheels are te:lted t he y are su bjec t ed
to abou t 21 tim('$ the strain that they would receive a t
the recommended running rate.
E~ussill# W<'ar of th e wh eel may resu lt from a.uy o f
the foll owi n g causes : (a) feed too heavy : (b) work speed
t<x> hiRh: " I \\-'b eel speed t o low: (d) wheel o f too soft
a grade. These ca uses may opera t e either aingly o r in
combination.
Cam G rl n dlng. -The foll owing in formation o n cam
gri ndi og is taken by the a u thor's permissi on , fro m t h e
treatise ,. Precision Grinding }fachines," by !tlr. Thee, R .
Sha....
P RBC ISION (; R1NDING
31'
Tile subject 01 cam grinding L, interestiug iu vie .... 01
the melhods which have to be adopted to produce with in
fine limits of in acc u racy the part icular contour o r shape
d esi red . On acroplalle engine camshafts it is common to
have twenty-four cams formed mte.'lrally on one cam
shaft, and olring to the eItreme1y high speed 01 rotation
t hey must be finished ",itb the greatest a.ccurou:y.
There are two methods which may be employed in
grinding a cam to its finished soape, the first being by
oscillating or swinging either the work or thf' wheel;
and the second, by I s1idiDg action of either the work o r
t he wheel. I n this latter CMe the centres of both are in
t ho same plane.
The first method ;., the one generally adopted fo r the
smaller lius o f caras, and gives the greater accuracy
0"';08 to its more sen.~itive control, the second being
used for the luger liz" of cams.
Operatlona ._I n the actual practice of gri ndinll cam
!hafts with in tegr al cams. it is customary to rough grin d
the cams to shape Iro m the circular hlauk as left from t he
t umiog , a method .... hich at first sight might appear to be
mow lod un ecooo mocal, but i.s in fact the q uickest an d by
far th" most efficient met hod of re moving the .urplus
metal. This is e ntirely owing to the high rotat ive speed.
at which th e cam·s ha ft may be rotated .... hilst gri nd ing.
with conseq uentl y slight rtress on lame, wher"as, co mpa red
with mill ing, th e cam-5ha ft has to be slow ly ro t ated with
correspondingl y increased torsional streS9<'ls. Aft ..r the
ca ms hav e been ro ughly ground to shape and left
sufficien tl y large to al low for distortion consequent upon
th e hardeuin~ p roc ess , t h ey are hardeocd. etralgbte ued,
and the be-anngs finished ground. after wh ich they are
p laced ill the cam grind ing machine and the cams finish
grou nd. In the ro ughing and fin ish in g operations the
cams nearest t he driveu end of the eam-sha lt should be
ground first. and those nearest the t&ilstock 01 the machio.e
last, 10 that any strains which may hav.. been re leued
;n the shaft owing to the removal of the surpl us metal
a re taken care of.
T 1J# lW~ r a/llu gri,"iiM# ..luI below I certain point has
to be taken io.to consideration ,as it will be obvious that the
diameter of this will have au effect On the shape of the
finished <:am. wberever possible the cam Ilhaft atta.;; b·
m"lll should he .. ~ on a ma.;;hine "';th ill tal"(lIl a .h""l
320 PII I>(.:IS IO N GIIINIlING
as possihl.., 101 t wo reasons-c-Iiree, a lo nger li fe to the

grind inll: whed owing to its greate r jleri l' he rr ; a nd second
a greate r ma rgin of reduction 01 wheel diame ter be fore
the shape of the cam being ground is af fected.
e u t Un lt P o w er and LOli ll o f Materlal.- So me in
v~tigations to ascertain t he cu tting power a nd loss of
material in em..ry wheels where made by T. Du n kin Pare\,
th e r!.'Sults of which were given by h im in a paper read before
the Franklin Institute,May 12th. 1904 . (See Tht Mtclul>liul
E.Ki.t#~, p. 316. Vo.1 X IV.) The investif:ation comprised
194 finished t~ts or 4 minutes each, or 776 distinct tests.
The whet'ls used came from seven diU..rent makers, ilIld
we re 48 in Dumbe r. of 30 distinct varieties. The a\'erage
d iameter o f t hese wheels was about 91 in., and the avenge
revolutions about 2,250. The metal conslsted of bars ! in.
wid e and' in , thick. Tests were made at various pressur~,
b ut those a t 1121 bs . pe r square inch are considered the most
instruc ti v e. At thi!! p ressure 244 I -min. t es ts were made oc
cast iron. 31> wheels being used o f 26 clasteS o r varteties,
Th e metal remo val averaged 2 Yt. 01'. pe r min ute, and for
1
each o u nce 0 1 metal grou nd of ,""0 01'. o f wh....1 material
wae consumed.
T oward s th e close o f thi s in ves ti gation three c lau.es were
selected &!I be ing among th" fu t ellt c utten, and .ub jec ted
to special trials. At 8Olbs. p resanr.. per square inc h, the
average removal o f cast iron pe r minu te wa l 3, A-rr 0 &., and
the wheel 1055 i"o"" o~ . , At I100 bll . th e meta l removal in
cr ea sed to S ,",fn 01'., with a wheel 1088 of ,\'n. Th ese cubl
illu stra te what may reasonably be e",pected fro m a good
whet'l.
I n the case of wrought iron and tool steel, t hese metab
a re ground off much more slowly than cast iron, a nd a re
more destructive to the wheel. I n 52 I-min. tests 00
wrought iron the removal averaged I I ~ n 0&. per minute,
while for each ounce of metal removed 1 . 8, of wheel
lIfaterial W'aSCoo:o:Mo:':m"'' ':-:", ,:::-c-,_,,_
,..
Emery . hee '---
File __
17
0
Ha m mer a nd cold chisel I
Weigh t of emery wheel
~~
0
8 o 51
41 , 51
~~
712 .
,o a
u,,"~ ~~"
3
o I
o 101 o I I
s...
removed in one half

hou r'l grindinr-- 0 '1 o 11 0 13' 1 1 13
PRKC ISION GRIN DING 32'
A.!I an indica tion 01 the savinll: to he etrected by t he lise 01
e m",r y wheels o ver ha nd proce!l'>e'l. the table on t he pr~
ced ing page givioJ: the r"ults 01 ha!f· t1o u r tests on brass.
cut-iron. wro ught iron. and hardened saw s t.-el. is interest
in g. In obtaining t he$e reolult!l t he same emery wheel wall
Ilsed on all t he metalB by the sa me man.
Rou 2h G ri ndln l1 Machlnes.- For general grindillll:.
~u eb all letili n g o r d ressing casti nJ;II, forgings• .ic.• Ule
mach ines should he b('a vy
an d rigid a nd bolted to
firm fou ndat ions . Th e
wheels sh o uld be kept tru".
s ha rp. a nd in balan ce by
the use 01 suitable d ~rs.
Unfortu nat d v. On th ill
t ype 01 mac hine wh....."
a re. in a number of e _.
'A" ,._ subjected to very eevete
"'#...... '
.. ... M ...
""'_h ~ ~
treatment, the "'bel'l
spindle having plen ty 01
end play and vibra ti ng
bad ly through loosoe be-ar.
in ...
\Vheel~ should nev er be
ru n without flanges. and
the co rrect p rac t ice on
thU type of ma chine is to
u ~e flanges never less than
o ne- third the di ameter 01
.- .... ,
t he wbeel . while flange.
equal t o one half the wheel
dia met er are strOngly
a.dvi'led. T he inside fla nges
IIbould be keyed on the
spindle, neve r loose. (See
F ig. 5) Flanges should
bear on their outer edges
o nly. and rubber wal'Iben
FIG. ,5.-:-Arbor and Collets s hoLild he uJled between
lor Gn~dUlg Wheel ,for Rou gh t he wheel and Ilan ge.
GnodUlg Mac hines. Efficie n t wheel g Liard,
shou ld al wa ys be p rovid ed . Th e wheel s pind le should be
of ample dimensio ns and no t all owed to Hha ke or vibra t ..
In its "".. rings.
II 'fA
322 l' Il Il t: ! S l O /'l GIlIN Il I N G
T he stanuard ~ i Z9 ot hu l~ i n wh".., l~ re<.:<lI11mo n d ed fOI
th i~ ty p" of lOac bioe a r" a , follow s ;
W.... <'I Diame te r. S p ind le
6 in or sm aller I in .
7 in . to R in. I in.
10 in 1 in .
I Zi n l in .
14 in . .•. 11 in.
l a in•.......................................... 1i in.
HI in . t o 20 i n , ,". I t in.
22 ill. t o 2 4 in. 2 in.
Larger t han 24 In 2i in . to 3 in .
Gau lle!! a n ,1 P revention o f Acclde n ts. -T he moot
commo n ea U$" o f acch l"ot5 a re ( I) catching 01 wo rk
betw....n tILe wh..el a nd t he rese : (2) h""ti ng a nd e xpansion
o f a r bo rs ; (3) us inK too small or too light fla n ges , a nd not
having t he m pr operly eoncaved : (4) not using any fla n ges.
h ut simply screwi ng a n ut a,;ain!lt t ho whee l ; (5) al lowi nll
a rbou rs to become loose io t he boxes fro m wear : (6)
run ning wh eel s OD s baky lnac b ioes: (7) the in j ud icious
u"" o f t h e e mery wheel dresser,
T o a void , ll!I far as possible, accidents the foll o win g pre
cautions should be adopted ;-(1) Keep al l reste well up to
t h e wheel. !IO that no thin g can ge t jammed between t hem ;
if a guard be used, care meat. be taken to avoid a s imila r
contingency. (2) All machines shou ld h a ve their speeds
schedulal, numben given to the machines, and a record o f
th e same Itep t in the office. (3) AU requ isi tions for emery
wh ee ls should state the number of the machine on which
the wheel is to be used. The list in the o ffice is then referred
t o, and , if the lize of this wheel comes within the p roper
limit... of periphery speed fo r the ~ular speed, the req u i
sition is passed to the purchasing a gent. (4) Light steel
guards should wher""'er possible, be placed o n all machines.
(5) All machines should be provided with substantial resta
and run a t one speed only. After the ...heel is wo rn d o wn
to a certain diameter it should be tnnsft'rred to another
machine, which makes a greater Dumber of rotations per
min ut e. At the back of each machioe a placard lIhould be
poo>ted, on which is stated the number of turns pe r m in ute
a nd maximum diameter of wheel wh ich is permitted to be
used on it. (6) The emery wheel dresser should be kept
uDder lock and key , a nd cue man held reeponeible for t be
t r uth a nd balanee o f all .h~l •.
rl>.lolPJilllN G S U O. 1. 323
Tempertng Scale.
"he te Qlperat QNI to whleh thf' ..eeet t.. h"awcl l ...... tem pe rl llll
I.. u ..ual l, j u d jl;e d b, t h e oolou r 01 the lllm of Oll<\f' w hich
term .. on th!' RUrlace.
(hid e TInt. P.h. T"mp.
Dog. r.......u &lJd .....U tool.
1. PaI" "Uo.. _ _ ,..
." { ""I" lrlnll! l.h" It..........t
""taD&: NI.~
t. Stn. ,.uo.. _ ... ... { RuoI"8 ·and ."rgtcal iD·
J.
f . 8m
Gold.. , .uo
q
_
.
6, B. o_ , wi t h plU'p1 }
...
m
{
Hlum.. "t..
P" Dlr." b e.. h.... m...'"
..pa, ",.m~n, a;".
Sh.......ei•..,..... &C.
.,.,~
'0> All'" pl.".... a..:.
Cold chloe)" Tahl~lt q" "
• Purple
7 B.' lI:ht blu" _ '. ... 660

I S
1.....11:"
I
lib.......
.. ,10<1
\<In>in g t001l, .k.
t.eI" rrinJ(ll.&e.
8. 11',,11 bl"e .. . ..•.•..•. 669 P'Inoo , .ug ~c.
,. n .rlr. b111e
10. M..ta1 j".t .'.lhl, _L
--C
....
:::-:
800
i_ H and .nd pit
H•• dn_. lmoot m'.. ..d
, &c.
th .. ""f t".li ",,,W ..lIOI<I.

DiKerent Colours of Iron-Caused by Beat.
Pa UII.I.n .
c. r. h. Col onr.
,,,
WI' flO' . P ille yello w .
4aO ..,.•. n ull yllllow.
4113 _._.n CrlrnMoll.
2."J6
. ll V Iol et, purple, a!Hi du ll hlue; betw e en
ll'iO r::1 1 Wl'C. to 37O"'C. It pa.Rql'lf! to I,rl~ ht hl"e .
to Re.. -g eecn . and then diM0l'lll'-ILno.
"" ." Commonct"11 to be ooven"l wI! h a !ifht

M llt.!nl/: of oxitl",; 11)ftl'f1 a lI:ood d...... of
1\11 hardne!lR. be!'o mOfl mu ch m Ore Im
prelllloibJe to the harnme•• and e...n be
twi"t.,d w ith eeee,
6!Ji ..... 9T1 Heoom e" Q.....-ent .-.,d ,
700 ••.•• 12ll'.I! Sombre red,
!OJ ...•. It;:! ~ n t " he ....y.
900 IM7 cne t -
l lXXl llW B.ill;:ht ehe....s
1100 ....•. 20l! .•.••• Du ll orange,
13XI 219'1 ...•.• Bril(h t o;-anp;e..
= :mJ
I:JlXJ :ul:a ...... wune.
1400 ...•. !5.52 .•.••• llrllllant ... hit,e-weldlnll: h.,.t.
[)ulhl ll: w hite .
." Shop PractJCiI.
Chu ckln a .- " Cbucking " is • term ullOd to dwgoa te
that c1us of work in whicb the part is held in ... fac e-plate
chuck in either a vertical or ho rizontal t UlTet machi ne, and
is operated upon by a series of toolt whicb finish a cylin
drical hole. "Chucking" is specialized for the purpose of
ttl(:uring accurate c y u od ric &1 holes with comparati vely
unskilled machine attfil.dants. The best shop organisation
demands a d epartment equipped witb chucking machines,
tools and gau ges, to who evCIY pop.rt wit.hin the scope o f
the department abould be ICDt. The l'e$ulQi are a red uction
in the lXllIU of boring. a higher degree of accuracy. aod the
attainment of inten:bangnbility. With a proper outfi t
bola up to:3 in. diamter can be eaSly rlIlisbed by co mp&B
tively unskilled workmen.
PoU ablnli. Dep artPlent.-Tbe equipment of a well
amng«! polishing department is inexpensive, a n d I"e'5U lb
in a reduction in the COlIU of operation and &0 impro v e
ment 10 quality of wo rk. Pol.i$.ning ahou ld no t be do ne by
ski lled tu l ncrs or f itten o n expensive machines, as this
work can be done by comparatively unskilled hand3 with
ille"p<:'n~ve a pparatus . A ga in wou ld also be realised in
ti me o f (>pcrati",n and q ualit y o f fin ish if all polUb.in g was
don " by m en t rained by consta n t practice.
"",. 1. _ 1n'''' '' .. 1.
r'.... t. r«•. I .
Ih",.""llUnntDi" ft_ Ih"rnal k eJ tDIl M .
Cliulles.-When the advantages of working with limit
gauges are better understood the system is su re to be
elltensh-ely adopted for general engineering p u rposes, and
limi t gauges will superrede, e scepe in 11 few cues. tho
o rd inary.standard plug and rin gTga uges.. With the limit
DRILUN G IlGS
ga uge B y~tem It 15only neces'<ary to deterulille what. tho allow
325
-
able Iim illl are to be , and to the D make U!Ie of a maximu m and
m mimu m Jl:Au ge. by which sizes are k.-pt within the prelOCribed
lim its. Fo r in side ey linclrical work the fo rm of gauge u...-d is
. hOWD in Fig. I. for o utside work those :mown in Fi gs . 2 a nd 3.
With these gauges comparatively u nsk illed labour will-c-aldeo
b y t he p ro per Dutfit--quickly learn to produce work accurate
..,..jtb iD limits of 0 .0006 in. when using the external limit gauge,
and within limits of 0-0016 in. when using t he internal lim;1
ga uge. Wbere working surfaces a re in 'luestion carefully
finished ha rdened ganges accurate to ..;thlD OJ)()(l 1 in., are
DODe too good. A finer degree of aceu~ than this is DOt
demanded except in comparatively small work. It is proved
t ha t 0.001 in. is a limit to wbjch hardened gauges can be made
without too freat an espeese. It is desirable not to go below
t hit degTee 0 accuracy for working Kaogel (never in the case o f
IIt.ll.ndard~). as errors moltiply ra p id ly , and four o r five tim...
t his limi t meant that in many cases work mu~t be rejected.
Drilling JIgI .- The d rilli ng jig is one of tbe earliert develop
ments in the line o f appliances fo r m a.ll:i n g duplicate parts. I n
t h e !li.mplcs t for m it is merely a pla te att&ched to t he work.
ha ving holes corrcspond ing in d iameter an d location to the
holes to boI drilled. The en tire j ig plate ma y be ha rd ened, or.
&! iBmore UBUaI, th e loc a ti n g holes a rc in hard ened steel bu ab
Ings inserted in the body of t he j ig. Wi th such a jig p ro pe rly
loca ted the lay ing ou t of each piec e lor dri lling is avoided . T he
on ly error th e ope rator can comm it is to d rill t oo s mall a h oi..
or to omit one o r more o f them al together. From the elemen
t a ry plate jig there h a s been develop ed a la rge class of
remarkably useful me tal manu fact uring appliances.
Othe r types of jigBa rc box jigs, which are used wh ere ho les
a re drilled ID an. or nea rly all , sides o f a p iece . I n case o f ve ry
la rge pieces t he sides of t h e box are more or less open, an d
t h ey rese m b le a crate rather than a bo x,
It is essential to h ave jigs extremely ri gid lID that they will
not be distorted in clamping t he work, or under the t h rust 01
th e d rill ; on t he other hand, they should be light e no ugh to be
uadUy handled by the operator.
On e molrt important consideration in jig design is the selec
tion of the Jocating points. These must be determined wi t h d ue
reference to any tendency tn distort the work, and with par
ticular refe rence to the locating points fO!" the same piece in the
lixtures of milling machines, pro61ers, oI:c. If t h is element is
no t properly conside red the rela tions between the drilled holes
and other machiJ;J.e cute. might not be aceUfate owing to such
varia tions in c;u;tiD~ . forgings. or other piecrlll ... are IIlTe to
erist.
326 UUJ'L1CA nHG "ARTS, T IlM PLIlT5
Dupl1eatlng Parts by Punchlng.-Tll Wpl tlt. hau

tHlen la rll:"l, superseded ill t he p rod uc tion of thio , tllL t
ptoc.... of ""rio u~ 1I11AJll'" by 1'lIn e h ,,~ a nd di M in connec ti on
with th" punch pr_ I n t h., typical c.....e o f b1an k in", too ls
the d ie ill Il plate of 111.<...] peetc reted w itb a hole acc u ra tel y
oorr..~pondlnR In ItlI outline to th" pl_ it is d e.dred
to produ ce . The IIldM of thi" aperture !o r m . aligh t &IlKle
wi t h the pe rpendlcular to th", die laee, or they have w hat
oorrlfllp(llul" to . , d raft" In .. pattern In order to Jl:ive cl ear
ance. The lIop<lrtUI"t.' cc eeeepcnde ll][!U:I!y on the dll" face
w it h the term deetred, hut Is ecmewh.. t larger at the lo wer
IUru.CIl. A punch l.8 then worked out 110 that it will j ut
en te r the dl" III i~ fACe.
W h en th" punch and die have been hardened And
properly OOIl1pt'red th.. dhlt" attached to the boillter o! th e
puncb preA", ami the pu nch I~ arlJU&t.ed to tbe ram to li ne
up pmpt' rly ....Ith the die. whic h It enter'!! slightly when the
ra'll i" d_r d own . By In"",rt inJl: .. piece of sheet m etal
under t he pu nch - tl.e fatte r being In ItI! upper po~ ition
and t h en cau"lnJl: t he ra iD to de!Ol'end, a p!U't of the
preurl hed form III ..heared or blanked oUL A 8tripper
pl"te I" u Mua ll y ettached to the u y per face of the d ie, thi.
he i nl!: a pl a te with an apertu nl a si milar form to t hat in
t he di p, but larll:"r to p«mlt the pu nch to pa l\8 throu gh
It fr eel y. T h '" pla te 13 blocked up lI\lmciently to pe nni t of
e&Rlly i Mertl nJl: the MUX"k between It and t he die. Tbe office
of thl" plate it" name ImpHM., '" to strip t he scrap from
t h e punch the latter ri_ altel" tbe blanki lll!: stroke 13
completoed.
P lInch ee &Jld diN were t1f11t u ..ed in hand p......- . wh ich
a re not ("ntb"ly cteotete fet, but t h e pow er p eeea .is no w
ordinarii,. u..oo. Automattc p u nc hin g peeeeea, in wh ich a
atri p of stock Is led from a co il b y mecban l3m, are al 80
larll:&! y n eed,
Filing T empleta. - O n e ot the esrllest s te pe In t h e
d e ve lopme n t o f the interebanJl:eable <lylltem W&ll th e in tn>
ducUo n of templets for use in IIlinlt or otherwi lle ",b ap iup;
llat p iecell to rna .... or te.... irTeltular ou t line. Tbelle tem ·
ple te u"uall,. COMI"t of a plate 01 h&rden od llteel, ti le ed lteM
at w h ich be fore h"rd"n inJ/: areeare fully for m ed ro eorreepoad
wi th the contour of t he piece de.!lired. T he blan k lor l-hl.
pleee '" secured to the te mplet b,. d ow el p i Dl~, or clll m p;r.,
an d the t wo are then sec u eed in a vice, wi th the templet
0'1 the .id.. toward.. the "'·orkman. The o pe rator Mi m pl y
Ill e.. the lIUrplUII "toel;: do .... n to the hardened oo~e of t he
temple t . Th""" tt-mpletll a.te g:e ne raJl y nee d .... hen the
nu m ber 01 J>Ilrt.II required III not sufficient to warrau t tbe
\'IOtl lltl'uction of more e .peullh·e toolL
Repetition WorL- Th e II. f1It "I"o , n t nee e r y for thp
.u~tul ,,'ri r tly mallulacfnriO(r an lefllrlll", I larll1l
C AlO K- H A RUIltiIN'Q . 327
d~"D&nlt for & .egolv o<ta"danl. prod" et. S llllih t .ar tallo"
rrcru t he At,&nd,nd for nlll of te n demora! t..t:" the f"",tory
l'Oul lno a nd In volves In...~lUIo&d e xpe n se out of all lJrOportioc
tolhe ..ppanliltdevtalton from the J'l'ljl;uh,r fo rm. A m O!lt
Important f.... hr In Ih e ..........""f ,, 1 oPl'I'tlo u of a man u.
f&etu ri n,ll' PTOr.e<". bMed on UN' inten:h.f.I/:.... ble ey..tem R
the elltAbll"hme nt o( t ile 111l11U1 of aocueecy, or Allow able
n.rlal\ouJl (rom th", Uatt "t.,nda.-d dimer.alon .. o( the p&r(A.
A ...rlatlon al ...ye rom,.. In. ho ...ever relined the tools Ill.!
be, (or ,,-Iltinj{'t and fOl')(iniflj &l'I:l llI",-"r ........" dUI'Ilct>to&,
and tbe !(lOla and !\stur.". ""eM' and ..prlQ/C eo all t.o inlro
d oe e a depert ure tl'Onl uaer:ly kentl..-l tormJI. It I" Wl Ua!
to determine by t2U'l!!fal consideration of the NlIlroUl nJ{
eleme:1t. of • ....., ... h.1 rn.,.;n....n IUld nlloln1 lIm variatioo
fro m :he "1.nd.,,1 C&Il be I!&fely &Ilow....t In the prlndv-J
dlm"'lIfIion... and to pre~ worki0ll: I{.o....... Ith .. -h"'h to
tellt the parta p rod u ced , 80 ... t o ma int. ln the product
_ illll. Ih ........ '~ed lh nl!s.
Not ..-ith "tand in l( the utmOllI Ih.t ean be dOh" In .. ...-Io.I.. ~
to Iimllll ot M'C1U''''Y in manu flLND rlnlllOO--Called Inlere h.0ll:.
able I"U""'. thrre III a J{1'eal deal of llttonl/: and adjostl hl(
whir t. d e men de IIpt':O: lal ..k ill. Tt.11I labour Illay be praetira lly
al l pUL un the mach1"" dtr" it i. complot,.ly "'1>1.. .-1. ,,,,.Ii
it 1>1 1ltl<)ellltAry. berao.~e th" pa .to:I ....... nOI.• an II. l\ 6&t'ly
enou l/:h Id"nUe.ll.
Ca~e _hardenlnlt.
Thlt p lOt,!.'"" I" ap plied to . rticle.. of m ild .. teet ",her", a
ha rd ..ki n or " urtnce I.. r ll'luired. The l oo>lt re ..u lt s tLre
obtalaed w ith """"1,, contAin nil [ro m O'J to 0'2 per rtl nt rar.
hon. Ttl .. "l'tl('I.. ~ In I...........'«l_ha rde ned are a l\,h l' dd ",l ln eume
for m of (~ .rho na c"om~ n".tto.rlll.l and 1160."1.''' In a ll Iro n hox _
The ea rbo n 100veill tnto th " mil d st eel .. nd converts t he
out"T l"yoNl Inl-O .. h flrd eteo l 11l< vt lll( ... car bcu co nt en t of
abou t O'll ~ r .eot. T he d.. pt h of eAlIe d" pe ndll on the "t,e
of I. h ~ IH tICI.... th" lorm or ('.... loo,,'"' '''-',,~ 1ll .. 1~'r l .. 1 " >Iud . "nd
t h" I..o/Ct h " j ti m e tte process lll00nti nu..d . The Art icloll
101'11 afterward... reheated end quench",' ta nil or ..·&I....r .
T ha f u ~ In wh ich the boXeR ooutai"lnl/: t h" at1.Irle>< I(I
I", .ca.rbo"lead ...... pl-.-l. 1_ h.. ,.,N! .. il.h coal or all , an d
ahou.:d he ",,,,,hie of m a lo ta lnin K t he bo""'. A t a un iform
tIlm f'l!r&l.u re or about 1.1100 d"Ko F. withoal fordnlto It "hould
be mad ... IlO that all rold ai r fro m t he atrllOMph"1"Il ifJlu :duded
Im lll il. and "' ,oDld be 100 eon"trueted tbt n,.ltl,er the t.... 1
or the tlame oomllll in oontae:: with t~" 100"-. t he
lm pinl{ilil/: on the el<1ea .. nd rod. ot t h ... a",brlek·li nlod m oill e
tI".""
<lO &II t<l rail•• the temperature by radi.tion and not by d il"Jrt
eonWL The furnl\Cfl door "hl1Uld be pro .. ld Nl ... iUl & r-p.
ncre to r t&kh.1( uu....c...t1ona o~ re&dinlf'".
e-.t-iron hoxell are D.1Rl&11r. e:nployed on &eCIOORnt olch""p
,,-. n ..., flVOl. 00 "''''''01'. I a b.e 10 erack find d illtort. heru-t"
32' C A ~ I'I· HA llI ) . N IN(.,
!)ox illft ",:&<1.. 01

boU", V1at.tl I in. or ~ In. th lall., t bou l( b mOl'''''
. J:pe nllive, IU'tI rnu .,h m orn "",Ullf!u:tory. The 11<18, of mild
1lleel, are ",..d " 1.0 li t tbe bollM 10011611 110 that ", lutla p; ot
"Ill Y I'llll he &pplleol rou nd " dlt" to IrNlP co n tl-nlR a lrtli(ht.
T he ""'rbonl"l llll: ffillte riB,b. M lIllILonl,. u ..ed are Il:mn ul"ted
raw bone. ~I ch" rr6<1 I....til ,,". or ot h er . Im llle form of
a Di",al cha KOAI. (II'. Gulll"l, r eeouuue ud a n 1l1luu r" of l)(I
part" wood ell"",,,,,,] " nd .w pqr tll "rlum ..... tbonete. The
ma te r ial oofo.... Ito< In t'o<! llt't! Ol\ ln t o the box s ho uld b"
thoroujl;hly d ried and r..rl uco:od to .. tllle powder, 110 a.0 poolll lhl e t h" 1"".. .
ne e o f a ll' w hkh l.
d e leterlo nll to the p~. M r. I. I.. II fll~thcote, In .. pn.pe r
p..-n ted be fore th.. Iron and S l,ee! In lltltuUl. MIlY. 1914.
rerom melld", .. m ixt ure of wood cllJll'fXlftl _ kPd In a Ii per
~n t aq uoo u" llItiOIl of Ilo.Uu n. C'Bfhom,ta a nd dried . Tb l.
mixture, he "t t.'''I. I" l"m ln" n tl," ul tAble 0" th" IICOl'a of JIIlZ"
man a n ce...." d e>ln be u,...,.{ over a ncl 01'''1' IlWlln Incle tlnlLtll1
pro vid ed. tbAt t he In""ltAhll' w""t ,, Involved In com me re lal
Q.~ t.'\ Illftde up lrom t ime to time with fl"eJlh co'"llC'"ltl on
an d tbat th" In ~len hl an! we ll Inco l'pono.tNi and In the
prop"'1' pl'OtlOl't loDII. Th""" are a numllftl' 01 oth.,1' llpeelal
m lx t ol''''' . b ut care IIho uld he nooN!. In th.. i~ eeleetto n.
In packlnu: the bmr; a la y",r 01 nOI 1_ t han I i In. or t lu .
of the powder I" tint pl.... .,d at the bottom a nd we ll p........ed
down . On the top of thlll and at leAllt I II In. l rom th e aldee
of th e bolt are pleced eeme 01 the Artlel.... to he c_d. The
artides "hould be "pa<'ed .. bout . , In. apRrt. Thill ill followed.
by anoth., r lay.,r at the powde r ahout Jil in. deep aDd t h"
wh ol., preeeed dow n. Thill procetlOl I.. contin ued u ntil th.,.
bo" ill full, th., lInal lay<ll' of the powd" r bt'lng .t leut H In.
d _ p . The lid ill then pt.ced on and luted "'ith day an d
the box I~ then ready lor tntrodnd nK into the fu m ace., whkh
llhould \... worked at a ~mperatn"" of . ,700 dej(. 1'. to 1,900
dejZ. F. Bud ",hould ne ...,1'eltl"Hld the l&lur.
The ume ""'lulred to ohtaln a "omdent de pth of eaae
d ..pende on ..iu of bolt. deplh of _ ""'lu ired, "ize at
.. bo" 1:ti". x }jln. )( 6 1D. ront&lninp: .. halt.
would lh..
ld a depth of r.
1.
a fLlel"". and the arboo.aceou" mixture.. Ho u l/:h ly " peak IDjt,
In. d iameter
In. ~ in iii" boun. T he Iar~r
the art d"", th" lonlt..r it tak to produo:oe t he d eelred nuw!.
The bo,,~ when tJ\k"n from the I n m aN! "hould be p1&ced
In .. dry a1mO"ph~re ..nd a1lo...NI to ~taDd u n t il ~rf"",t1 y
onld. The art lel... an! tMu taken out or th.. bolt &lid
thoroultbly rlu..ted, and ~hould. it IIllti~raetory. ebo w a r ich
"",yoI' hlulah )CTCyl"Olon r. They"re now rNody r01'l't'h ......tin ll
aDd quen..hlnlt.
The reh"",tlull: Inml.«O l/:",n tlral1y comprlae" a Illu ffle
b""ted hy I(aIl. Th", """lnlt fuml.OO ,.bon td not be utlll"",d
for thl~ pu rJ:lOll". All the IWO operation. requ ire diffeffln t
te mper&t llre<J. The r~ h l!'a tl ,, 1/." muffl e ..hould he pr ll.C"t1 ca lly
.Irtl l/:ht, olh".....I... t h....r t,t('l.... ...... Il.. hl.,. to d .......rhonl....
".
throUloC h ~I""'" 01 Air .... r,.,rlnll: Oll ther in the jI;lUI ul.1 :I:tW'tl or
t h l'()uJ(h t he door of the lurnaee. To oV"l"COw e t he trouble
0 1 d l"ear boll.WnI/:. lead. which muet be abllOlutely pore, I.
IOOm et im _ u..ed .... the beating med iu m. This i. pl.ao:d
In d .....p pore. round .. h~h til" ho t .I1amee play. and III w hleb
• the rmo-<:ouple i~ Illlrn ..reed to reeced the temperature of
tl lOllmth. In tillS llquld the IIrt1e1~ are lm mel"led u ntil
they I'MCh tbe temperatu re of the lead, -.nd then q uenched .
Th i.. met hod of re he.ting I" very elllei.:mt. All .. 8ubtltl tQt e
for lPAd 8 h...rl u m-e hlertde 11010 1100 m ay be oiled In t h e bath.
t 'or ordi na ry p UflJO"'."' lI:oocI rt!ault" arOl obt a ined by h ...a tl DI(
Ind q u..nc h injl; at l . ~ rl~. F. In NOme 1""'hmOOll, where
Ill(lrtl &<:C ur llte re 8u!l.lI nrc rl"" lred, t il " doulJ le-h"II,tinJ( pro
OO Illl ,,, em pluyed. In 1.hI" pl'1)C'''''' thl!! articles are 0""
euhjected to & temper"t ure of 1,1100 dolo( . F. anrt qu ench lld,
In,\ dl .. rwa rdll r eh ea ted to I ,'too d el{. 1". and q uenched,
The doubl e. h elLt lnp; pro-e.... relln.... ILnd lItrenKth"ruo the
Inl er lor . th e o ncarhon l~ pa rt., and rfltln.... t h... e>l:terlor, the
e&r b" ol ~ p!lrt .
0 11 an d ....a ter ILI'l:l ~n('ral.Iy n-:l. lor q uenching. In llO'nll
~ bowever. whf'rfl th" pienlll lU'9 roqulred to be sptlelally
hard, II. bri ne "'ll lltioo I" used. W hen 011 i" emplo)-ed thO!'
tank _boold be lUI large a .. JIOO'l"lible. and the oil m al n ra inoo
.. ~ non llal temperatu re. Th" oil " ho uld It poI!.'lible be ke p t
In ro n"tant circula t ion _ If the 011 I" allowed to beco me
und u ly hot the pleftlll will t... ke lonw-r to cool, a nd will YNY
In h" rd ntlllll eceord tn g to t h" reUlflt'ratUN:! of the -bat h.
Whe n water 1>< Dlmd II.M t he qu..n ch ln lt medium the ra nk
..hould a iM be I/H((I', a n,1 ..hould hAV" II. j!'ood lIu ppl y of
clean co ld water oonM l.Il.Tl tly runnlnlt Into it while work I..
belnJ! do,,,,. 'fh o In "'! pi III' ..hould h" ilL the bottom or the
rank , "''' by this m "lU1M uat u ral circu lat ion aHei"tR the hot
....ter to re ach th" ou tlet, which s ho uld 1,,, n"....r t he "u r rar'"
ol th.. qn en chl np; ,,'a t.,r. C..re ..houM 1>8 n :erc l..oo to _
t hat the tll.nk9 a re el..amld ou t ptoriodit'a lly.
To caae-ha.rden, leaviD&: portions ao ft.- W h.. ee part-.
ol lIorticle.. to "" ~ h&rden...:l. hav" to ",Ula in -oft, t heooe
pa rtB a l'l' ulloall y roYl'red wit h II. cc.r ln il: of Oreday. Care
ahOllld be taken to _ t hat the clay adbl'n.s to t he lllo:-tal
a nd tha t it is quit" dr7 te rcee bEol olt pllLOf'd in t h e box.
Anotllt:-r 'u et hod i" to lIbrink on a r illll: ot 80ft iro n haYi nlt .
t h ic kn('-.... ItJ"'ILter t han t ho:- t'aIMI to be ",ade . After t he
Pf'OOlloell t he ring ill eMily beokeu otT. I n 80me ea - 1Il0",
m.terlall" lef t on t he partlellia r JlI'.""req lli l'1ld to be 80ft.
T hlM n:tra materllLl, a f ter th" C&>IIl.harde n lol/: pl'Ot'6tl>l. I"
gr ou nd ....ay to t he 110ft portion. Thill latter method I"
very II$ti~fa.dory but l'!OIIt-ly, all It noclIH"It&tee maehin lnlt_
A fourth m"thod oonMI"r.. in eltlctrically de poetttug ann "
""",Unit of coppe r on th e purt!! not to be e.r lxm lll<'ld. Thi"
atTord " a protection, proviried the OOPrwor ill !1'Nl fro ..
l _ i t.y .. nit th.. thl ..lrn...... I. not l~ " t.h.. n O-t¥I06;n ,
C AS K-!l AK1.>KN l N ().
To Barden Iron Castings.-Take ~ tine !talt .nd ~ tine

yellow p ruf\llla t" or pot ....h: IUN" In a eruclhle and heat to a
b ljl:h lleat ; keoep the C1U<t Iro n in t hlll IOOlu t.lona hout five or
eight mi n lltell, NcO'Ordlnl( to IIbm, t he n eootIn K..lt wate r, hu t
be NDre to han' al{OOll hlll:h hen t.
Ca.se-hardening Steel with GaL - f': , Y. Lake. In a n
arUel fl l n "The American Machl n illt" on "C4Hfl · ha rde nln ll:
Steel with GllII." .hrlnlf'l out the fo llo whl lC pol ntll;
(I I Carbonllllnll: marerlalll are 01 three e1a._1I. lal Those
which act hy milan.. of ClIrOOn lc cxtde ; (b) tbOile w hle h ac t
by meanll of. ey ..nhie; I"'f thollt'l whle h act by ml'll.OIl ot t he
hydl'OC&rhol1ll,
(2l The bo!olt ..t.... l. for e.rbonl"lnll: are Dot thOfie that Jtlve
the befit result.. for .nneallnll:, hardenlnll:••nd tem~ r ln ll:.
I t III tbN·.. fore .ppR....nt t bat thtl best carbonlslnll: tlt<*1 III
thfl one that Ol;Intalnll tilt! Itl ...~t amount of earbon.
ial Manll.n_ h..... tond"ncy to rend" r the earbonillinll:
IUrlace hrlttl",. Thfl m.nl£.n .........hould never e.o;nll'd ':'!Ii
percent.
141 A ]on ll:pr lime IN l'equired to earbon""" with IOlId
mat",r1alll th.n wllh I(BAN.
(lh Th'" dh.llod lin.. bIl!t.H'O the eW and the co", ill
obtained by p Innll'inll: the metalll directly Irom the !nrnllC"
lotoa qUt'nehinll: bath,
(l'J) AN a gent"ral rule, all ...I.....ea Ihould be annealed after
belnll: CMoonl8M- , In order to deatroy any eryllta1li8&tion In
th", core, Thill III anomplh.hed by heatlnll: the melal a IItUe
above the point of tranlllormalion. whleh Ie about 1,69 ...... deg,
Fah., and then cooled 1I10.ly. Thl&, howflver. leave6 Ihfl
('1I.rhonl8l!d Korla.... too IIOlt to I'Mltlt ...ear. IlO the ...ork if'
a~ln heated to ahout 1.400 deg, Yah. a Dd then quenched ,
(;f A.1I a ll:en" ral rule Itflel cannot be rallied above 1,600
dell:. Jo·.h. wlthont beeomtng Iiahle to ery1ltaU..... tlon, The
hilther the tempereture the d .... per and more rapi d the
carbon penetration,
\81 The carhon belt\n. 10 f'l"nf'trate thfl 1I~1 at about 1,:Dl
.1"11;. Jo·ah. Tile temperatn", for ordinary.u-I should n ever
be raM:! .bove 1,700 dllR. Fah.
Relative E ffici en cy of G &llf:1 for Case-harde nin&:. - To
1I'ICl'rtaln th.. rel"tJvfl enldency 01 the various carbon IZfIII.eIl
for t:arbonlllnll: Illeel an tnvflllllJatJon .... undertaken b y
J . C. OiJlen and J. S . "'''teoback, the l'eIIulce of which were
Il'ivfln by them In a pll.per be fore the A.nll~r1C4n Inetlt nte ot
Chemkal KnJ{inflfl!1l. I t "'-.II Illlrertained that if the ease
hllrd enln ll: IIIearrleo:! out with ~ subjected to a certain
a mou nt 0 1 ~u rl\ t he action la mneh more rapid. Th e
lo llo w lo ll:ll:MeII we re usedln t he e .o; perl m ents ; IlIamlnlltinll:
11:&11, m ethan e. carbon mcncalde, and llC<.'tylen... The ili a.
mlollU nll: II:Illl oontalned on the averall:e aboat 26 pe r ce n t o f
e" r hea monolllde, t he ElalDe pe l'e<"nt&ll:6 M b yd~n lin d
CAS'&'HARPl':NING 331
IlIOlUUUle, abuut I II Pel' MDt or .. ilIu m l n aIl l&" "l"h", ac8l.J·
leoe w""" thAt ...... d in automohir,," rnr Ihrh Un !l:. Aft ll8'b
Pt'r cent of the I(a.. wILlI ahllorbed by bromine It " '&11 con.
. lilerod IIllffl("lently I'UI'll. Th", 0 1 nee ;l:~ w("no nry
D~ly p ure. The e xpertments w ere ca rried ou t 0" 1Ia",~ l llll
of 110ft Norw"J ITOn eontaininjl on ly O'O!i per eent of
carbon
The r ell. lt>! u l tI." "'IJ""Tio, ,,,ut>! .. ho w t ha t a OIl"o" lI. g .. .
lacilitau. the ("&"f' ·hardenlnl/; III ".11 _ e xcept that of
ea.rbon m onoll MI!', wi i"'h ~ em s to act .lmOff: &II we ll w ith.
out &.II w lt b a m n lonl.. O f tbe thrM ga_ a: udifd , tbe ear.
bon laiol/; , bill l, i81 n t h e follo win R order ; earbo n m onoltide,
acetylene. me h a n e. Ca.-hon mo.ollid e U. by far t h e bMt
~ to(" tl.... VOr"JlO"8.
Ra.rdelling Solution for Small Tools.- The roue ...injl:
...,Iution Ill. ..,..-am ine to" ~' lI.Chillery , '" ~u l l.a'>le for h . riIfou .
I"ll: smail t.oobl, lIucli &II ta pot., rliell, &:c . : T~ 15 KAilon. ot
,,",ter ..d 1 l ib. o f "'y allld " of potalUlillUl , 1I1 b... of 1lIl1lpa..,.
lIl...... of """,mon Ih lle• • nd l os . 01 JH'rllla lli/:&lu, te of I" 't a&h.
Il il-lilll'd w Ater, If It <"aD be obtained, lIho ukl be u...od, but
rain ......tee. I t IlU~ an,1 Clo-&II, wU allOO anll we r Ill., p u rp;>_
Befor e dipp inlo': t he too l" t il,, )' ebould btl he.o.tl'd to .. eh errJ
r ed , allil w hen di Jl ~ In th" bath th "y sho uld t.... ke pt
lllo.,lng, . 0 th.. t t he y wi ll h ..rdeu u nl(vrrnly . I t III not
n"66_rl to d r...... the temper .tter llArdenlnjl:. "1""eM
hardener III thl" "" Iu t ion, It I.. clal m " Il, II I'" ",,1""'0 ,,11
touJl,"h , al.d will ....Ith.land eon llide l"ll. hle P""""' UI'll,
A eo " venle ut way of llH.rd o n ln l'; v",r, ..111/111 tool .. or nrtk' I"lI
wllho ut 1'l'1l1lucllll( olthl"l.ion of their hrli(ht lIurfllce I, to
coat tbem over with 110ft 901I p, h",,,t to rOO hlll\.. In a bu u....n
t1>o., ,,~ or ",,,ftI,,. "nd 'Iucn eh i n water or oil Jl.1I ,1.."lr<;><I, TIlI\
OOII.tl nll: or 110ft «cu p Ormll II prok~tlnK CJU"I>ow o.c.eou" l_)'" r
..h leh proWl"ts til " tJrlf{ht "u r lue dUrlJlll: tbe h6llt( u ii: anil
llat.llJ ctM,b otTar ....r........d...
H ea t Treating C&se·hardened Carbon SteeL -The
A Die r lcan Soc iety lor Teat in jl," Materta.la re eOlum eud t h..
tol lo....in g I re.aunont lor c&>;e-b,... dell~ 1 ......r Lu.. . ~I objoe tQ
according to reqnirements :
(11 When hardn esa ot ease enly 111 d... tr.,d e nd lack o f
to uj(hn _ or even " r it tlene8l< unimporta nt, the earb unsed
objecta 81ay be qe e eebed froID thecarburillinjl," telll pl'tatn re,
a&. for IUl.1ulee , by ",mpty injl," t he ee n ten te of uu' boll . in
mid ....e te r or In 011. Hotb tbe ecre And t b" CA>Kl ar" t h en
coan.elyeryllta llin e.
,~, In ceder to fflduee th", bardeoinl{ Atre_ .. n1 to
decreaM the dan lo': er of dl 8tcrtion aDd erackhl ll: In t he
q,ollnehing t..t.b , th,obj ec:la mar be remo "ed from t be bolt
"'0<1 ...U.......t tll r(Dlbalora qllen"hin" k" .. I.. o,pentnrt'
332 ANNKAI.1NU
!ligh tly exceedi ng the critical range of t he case, namely

1,472 deg. to 1,5 17 deg. F. Both the core and case re ma in
corsely crystalline.
(3) To reline the case nnd in creas e its toughness, the car
burised objects sho uld be all owed to cool sl owly in the
carburising bo x w ithin tbe furnace or outside to 1,202 deg.
F. or 1><:10"", a nd s ho uld then be reh eated to a temperature
slightly exceed ing the lower critical point of the case (in the
majo rity oj instances a tem perature varying in accordance
with the carbon co n te n t a nd thickness o f the case between
1,427 deg. a nd 1,517 des . F . will be lIuitable), and quenched
in water or, for gr eate r tougbness but 1e85 hardness, in oil.
The objects sho uld be removed from the quenching bath
before their tem perature has fal len bel ow 212 deg. F. ~
ueatmeD t is m ore especially to be recomme nd ed when the
carburisiag te m peratu re has Dot exceeded 1.652 deg F .
It relines the case b ut not the core .
(4) To relin e bo th the core and the case a nd to increase
their tou ghness, the Objects abould be allowed. to cool
l;;lowly from the carburisi ng temperatu re to 1,202 deg. F.
or bel ow , a nd sbould the n be (ell) reheated to a temperature
exceeding t he critical poin t of th e core, which will generally
be fro m 1,652 deg. to 1,742 deg. F ., followed by qnenching
in water o r in oi l; and (b) be fore they have cooled below
212 d eg . F.· they should be reheated to a temperature
sligh tl y exceeding the lower critical po in t of the case (in
the m aj ori ty o f instances a temperat u re varying in accor
dance with th e carbo n conten t and t hick ness of the case
be tw een 1,<127 deg. and 1,517 deg. F . will be suitable), and
lLgain quen ched. in water or o il.
(5) In order to reduce the hardening stresses created by
quelching, the objects, as a final treatment, may be tem
pered b y reheating them to a t emperature not exceeding
392 deg. F.
Anneallni1.
To Pack and Heat.-Pack the work to be annealed
about the same as for ease ba.rdening, but it ill Dot
necessary to keep the p ieces separa te, using the bone that
bas been burned II. num ber o f tilDes until it is a.lmost white.
Place in the c ve c and heat UDtil it is heated through to a
cherry red .
. . TheObj'~
C":::O"c_"
;:;;;",:-:
.. ~=oo.c",:c,,-~=~.":::~==·C::C~=
.. ,C clll~ ili""='oC:::
" •..,
=
hove cooled ~Iow 2 12 dell. 1'. in onler ' 0 I....... the dong,:r of crad< ing ,
and they oho" ld be p loced in Ihe reheatinll fwnace whi le oti ll at a tem_
perature nf at le..t 2 12 dOll:. 1'. , lih wioe 10 I"""",,, the danger of crackinll,
it be ing- illlld,i.. ble ( <I) 10 "'lnw "eel to oool comple 'e ly in the <I"enc~
both. and ( b) to ,lace ho<doned . , eel in a hot f"maoo. Obvio...I" if the
lurna ce it cold t oeh o<dened t leel m t v hkewi... I>e onld wben plae«! ;0 il
/<or nbe . tinll.
333
Oooling. _ A M "" W U .~ t.be w orll h.... "".cbtd t he requ ired
I.o....t Iltov t h .. b1.... t. and If t h .. n"l'n 1M net required t or
furtb er .. ork If't. the boXeIl !"emILio In the fu r nace and 0001
d own w ith t h e ftre. Upon rel LOvln /l: t he box6IJ from the
OVflO con r them .d t h warm ash"", old bumed boIlt', o r a ir .
ll1acked l.me, lMl ... to retain the heat aIL loop; .... fIO!'Ioib le.
Do not remove t he wor k f rom tle boXllOI u nlll all hea t h aa
pAAAed oIt. Mo.... R""ilulIl the eoolinil,' be uar the l'NuJta
W. H. Cook , In the A I'IVTican MachinUI , u.ys that wh ile
p lcltllo lt .. !recti! t he ou t.llide or cutinllfl only, .nnMllog b u
an Inward .......oll IUJ aD outwanl effect. I t may be S)mfl
ebemlcalchan~ tabs plaoodllrioll: the pI'OC'eIlI, but h"throb
thllll(lt~nlnll: 11':'(100 .. rl_ throllgh a re-arrangement of th e
mol ... ulM n r th .. lroll. which bew,!: rlJl:ldlylh:ed du riolli the
oooIlnp; iJl the_ad aredurinlt tbfl tlmeth",. &t\"uoderh....Lin
the annNlI 0ROYelle.ble to fin... ioto .. normal pl)IIltlon. What.
eve r the ch.nlt" rna" bl.-. It enables. the work to be run at a
much hllther II~ In the lathe er p!anIDl{ machine; a~
wh ich appeal'll Impolllllhie to thorte who have had no es pe
rl en~ in a n nea ling ca... tl n g ll. It III rolllruOIl pr&<'tlce to run
at a lIu r!ace llpeed of l W feet llDd II ua,...-- lIf 3'1n. po:.r min.
The p~ IIIvery Ilimp le. TbeeuUn!t" are tint tUlu bl...d ,
th en pu l In to po re oi llui table IIbe. Fo r cMtlnjl,'lI up to aho o t
IOlbe. weJJl: h t tile pcbl are about IS In. deep. 1410.. diameter.
and 1 10.. th lek. They have two ea r.. east 00. for eMy Mild·
lln l/; wl tb a tro lll'y.
W h ...n nlUn l{ the JXIlM .. la yer of A m hrtu rll mAd.. up of
I c..L Iron oro o r oxid e to :!O ewe. eea t-trcn tu rn l n~ III pu t
In thl! bot tom , t ho ea.'lt.lnW! llore then p u t In unttl th e lOti"
,11 m oMt lu ll; mOre of th e mrxeur e l~ nien arl,lod , an thl!
IIldllll of tim pot IItr uc k w it h a ham mer to 000...... tile mll tu ro
to Re ttie In "ve ry par t u ntil the eaJltlnl{H arll well cover",!.
A 11<1 IIItl' llll p ut u.. ",,<I tho jetllt I" p l"'khrR<1 ...,,,,,<1 w l t.h
I\ree la y to ma k.. u ee alr· t.i~ht lIll J)O!<lIl hlt'.
The pot.< a r e n ~ 1I" t run Into a Iurn ec e of the r l'vor bo-r ltory
t ype. whielilelarl{t euou l/:h to a llow five pote on llIlcl1 ' ld e
an d t wo pot" In hlllf(h t . th e weil{h t of ea>otinl{lI In lIuch an
ov en heiUjl from ll.~ to 40 ewt.
WI" ", t he fum....... III full tl",. dO<>rl< ...... I'lo.....:L thll lI. re
"let olf." a nd the pot.. gee h ot I.ll qulekly &It polIIIible. Thl8
tak:t!OI a\lout eljlht hemn. afto.'r which time the I\n! IIIallo....e d
to dle a w ay and t he pota to 0001 oft" al< lI10wiy lUI ~i hl e.
wh.leh ooeuptee another U hoUr&. Th& pot& an! then rom
pltUd llDd ('&IItIJlll':" barrelled.
Th.... b:t.. .... I• ....' ........HI by I e we. ot ~e enee a mon u.·
Th en! In! alb..r mtnnnlll w hi ch can be u-4t'Id. 'or IUllt&nC1l'.
eok:& dut a nd Iron tur olnft!'l o r turnlnp alone: In fact I ny .
,
"4
tllln~ ... h l"h jo. ~l ow
ANN EAl-ING
00 ta k e up h.·.. t .. nd wlU ...,taln It alo u l(

tl " ,,' Il.pIJMr>I to be Kult lLbl". " be on " im port"n t point i~ t,he
h~ to ... b le b the pets are br ou jI,'ht, fo r if they 1Ln'l not
hM t..d 10 " co lo u r betw ee n red and the borderland of white ,
nc ",,,uer what mi xture ill u~ Of how lon~ t he heat i~
k"pt u p .... t illr"ctnr y reMul tB cannot he ohtaln"".
Ann8&ling or Steel Ca.stinga. - A com mittee appointed
by til" A n,.. rl ..e n gcc te w for Te~ tl np: :'o la te rlal.. eeccm
mend~ th .. follo w ing t reai lilen t for the a nne.. II0 1I: o f ..t e e!
ea><lln~. : -
(11 1 he ('1L~t1nl(!l llhould 10..
llu n id ell tJ y dellai'd o f adhe r in g
l<&ml before ant"... llul': to ensure thurough and o nUorm
he>Ltl np:.
121 The CAMIl li!!:" Ilhou ld be h ... t~ ,Ilowl7 .nd unlfannl )'
to tempe rat.ures varyinjl,' w it h the .." ..lIOn ecnrent of th lP
lit_ I, t.pprodm"t ely &II ' o llowII :
0..'-. T. mp...., ,,,,".
P&T c.." L lloc. F. b
¥.r~ '::, ~'.~~ ..':::.::::::::::.::: ~ '.~

0'3.' to O'M I ,W
0 '1\.' 1.0 O'ill .•.•.....•... ...•. 1.1\00
T he t.e1U1 r ~ture " a im ed a t "'",y I"" 12:! tlt'g. F ., an d. In
"p6(' talr,/l. 212 d eg, F . h l~ h.'r 1I11t1l t heee K!>' en In the
tlthlt.', "hI''' ll ""e~ ""ry to Ittlal .. the tl"..troo f"t'I< u ll.
(.ll) 'I'lu. r a~f.l"I'CII s hould ha k,' pt a t th" ,u ax lDlu m tern ·
ptlrat,ur.." IIuntd" n t tengt. h or tim e to " o" u r" t b" re fln lo"
or t.he jl."r"tn . In general , I he 111'""l er the "'<etlan" 0 1 t.he
ClI"j,hlK, tbc long er mn " t be t he tame of ollJlO'lure W the
IIIlulm n m I" ", p" raturt.'.
(1 ) (n) Th " rlLHtl nlt" ,,!lnu ld l.... roo l••tl Itlllwly II" d unlfnrm l,
In til " ru rn ll'w wln-n It, II< tl"l<l r.m n".t I,h'" Itl<l"llI hall po....efI1t
th e mn atnuun ItOrtne .....
(b ) Tho C"'lItl"W' m"" be oooletl 'a t " n ec eele r at ed rate
wh eu It I" tl"..lm.1 th"t. tilt' 1l1eel pollllel<t1 ra t h"r hl ll:h"r
to'l1" II", ..tnmlCl'.h an d el... tie lInd t Ihan ran btl pr Ot"u red by
"ery ,,10,,", <,o<,lIn K. Thl>. cooling IllUl<t be ItO oon dueted &/I to
leue the 1I1e<'1 reAIIOnI.hlf free teem I'JOOltnij: IttnlAAell.
The ",ann" r of ea rryltll/: out thllt U("fll.......ted oooli nl/:
..houM be Itueh &II " 'ill attai n the tl,,"I~ 1't:"tIult. Fo r i n ·
~ tan ee . the "/1IItl D~ D.ay be .... Ithdrawn l ro ru r.h e furnllf'fl
a nd buried In a bed or mate rial that I" a poo r eo ndueto r o f
h..at: or t hf' :o.nneallllJl: fu rm....e llIay be eo t h ro wn ope n
that it """Ill roo l mon. no.pldly than It le ll elceed, ::ihould
the eMtlllll'"' be o f eueh u neven IIt:"C'tlon Ih a t ther ecer at
u neq u,.] ratMat Var10U" polotA ...h..n : he fUMlaefl iII o~ned,
.." ped al ly If th.. arbon of t h e ..~ l l.. h ll/:h, the " .,,,.....,
ahollld be ctceed after Ibe ll n~ ha"e btoorolUe bl... t-. a nd
t heir fu rt her t'OOlInll' ec ret "'" t"a ' th .. I<t.........,., Aet u p bv
til e ulleqnal rate!! o f cooling a re reheved . .
Hardening Processes.
The Bmu m.chl ori de B ardeniDK ProeeIl8. - Thlll pro
eElSII ill lIultable lor bard ening tine tool, thlll mU1l1 retern
their ruUIDR edt{!! llud sl.u, lU, tor In>ltanr-e, tapll and
mllllol/: c:ltterll. A crucible !arj(lI lIDODl/;h to hold" t",m·l or
"" of ba rium chloride Is placed ovor II foundAtion or Ore
brl ..k wit!!. plenty of bolee Ioe till' l.'lrculatlon of II.well. The
g.o.. h..... II row,. motion abou t th e e ru"'''l" and heah it
from aU IIld.... .\hove the crucible I.. II hOOd to draw 00"U".
ru me e, &::r. The barium ehlor:d. wt 111 pleced 10 the
crucible and rat"'fd to 2.200 dolt- Yah. Thill .. _",i1y gaultfl(!
a nd maintained by ronneetiDK Ule bath ... 1:b a pyrometer.
1'he di~reeable ehbrldll hilUM CAn be Kllpl at a mlnln:um
1.oJ' addinl: II handful of eedi um carbonate. Care. heweee r,
UlllHt be t.keD to a,old adding too worl!.... It . " " den It
Im poS'd b~ to ral...e tbe eolutton to the dulled temperature,
W he n the bath 18 t.eat.ed to about 2JllOde,:. Yah. wblrh III
.- white hat, the tool Lt placed in the bath. and .-lIowed to
_II: untliit Is railled to the U1rr.perature of tbe boot h. Tbe
too l iB al lowed to remain fo r . few mlngtes until it ill
tboro u g hly heated. III ~b " .,.,..., of tapa. wb"re the ent.:.ID8
ed l(lIS an req u ired rc be ve ry bard, w ith a felallv"ly ""ft
body, the tool h. uot le tt lon l( eeougb to h"u any t hin.,; bu t
the edjl,"eol to the hlj(llellt point. H laroc6 tool" a r6 to be
barde ne<!. they .Ilhould be preheated to a low re d In .. m e rne,
lIO a .. to "revent cooll nl( t he barium bath on InLl llenlon.
The "d dl~lu" uf "" larK" pI.,.,,, of cold metal In........ thp.
tem pe rature of t he bath oon,dderably.
Air qUllnc blnR I" perfect wi th tlt l" 111"OC".... I>t<c,auKe th"
cceung of barlu'" ehlorf d e 011 th e too l p r. v"n t " oaldlltlo n
UPOIl remo va l froUl t h" ha t h. An ai r bla..~t I", ho wever. e x
pen"lv6. A mor o eco nomlclll llletho<! I.. W UKe an 011 bat h
....,. th er e I" IItt l" 10"" of "n. Aft"r Uu. t.nnl hll .. been hooted
tb orou jI;hly "nd uniformly, and 1H left a f ll '" Illin u te ll (ne ve r
ever t o mlnu tee ~ In the ba rium bat h 80 a.. to unify the
me t a l, the tool I, t"l.'moved a nd Imm ediately ph m jl;oo In t h e
air or 011 b ath. Too:ft wi t h delkllte ed g e" l'6Q ul ro tenl ptrinJl:
after thill. A fte r tile watinJl: of barium _Ie hlUl bee n
h""..hf>d olf the tool, It 1ft found to he of It... orlll:loaI81r.e.
and of mu ch the ...me appearance as btlfo", b l"aU n Jl:.
Electric fu rnacs are now employed for hardenlnR ;oola
In which metallic ,..It", or mizturlls tbe","f are healed by the
direct ;lplkatlon o~ eleclridty. The crul"ihle or contai ne r
(or the tb Ie made up of tlrebrlck", which are8DITOundl"d
hy h_t_lne"I"Ii"", material ar:d supported In a peet-iron
cue. 'two Iron electrode... l<X"at.ed on opposne Rldea o~ the
crucible, direct the curCVlllt through the bft.tll. By weana of
a reJl:oiBtor the a'la:l...l.le '1oltaJl,"e 18 stepped down to th.at
reqUired by the (~. a.nd :ne.ana are aleo atrortlfd tor
rel{lllat:nll: the powe r and. oon!l6quentlr. tbe tlllm])f'ratore o f
n ,p haUl. Th. k ind of salt used in th .."" h rn ........ depend"
336 llA ROl>N I NG I' K OnESSK S
"'VOU t h.. t" " ' lJ"c"tur" U tlll l r.,rt. !,'or 11l.rU.:HlIUI'; Itll';l....~ l'e" (j
Ilte e! b..r ju ru ch lo r hl e III Ull<'l d , ",nd f or carbo n s te el a mixture
01 ba r iu m c h lo ride a nd potRlllllulll ch lor id e. F'or etil ilowe r
tem por" tu r ell pot "ltHlu rn c h lor ide onl y , com m on lIalt, s alt
petre, k c•• la u xed , t hlll l"t ter ea lt bel nl(lI ult lLble for 1I.1l 1ow
'" temperat u r e 1'.'1 ~ deg, Y . Tholle lIaltK ATIl uon .eonducte rs
01 c u r re n t whe n cold al\d bllCOIll'3l'(llld uctor ll of tbe second
clNllI w he n ",olten , Me null M'.. [ he r e/ore provided for
ob l-llol n lnl( "eMn liel of molte n co nrluctl njl;"lilt be t w ee n t he
t wo e lee trod llll. T he f u nlllces op erate on ly on a lternatloJ{
cu rren t , di rect cu rre n t be lllJ( u nllu ltable on ..ccount of t he
e lect ro lyt ic e ffect o n t h" ba th. Th e e lectrode ll, which a re
_,11, rep laelld , w ill IlUIt .. bout t h ree m on t h" II t h e ha th is
operated a t 1,472 deg, 1"., a nd th l! e r uclhle wllliallt ..lmOllt
In d efln lte l". 1':-e en a t tlilnl Pf'r"t u"," all hl p:h Ill'I 2,37 2 deJl'. 1'.
t LIl eruet b e w lll lAllt "I x m Ollt h" or m o re. The f u macelll
can be b uilt In aD\ . Iall but tor ord inary rIilQ nl rtlm en t" a
bath wl t b tl h nen '" OIl" 0/ 81n. hJ lIln, bJ 81n. h.... * u found
qu l~ . u ltl el euL
E1!'ect of Heating to Various Temperatures be fo re
Quenching on Carbon and Low-Tungste n Tool Steel.
M r . S. :oi , UraJ l haw pTIil""oted t he r-ultA of a nnoearch to
t h ll I lIlIt. M . M:, tsee Proe. 1'110), lI e llt&ted that the ",1fl"C"tol
b"atln p: to varlou. !.<·mperatu..... for ..arlou" IlIl lljl;tbs of t lUl1il
be fore qu eDcllln p: for hardf'ulnll: .how: HI P rol on ,,-ed
IOllkinll: 'lip to 12lJ In lnu t"'" at ~11lp"ra!urtlfl Ilt whleb t be
barrle Dh 11l: e hanjl;lIl hi In 30 mlnutell half atlOO,,, pllllh lNl. does
n nt IIUl1\CIll to ...,mplete tb" eb llDI(lI. (%1 P ro lon ged _It lnll:
tor hardenlnp: at the temperature about 1.400 dell:. }'. b ... a
. lig l,t IJ Inju rloull etrect, but tlOlW not maUlrlail,. Infl uence
t h e herdneee. (3) At .. temperaturtl of about 1,4VOdell:. F.
a l{reIlt degree of hardne-I. attained with a .mo rt time In
t he melt, ILDd th .. hanID_ ill Inlpal red with 30 mi DutN
_klnp:. ( 4) Prulon~..d _KIIIII: for hard,,"I"1l" at a te m
perat u re of about 1,616 dell:, f" h a ""rluu.I!J Illjurioa.
etrec t u pon tbe eteel, A. .peelalIJ It ! del(n'e or hard De""
ma,. bIIlattainlllCi b,. meana of _killll: at a blp:h temperat ure
sucll l1..li 1,616 deg. F. to r a "lIlry ahort time, and even 'i l
m IDUtef! Istolll( enough _to ..-nouIlI,. Impair thOl ba nI n e-1lL
Temperat ure of Brine for Qne n ching. -Bo t h lo w.
tun Kllk u alld .... rbon bult quenched at U dlll(l;. t ·, a~
d ectd ed tj- harder tban ...... quem'hed at 73 de~. Y ., a nd
q nen chiDIl: at I U dell:. 1'. ",,"de", the han much IlOflt'r.
Hardening Crae4-~lr. Ura,.baw found lhat in bot h
lo... .tungst"'n and earbon 8LN>ol thOllOl U'toIItrnenh that p ro
duce t he htgheet el""tic limit, a.ceompanil'd by the ~" ....t""'t
ber dn esa and the IIne"l fracture, are frN\Uelltly the mOOlt
ri s k ,. ....."" JtII. nI " h ardeDIlljl; cracK"- Thill rl/lk of hard.,n ing
t:r1Icka Ia "" d u ced It the ateel i. h.....tOlrl tor a Ol um e l.,n! I"'DRln
of tim e to a tllrupNature or 1,6.5l! dOlIl: . ft., or .. Utt, .. abo.....
Lcmr .tU D ~I IIl " .....11.. mo r.. li..hif, I., h"rrl ..nln ll ~",·k. th . n
C"~ ....." · '_1
Pi.ck.lin~ Gasting,s.
",
C.... t· , COU cannot be l1.Lac hln " d at th.. ............. "Vt"'O .....
.. ro ull:hll ron or m ild eteel because of-
I. The thi n bant flk tn oowoed wh"n th.. molten rrcelal
co m.... In coutect with t hl' damp _ li d duril\Jl: rASt,lo ll!n t h e
mo uld a nd :t, t he prtll>en ~ of san d in or On tke CNlU"I{.
I'lek ll n ll: th", "utlnlV' I" on" of tb" ....yfl In wh leh t he
a fore l1ltlZl tl o ned dinleu lt iM MIl be O".. reome, S o lp huJ"lr'
aeld, or ..IU1ol. la mOllt coromonly u w for th l, purpoee,
When lOO treated ...&Ilt.!ron work ..an be machloN at aqu idl
ra.te , and m ill ln.a: euueno ....ill last .. ., tlmlllll All 1001/:.
Sulphuric Acid Solution.- 'f tililacid In lUI pnre ~ tale
I. a hlWoTl IIQold, very moeh Ilk.. an ol~t lI1lnopt t ha t It til
Tery Inoeb h""vler, and i n th ill atate ..tu not ....t uk Iron.
Wh"ll d iluted In the proportion ot one part aulphn r le aria
to fro m four to nVll partll of water It will tel'ldlll d 1.o1'oe
Iro n. I n waklnjl; up • pirk l" eefu ue e n""..r po1IC t h.. wate r
011 to the add. " It 11'&1 resul t in I II wr; p IOllloo . Ti,e arid
llhould &lwl yM be pou red into the w.. tn .. little .. t .. ti m e,
end ti ll.' fIOlullon Iltlrred vigoro ullly dnrlnll: th., operation.
It ebo utd be k " p t fa ir ly w .. rm-ebetween 70 d ell:. and HO deg.
Y . A ""l u tlon mad... n l in t he propo rt ion ot one part
In lphu rlc &l'hl to fro m c u r to IIf... pAr"" 01 wa ter will
UltualJ )' Jo<-u the "".Ie on the CIL~t1n Klt in It hou rs : 901ue·
thn .... blll l .. n h our ill lIulllc ient. a un !." of ....min I/: Ithould
be l{lvt'1l to t hose who m l Y have to handle t h bt It.clll.. In ItIl
eon ClIll tn.te<I lor m, H It r:om ee lnIQ con tact wi t h the fl""h, it
"'Ill c.... UI..\ It VH y pai nful bo r n. "\\' hcn dUul ,ell.,howe ver . It b ....
ueeeue.. lly no "tf"ct on t h" h lLnd .. beyond nu,kltl l\' tI"l Itkin
l'Oull:b. A n object ion t o tho ulte of Itu l ph u ric ucld hi t h"t t he
8''61" 18 n'll ,ovpd I,y un ll.erlllin lu j.( It . w it h t.Ill1 ....." ult that It
t here are ..IlY va roue p laces In tht' ('.....t lul/: t he ll.clll. will
"" ttl.. In th l'>te " nd weuhn th" Int....r lor 01 tloll piece. Jour
tbI8 r",u,on It. 18 not d esi rable to pil.'kl... c1t8U nK" wi th th l"
1I01utJou whkh ILte to be nt ckel-pie ted or l'l'ltlvAZ,IIIflrl.
Methods or Pickling Gas t ings. -Th" r.. lire 'w o b O lUo ·
",hILt dltrere u t pl'OC:<l8lW'H em plo)ed for p ick led CliIOti lllt!'.
F or One proeeltll a It"&Il.·lill ed wood " n tank lit l'1'(w lll.ed, ot
",LIEe a nd llill'po! d etenn ined by the IIbe. IIha~. and j Uantit J
01 <'1t.8t ln~ 10 be ha nd led 'With a lan k 6t t. lon ll;. 3 t. wide,
an d 21t.. dtep. a 1.. 'lI:''' Ql14llt it y o f l:aIItlnl(ll can t.e pl...k led.
Th ill ta nt ..ho nld ~ fe rabl1 l.oe IIQnt a foot or flO in t.ho."
II;TOQnd . Ind t ro nl on e 01 t be long 8Id ... .. IIl1;ht wooden plat.
torm. !lAJ 6t t. wide and IZft . loolO:. w ith r&;1Illrl B1fir on t he
ed l( e&, Moou ld nltllld bac k. The pl l tlo n D Abou l ha ve a
pit.eh of t .. o or three i nc h~ to th" toor Io wa n:! t he Lank.
T he p lck l" .hou.ld lL'I PR'''ion"ly BLatN he made 1 p&rt
vitriol to 4 to 5 JlIU"t4 wll.!A."r. It 1M• common militate to
th lnt t h . t m ...... Tllrlnl ... ill hurry toal tel"fl IIDd rio tb.. _ orlr
I' ICKLIN G C ASTI NG S.
1Il0n! t hoJ'l)u Mbl, . lor t he r ever,", te the 0llM<'. l\.Ol an ,,:o.""1lII of

vitr iol ",tard" the ~tloD. and th6l'e lol'll s houk! be a votded ,
I n pftlpa rlnJl: t he pic kle t he wate r ift put In liNt, end the
vit rio l 1>0 ",MOld KfaduaJl" du ri~ w hie l. llroc Oll'l.'l t he wate r
beal3 up. lo"m t he tank to w it hin 6 0r il n . 0 1 t he top, T he
artid "", to bo> p ick led , It of conven ient lIi"8 to ha nd le, .. re
..im p l, dipped in t ho pickle, 80 tha t t hoy arp wet all ove r,
a n d then lard o n t he p lat for m to drain &nd dry. H the
eMtlngll a re too lallCe or too heav~ for diPllinli:' they are laid
on t h e platlono. and t he plck lo IJI t hen poul't'd over them
w it h a dl ll""r, Th oy should be t urolld .... m uch ... noc_ry
to wet the'" atl ove r, and no no of the ~tJnl(>l sho uld be left
till thl\t the p ic k le luui" ehantle to IM'lt~ le In poekete or pla098
tha t will not dra.in. The cutinltll are then le ft for elgbt. or
t wel vo houN. when they w1ll be cov ~red with a white
PQwd"r, aublotanee. I t III onJ y UflOIlI'II&l')- to dip tbe ~tiolfll
In bo lllllli:' hot water. or to pour t he hot water ove r thew
unt tl t hey a re t horouj(h ly dea nfled ot tlre acid . and wh en
th ey art! d f ' t ho p~ 18com p leted. A hot w"tl't' tank IIJ,
of co u ....... provided . wl tb a ateam pipe lor h.... Unlt t h e
wa ter. ThlK watt',I' abould be non...-ed freq uen tly 110 that
t he a cid w lll be t boro u p;hly r em oved . An ad d itional ee nn e
mont. l a to "rov lde a llOt potuh or.ooll bath before the !lnal
rl n stn li:' In cl ean w..te e.
To p ickl e by t he KIlCOnd proe eKII lankK Ilre provldPd o f
"umel,-nt capacIty to su bmerge tile ea..lI Uj,(lI fo r H'l'leral
ho u ra ; "Om etlm eor. th ey mllY rema in In t he pickle over n lp:ht.
wh en 14 kt"1l o ut tl , ~ y sh oul d h" rinsed a t oneeln an ad Join .
Inl( t anl! of el m,r wat...-r, or, he lt<>r, In t ..·o ta n k.. In lnlece,.·
Hloll. Tho pk k ltl for thlll Blow procc.... Kho ul d be m uch
wce s er t ha n for tho n r et procesa deec r tbed, t h e Pro l>ortion
ot vi triol to wa ter be l nll: a bou t a s ] to 10.
M uri atic A cid S olu ti on.- f"ot t he r em ova l of r u st or
..
IICll.le on Iro n or Mteel m u riatic &Cld, !l&l~ 'l'hl'l Ilr&l\lll w cerd,'
III mu ch HUp"r lot to sulpburlc acid. n u"llli( It for plc kll nJl;.
It "hou ld be dil uted wi t h wa re r . The follow lnj( proportIon s,
accord lnJl: UI ou r contemporary', Il:'iVtl JtOOd l'".nltA: \\·. t8 r,
1 )(allon; ti dOlK. muriatic IJ,Cld, 1 1i:'&l\on. I II pll'klin)(, it III
well to let t he acid take us t l Ul&' If aliJ(h tly warm ed
It wo r ks mo re rapidly than when cold. The plcklinl{ Dlsy
take 10 m ln n tell, if there ill but litt le ruet 00 the mOlt&!.
or It m ay ta ke 10 boara when there III " thick _ Ie UI
be d iMo lved.
Hydrolluoric A cid Solnt i o n. - l u C&<le. where a dean
aurf_ ifI required on th" eaatinli:" hydrofluoric add Is
often ulled. Thifl acid acts but slowl, upon pure iron, but
...UI diBololve lSAnd or black oride of iron rapid ly. H yd ro ·
lI.uocie add III eommonlJ 30, ~ or 52 per cent pu re , t be
_ Ian<:l'l of tht" iIOlu t k)ll beiOIi:' ....te e. When the 30 p"]" ee e r
rlCIUJNG c.o.~TUIGS 339
.eld .. IlM'Id th.. pldtllllll' bath ehouJd be mood. u p br ta.mp:
one part of hydronuorlc acid to 20 parts of weter : w he n the
48 per ce n t acId \JI IJ~.,(I the h"th IIbould he ma d", up of one
part or h yd roll uorlc add to from ~O to 10 Jl8rlll of waUlr,
the hydl'Ol1uorle "",hi blLlh iN used cold, but It s hould 00 k ept
above the r"""'lliolt point. II ullu"lly t"kell (rom balt a n
bollt to one hOll. to remove lICa1e from omina., l'a8tlnl{ll
with tht' 1IOIution of the "trt'n~h menrfcned .1>0.,.... After
the clUItinl{ll an' teken 'rom t he hyd rotluorie acid, they
8ho u ld be rlnll<'d in hot wet......nd , ..... In the CII>1O of eulph u .
rk add,...oo...or pot.l\J'lh are tr "qUlllltly Add"d to t he water to
n eu tr" l b"l any /leld UlI, t llIay Tl'n mill. It hyd rottuor lc fl.d d,
either In a ecncentreted or dilute for m. ecmee In con tAct
with the tl_h It will penetrate t h" IIk ln Imml"dlAt..ly a nd
will d""'troy the nOJ{er naU" very rapidly. Jt iM then! tore
neee&'Wlry to use ruboor Il:]OVllll when handllnll: this sdd.
The tanks for co ntaln ln!\' hoth IIOlutions IIho uld be lined with
lead . Hld ro ftu or lc aeld must he kept In w ood or lead
VeHllel1l. t dl",s ol voll fl,'lWlll bo t tl l.lfl or IIton e jlU&,
Cement for lroD,-T he tollo w ln[l: III a U'leful recipe for
the cemenuog ot Iron :-'f.ke eqUJl.1 P&TU of sul p hu r and
white lead with about a alIth of boraJ[; !u<'OI'poratfl the
three "'lUI to fOl'm one hOmOln'l180Ua II\all&, When p:oinp: 10
apply It, wet It with stronlllllU1 phurie scld, a nd pla Oll a thi n
layer of it between the two pieces ct tron, which should then
00 preened toget.her, I n five dayll It w ill he P\'r lectly d ry
all trl\OOII of the cem ent havlnp: va nl8h ed. and t he Ir on will
have the llppell......nee of lavinfl,' been ...· elded top:eth.,r,
Speeds f or W oo d w or king Ma.ehiDerr,
Cireular Sa,"- about 11.000 ft. pe r ml .... tooth speed.
Loll: Ha nd Saws, about 7,000 tt . per min., tooth llpeed.
Han d-feed Han d Sa WII, a bou t f ,I) JO ft. pe r mi n. , tooth IIp.. ed
CUTTJUl BI.QC K!.
Planlnp; and Mouldlnll: ~hlntl8. 4.0lXJ to 4.!iOO 1"eY'1l. pe r ruin.
Vertical Spindle Mouldinll: and Shapinll: Machlnllll. (,lnl to
&,000 re"". per min.
Woods Used in Machine Constructio n.
Pattern Mllokinll:. lor of'dJnary PAtw m8, whi te or yell ow
pine: for small perterus, maholl1U1y.
&.rin~ which wo rk under water: Lill:lluhI ,,11_
B.....ke Blockll: wurew IUId poplar.
Pulley Block Shea"eII: Lignum "it~. boxwood.
Mortif'e-wheel Teeth: Beech. Jlambe&lU.
Hllllllupr Shaltfl: Allh.
Tnol ljsndlee : Ash. Beech,
Framlna (...· he"' 11'011 18 nlM uooeotl: 0 .. 11. . Teak.
340 PL u x as 1'011. SOLOtlK ING
FWln« for cast-f r OIL- U o le" In Mllt.lro n may tI" ftll ed

by the lollowi n ~
a l1oy:- Melt to(I;llther n ine pn.rt/Jot lead , two
~1UI of a nti mollY. and one pate 01 b\1I111 Uth. a nd pou r t hla
lUh:tn"," Into tbl! hole. I1l'f1t IlOmewhat "'I\m ,lnjl; the ho la.
Thill " Uoy ~ the q u a li t y ot eXp""d lnoc whe ll coolinp;,
bee ce 000:0111"" -.:lU ll In t h e holM w he n oold .
Oomposition of R ust Cement, by Weig h t .
200 parts. Iron borln~ }
l! M\.ammoniAe Ipn wriMed ) Slow
I do o l' IIIlJphu r ~tt l llll: .
1lO poIoru Iro n borln~ }
1 powdered ....1... llI wonl.~ Qui d ,
t ftour eul pb u r ....ttlnl/:.
P lu x ee for Br azi n li' and Bolderinll.
1"Iu:.:e. ~ u O'l6d to d ea n the II u rlaeM a nd preve nt the
fonna t lon o r oxide OD t h e II u rfaNlll of th e met.1 " 'h eo
IlOld e r ln l( ; t he y a llM> al'l'Ils t thl'l llOld .. r to mmllln " w it h t he
me ta l" to ~ 1I01der"d and hel p the IOOld"r to flow.
Bor(U) ill the ilE'neral ihn t or hrlLZlOj{ hani m " lal" and t b..
hll.rd alloyll,
I'luu.
Iron
St eel ......
} Chloride ot .In e
Sal_",mmon h"c .
1Ch(killed
lorille ot zln e
"1,iri t.l<l
~=r .::::: .. . ~~~i~~ .~.f. :~~~~ . : : : : :: }

} Sal-ammonlee lto·"ln
.
Zinc tne I. Ch lori de or dne
Zin c (old) lI y<!.roc h lor lc IIJ"id
l ..,ad (w it h fine
IIOtde r ) ... ... ... ... Tallo... and r~ ~ ln
Le.. d (.. Ith nlal'1l.e
solder _ T" Uo..
Tin _ _} ReAi n .. nd n veet 011
Pe ter - 1
- -
Fo r tbe joinrin;:c Dr e teerne rondueton ...1<1.. ..bould DOt
--
bit u1Oed.
W heo hrdroehloric acid ill n"6d ...... a d UI: tor Mlldering
a D<:" t he ~ of ..., i<l i e tt ..fter t h.. flOld..ri o loC til ('ml]pl~
Ihou ld ......_hed ...."'y.
CO Iol POS lTlON 01' SO LDERS
"<I
Oowpotlition ot Soft Boldere,
Vlue . __
III pm. tin 1 p&r\ IMd SSt d"l'. Vah.
Tinman'•• _._. _ 1 part tin I " 11.
P lu m bel ··I __. _ . 1 M 2: pan- lead . to
Pew_ '..._ . I " 1 part.l-.d }
'"
aod 2: part. mu. uthc1' -_ - , , - _
.l mlsture of I ~ pll.I'tlI tin and 1 part load fUIII! at a lower
t4 m pe ....tu"- than any o~r mbed proportJon of th _
metal..
Oom poeit ion ot Hard Soldera.
Bard brasinj( IIOJder. 3 parta ropper I part aloe.
" l part I ..
SOfte r • partll :J ~ alne I part ere.
L ubri cation of A ir Compreseors. - Acco r d ln l/,' to M r.
W. P . l·~nll:~r. In a paper J'M.d before the Central
Hall way Club, a too freque ot m"'tak.. I, made by u lling
10 ..Ir cyllnd ..... of eo m preeso.... 011 Inttm<led for att>am
cyllnd..r... Such 011 I.. of low lIu b point. where&ll t he
lob rkatlon of air cyllnde.... demand" a lIi!'ht oil of
bl j{h ll... b po in t. aod o f 'rer y , helOt quality. Oil of poor
gr ad e and low 11Mb poin t becomes upon""'l In &ir
cyli nde n. lLnd I" d lllCharlo{cd with th", ai r wIthout e lfecting
InbrlrBtion . Oil .. ho u ld be flld to a ir cyllndetll slow ly
and ..pari nJl; ly, IIJI too m u ch oil will clolo{ the ai r ..ahe ...
cau"lo lt them t o ..tic k a n d gi ve troub le, Air "a h'ell Kho u ld
btl ea8 h1lnlld and olean ..d a t Intarval, by wIlllhl nj{ In
ke l'(lf!an llOr naph U'Il. Wilall t h lll l, do ne th" V"I VIlII " ho uJd
be rtlhl ov" d Irorn t h e compr e""or. fo;oll:l llellTll have be "n
koow o to In trod uce ke r oJlen" t h ro u lth til .. alr·Jo lnt plpe,
an el!'l.'Cti ve m...thod of clea.Oldull: dirty valvell. hil t IIOm e
u m ee ~ q ull.ll y elTllet.lve In produ einJl: an explocon. Th ll
tood-lo Jl: of _ p lIuds Into th " a ir l'y lh'd('r t hrou .ll:h t he
lu bri ca to r Js excellent to r keeplnp; Tal ",," ('lean, but w hoo
th le III do ne 011 Ilhonld be ted lhronl{h atwrws nlll to pre
nmt rullt .
Lubrication of Pneumati c T oola.- A IlRht oil IIhonl d
be U8ed for Ih bl P'U'lIOtoe. Und ..r no cln-uln.l.anees "honld
a hl'lATy 011 00 used. lIJl the ooolillp: erreet of tbe u·
PNldlnjl,' ai r ....ou ld CAU,"" it to clo.ll: the tool t'*rt" and
~Teot the Ir..e mcv...meet of thl' pa rtll. PneQ mdic
hammera "hould be ~ funy cleaned alte r ullln.ll:. and
k ept Ilnhnwf'll:'(ll1 In a l&nil: of 011 wheo oot 10 o.erv~.
An eI eeUent de-tee fo r elfectively luhrl..aUoll: pnec
matle toolll I. an automatic oller Ieee rted In the .llpP]:r
hOlle aboot l!Kl locbflll from the tool with nil-proof hOlle
between oiler . o;d tool. which, operatinlo{ 00 tbct Drindple of
"0 &taml_. ..nabl_ the Bow of the Illb rl..aot to be
~ated to. nlc.tJ'
IIA TH 1'01< BLU f: IN H '1TKK l.
Hath 10.· I.nueln Q. Steel,-The uaual methcd II to hea t

the a rticles to a certain t emperatu re unti l the: blue colou r
ap p"'a" an d t hen immed iately plu n g them into wate r. The
heat 01 t he article determines the colour, and by carefully
regulati n~ t be temperatu re various eorours, fro m pu rple to
to straw, may be o b ta ined . There a re many obiecncos to
such. bl uei ng method. The articles m ust not co n tain any
other metal o r be soldered, Considerable carbon m ust be
in the steel In ord er to bring nu t a good eolour. Soft ~eel
does not colou r as weD as that higb in carbon. Then. t o,
large quantities mUlIt be treated in order to obtain a satis
fac tory result. A fe.... pieces are very difficult to treat, and
good reolu lta are oo t obtained. A special furnace is ;L)so
requ ired for t h e 'IfOI"k.
A co nvenient mrthnd o f impartiul' the bluefiuiah such as

is fi '·en to the hand les o f pliers. etc., ia to immerse the
artrctes in a bath of melted eanpeee. allowing them to
remain in the bath till tbey a re heated to the !llUIIe tem
perature, a nd then qu en ch the m .
BradnQ. Caat lron.- A miJ< t u re o f boracic acid lib.,

pulverised c hlora te 01 potash " 01., an d carbo nate o f iron
3 oe .. is cla..i med to be a good flux for bouing ca t iron. The
flux sh ou ld n ot be a p plied nn til t h e metal h ae been care
full y clean ed a nd tb e sections to be brae ed h a ve reac hed a
brigh t red heat .
Allowance lor the Machlnln Q. of F o rlll nQ.a.- ln t h e

machin in g of lorgings it is usual to allow l iD. for articles
up to SiD. in diameter, l in . for forgings ranging from 6in.
to !lin. ; lin. Ior 9in. t o l Oin., and lin. for 1ft
CuUlne S peed a Dd Angl e o f Tool. for Cnp pe r.-For

t u rn ing copper the su rface speed should be abou t 80 ft per
min u te . The top rake a ! the tool sho uld not exceed 10 deg.,
and tbe side e jearaece from 5 deg . to 10 dlL'!1l . For ord in ary
cuts e se a round-nosed tool of about liD. ...wus, and for
6.n ishing cuts a practically flat tool a.od a fine feed.
FrictiOD Coeffident a o f va r io us M al e rl als .- Tbe fol

lo win g table, takeD from " The Motor Cyc le," is doe to Mr .
R. Waring _Bro1nl , and gives the friction coe fficients
obtained from actoal testJI of varioul material8 ...beD dry:
.14 11
Coelhcl .n\ o r !'<kIlO".
.... 'er••,•. "...,rag.. Allow.ble .
Ca., tiron 00 cast iron ·170 ·IU
Cast iron on wood . ·220 ·146
Cas t iron on stef"l . ·180 ·120
Cast iron on lea ther .. ·270 ·180
Cast iron On cork . ·340 ·230
Cast iron on bra.ss .. -ato · 140
Brass on brass . ·250 '166
Steel on ....r ought iron ·240 ·160
Steel on bronze . ' 120 'OSO
Ferodo on .. ny ma~rial. .. ·550 ·310
lndex.lng.
The tint office oj a dividing bead i$ to divide the
periphery of a piece o f work into a num~r of equal parts.
A, the index spindle may be revolved by the en.nk, a nd
as the worm wheel employed usually b.a5 40 teeth, 40 tumll
of the c:rank make one revolution of the epindle. To find
bow many tUmlI o f the crank are necessary for a certain
division o f the work, or what 15 the sa me thing, for a certain
di vision of a revolution of the spindle, 40 is divided b y the
number of the division' which art! desired.
The rule, then, may be said to be, divide 40 by th, n ''''lb.~
()f divir j()nr to b6 made, and lhe q'jotoen l utili be Ihe num b....
()f Ur?U , fJ' Ihe pa~1 of <l I.. ~n , ()f Iht eM'll< whic h will pv.
t ad desi~.d divisi01l
o
o o
o o
o o
o • ! .;·0
o .o..:
0 0 0 00
FlG. a.-Index Plate and Sector

INDEXING.
ApplYlllg thl~ rule-to make 40 division tho crank wonl d

be turned comvletoly around once to obtain each divWon,or
to obtain 20 dlvi!lion~ it would be turned twice. When. t o
obtain the necessary divisions. the crank bas to be turned
only a part of the way around. an index plate is used. For
example: If the worK is to be divided into 80 divisions the
crank must be turned one-half way around. and an iDdex
plate with an even number of boles in one of the circle!!
would be selected. it being necessary oo]y to have two holes
opposite to each other in the plate. If the work is to be
dividedinto threedivisicna an index plato should be selected
which bu a circle with a number of holes that can be
divided by three. as IS or 18. the numhen on the index
plates indicating the number of boles in the variou~ circles.
The sector, Fig 6. is of service in obviating the nece'l'li ty
of counting the holes at each partial rotation o r turn 01
the crank. and to iUu~trate i t.s UMI it may be supposed that
it is desired to divide the wo rk in to 144 divisions. Dividing
40 by 144 . t he result. I~ sho," that the ind ex crank
m ust be mov ed 1'1. o f a tum to obtain each 01 t he 144divi
SiODS. An index p lato with a circle containg 18 boles. or a
multiple of I R, is selected. and the sector is set to measu re
off five spaces or the corresponding m u lti ple. 10 spaces for
example, in a circle wit h 36 h olcs . Whe n the sector is set
it is he ld in place by the screw D. Fi g. 6. In setti ng the
~ ector it should be remembered t hat there mu st al ways be
one more hole between the arms than there are Spacei!l t o be
cou n ted or measured off. Fig. 6 lIIu str at~ the U!JO of the
sector. where. for convenience. only one circle o f ho les is
shown in the inde..: p late P. T be arms of the sector A aud
B are set to space off five holes in a 24 circle. The finl t bole
C is no t counted as one of the five ho les that is to be spaced.
because there must alway. be one bole for the p in to
oceupy. and if the MlCtor arms a re ab; ho les apart thill will
leave live holes for the pin to be advanced each ti me. After
the pin has been moved ahead from C to ho le S. the sector
ill. advanced to the dotted positioo. lI.Od it il l"e'ady to guide
the ind e x pin in spacing 011 five mote hoi ...
An improvement introduced by Rrown lI.Od Sharpe inl 90 3
consists of a series of graduations on the sector ring. the use
01 which is to avoid the necessit)' for counting the holes
when setting the sector. The index boble contains an addi
aortal cclnmn headed GPad.... /i".." of whicb the figurc!l !how
\he> Dum ber 0 1 d irillio~ of tb." grad uated eird., w hic h d eter·
m in e the a d justment o f t he sector to 'PilO the r eq uired
Dumber o f holeg. T h e graduatioll$ of the circle being suit
ably nu m bered, the p ro per setting can be read off a t o nce
withou t co u n ti ng t h e bole5,as bas heretofcrebeen necessary.
The gra du 3tiona are s uffici ently .fine to p reven t any UD
certai nty reg;o.rding the h ole -tha t ill , while the adjustme n t
to th e d lvWoD.'lo f the circle will n ot, in all Cll5eS, bri ng t he
sector a rms "xactly to the requ ired hole'll. i t will brin g t hem
m uc h neater the required boles t b a n to the adj a ce n t ones.
Difle ren clllli I D dexl n~.-A method of indedng known

as" compou nd in de xing " bas been in U.'Ie in ord e r to obtain
division that a re prime nu mbers, a nd which cannot be
o btained by d irect Indexing. This method wu mmewbat
complicated. as it necessitated the use of t wo circles. and
grea t care bad to be exercised, as it had to be kep t co n
stantl y in m ind in which di rection the crank wa.s to be
moved. ri ght o r le ft. Therefore. we ....i ll not proceed furth er
with thi s, because a di ffer en tial method has been inven ted
wh ich is m u ch s im p le r and like plain indexi n g, excep ti n g
th a t t h e s p indle of t he di vid ing head is geared to th e in <l ex
p late
Be ing ge a red togeth er, the m ove m ent o f t h e dividing
head spind le in relation to t h e index c ran k is posit ive.
Thus a di tl ereo ti a l mo ti on can be obt ained tbat a llows the
ind exing to be made with one cir cle of holeR, and the in d ex
c rank to be t urned in one di r ectio n , the sam e as in p lain
in d exing . This enab les sp a ci n gs to be m a d e that cannot be
o btained with an index plate lock ed wit h a stop p in in the
u su al wa y. W h en geared for d ifferential in<le xing, the
mac hine can not be used to cu t spirals, as t h e d i vid ing hea d
spi nd le has t he n to be geared to the table sc rew .
Ordina.n.ly lo rty re vclutio us 0 1 the inde x cr a n k a re n ' ·

qu ir""l to,) m ake one co m pl et e ",..' olutio n o f t he spindle.
T h er e for.., If the index plate ill geared to t he spindle,
u~ng ooe idl er " 'heel lID as to rotate t be in du p late o n e
t urn in the !Io&Dle dirn.:tion ;\S the crank. and the crank
pin eoten t he same i ndex plate hole, the res ult will be the
~ pao::: i ng number 39 . for t he reason t h a t while the cranl< has
mad e ~ O turns and t h e plat.. on .. turn in the same direction,
t be crank h as pa.....s ed a given po.nt o nl y 39 times. W ith t h ill
same g~rinR, a n d the Ol.dditinn 01 another idler, t he motioD
INO.xtNG.
of the iodex pialI!' '~in the opposite diN'CtiOD to t hat 01 l h.
crank, a nd th e pla t e gilins one revolution while the crank
hn made 40, res ultin g in t he spaci ng number 4 1.
With ei th e r of these num be rs it is ~ible in t he ordi na ry
way to obtain fine r divisions of which t hese form factor s.
Any division, includi ng fraction s, not obtajna hte wit h th e
index plate can therefo re be made up with proper gea ring.
The change wheels and index platl"< furni sh ed with
the mac hin e provide for a U divi sions trom I to 3I'l2, and
the tabl e of di visio ns is made up to incl ud e both plain and
di fferential iod exi nl;,
F ill:, 7 -tl ows t he dividing bead geared, simple «eariog,
fo r 271 divisions, Referring to th e tabl- furnished with the
macbiee, the gears ealIed roe a re:C 56 teeth, and E 72 teeth,
with one idle r D . The idle r D ser ves to rotate the index
pl a te in the same direction 11.9 the crank, t hus losing nine
t urns of the spindle to 280 of the CTiLok, a nd Il:iv ing t he
correct number 01 d ivisi oDll, 27 1. The sector should be set
to indica t e oo e-seventh o f a tum. or three ho les in the 21
circle. and the head i~ ready for 271 divisions , the ind U ing
bl!'in g made th e sa me as for pl ain indelci ng .
. . ... _
- 'I,
r.~~~
~
A
I "
I _ . ' r ... ..
" ••
f- f---.
-1 C
~
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.... TaP"
"'" 1 . .T...... T. ....
c
.. ".
"
~ '/~;
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c ,,va
T. ... P .~ r-... ObOO'
. , J A R N O TAPER S .
~..J ~
IND E XING
,., ., •., . , ,.. , ,.....

h j. ,
~
" '::li ••
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~] "
-."
~"E
n ,
_u ~U • ~ s
"s:•• e.e .~
is
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!' '"
So. 1
B ole. 8 0".
-- -
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-- - - .
"..
--
eo . --- --
..
~ 10 sr /, ea
ee
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se
.. ... ... I..".
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1'18.7.-1:11'0"'0 and Sharpe DiridioJ( H-.d Geand for

Dill'm-e.tIIaJ 10de:l:iJalt.
V :H8 INDBXI NG
Index r ablo for MUllll g Machlnllil.
4D Turns to 1 Revolut ion.
Dhlll'n' CI",I I. Tu.n L
-- - _ . ~I~ -
Hol"" Tum•. Ho!<>.
- -, - - - --
{"ia , e
r
20
'" 18 l'
18 1. e •e
38 13 11 IB 2
e
"
21
,
is
13
a
7
20
21
81>y
21
e
1 -
19
18
"ia, .., "ee 88
sa
1 27
r
16 1 17
""7 10 1 as
e ,, .•.ee sa
r
." 1 22
18
38
6 " 22 "
21
18
1
1 It
12
e
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21
18
6
6 es
18
It
12
16
ac
J
1
1
10
12
ae
, 1.
{to27 e
s
10
se
16
"ee I"
39
27
1
I
1
27
19
!1
6
""' e ... 27 1 s
• {" •••a " "
12 1 11
{l:
18 e 1 19
10 ... 1 11
•
8UY
r
11 38 27
80
27 1
a 13 21 1 7
38 a 11 18 I 6
12 27
21
s
3 ,• ar
rs
SI
I
I
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I l'
18
is
3
3
6
s " {"sa 18
1
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i
l'
It
as
{to21 ,a a
sa
38
Sl 17
1
1
. 7
a
rr
1 7
"ae I"
2 18
3'
2 ee 21 J
••
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2
2
22
18 I" 18
I
I 2
1.
27
18
2
2 "asIt
ia 88 "as
19
1
1
•
I
is 2 10 1 1
, , "
2 10 Il ~ Y 1
ie
17
18
l'
17
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1
I
DIG IUlle .
18
\
,
I~
CUTTI NG SPJI<"LS
Cu rt ln a S pl rala.- F or t hi9 pnrpoee a positive rotary

moti on is given to t he work while the table of the mac h ine
'"
i, be in g moved h'ngthwa ys by the feed screw, a nd th e
velocity rati os of th~ movements are regu la t ed by four
change wheel•. Th e screw wheel and first wheel a n . tn d
are the dri vers , and the others t he driven whee ls. Usu al ly
these wheels a re o f suth rati o .that the wo rk is advanced
more than an inch whi le making o ne tu m , and thus t he
spirals cut on milling machines are designated in ~rtll!I of
inch es to one t um , rather than t u rns or th rea ds per in ch ;
for il1&ta.nc.e, a .piral is said to be of Sin. lead. not tha t i ts
pitch it one-eifl:ht t u rn pe r inch.
If the feed llere", of t he table h~, say. four threads to t he
inch, a od ..0 tu rns o f the worm make one tu m o f the spiral
bead spindle; ac.cordiogty. if chan ge wheels of equal diam
eter are used, the wotk will make a co m plete t um wh ile it
is moved length wa}"! 10io.; that is, the spiral will have a
lead o f 1010. Dut t h is lead is practiully the lea d of t he
machine ~ it it the resul tant of the ac ti oo of the parts o f
t he machine th.t a re al wa ys employed in t hi9 wor k, .nd is
so regard ed in makin g calculations used in c utti n g spi rals.
In principle t hese calcula tions ..... the same a!I for the
change whe els of a scre w-cu tting la the. T he co mpo u nd
ra ti o of t he d ri ve n to the driving wheels equals in all ease,
t he ra ti o o f t he len d of the required spira l t o the lead of the
ma chine. And t hia ca n bo readily u nderstood b y c hanging
the diamete rs of t he wbe els.
'Nheels o f t he sa me d iam ete r prod uce.as e x plained a bo ve
a spiral with a lea d o f l Oin. Th ree whe els of equ a l d iameter
an d a d ri ven wheel d ouble t bi, d iameter produce a sp iral
wit h a lead 01 20i n.•or t wice the lead of the machine; a nd
with both driven wheels t wice the diame ters of t he d ri ven ,
tbe ra ti o boln! com~und. a sp iral is produced witb II. l"lid
o f "0 in ., o r ou r nmes t he machine's lead. Conversel y,
d ri ving wheels twice t he di.a.meter of the driven produce Il
spiral with a lead equal to o ne-quart..r the lea d o f the
machi ne" or Zlln.
E xpressing the ra tio as fractio ll.ll.
Driven whel"ls Lead o f ~uind . piral
Drivi ng wbedS - - - 10
That ito. the compound ratio of the driven to the driving
wheels m-.y always be represented by a fraction whose
num~tor ito the koad to be cnt and ....hose denominator i110.
odn other word5.the ra ti o is as the required lead i, to 10 ;
tha t il. if th.. rl"quir ed lead i, ZO t be ratio i. 2f) : 10 : or, to
350 ALLO W AN CE S FOR VA RIOU S FITS
expreSi this In unih instead of tens, the ratio ie always t he
same as on e-t en th of the required lead is t o one. And
fr eq u entl y this is a very co nvenient way to think of the
ratio ; for exam ple, if the rat io of the lead is 40, the wheels
a rc 4 : I . H the lead is 25, t he wheel9 are 2·5 : I , ac.
To illustrate the usu al ca lcu la ti o ns, assu me that a s p iral
of 12i n. lead is to be c ut. Th.. compou nd ra ti o o f the driven
to the d riving wheels eq u a ls the desired lead divid ed by
10, or it may be represented b y the fraction U. R esolving
this into two factors to represen t the two pain of cbange
wheels we have
~ = ~ X4
10 2 5
T h is may be then mnltiplied by suitable facton 1IO as not to
alter the value of the equation, and resu lt in obtain in g
72 x S2
48 40
The nu m erators re presen t the numbers 01 t h e teeth in the
driven wheels.
From t he fa ct tha t the p rod uc t of the d riv e n wheel s,
di vi ded b y t he p roduct of the driven eq uals th" lead
di vi ded by 10, o r on e-t en th of th e lea l'! , it is evid en t that
10 ti mes the prod uc t of the driven wh eels d iv ided by the
p roduct o f the driven will equal th e lead o f the sp iral.
H enc e the rule :
Div ide 10 tim es the product of the driven wheels by the
product of the drivers , and the qu otient is the lead of the
resu ltin g ~pira l in inch es t o one turn, or , exp ressed a s a
fraction ,
10 x driven wh eel s
Le a d of spiral drivin g whe els
F or e xa mp le, what sp iral will be c ut by wheels with 48,
72, 32, a nd 40 teeth, the firs t two be ing used as driven
wheels 1 Sp iral cut eq u als
IO x48 x 72
32!<.40 27 in. to on e turn .
Allow a n ce s for Various Flts .- The co py right tables
of allowanc~ to be made fOI v a riou s fit! on pages 483 to
485 have been d rawn u p by the Ne wall Engineeri ng Co.
(Proprietors, Pet ~r H oo k er Ltd .), and a re the outcome of
a careful investigation of the general practice of the
leading engineering firms of the world. Th e firm in
question make a complete system of gauges specia lly
designed to work in co njuction with these tables .
"1.1.0 WANCKS FOR V"R I OU8 FITS 3.'>1
The lib include :
F orce fi t s, wh ich requ ire a. screw, or h yd ra ulil; pr<':l>1l, or
h ~at io g to force t be m together.
D rl v in Q, fits , which requae the use 01 a hamme r to
d riv e the sp ind le in to a ho le.
Push fits , wbere t he spind le can be pushed ioto the bole
by the ba nd . bu t is no t bee to rota te.
R u nnl n Q, fits , which comprise all c1a..$'ld of running
wo,-k, and inasmuch as different craseee of work demand
differen t d egrees of looseness, the table fo r these fits is
IlIlodiv ided in to three grollp$, which are called X . Y , and
Z, and m<»t work can be atandardieed to one o f these
gTOu,"
A ll o w anc e. fo r ShrinkloQ, FU. ,_ Theae may be
ob tained from the following formula due to S. H. Moore
[Prcc, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1903 ) :
A_ t1 D + ·5
1,000
wbereA _allowance in thousandths of a" incb
and D _d ia met er of plu g in inches.
T his forumJa is identical to the thousand th deeimall'lace
wit h the standard ad opted by the American R a ilwa y
Master Mechanic's Associ a ti o n for locomoti ve wheel ce ntre
a nd tyre ga uges. T he allowa nces obtained by the use of
this formul a, whi le no t excessive, are sufficie nt to ensu re a
ti ght fit. T ak in g the mod ulus of elasticity of s teel a t
30,0 00,000 , tho stress ca use d by this a mo u n t o f sh rin kage
wou ld be a bout 33 ,000 Ihs . per squ are inc h, wh ich i~ we ll
wit h in t he elas tic limit of m ach inery stet'!.
BrUhlh Standurd LimUs a n d F its tnr E nj),lnee rl nlt.
- 10 1906 R eport No. 'l1 o n Brillih Standa rd systems
for lim it gauges was iss ued in whic h t he sha ft was
reco rnme n,led u t he ccaetant member, but the re.-.om·
memla ti o n wu no t generally a do p ted by the engineering
ind u, t ry. Report No. '1:1 ha~ since bee n rpvised · llnd
th e Commi ttee has u nanimously decided to re ...e rse the
p rev ioull decision. a nd to recom me nd the adop tion 01
the hole as the constant member.
Th e principle d ifficulty in standardising to leran«'S on
boll!ll Ii"" in the fact that two Iptems are in common
use. In the unilateral system the tolerance ill in one
di rection only from the nominal ";ze. and is usually
positive: t hat ill to .... y every hole is of the nominal
size or larger. On the bilateral system the tcjerance
CJ:t en n.. in hom directioD.!l (bot oat a1...ays in eqnal
amouutll) from the nominod siz c. t hat ill to say holM may
bf' lImal ie r or larger than t he n o minal sizc.
352 FO RCE Yin
Afte r careful consideration the Ccmenuee blll

unanimousl)' agreed to recommend the use of the
unilateral system as applied 10 cylindr ical mating
surfaces in cases whe re it does not conflict with
pred ominating present pra ctice.
The basis o f the tables given on the following pages
being a hole basis the limit ing dime nsions of any hole
of a particular qua lity and site remain unchanged , and
var ieties of fit are obta ined by varying the actual
dimens ions o f the sha ft though exceptions are necessary
in certain classes of wor k.
Tab les 1 and 4 give both unilateral and bilateral limits
of tolerance for holes. In the unilateral system the
nominal su e is the low limit of the hole : in the bilateral
the nominal size lies between the high and low limits
of the hole.
T.ablu 2 and 5 give the recommended limits uf
tolera nce for .a standa rd series of graduated shafts
suitable for pairing wit h either the unilateral or bilateral
holes.
Tables 3 and 6 show the numerical value s of the limits
of fit result ing from th e assembly of anyone of the
standard sha fts in a par ticular unilatera l hole an d a
particu lar bilate ral hole.
T he partic ular holes chosen fo r these nume rica l
examples arc identified by the symbols U an d X (T ables
I ann 4) respec tively, and they hav e been selected
because t he tolerances on these holes a re those most
commonly employed. Tables 1 ami 4 provide four
standar d grades of workmanship for holes in which
B (uni lateral) and K (bilateral) holes represen t the
most a ccurate grade while U (unilateral) and
X (bilateral) holes represent those most commonly
employed. Unilateral holes, V, W, and bilatera l holes
Y, Z. have la rger tolerances.
. Tables I and 4 also provide fo r the use of thre e
holes A, G, H, ea cb with two positive limits of tolerance.
Th ese are called oversize holes and are included to meet
exception.al conditions. The range of the tables is fr om
o to app rox. 2S inches (635 mm.) in d iamete r. The
nominal sizes are specified in rang es and the length of
each rangc is such that at each change of range the
tolen.ncc increase on U and X holes is ~ ten-thousandths
of an inch.
' lJU V U H ; AN D P Us H !'lTs. 353
1 he t2bles 01 shafts ....-hich is com mon tu both

systems provides for a series of 14 differe nt fits witn
refe rence to any particular hole by progressively chang
ing the disposition of the tolerance in relation to the
nominal size. The to lerance itself r ema ins unch anged
for all shafts in the table fr om F to M inclusive. T hese
shafts ar e o f the same grade of work mans hip as a
B bole. Shafts 0, R, S, T, TT, are given increasing
tolerances because they are all considerably undersize
and, therefore, provide increasing amounts of clea rance
when assembled in any hole.
The r.lIIge of .lin provided by the full series of
sha fts is divided into th re-e main classes which arc
defined a s Int erfe rence T ran sit ion, and Clea ranc e F in :
(Q) Clcara>l.U F i t where ther e is a positive allowance
between the l;argest possible sh aft and the smallest
possible hole; (b) l l'lttrfcrtl'lte Fi t .....here there is a
negativ e all o..... ance (obstructi on) between the la rgest
and (b), Le., cases in wh ich t he limits admit of either
hole and the smalles t shaft, the shaft being larger than
the hole ; (c) Transi liOft Fit cover ing cases between (a)
clearanc e or interference fits being obtained.
81:r", Multiplier " 10" WId Range F~tor "r",-Val u.es
of "m" for nomina l sizes fr om 0 to 25.29 ins. and "r"
are given in the first column and las t line of the ta bles.
Exam Ple I- To find the limits for a 2! inch U hole :
The val ue of " m" corres ponding with 2i inch is 8.
T he value of "r" for the high limit o f U = 2 (in
ten-th ousandths of an incb).
T he value of "r" for tile low limit of U = o.
Hence r equired limits are +
.0016 inch and O. +
Er~mp lt 2- To find the limits for a. 6i inch X holt.
T he value of "m" for 6i inch = 12.
The value of "r" for the high limi t of X = +1.
T he val ue of " r" for the low limit of X = -I.
Hence r equired limits arc .± .0012.
price 2/2 PO" free, (Of f" rd",. parbcllbn and ckwl.. "'
the aboo.." ,• •" aho,uCl t'q>roducC'4 b7 lie..........
.hi.,.
• ~ R~por1 No. 1M ,, ( 1924 of tb e B n ti.1I S la ..dard 1...1;1"1' .....
1211£
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TABLE I
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I
I
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•
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ll=:: e e e ......
II. II ..
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.... ...
I
... ~H il l
- 'I... " ,~ ",. e e

•
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...
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TABLE ll.
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I
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n I
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i-H~+~ ~~ '~- -~-rH
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• ~ I ;:7 1~;;i ln7 1:p: j::;
H; ::; 1777 H~ .. ::
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If ::;:r 117= IP=
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I
TABLE :J 351
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sse TABLE 4.
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',-I .'i~l'" I' H+i+!-'-i+f#lrtriB++ri-ffi,ffH 01 ~
;; 1I:: j
• ~ -; I ..
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~ :i~ f-·+-+iCicrr~-.tCic'"'"h'~+''"'"it~..,~~r.
• •• ...
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t;; Hi Hf ..· .. ::::
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TABLE B.
,, t: :il ~ 10: II
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36 1
Electr fc wetdtng.
Two Ry~telU~ of eteet..te welding are In gtme ral u ...., .. i....
(ll the ThomllOn proce...., and it) elec tric art' weldi nlt.
T h e Thoms on p rocess eceeiete In (II) plsein A; t be
piecee to he welded In coouo.c t; Ib) fordnjl: t hrough t he
metal to be heeted a very large electric c u rre nt, 80
tlmt tbe ~Uor f'eR1~ta noo of the portlOD to be welded,
d ill> to the ba.d ecntect of Ibe pieeea It te de.lred te nnlte,
Ie 8urtlclent to rai>le Ihe temperatu re at the poin t of
conlACt to a we ldiDoll: hMot; iel lUIlSOOU .... a weldlnj( heat Ie
Mtalned, etrong preseure, Dleehauiea.l.ly applied, foroes t he
piocell together &nd eompl",tes the weld, whleh WAy be
bammerod or not ... dl!ltlired. In thie ~ heavy eeetiou s
esn be united.
The power required for thle JlI'OC"'M te rathe r hijth. b ut the
time durlnp; whleh It iA applied la short. The stle't'd of
welding depend.. on the amount of cnrrent uRM.and un be
...a rled acoordlnltly. The tollowinp; f1KUl'elIanl f(l .. en for Iron
and Iltel"l ,....~Idlnp; by tblll prt;JCl!88 . .
A_m
oq"
"'
Inoh
lot.
•slta
,n
-
ma:ry."<>l
wo>i
Tt •• tn
..,.,,,.u. .., YOOl-II»
- -
I a.ssu ea 1f'4 280,000
,, 692,000
"""'
I 1 6,100 28'0
,II 8,500
9,000
8{1' 4
48·S
1,191, 000
1,188,000
a',000
".a. 70 61'0 2,194,000
, ,•
9,000
4,000
78
ee
66' 4
18'7
2,S04,000
I, U l,OOO
e0,000 80 83·S 4,14S,000
The St r en gth of WeldII by the Thomaon proce s s wall

t es t ed by Dr. K ennedy, and found _ follo w.. ; W roull:ht·
Iron bani t In. to ~ In. dlamet..r, nUo of st.....n p;t h or we ld to
Dnwelded bar fll Jl"r r-ent. Besseme r steel VO·5 per cent.
Plot Required In the ThOQUlon ProCe88.-Th.
apparatus"""Julmd tollfli.'.. 0(: (1) A ll:soerat()ro( . 1t<>matIOll:
eurnoutl!; 42) '" we ldlnp; t .... ust"orm ........Ith cJ.mp8 -.ad
m~hanlcal af,pU",nC8ll to worlt the heat.,.) m e tal ; (3)
electrltal fell:D atlull: apps.ratll!l to ecnrrclth.. tlo w of t':urnm t.
The ~Ul'll III low. only .bout I or i! vo ltll. The enrren t
reqnlnld III rll.th..r hilth, ... may be _n from the t'Olu mn
htl&ied .. "'- stte In primary of welde~· In th.. table jU 9t
quoted. It I~d.lmed for this pl"OCeM that fully 75 pl"r eeet.
of thel'lectri....1 e nel1ty put Into We metal to he tr'tllLted ill
u~.,fnI.
362 Il L E C t RI C WRLVINO.
E lectric Arc Welding.-The broad pri nciple at the

app llcn t io n of th is eyat em 1811.8 !OllOIVII: 'rbe cu rrent ttowa
trout the dynamo to the metal to be welded, from the m et a l
to be wt>lded to IL carbon, from thlll carbon t hrouor;h lL
......lllt AnL........gulato r for &dju"ti np; the amount of elUTeDt
requlr ed, and n..cil: to the dynamo. 'Vh",n th,' earbon i8
placed in eontec t with the work the current p.NI868.. By
wtthrll'll...,lnR the carbon e abort dilltsnre an electric are u.
prodneed. whleh may be from f In. to I~ in. or even more in
len lC t h . By v;!th'\r&winll: the carbon Il1tOJl:..ther from th"
work the current ig made to eea>oe. Tilt! work thus forms
one pole of tbe arc and the ea.roon the orhel'. The wnrk ts
almost al ....ays the postrtve pole ...od the Cllrbon the neeeuve,
Oe("&Ufl,fl thl'P'J'Iiti'l"e pole in an arc Is &1",&)"", the hotter. By
thi" 111011:1... .-arbon systeill variou8 kiods of .....eld" are
[WIde, either hammered or fused. acoordlnp: to th" poetttcn
of the weld and n ature of the "'-ork.
Th e S t r en gth of Arc Welds h&lI been teated , and tables
of teRts by M r. Kirkmldy ha'l'"e been publlehed by MellSi"S.
Ste........rtll and Lloyd, ebowing that the eleetri e are weld ill
BUpt'rior in Rtncllll;:th to the weld 01 1100 ordlm,ry Bmllh, an
u ltimAt e "tn'np:tb of 90percent of tlu.t of t he oriJl[lnal metal
run ' lOll;: h•...,n fo uo d usual in tll.. are welds where tho f\e("tion
of t he weld wag equal to that of the orlp:!nal material. T h e
"'el",,1 dOl'S not h"oome h"rd or hrittle in woldin~. It does
n ot d.. teriorate "O}' more than in oruin"ry "mitb 8 ..... elds.
Plant Required for Arc W eldi n g.- T h e plant requi re d
i~ \'ery Ki m ple: It well-doaigued ....,d etlldllutly-p:over ned
,," ,u:l ne. and .. g ood conttn u oua curren t co m /lOund. w ou nd
dynam o of " TllIII" Bll.J111d t y. wi U, Hill usual HW tc h boa r d llud
n".....uriO ll;: in Hl.rumonts, and " eu r eeut ro,u: u liltor for each
a re. Th " "yll!:(nn demand" a direct. currrmtor about 00 1'01t8.
'1']'0 qoant lty of current u sed depend " on th" thickn ess to
00 we ld ed , and m ay in ordin s f"Y p ractice ran~e from toll to
I'>ll(la rn pere~. T he t.emperaturll or the elect r IC arc haH been
ealeu lnted sa about 7,500 deg. F . The roregolnp: part iculars
are t.. ken from & paper by T. T. lI ..at(ln. reMl before t he
MIlllch.".t.er A~oclation of Engineers.
El ectric Spot W e1ding .- E1ect rl c Bpot wllldinA: ill now
oo,,'i nl/: In to p rom ine nce to'f' a I/:re"t variety or work.
DroAdIYff..aki D~. thi.. p nx'elll'l iR lImlt..d tc the nnltinJl: of
ov l'r lap sheer.. with romparat ively large "urtll.l"6 a ras
of meta in contact. AlI itH name Impllee only a ..mall per
cllnt"'l{e ot the actualoontact lIu rfRf't! 111 jointed, the w e ldjug
ar....a bfoio.,; conllned to distinct 1000tioD/I pr OlJlOt./l which are
enUff'l,. Independent or ea ch other. In th .. workinp: of this
pI"OCeAA t ... o methods mav be appllMl. which were def>rribed
by A . K. Bucbenberg in "'rhl' I-:Ieclrical World" llJIfollow"':
Point Welding .- T h e fIr,ol method. commonly known
.... .. point weldinl/:," n OOl."_ ita t_ the ralllinp: ot glight
Ind e PE'nd en t point.8 Or urojectlon.. on either one or
SPOT W ELO IN G , 363
ooth of the ~urfllCet to b4' s pot welded, 'rue-e poln ta
pre \·tnt t he entire o'Ol,lrlllpped su rfaces of th e ..toc k
fro m cOlllinp; 10000eth..r, a.nd the COlltact bolt..·een the m
I.. made on the projecting pointa. If current iM n ow
"",used to rtow acn)lUl the two ptecee at work b)' meaM
of flat clurent-earr)'IDJl: diol or electrol!.". (0"" on each
~lde), tho eurrear boIttwpen th"m ... ilI btl ecncentrated
00 the CO!ItactlnK polnUl or projection.. of the ",ptal. Th eS41
proj('('tion" under th" heatinJl: ac tion ot the eurre nr almOlJt
ine tAntl)' noarh " fUlllnJl: t"U1J)Prat u~. and th" ...-eld i" com·
plet.NI hy Dl""'h..nical p.........ureeserrec upon the diu to ton.oe
the flat lIurfac.a of the lltu''' together. The principal cojee
tlon to thlll method lllihe u_it)' of preparinll: the ..lock
under a punch Or preM for tbe weldinr operation, and Ih"
ditlkultr of _mhliDJl: eome cl_s a work wllh pro.io'c'
tlons on the "urlace of the stock.
W e ld inl on t he Flat.- With the -.ond me t h od no
preparation of the ~toek IA required. The heallnJl: cumon l
te OOllt:"eD t re ted to th" al'6& of the spot to be w"ld ed
hy mean " of pollltM d iM or electrodes. on" on eac h ..id.
of the work, whose oppoo.ed "nds a NI shapl'd to the s l"-e o~
tbe spot ...· eld J'Nl,ulred for a ny particular pillO!l of wor k.
The weld I.. completed .... In t h e tiro.t nw thod by 'u ""n.'lol
n'echanlcal pre""ure to force the dl .... wgeth"r.
Spot W eld in g lrIIachine .- Th e ne<:".c8w,rr COlupon.m t
partB of an electric ~ Ioot· .... eldtng mae hln e for either of th~
two rueth odll are
\1) A tmusfornw r to r ell u oo the line or prl mlU"y '00\1"'1(11 to
t.he ver y low Illl,·on dll.r r vottege r l\quired for w \'l<lIn g. 'f he
trRn ~ f or lUer IIr~'Oll d ll. ry c urre n t , or, in ot.hcr WOffl ll, t he
bll&tlu Jl: cu r rent, III, of cou rse , much grea ter th'ln t h e line
current throu f\:b the pri m ary COliM o r the t ra nllfor m er .
Sin g le.p b alk'l lllt " wa Un l/:curre n t ill r"'luir lld and. Any III,au ·
dard su pp ly voltaJl:ll can be u s" d .
(2) Two weldinI/: dl..,.. opposed I{) eac h ot her and attached,
one to ..neh t,' rmlnal ot the tl1UlHfor me r lIeooudarr wiud l nl(".
I n the 1I",1 method th_ dies are Oat copper p la tes , wb ll"
In the II«Ond m et h od they are UlIu.all! in the form ot
abort ropper rod~ ....Ith ro unded end... TIe di e -tlu pporti nll
mech&UlHm ill a.rranl1ed to allow a limited mot ion of t he dtee
toward lind awar lrom eaeh other on an adalline t hrou Jl:b
t he centre 01 the two die mdll.
~:!) A powerful cam or lOIl:Jl:le-c:owpreSlllon mer hanl"l1l
operatlull: throuKb th.. d ie IlUPporu. to eJeert mechallleaJ
p",,*, u ", On the materlalllUM!rtb1 bet....... n theo ppoKed f..._
or ends 0 1 the w..ldlng die&.
(41 A a_itch to cl ... and open tbe ciJ't,nlt throullh the
prluu,ry coilll of the tnrn<lonne r when makilljl" a weJ.d.
The l.'plIr.tloon of th" muhln" is .. follow.: The ttll'O partll
to 1M I pnf ....I04..n an pro"",," loeatood bv ",_nil 01 a ji ll"
S POT W II.LO I NG _
OO t"'· ~"" t h" 0 I'JIOMt;ld e nd M ot the weldlllK <llllM, w hl ch ,.,-..

Don na n y ""I... ral <-~l to alford th" proper clt;lAr"m·c. Th~ die..
ar.. " OW un m j(ht together uy mee u.. of the eompreesfou
hand le to I(rip th e 'ltook betwee ', t hem. At thIs "taK" only
enou g h pre....ure l~ e:o:ert"d to brlnl/; t h" welding aurtae...s
Into OOlltact. Th" 'lw ltch I.M uowclOOlt·d and the stock begioll
.0 h~t at the all" spot dlrect lj- between the opposed f&.ee!l
of t he dt ell. Whe n II. welding temperature h.... b<.'oe-n reached,
the ewttch ts opened and h_vy pre....ure .,.ertOO by the
<'(Illlpr"""loll le ver to form the weld. The tiwe requ ired to
m a k e a llpot weld I.. short, rall~lnll: from a fraction of ODe
lIeCOud on thi n ..tock to three or tour eeeonds ou O~lo.;
stock. The tfme durtng which the current iJI ulled I~ lID
short th.t only a very smallamoUll1 of heat lII.... rTlffl to the
~ arroundlllJC m"tal b.1.ecnduerton.
Diam et er and Number of Welda.-The di.meter
01 t h e IpClt welda will depend upon the .1..... of the pro
jectlolll' throw n up on the surfaee of the metal or upon
the ...... 0 1 the weldinI/; die contact poillta. gtnee the
ultdma te etrengt b 01 w e '\"t,ld wtll In wOIIt ea>M:!1I be deter.
mined hy t h e tearing atrenj(th 0 1 the metal around the
c1~lunf.. relU·" 0 1 the "apot, the dlAmett"r n~ not be ~a
n
A dl.ln e t.,r of O~i73 In. la .mplr larj(e fo r o·tf> In. stock.

Th" nu mber of weld~ req uired for allY particul. r piece or
wor k will depe nd upen Illanu lael url n l( co ndltlonll . nd
Ilt.r lln.u:th n-qu lrementa.
Preparation for Spot W eldtng. - W h".... the st.oc k
has been Pf6Vlou IIlJ pMpared by pUllc hlnlt u p projec
ti on .., 11... til t he f1I'11L method sueur.toned, flat weldfn g
diu .. 01 eon ..Ider...b lll art'a m . y he UI«',1. 'l'h e> hll. tN1 pla llt-Ic
utetel at th " projection .. I", broul/;hL lJ1lck Ilr....,Ucallr Jlus h
wtth t.he IIUr"l.('lIlI of t.he . 11001-11 IIllll"rti,,, pre-u rtl, ...nli a
emccth lIurfact:! III left. In the C""I'I of comparatively
he.vy met...1 th " depreaeton left by tbe punch wlll be w ore
prominen t.
Spot welds made wlthont p,...paratlon of thelltack by the
use or pointed or rounded die" ... HI u"\1&lIy ahow a "lip;llt
de pr_ion below the lIurfaee or the plate On both aIdes of
th" ...ork . They are, bowev\,r. oulJ IlUl/;ht. If It I.. destred
1.0obta in a pe rfectly lIWooth. unbroken lIurl_ on one IIlde
of t h e .tock and a\·oid the Inconventeuee and expense at
p:reparllljl;t he lltock ee tn the llrat method, the pointed dillll
on thiJI Iide of the work may be ",placed hy a dat dle or
plate of ropper.
Adaptability of Spot Weldi.nl.-1t 110 not D _
' a .... t hat the thickn_ of the 1."'0 plecell to be .pot
wel ded be the lJame. Tinned or p;aJyanl~ Iltao:k, M
wel l ... a1uminlum<OllUld llheetll, can be ..-eldHl wllbout
d1tr1 euit y. Ui.l,simllar metala, ncb u lron lUld b~ ean
al ao be a-pot welded to ..ach oth.r Ip a ""ry utWal:'1ory
tn an ller.
TH K I<Y IT WaL DI N G. 365
Alumlno-Thermic Welding Process.
(n thlR p1"OeeAII, whleh became Britl Kh property In
AUjl;Ugt., 1 ~1 6, Ih" conce r n no w o....ned lJy Inl Jlllrlal
Che m ll'A1 Inda"trlM Li m ited , the weldtnp: eom po u nd
term ed "Thermlt:· conllisUJ mai n l:r of a m h: ture ot
powdl'rf!d al u minium ....itb Iro n oItde. T h lR m lIt ur"
p o 8 _ the propertr, tbat, ....hl'u ijl;nlted in on" epot,
a ehemll'al r-ct.loo II Ret up, and rombu"tion rap lilly
"JIreadR thl'00ll'"out t be .... hoie m&811 w it hou t auy oth er
supply of heat o r po....e r , Brie tly tile ~Ion oon"lflbl o f
tb" &Iamln lom colllhluiujI; ....lrb th e oIylten of I II" metallic
and" and beeonlloR &Iumlnlum cxfde, and flllpal'llt ln jl; on t a
pure RUJll"rhMad liquid mete! of tbe nature o f mild eeeet
(""rbon 0' 1 percent!. Th e tempo-Tliture set np by th., reli ction
h"" been .-al('ulated to be 5.,4m nejl;. Fa h .
An rag e An aJ.ysia of " Thermit ~ Stee l
Carbon ... .... ... ..... ... ...... 0"05 to 0' 10 pe r nont.
ManJl:lln"lI6 O'UI to 0· 10
Sillron............ 0-00 to 0"20
Sulphu r 0"03 to 0"04
PhOf'phnru" 0"04 to 01J/S
Alumin ium 0iJ7 to 0'18
It placed In a ('rodble and IjI;nlted, the com pou nd jl;iV9>\
halt Ibi w"lll"ht In lltool and h",lf In IIlajl;, at a h 'tfllJ!"'ralllre of
5,400d"JI:. (o"ah. The IItee l be lug h ee vto r t ban th" "lap: R,,! tIM
at the bo t tom of tbe erudble. The "lap:, wh ich ol' eupleR
..bout th ree tlm ell t h e apace ON: u p led h)· t he wteel, r iseR to
the Lop . Th t! crodh l"11 used are o f cent.."l R!Jape, d"RI,II;ned to
wlt,h"t,and vor y hll(h l.emJIPratu r eB, and aM m ano In VanOUIl
IIbM to hold from 11 lh... to 10 c ., ~ . ot com po u n d . Th ey ... 1II
wlthM\:Aud a number of reectlons and whe" worn esn bo
re-llned,
The hmlUnll: of t.he compound 1" e tfedM by metlm. of a
ern ..11 qu antit y (lI.ho ut a ....Jhpoonful) of "f"'<'tll.\ IlI."nlUon
po....d ej-, which 1Mplll("ed Oil t.be top o f t he eo m p,:mn d In t he
eeeerbte, II.n d lIjthUld with a ... In n ve~tlL. Af tt-r IlI:n lti n Kthe
compou n d, t he r eec t.ton re eomplere In I ii to 30 ....c()lldR.
Abou t Ihe llOCond" aro allOwed after t he rea..tloll, hefore
\:Ap plnjt. for IImall quantltl.... of compound; for lll.rp:er
quantlt lNl & f"... IOeCOnnll. mo re Ill. allo....e d. nntll the hoLllnjt
action hall lIuhoolded.
Additions ReQuired ror Weldi n&" IrOD and 8teel,
For w('ldlnll" WmUrbl Iron and steel fr om 13 pe r cen t to
30 per cent of " m al elean iron or mild "teel pun"hln~ f l'flll
from~, .houM be added to the compound. For weldi n g
......t·imn, fro m 20 per cent to 40 per eeat puuehl hf('llIIhOlll d
be adned. The addition of theae punehlnl"- redn~ th e
quan~lty of "Thennlt required for any operatlOQ, a n d pre
M
1'e n ta a .-lol..nt reaction, ...hieb lWmetimell OC4IU rR If p~

•Tbennlt " I ~ 11 __ The tlu nch ln l[ll muat hf' mad e red
366 THIUU oIIT WlI:LDING.
h ot, a no Immed ia tel y on eonl lnl/; ml x.·o with the com p ou nd

w hile in tlll~ ~tute .
'W h en we hl inl/; ateel or wroull:ht iron an ~dd iUon 01 m en
ll:nneRe An d l'lillcou IlllLy be made to the compo u nd, to t he
ex te nt of ebcut 't pe r cent ferro-m" nll:anef\ll, or 2 pe r cent
pure ma ug.. ne>le, em' h ellkulaterl on t he q unutity of com
poun d u sed . Thl.~ addlt.lon ~hould. he p rev touaty heated in
the cas e o f laI'J(1l raaetlc us , In aU ClLee" only a "mall pr o
p or tion of the manganese amalg"llllLtes wi th the ir on,
whleh finally contains .. bont ~ pe r ce nt of meng..oe'lll _
Generall y nc a ddltiou need be made wh en weldinI'\" ea..t,
Iro n . bu t 2 per cent flllTOoRlllcon Ill" y be nsed if dl!fliretl.
Pr eparat ion oC Moulds Cor t he " Thermit" Process.
A dry IIand mould mURt he m ad.e eo suerou nd the tract n red
part, t he proper d Cl'llll:n of which is ol pa ra m ou n t importance,
Th.. Oland u sed for mould tn g purp<>llell m ost be of a re trec
to r y na t ure lind lIultable for KOOd Ilteellosst ioJl:9> ...nd shon ld
be m ..r1.e of a mi x t u re oonlli" linjl: 01 J f1re-clay and J ~iliCli
aa ed. or a mixture of IlAnd and t1re-l."lay. two p&Tt!\ IlharJj
""'nd and o ne part jl;ood t1re..el...y, mixed .lry. and moL..t.ened
juHt eU0111l:h to ))&<'k well. They I<hould, i .... any case, b l
11.8 porous
Wl'1'ORsible, and made by a moulder aceustomed
to stal/oundry praottce, The prlndpl.. gutdtng the ron
etru ction of the mould I" that the "Thermit" Rteel mnst
en t.. r throu g h a runner to the lcweet point of the mould,
.nd etee through anO around the partK to be welded into a
l&rRe rt eer or ri..ers. The runner Khould be eo .. rrenged tbat
It doee n ot allow tbe metal t.t:Ilmpioll:e directly on the tree
tured paru... Tbe mould lOust a.llow fo r the oond or rollar 01
" T her m it " Ilteel to be fonned around th", defeetiv", partll or
th e e nd/< of the pieces to be welded. All pradiClilly no two
Cf!pai CII are alike, the expe nse of making wooden patterns
a nd two-part mouldl'llllay be avoided by makinll: the model
of yellow w ax , rammlnjl: the MlLnd round this :md Sl1"""'·
q u en tl y me lt ln jl;out th~ wax.
Appli cat ion oC the .. Thermit " Proeess. -1n the
a ppU"At.ioo of thlll proce.... tbe parts to 00 welded aN
b roUKht to a bri!'tllt nod heat by m"anR of a l/:flS and ale
f1 awe ; t ll;Kwlllalll() dry the mould readj- for the "Thermit ~
me tal . " -h ll e the pre-heatlojl; ill I/;olnll: 00, the cru"ible ie
fixed in v.o"itlon over the r unner, and charged wttf
.. T hermlt . co mpou nd mi xed wltb tbe neeM~r y punchi nll:'!
ll.nd add itions_ As eocn M t h e pee-heatlng ill finished tbe
.. Th e rmi t " co mpound III ljl:oited, a nd, after the reactio n is
over , t he crucible III rapped, when t he molten metal will
IIJ! o p the mou ld a mi r lll"r, and tbe " lag whieb toltowe is
allowed to ove rtlo.... on to dry MlLn d. A li t tl e enercoet t,b ro w n
00 top of the me tal i n the riller helpll to keep the metal fluid,
an d &l. lowlI for IIhrlnk&jl;e In the weld .
O:llY-ACII T YL.BlII11 W.II:L D I N O ,
T he end. to be welded 'hould be placed a ahon distance

apart, varying from lin. to 2i09., aceordillg to the size o f
the pteces, lIO that the metal will ru n between u well u
a rouod the fractu red ends. In eases where the fract ure is
not open, o r where a crack only is visih le, it is best to chip
it open, or drill a aeries of boles to aUow th..
liquid" Thermit ...teel. to ron throngh.
Q ua ntity of " TbennJt" Requf red.c-.The quantity

of "Thermit" compound required to effect a rep air
is approximately 61bs. to 7lbs. per sq. in. of the section;
the average percentage of funchings about IS per cent to
20 per cent of the "Tbermit" componnd for wrought iro n
or steel and 30 per cent to 40 per cent for cast-iron. to
gether with the necessary addition" enumerated. Th e
"Thennit" band and .pace between ends should be o f
$11fficient capacity to take half the mo lte o metal the
remaining half filhng the TlI00U and rise r. A cubic inc h o f
"Thermit" metal weighs ,28 of a po und.
Ada p t a bili ty of the " T he r rnit " Prcces •. _W rouj!;h t

iron, steel forgings. a nd castin~ of any section a re read ily
repaired by mean, of th is process. Iron cast ings cao also,
in many hnlances, be successfully treated , h ut owing to
t he liability o f t h is meta l t o b rea k again alter welding,
d ue to loca l contraction, more ca re is req uired in ca rry ing
out the work, and expectally in the pre-hea tin g be fore,
and slow and gradual cool ing after welding. Sma ll ca stinRs
can be quickly obtained when req uired by usin g "Thermit"
with from 30 per cent t o 40 pe r cent, or even up to SO pe r
cent of small mild steel puncbing.ll, made red hot an d
mix ed with it.
O:ll:y_acetyleo e WeldJn i ,
Some interesting information respectinl{ t bi. precess o f

welding 'lFU given by H. S. Smith, in a paper read befo re
the Royal Society of Artaon February 23, 19 10, froID whlcl
the fol.lowing i5 abstracted :_
Tbe temperature of the o",y-a.cetyl~ne l1a.rne is app rox i·

mately 6,0110 dell". Fah_ Acetylene. CIH~ i5 an endothermic
368 OXV-A.C1UV LKNlt W/!.I..DI N G.
gas cornpotK'ld of 92·5 pe r ce nt carbon and 7·5 per ce ut

hyd rogen. T hese......hen consumed with , oxygen, fonn
carbon di ox id e and water. When issu iog from the blow
pipe the acetylene Bplitl up into its two constituents, the
carhop combinin g With oxygen to form carbon dioxide, the
brd rogen combining with oxygen and formin~ water. The
high tem perature caulled by the combustion of the carbon
and oxyge n immed ia t ely diMociatell the water into its
origna! constitue nts, oxygen and hydrogen; the oxygen at
once assbu in the combustion o f the ca rbon and oxygen,
the hydrogen pusiDg away and only combining with
o x yge n after it has passed the h igh t em pera t ur e woe o f the
flam",: consequeoUy there ill a eone of more o r less free
hydrogen surrounding the high temperatu re flame. which
renders the whole flame a reducing one. and p rotects tho
inner flame fro m loss of h~t. abo tending to ex cl ude the
possibility o f oxidation of the metals operated upon. T o
ensu re the complete combusti on of acetylene, theoretically
2 ·5 volu m es o f oxygen are required to one of acetylene, b ut
in actual prac tiM it i! fouDd that the proportions are
approlcimately I ·4 to I ,0. Two sr-tems may be employed
in this pn)Ct;!/&, v iz.• high and low pressure.
The H1ab P ree eu re SYlltem.-In this system, the

osyge n is used from Iln ordinary trade bottle, and aatylene
is like wise hpplied in eylinden in the dissolved Iorm, viz.,
compressed into ordinary gas bottlu or cylinders, ....hich
h a ve been previonaly 61led with some p?rous substance
900.ked with acetone. Acetone is a liquId which has the
property of abl!lorbing 25 times its own volume of acetylene
at a tmospheric preDufe. If pressure is applied, it is found
that the acetone will continue absorbing acetylene in the
a bove p roportion for every atmosphere of pressure tha t is
p u t on the gas. Trade dissolved acetyleoe cylinders ere, in
this country, o oly compressed to 10 atmospheres, and the
amou ot o f ecetcne in the cylinden is 10 regulated that the
cylinder contains 10 volumes 01 acetylene for every a tmo
ep bere o f pressure: consequently,at 10 atmOllpheres of pres
su re, bottles contaio 100 tim~ their own volume of pure
acetylene. Wheo acetylene ill dissolved, it is fou od C5!lIeIltial
that the gas be very thorou~hly p urified before compression.
otherwise the Nb of acad..nt in the actual com pression
are greatly Increased, the properiee of the acetone in the
cylinders a re grad ually c.h&nged, and the po ru9 materi al
O lr;V_ACBTY L KN R WR LUING . ,.19
ruined . With both the o x yge n a nd ace t y lene cy linders
speci al regula tors a re req uir ed . It is eBlIC'o tia l that both
re gulaton be fitted with safety dev ices. The blow pipes
used with t he utgb-peeesure eystem a re gen erally very
simple a nd inexpensive.
The Lew-p ee s eure Plant.- The chief item of im.

portance is, naturally, the generator and necnsary p urifier
The plants on the market may be divided in to tw o classes,
viz., the automatic and no n....utomatic. Bo th t ypes a...,
wmmonly employed in this country.
The question wbether an automatic or non-a utomatic

plant ia C'mployed for welding work of course depende a good
deal on circumstances. \Vher e the 0XY-&a'tylene syst em is
instilled in large works it is undoubted ly bet t t o em ploy
the n on-automatic plant, using a gasholder o l s uch capaci ty
as will permit o r the ....hole of the blow pi pe. used drawing
gas fro m it for fou r OT five houn withou t bei n g refilled.
The non -au to ma ti c plant is necessari ly, when a la rg e gas
hold er b as to be provided, more expensi v e tha n th e auto
matic p lan t . but in any case the o u tlay is not a se rio us one.
In small works, where only t wo or three b low pipes are in
use a t o ne time, and wh ere capital ou tl a y is a consid eration
the automa ti c p lant will give sa ti sfac tory results provided
care Is tukcn in its selection.
Typea of G cnerators. - Of the th ree t y pee of generators

on the English ma rk et, v iz.. the "carbid e to water," "water
t o carbide," a nd " di p p in g or displaceme n t " t ypes. the car
bide to water type is the most satisfac tory. In this class of
gen erator t he decomposition o f t he ca rbi n.. takes place in II.
l uWeient quantity of water to ensu re that dissociation of
the acetylene cannot occur. This type o f pl ant, possib ly,
doe s not give aucb a higb gas yield u to the wate r to car
bid e type, but it certaioly ens ures pOreT gas. I n thi., c1&S$
of gellentor the wate r capacity should be I c o b. ft, for
every SIbs. to 61bs. o f ea...-bide decomposed per honr.
Another advantage of this type of ma.chi ne b that it is
impossible to have an after-w.a.ke of guo
PUrffleat loD o f the G a s .-No matter what type of

generator is used, to ensure good ,,"ekh very cue fnJ pori
fica tion of the gas ill CSlIf!ntial. It ther?fOfe beboves O!lf!tlI
370 O X\' -A.CBT Y L K~ B W K L DI N G .
to be s u re tha t an efficie nt purifyinli; plant is obtained.

CaJd um ca rbide, if p urch ased under the specifflcation of
th e Briti sh Aceeyte ne Association will, except in very rare
ea-. be found to be commercially pure. In any case. how
ever. the acetylene is bound to contain eome ammonia,
l'ulpb u re tted h yd ro gen and phosphorus. The ammonia
ca n. o f co urse, be removed by washing. 1t ill. therefore.
d esira b le that the gas. after leaving the generator, shonld
be passed throngh a washer. Some chemical agent must
be employed to remove the phosphorus and eulpburetted
hyd roge n. as the presence o f either of th_ in the acetylene
wou ld be bound to spoil the ....e ld in some degree. There are
on the market at the present time a number of purifying
materials. The bes t known and most _tislactory are
beratol, fran koline , acogine and puratylene. AU purifying
materials fOT acetylene should be of a 1IOIid nature. The
gas. af ter passing from the p u rifien ,sho uld be tested period
ical ly to see wh ether the purifying material is spent o r no t,
T hi s is usu all y d on e by means of silver-nitrate test papers,
and if t h ey become discoloured in the presence 01 the F:as,
it sh OWII t ha t the pu rifying ma.terial requires renewing.
With low- pressure welding plant! the gas, after leaving

th e purifiers. is pa..'<!Ied through ordinary ga.~ or steam ba rrel
to the v ariOllll poi nts in the workshop whe re the blow pipes
a re to be used . It is absolu tely eaaeu tial t h a t ,a t every point
wh ere gas i... d ra wn from the mai ns for nile in a blow pipe,
an hy d raulic bac k -pressure v alv e should be inse rted. This
is to preven t, in the event of t h e blow-pipe noeele becoming
fused , t h e possibility of ox ygen flo ....ing into the acetylene
serv ice . An oxygen regulator has, of couree.to be employed
0 11 the o~Y!l"eli bo t tle, as is the case with the high-press u re
syste m. It IS v ery essential that users of the oxy-acetylene
process o f welding see that their wo rkmen are provided
with properly -ti n ted gl8S5eS;otherwise eye t rou ble i~ bou nd
to e ns ue. A regards the blow pipell employed with the
lo w_pressu re plant,the first to be iotroducedwlU the Fouche
blow pipe. From the very start this blow pipe worked most
satisfactoriIy.
Both the high-pressure aod low-pressure systems have

their .eparate fields of operation. In large works where
the«! is a continuous su p p ly of work, it ill undoubtedlybMt
to instaU • low-pfellllure p lant, as. o f course. acetylene ca.n
OXY _ACItT YLR NII W E LDIN G . :i7 1
be manutaclured in a generator at a lowe r n gure than that

a t which it CAn be bought in t he com pressed form.. \\There .
however, po rtability ill desired, h igh -prellllu re pla nts are
u~t1a1ly employeri: a lso in small works hops an d garages
""here there are on ly occasional jobs to bft tackled. I n the
case ot marine boiler repai rs ill sill•. t he high-press u re
system shou ld certaiuly be employed
Ox)'itn Cu t1ln e Blo w Plpt•.-:Metal cuttingbymeaus

of oX)-gen is generally used in conjunction with th e ox y
acetylt'ne blow pipe. The blow pipe used for cu tting metab
by oxygen generally consist.s of an o'l;)'-aeC' tyl..ne OT oxy
r.oal·gM hlo.... pipe, fitted"..;th a central or follo....mg jet fOT
o:ryli:en only. The work that has to be co t is first of all
heated up by means of tbe oxy-acetylene or o xy-coa1 ga.s je t
and as soon as it is raised to a. t em peTatu re a t whi ch o xy gen
will ignite it. the separate oxygen [et is t u rned on, a nd the
metal at onee burns aw ay ra pidl y. The oxygen su pply has
sul/ident p re!lllUTe be hind it to plow awa}- the oxid e RlI it is
formed, with t he r.-sult tha t a dean, na rrow Cllt ca n be
made through plates lip to 1210. in tb ickue!lll a nd o ver. The
speed at which th is work can be done is very high, varyin g
from 65ft. per hour for metal l in. t hick to 16 ft . per ho or for
metal 12in . th ic k ; the oxyge n consu med in this p roc ess
varyi ng from 0 ·75 cub. ft . per f in. t hickness pe r foot run in
lin. pla tes. to 2·25 c u b.ft. pe r l in. of t hickness per foot -ru n
in 12 ln. plates. The users of the ox y-acetylen e we ldi n g
proc ees find it 1110st a<ivan t a geous to ha ve oxygen cu t tin g
blow pi pes in conju nction with t heir plants. Th ey are fo und
mOlit use ful in preparing wor k whi ch bas to bft 8utogeoou!:!ly
welded, more particu lar ly in opening ou t crac ks.
Applicatio n o f Oxy-acetylene Weld ln l1.-One o f th e

chief pu inl.9 to watch, if oxy-acetylene we lding is to be
carried out IUCceUflllly, is very careful preJ.'llntion o f the
work. \Vhen it is desired to make a bu tt Joint a ll. plates
over lin. in thickne!lll, the t wo pieces of metal to be joi n ted
~hould be bevelled through, and t he ",-idth o f t he V should
be at least as great as the thickness of the work. The com
plete removal of any rust LIld acale is alm a poi n t t o be
watched, The feeding metal o5Oed should, when pos..'<i ble.
be ~hearin~ from similar pla te to the metal wo rked opon,
and should nev..r be o f p-eater section or d ia meter than the
thkko_ of the work. Sbearin8'l a T(! rarely obb.inable
O ll Y_A C II:TY LII:N& W B L D I NQ.
COIUequently low carbon Swedi!h iron is generally use d.

When e mp lo ying the process on thi n work some e xperie nce
is found necessary to ge t over buckling t rou bl es, bu t an
in telligent workm a n will 500n discover where a tack or
clamp is req uir ed in o rd e r to overcome these.
Speed oIWeld lnQ and G a s Consurnptlon._The speed

and cost a t wbi ch work can be done depend a grea t d ea l on
tb e nature 0 1 the job, the skill of the workman. and the
prices current for calcium carbide and oxygen. The fol
lowing table giva some idea of the lla5 cOll5umption per
-
foo t 0 1 run on differen t gauge iron or steel. and the rate at
wbich ....o rk can be canied ou t in a straigbt-ahead job :
TlI.Iell _ _ 01
.... ..,....
o._ptl."", ., 8poood all . . .k
.
Ir. p"'.t.-r..... 01
P\o.te I.. III m. ~~I).::t.." 0..1>1. P ....t . W.1d po< H"'D.
,,., I. ... eo
, "3·'
,.,
e-,
,., W
,s-s s-a
7'75 "'
OJ
.."
10·0 II
,.•,
7.
12·5
IS.
27' 0
15' 7
22'0
as-o 10
g' IO "'·0 44'0 7
Strenllth of Oxy-acetylene Weld ll._A! II ge neral ru le

wbere co m pe ten t workmen are employed, it m a y be tak en
t h a t the te naile s tre ngth of the ..."Ide<l joint i. ahou t 95 per
cen t of t hat o f th e original plate for l in. p la tes. a nrt that
this figure fal l. proportiona tely u ntil it reachalID pe r cent
for I in. prates. AU tests sbow thO' importance o f a nnealing.
It is. of co urse. generally impossible to anneal t he whole
....ork operated on &Iter it is welded. but local a nneal ing by
means of the blow pipe flame meaD9 the difference betwn:n
co m ple te . uccess and failure.
Detailed in tonnation respecting t h e suenl{1:h of welds 01
various k in ds is given in a paper by E . P. Law . W. H .
Merrett. a ud W . P . Dil;by. read before t he Iron and Steel
rn~titu te , ~I a. yl l th. 1 9 1 I , and reproduced in TIY .\fuA,,,"iu1
F... ~ ... n . !olay 12th. 19 11. (See page 570. Vol. XX VII.)
Uee of Trillonomelry 10 the S hop.
Quite frequently problems have to be solved in the d raw
lug Qffice and in the toolroom in which trtenglee play an
important part. The figuring of angles is often looked
tlpoD by the average individual as somethi ng above his
capacity, but very often this figuring from given formula e
is quite easy. all that it necessary being a table of aines,
CO$10e:., tan~ta, and cotaugentll. Attn haviol! found the
figures corresponding to a given angle from the tables, the
whole thiD~ ~l ves ibdf into a l;Ue of simple multiplica
tion or divuion .
In any triangle, the su m of the anglet is 180 deg.,10 that,
u in Fig. I-.if one angle be 90 deJ. and. second be deg. t?
the third will be (90 deg.-6 deg.). Such. tnIlagl" lS, fal"
•
.
~o '.
e a
I J" ~
CII. I. Pl., 2.
obvious reasons. tenncd a right-an,R;led trinngle , and the
aide o p posite the right a ngle is called t he h ypot b enu!Ie.
One of the properties of t his triang le is t hRt-
The s quare o n t he bypothe nus e A B _ lIum of the
a q u aru o n t he othe r two s Idell AC en, or eJ:p resst:d
as a formula e2 _ ,,~ +
/12
therefore b2 _ e2 _ 012
and a2. _ e2 _ b2
!IO tbat, wben any two sides of a rigbt-eagted triangle are
known, it becomes a simple matter to find the length 01
the tbird , idf',
For the ben efit 01 those who are not familiar with the
fuoctioll:! of angle. it may be well to statf' bri"lIy wbat j~
Pleant by the tenus sin.... cosine, tangent. cotangent,
!leC&Dt, and CO$eC8.Ilt. and show their nee by a f... w simple
~r.'a
Re erriag to Fig. I, the 1rngth5 of three sid .... are repre
..,nted by a, 1>, and ( respeoctively. and the aoglea opposi~
each of th_ sidN are called A, B, aod C respectively. The
U Si! 01' Tl< tGONOMK 'I' II....
n l( h t 1101'11;1" ill t ne triallll;l e l~ -.ogle c. orh . did.. b 1M called

t he Illd Ol aa,;/Ictnt to the a n ll:l" A, end III of CQUJ'IIe &110 the
si de OVVo.ntt to &nll:le /l. I n t he sallle way, t tw IIld" a III
ea n...t t h e IIlde adjllcent to t he anl/:le 11, and the "Ide oppeette
to AU ll:l e d .
T he VarioUlI Iu n " t iou ll a re lI.lI foll o w lI:-
Th e aiDe or a n angle equals the op posite si de di vided
by the hy pothenuse,
Th " stne of an l;le A thus eq ualll t h " .ide 0, which 18
oppoal ta to t h" . ngl .., d ivi ded by t he hypothllnu""" c. Ex _
p.......ed ... II; fOrlllUla w e have;-
IIln A ""~. ,
Ir a .. !! a nd e = 16, the n lIin d "" 8 ",'&'
I'
The "I ne of . "ll:le H wlll equal the ..Ide b dlvldNl. by Ih ..
b ypolhe n u lO6 C,
aln lJ "" !e ,
"
II b "" 12 . nd c "" 16.
I'
th"" lIin lJ _ 12 "" ·76
.
The eosi ne of a n a.ngle equals tho aid e adj llceo t
divided by the hypotheoU8e.
'I'h" ecetee o r "U 1':16 A t lmll "'IUI1.\1I the IIld,- b, whle h ill
adj"c 6nt to thl .. 1l1l1ol:16, dlvtd ed by t.be hy potll<mu86 ", or.
IlXp l'{1l1~ 6(1 " II. ll. Ior mu l..,
co.. A ""l!, and COIl lJ = ~ .

e
II b = 12 IIon d c'" 16, th.", ece JI == :: == -ti•.
AUjl;I"", A lin d. /l rogether uln.ke 91) <lel\"., "ntl Nch I.. railed
t he com ,.t"".en l of the oth e r. It ... 1ll be ou....n·ed froUl the
a bov e t bat t he COlI A '" ain H: and that COIl H;; "Ill d, and
th l.. I.. t rue or all rip;ht.... np:led trlan l(lea.
The tange nt or an an gle equals the opposite side
divided by the adjacen t side.
The tanlol:lln t at an gle A thUJIeq ual. the "Ide a dl.lded b,
the "i de b , or,
•
u o ' '" b .. a d tan Ii '" •
Ii.
U a= ll !Uld 1>= 12., th"D tan A:::; &='6l\G
usa O P T RtGON ONIlT R Y , 375
Th e cotangent of an an. le equ ala the side adjacent
divided by t he oppos ite SIde.
Tbe mlNlRNlt 01 anlJ:le A thu~ Altllal" t h.. "Irl.. /J divtdf'd
by th.. sIde lI, 01".
A =!, and rot IJ= II
The aocant of an
eo(
•
angle
eQ.naa the hypothenWle
•
divided by the lide adjacent.
Th.. 8e<"AlIt of anjl,'le A tho.. eq llaa the bypothenuNI C
divided by the ..Ide /J, or,
,
~ A '" ~,and..eelJ =c,
rhe coseeant of an angle eqll&1B the bypothenWle

.
divided b7 the opposite sid e.
The ("(JMII'ant of anRle A tbns equal.. the hypothf'n u .... c
00I'Ie(' A = .
dtetded b, the ..Ide a oppo&lte the an.tle. or ,
~ and I'A)<eC
It 01" ..1, however, aJwaYIl be horne In m ind that the

,
lJ '" t
l u ncUo ns of .. 01(1,.... ran be fou nrl In thl" ''''.nn",r onl, wh"n

th" lrianltl", 1Mrip:hl..an,lt:l.. d.
~ :r~
(r
, ~
A
~ ,. ~' lf
/' -k
.fi'1(J . ll,
_
Now, It I req ullntlyhapp"1U'I that w e ha ve a draw lI' lI; w ilh
two hoI"" lor"ted &R In 1'11':".!. Mooll m boring m ach ln t"11 are
all tlth,.j with micromet..r d laill and arljUlllmp nte. 110 t b.. t
the opo.'rata!' hM IlI ... aYIl all e .....,. wea.... of d.,t.enu ln illll; a ll
exact di ..t"nl."t'l alonp; a IItraight li...., both horl.louta ll)· aud
"erticaily, Thua. p;'iven dimension" to work to "" }/'i ll:. !, be
ma,. del .. rmln.. tite ba8t' di8UU1('cll with a Rood degeee of
!IN'U .....,. . but h... no m ......" of lavln,: down the anj(l e with
8ueh pM'("l>Iion. whereas II the diAtance a ron ld l)(' deu:or .
lIIinerl. it could be ..uhRtituted (or the an~lar readlnll; alld,
by UI\e ot tlle mk'rom ...ter index. be see out Jl1Jlt .... reAdil y
.... the ba.e db.tall<'tl.
To do thla. all that Is n...,.,..,.,..., I.e to loolt In a 8u lt a hle
r..bll' tor the lell ll: t h Be. [lill. 3. of a tri"'lllle 1a"lnll a bull
lIS.Il OF THI OO NO M.IlTHY .
.>IV of lin . " od & bMe &n lO:l"o' tOdell:. T h" I...it /Tian"l~
on wh ich " II the tables are oomptited h&.. a loa "" of Un ., &~
1'11l:. 4, u nd er which ctteutnstan.... s tho hlll p;t h of tho line
IIC In fr""tlon " of an Inch is tbe lan(lent of the allp;l... It
will be obvlouOl, therefore, that the line He In Iflp;. :1COlTe...
polld " to the teagent, &nd to lI.nd ItA lenJl;t h, the table of
t&n l(e n t& on p, M ilIo used.
"'or a v.lu& of l!lJd"j(. the 8
table J(iVetl thill lenl(th ll.lI
OPJ6(. ... potOO aD the
d raw IDp;, and wl1ltlpiylnll;
it by 3 "'e ftnd the Talu", ...
of a 10 be 1'OlI'!ln .. !lod ..... ...
~
ea n tbeo re.-nKure t h e '
drawinll:. T h l" I" "U that I'
need. to be done. The "'---707__- - - -
table J(iVefl a com plele lilltAl.-..- " ' , .,._ C
of t he lenll:thll of HC for r ""'..'. ~
all UK l"", bo,·t"·"""n 0 and I'm. 4.
90 deK. a n d fo r a lenj:(th of
A C of nn., or 1ft. If we
are dealln ll: with teet, Had the anKle befon:t) del{. Wl! wo u ld
ha \'" founil t he lenl/;th of BC ror that anKl" from rhe table.
and RO fC1l' an y othe r engle,
No.... ta ke IOn o ppoalte C&&\ and llN\Ume we hav e to lay out
ao " n Kl.. of U deg, ... ithou t" protrndor on " hl\.Me lin e /)in.
101111:. Loxlkinll: at the table of tan;t,mtll woll nd t,he tangent
for 14 d l'j(, to be O"24lt1, an d m ult.lplyt ug thlK by 6 W6 h e ve
I "t4Mln . .... t he I.. nlrt h of th e side oppo-dte t.he . n l(le.
I'll'. 5.
U .. n ee, 10 "",tli np: ou t FIll:_5 ... e make the Jin.. A C 610. jen g ,
ptIrpend ie1l.h.r to thlll ....e draw the lin .. He l~460io.lonll::
now draw t he line AB and the anKle BAC will be 14 dl!K.
Re lllem bo:orlp l/; that the ACute <UliC1M of a rlp:ht-angled
t rl . n p:le a.re the complementa or eaeh other we subtract 14
dejl:. Irom go dllfl:.and obtain 76 dllfl. all the anKle A HC.
It ll'«luen tl ,. happell8 when dilllen~lonlnK Cflnlres fC1l'
~ 1IJ1: that a leogth l:OJTellpondinll: to the h,.pothenUBe is
known end alllO the anJl:I~ AllllUlDlI .. CAlle where It ill
d ealNd to lcx:ate a oen tre 0 0 & radlull at :lIn. and at aft anll:llI
USII Oil' TIUGONOlli RTlty . 377
(If :to d"ll . A>I p revlo u~ lv menrloue d , It III lI. ~"1l 0 con ·
veni en ce to (w ow thEl peri;.en d icllllU' helf{h t 01 t h e point 11<1
t hat It can be tueean red or marked olt', and te is q uite ...
simple met ter to fin d bot h thi", an d t he horiz ontal len~th
an d d l_rd the nulllls.
Leok tn g at fo·i ~. 6 we Sell that the line A J) I", the li ne cor
r.....pcadt ng to t he jl;in,n d in ,en...ion of :{In., and line DE the
pe rpl'ndl cul a r . The u nit t riangle h u ue stcpe or the n.diu 8
of the circle ~ual to li n " under ....hlch circUlustaUCe>l th e
lenjl;th of the li ne J) E In trecucn e of aD Inch Ul the 8ine of
the lUIj1;le. and sirnl1&rly the
len(tth A E i>l the w.ri" t
of the angle. Thence, (0
dnd tbe Ieugt.h DE w e
look in a tahle of IIln.... (~
p. .;41 and lind the eetoe
ccrrespondfng to 20 dell:_ to
be 0'342. !lhlltlplyinll: by
3 we lind t h" d imen s ion
we n:'Jqnlre to he l·o:!llin.
Fm,6_ For the ha>M.', ....e li n d the
ceefne to be O~, .... nd
wul tiplyl llll: by a we h8.\·" 2-81Illi n. as t he lell~ l.h r eq u ir ed .
W'hen th e ,·.. Iu", at the t u nc.tion of all !l.Iljl;l" ill give n, and
It i8 req u ired to find !,hellng l" In degre"lIllnd mtnute e, t he
(no"tloll I.. JOI".... ted in t he tablea a u d tbe ecrreepond lng alll':le
foun d by a p roces s t he rev erse ot th a t e lllplo}'oo lor fln d in jl;
th e f u n eUo o when t.h" anl/:le 18 gi ven .
A.. a n example, we arll I':iven the lIi ou of Il ee etatn 1l""le
equll l.. 0'440118. To Ilnd tho .. n~le we look In the la/,Ie 0/
llint8. Thl' function 0'44098 ill tocated either IL t t h l' top or
ten ore of UUI tnhle, and when loca ted the del/:rneR and
minute.. of the RIlll:16 are relld off directly, 'I'he requ ired
"".u;I'J I.. 2fl' 10'.
If O·44011H halt bee n the rQ sin t , we ..houl d have looke d at
the HArne tllb le , hu t ha ve telld the a np;le III the col u mn
oppceue, vl1. :-l~r 50' .
Another ex a m p le fro m pr actice 8howlnj( t il" a pplicat ion of
Iri~llometrkal f unctlon.. IH of ilite reM. I n !Ipi",l Jl:f!arinR,
t he pit ch dla n, ete r of II. ~ear is round b y the formnla :
D:< N
P X COll G
In whl cb I J :< pitch diameter of .piral p;eat,
N:< number of te eth in Rear,
P :< normal diametrical pkch,
a ::::l tooth a ngle ot 1l:l\lU'.
U ~K OF TRIGONOlollHk Y .
37'
ARRurue that In .. epectnc CAII6 we know thAt N : ~-l.
p = 5, and a n il: le a = 2Odejl;. ; lind th e pltt·.hd larne t.er. Thell
D'" 5)( ~ 'lS1' fx~- = 15 'I()gj n.
Obliq.ue-&nr1ed Triangles. - A trlanlt1e which pretleu....
110m" diffi cult y tn IIOlntlon '" one In wh ich no one a n~l e III
.. rlll:b t ..nlt le. Aa/lume that we have a t ra in of Jtearinjl;
wi th t hree nmtrell, and it III delll ....,,1 to find t he h eljl;ht of
t h e to p centre from .. line jol nlnll:' the two lo.....r ~ ntl'flM .
If we know &1l the &Djl;lell It b.ocollletl a !lim p!e mAUe r to
'....r'...;
d ivide the Lria up:le inti) t wo an d ohtain two ri lth t-llnJ!:led
ufl oa way.
a n d theo find any dellt rwl hf'tR:ht or l"n~h In t h e
Kith er of the ..Dg) .... een Iwo fou nd br t.he
lollo.'up: lormulle :
f'OIIA = /1 " + 6" - fl i
:t,,/lI<C
aWl B = ~' .±...c~~
:! >< a" C
aWl C a ' + li" c'
2: x a lib
Now _ u me we haT e a t riao jl;le .... 1'11l:. 7 wit h I,he t h re e
etdc .. ft!tUrM : a = 510 .. b = 4;0., e = lIlo. If we 1" 1'1. t he
gi ven le n,g:r.hll of t h .. IIid 8ll n t h" f1 ",t of til .. t orllla l a bov e
we have :-
COlI A _ 4' + 6· - 6' ;: 16 + 116 - :t5 '" 27 '" 0 '/il\2fj
- j --;(4)('il -2 x 4x 6 4H
.
.r A~ "
~
~ -'''' 0
1c 8 \r~.
,
~ a ·6
.
Prom this lorm a la we have

aln B '" b x " in .d 4 x 01l:llllS =' 0"6611
• •
USB or TIl IG0 1<Ololit TIl Y , 379
which fro m the table o f sines we find B to be an allg l., 01
4 1" 25 -.
Aslhe tota l o f the three a ngles eq u a ls ISOo, the angle C
may be found as follows :
C _ ISO" - (A + B) _ 1so o- 9 7 " I I ' _ 82 " 49 ' .
Now it may happen that the angle A in F ig. 7 is greate.
tha n 90 deg, as in F ig. 8. and it will be as well to work o u t
another e",ample to sh ow b ow this affects the work ing.
The cosine and tangent for an angle greate'r than 90 deg.
but less t han ISO deg., equals respectively the cos ine and
tangent of the diffl.'l'ence betw.....n ISO d~ . and the given
angle. but in this case the angular fun cti on found has a
xqlJliw value. and ill preeeded by a minus sign.
As a D example, .bat is the tangent of ISO deg. ?
Tan 1SO" __tan (180 "-ISO"}_ _tao 30",
F rom the tables.e bave tan3O_0·5774 ; th us tan ISO"
_...(j· 5n4.
Now to IOlve Fi g. 8. we use the form ula above, and the re
f~.
4 ~ + 32-@ _ 16 + 9-~ 25 - 36
oosA - -:Z x 4 x 3 24 - ~
It will be seen Irom t he last fraction that in t he n u mera to r
t he n u mber to be subtracted from 25 i , greater than 25 , Th e
nu mhen are therefo re reversed , 25 bei n g 9ubt racted from
36, t he remainde r then be in g n egative. The refo re
25-36 II
cos A - 24~ "" - U. - - 0'458 3
Now find the val ue of the angle to correspond with O· 45R:l
in the table of cO!llnes. It will be Seen t hat thill a ngle is 62 °
43 ' , As t h e cosine here ill negative, angle A. how e ver, ill
not 6 2 ° 43 ' , bu t _ I80°-62" 43'= 117 " 17 ' ,
An gle B is found by the formula
b x sin A 4 x sin 117 " 17 '
sin B _ - - - - - -
• 6
As stated above, sin 117 ° 17 ' .. si n f1so o-1 17 " 17') _ sin
62 ° 43 -, H ence
siD 8 _ 4 x si n 62 "43 ' ... 4 x O, 8887 _ 0 ,5924 ,
6 6
a.nd 8 _36 ° 20 -,
Finally, a.ngle C i. found by the formula :
C_ 180 "- (A + B ) _ 180 0_(117 " 17 ' +36" 20
_ 180"_1 53 ° 37' _26 ° 23' .
S p u r w beete.
When two eyliudef'!l, whose alEes are parallel, roll on eac h
other, t hey will not transmit rotary motion with r..gu la rity
u a teee their 1!Iurfau s are provided with teeth meshing with
elU:b other. and 110 shaped ~ to produce the!lame 'llnifonnity
01 motion between the rotary cylinders as could be trans
mitted by frietion . provided there were n o slippiop;.
Cus t Gea ra.-Th.. true form and pitch o f tooth do not
obtain in talIt gears because o f irT "KUla.riti~ arising from
the warping o f patterns. distortion during moulding, and
unequal contraction of the parts o f a wheel wheo cooling.
Therefore recou rse is now had to the cu tti-oll: of wheel teeth
by mechanical means. 110 that a practically perfect a nd
highly e Uicient Gear can now be produced with &D ebec
lut""Y COITect form or tooth profile ful611ing all the require
ment!! lor smooth and positive action.
M achine-cu t "-earinC. considered an extravagance at
one time, ha, herome a necessity in all ..ngineering work.
Machi ne-moulded wheels "ere once ec asidered ablolutely
accurate. but to still believe in th"ir accu racy is to believe in
a delusion. Such wheels oug ht to be tnJ&-in many in
stances they ere eo, but very ofteo abo t hey are net. Every
thin g d epe nds upon the amount o f personal care bestowed
upon their manufacture, a nd even llIIlIuming that they are
acc urat e. it is surely a barbarous thing to ha v e two cast
su rf aces sliding au one a noth er; for all toothed wheel5
must slide as well as roll. It is com monly supposed that
th e hard skin of a cast tooth prolongs itll life : b ut the san d
an d grit in the skin itself soo n wean away the surface and
inevi tab ly produces hack-lash.
As to the cost of machine-cut gearing, the geueral ad op
tion of suitable machinery ha.q !IO cheapened productioo
that good machine'Cnt wheel s caD now be had at p rices
very little m ore than fm: wheels with cast teeth. and the
time saved in fitting up soon repa~ the I!x tra COfIt.
P ltc h e a of Teeth.-The circles representing the rolling
cyli nd<'f'9 play an important part. and an' preserved alliinee
on which the ~th are laid a ll. They are known &!I the
pt,,! ri~d,s. their circu mferences being the pild ri~,,,, ...
/t> ,IlUS of the ....h eels. and the diameten being the pikA
dia."'ltrJ .
The pitch es of wh eel teeth are most co m monly given in
circulAr pitch. that is by thedivision of the circumference o f
the pitch eircle, into 90 many ares. measured by inches o f
the ordinary s taDdard rule. This works OlIt very a....k wardly
Iklm..tilDes. in practice. epecially i f th.. Cl'nh.... are fix~
and WIUI, ISII/ilol" ," UJte the diamtltrAl p lr.eh lost<'Ad. The
la tter I.. ~nt .... . uu eh .. meesurement, lIt.r i etir Ilpoa kl n R 'UJ a
'"
ratio or proport ion . The d lamftrw piu:b 00Hn t he s..me
ratio to the ci re lliaI' piteh all the d iameter to tho ci rcu m
feren ce, hence, dlv!c!lIj1; the OOtult.$nt nu m ber S'UI6 by a
Il:i n 'Q d iam etml pitch, will gi ve , he circular pitch, "lid vtee
versa. eon venwly 11 t he ci rcular plkb bt. n.ultiplfed by till"
rll.. ",p,ra: t>ltcb. the prod uct ill 3·J U6. In ~t h ..r wordll, In _
stead of d l"i dlnj{ the cil"MJ m fe re nee in to 80 many parta , ....
in eircul lll' llI e&>1U rtl, the dla.m.ek! r ~ dlvldtd Into 110 ll.-.Jl )'
pou'tll per inch.
T he circular pitch of ... ""h...,t is t he looll:t h of t he ILZ"C
fro m t he cent re o f olle tooth to th e centre of the lie n tooth.
.......... red On t h e p it ch "' i .... l... ~ r'ill:. Il. ~ 3.Sll.
The cLa.metral pitch III the Dluuber of ~th per inc h
of diame~.:r of the pl ',ch circle.
I t h. .. been fOllDd 1ll0ll ! ecneea'en t to n ile dlam.. t.raJ pitehl'll!l
op to t d la m. pt tc b, and the circ ul a r pit.-h rOf' wh....:.. of
COll"",r ptreh,
To _,. Of' write 5 pitch, ...onld mean 5 die "'d rat pttcn,
To 61•• " 000. ri rcular "
F or m . of Teeth. -W h l1e It lij pollllible to dlilldl/;U t~et h
to nan tq;l;e ther or" J(I'Wlt many 8ha (lell, two lltyl \'IIAru alrllOllt
nnlvpr..,.Jly ueerl, ijlHce t hoy have thoor etl caJly cor rec t forlUlI
lor th" trnnlllU lll'lloll of II. ccnereut vt'JO<.'lty .... flo. lUll] t". .."
the arld i ~lonal a d v.ntap;e or beln~ I'l"-'ld lly I" ld out. Tho,..,
are tho Involute a n d cyeloldlll forml\.
In volute tN,th ..r e tho "'0111. In favour. They h " ve t hll
ad vlLllt&.l:e of r u n ll lll,IC pe r fec tly .. \ ',,0 when th" dlllianre 1>\1
tw~"n th" centroa Ie vari ed sl.i~htly fro m that eomputud for.
Th ie fonn of tooth nee hut a ..It.l~J " cu n" , fLUd I.. 'uore
pr aet lcal t ha D ti,,,
creloldAI or dou ble c o n" too th, A". 1_
Du moo r of CUUlll'll II.re n '''CeIl'''''''' to c ut & ror lJpleU' set 01
...h.,..,llI. FurU1I' r , cyr.loldlll tooth wl"",111 mu st. r u n a t exact
ee ntee dl HtanOOfl to run welL
Oycl oldal System. _ T" ktl • Illite a n d roll i t al on lC the '
• . edge or . rul,·r.l,oldlop: tho point of a ren cu at I he ri m of the
d lllC lit) that .... Ihe IaU..r roli ll r.he p"DCUWm tnee a ",,""eo
Tbl.s cutve I", a Cldold. Should t he d ille be ro Jloo Oil t he
ed~ 01 a cll't"ular d ille, however. the curve traeed woul d be
an ept-ejelotd , and "hould i t ')p rolled on th" IllJllde of a
hoop It " 00 1<1 hoo ....11"" a bJ1lO'f'J cloid .
Invol n ta SYBtem.- The term vtne cl ut... " III t he na m e
01 • curve d eeeet bed by the ead of • emrl ... lt I, un 'lf1)uDd
fro n.. L'lot her curve. liar ..:uruple. to draw an invol u te
wind aClOl'd lU'(lunn a rl l'('o~r dilOC or anI a;mv.. n Wut nlateriJ
Ilnd m akfO • loop In t he our- en d of the ('Om. La ,. t he diRe
SPUR WIIEE L S ,
rla t on a ph"""" of paper a nd wi th ", pe n cil h. thll loop , u nwin d

t b" ,tr lnll:. kee pin g It d ra wn UJl: ht, ILnd lc t tb e potnt or th"
pe ndl trace a curve, which w Ill b.o lUI In volute.
Th e In vol ute rac k toot h hll.3 8tmlp:h t "Id"" at " n " np:lll 01 16
d~ w llh the poi nts roun ded olf. See Jo'IK. I. ~ : m.
Cycloidal T ee t h have t wo d l~t1ne t cu r"l!~ abov e a nd
bo-Io... th" plt"h line, and In the """II: tooth the t wo cur vec
a1"f' jUlI! "lilt...
What<lvpr ..)'..tpm I" u .....d. It 1,,_nU,,1 thlo! ,,11 th" ..... h""'l"
of" Irlven pltcb should be capahh' 01 runnlnr. I~..ther, To
m"ke thl" tx-Ibl" with th" Involute, &lIt re ...h...."l" mUlit
have the ....me ratio of b&IIe or Jl:"o..n. t1nJl: cl~lp. and ,,-It b
the qdoldAI "ylltpm the Mme "Ise ro lJlllP: Dr J(O'o pratioll:
elrele mullt be employed for &llld_ The drele gton..rall)'
ehollen Ie one bav lnK half the d lampter 01 " I ~ · tootb p Inion•
..hkh makM the t1.anb of thl" pi n ion nul l...1.
If th" dilLlJle!A"r o f th" rolll nll:' drel.. had bee n plthe r ,ll!'eIL ter
or IPll!I than hair the dtetneter or t h.. plt"h circle t he rtanll: of
t be tooth would have been f'u rvt'd, "ntl In til", MIIll of the
j!"l"M.ter elrale the curve wo ul d lut.ve f"lIl'n Inliide of t he radial
IIllnk, Mo ullinl/:" weAk, u nder-c ut tooth. W ith tllIllIlI1&I1" r
eirell' thl' ru ne would r,,11 oul...ide, m"klnl/: .. ..tTOn l/: too t h.
UAd u l Formulle and Notes .

3' 1416
CIrc u la r p itch :::: "dl &m~ plteh
3'1416
Dta m etral pi tch :::: clrc ul "r pit ch
Flu b dla m. '" '.'?- of ~e e~ or DO. 01 t .... t.h x ti r. p it ..h
dlam, pitch :I·U lIl
OUt Id dt '" n o . of ~tb + 11
a e am. diam . pitch
or Inn. or Uoeth + ~l " elr . piteh
3-1416
No. or tMl t h :::: pllcb diam. x dlarn. p lteh : or
plteh dlam. ,,:1 ·1 III
pitcb~
Tblekn ess of tooth at p it" h li ne _ clreu'a; pltcll
SPUR Wfl JlJ U ..s.
H elQ,hl of 100 th abow pitch line , or adde ndum

1
- ·3 183 cir. pitch or d---'-- . _....
lam. PltUJ
WorkJng d ep t h o f tooth _ -6366 ci r. pitch or d - 2 . h
la m . puc
Wh ol e d epth 01 tooth = -6866 cir . pitch o r di 2 ' I ~?
lam. piteh
Cl earance at bottom o f tooth _ one_h'nth o f thickne9!l
t ooth at pitch line.
Dis tance bet ween the cen t res o f a pair 0 1 wheels :
Su m ~I number o f teeth in both wbeel s
2 X d iam. pitch- -
Sum of pitch diameters 01 both wheels
or_ --- - - - 2
Width 01 Face . 8 to . 10 . o r 21
diam. pitc h d laDl. pitch
31 cir. pitch.
If width is made le!IlI than this a greater pi tc h will be
required, but it ought to be borne in mind tha t a fine pitch
and a wide tooth will do more work, in duce smoot he r
running and en sure be tter all -ro und results (especial ly a t
high speeds). than a course pitch and a narrow tooth.
T eeth narrow in proportion t o t h" p itch ha ve not the same
rigi dity a nd po wer t o resist sh ocks. This can easily be
seen by the excessive vibra tion set up b y narrow tee th as
compared t o the others.
In order to obtai n the best re sult.q, the wheels with wh ich
the pinion s gear sh ou ld have machine-cut t..eth, accu rately
correspondlag in llize and form "ith the teeth 01 t be pinions
Special care sh ould abo be taken t o see that the wh.....19 are
turned u p tru.. and to the correct outside d iarneter, accord
in!: to th e r«ogoi$ed standard .
Each pair o f ....heels must be adjusted to the correc t.
centres acc ording to thcir di ameters, 110 that the pitch
circles of the t ....o wbeels Intersect in running.
The importance of a ccurate mounting can no t possibly be
o\~ restima t ed. No matte r how wen and accuratel}' wbeels
are made.they cannot give complete satisfaction unl ess they
an correctl y mounted IUld kept ruDDing tnI ". Proper con
9.ideration and care given to this matter at th e rig ht time
will often ...ve very oonsi d erable subeequent trouble and
JI'OMible la.. The Alignment of tb" two abaJb IlIU~t be
",. "fUR W IHI KL• .
perfect, "lid theu bearings m ust be s ta yed together mO$t

rigidl y to seep th em exactly t he right d ~tauce apart. G reat
ca re mou ld be taken to see th a t t he wheds ru n pe rfec tly
straight and true, a nd that they a re h> t he correc t d ep th in
g~ with each other .
Gea r wheels are more o ften c u t too <I~r tha n not deep
enough, and.&5 fa r as noise is eoncerned.it IS wane t o ha ve
t he driver too deep than the driven gear. Another can"" of
noise may be that the cutting ito n ot central. ~ shown by
geers being noi sy when running one direction and q uie t in
the reversed direction. A~in, the centre distanc", may n ot
be right: if meshing too deep . the outer corners of the tee th
of c ue gear may strike bard against the roo ts of the t~tb of
the other gear. Still another cause of noise may be fou n d in
the fact that the frame carrying the gear shafts is o f sucb ill
fann and size as t o give '!)ff sound vitra.tioD.$.
A pi nion should ne ver be used with less than 12 t eeth.and
p re ferabl y n ot les!I than 15 . No pinion wor kin g a t a h igh
speed sh ould ha v e less tha n 20 teeth at the ve ry leut. If
made with a smaller nu mbe r of teet h, t he form o f th e la tter
necessarily becomes d istorted (through un de r.c ut ting),and
t h eir strength materially d ecreased ; also, the tooth-area in
gear at o ne time is proportionately lCll5<' offl , a greater load
th erefore fallin g o n ea ch tooth . I n addi ti o n to this. t h e
shocks-alth ough decreased in nu mber- a re propo rtiona tel y
in creased instren gth. cond u cing to an Increase of vibration.
an d t o less ev en running. T h ese co m bin ed circu ms tanct!fi
render t he U ~ of pinions with a s mall n um be r o f t eeth most
u nd esirab le for hi gh speed work, p la cin g their .rwbab le
worki ng res ults altoget h er very m uch in doubt, a n maki ng
it "Ta ctica lly impossible to Iorm any defi nit e theoretical
es ti mate of t h eir actual capacity.
Tooth Forms.- As the profile of a tooth is dif fer eot
lor every variation in diameter of the wheel, In o rder to
red uce the n u mbe r of cutters required to cover a complete
ran ge of $izes, the shapes o f the cutters are made euitahl'"
for an average between certain limiu, as shown in the
loUowing tables
Wi th t h e involute system of wheel teeth eight cntters are
req uired lor each pitch. as foUows ;
No. I will cu t wheeb from 135 t eeth to rack.
2 55 134 tee th.
3 35 54
• 26"
I.
5 21 25
8 17 20
7 18
" 12 l'
5 P lJ Il. ..... UIlIl L 5 ,
W it h the cycl olctaJ "yHwm 114 cu r,t en are l'IOQulrect lor ..en
pi tch. lUI loUo " R;
lillttmo A cutl! III teeth. C u t "" r M eu te 'l1 to llll to.-elh
D III N .. :Ilto sa
C It o ,,1I41oll7
V 15 P .. 3!lto 42
B HI Q .. 43to49
y 17 H .. 50 105ll
G IS S •• (l(IOO74
If III T •• 75toW
I ..:iIl U ,, 100 to Hll
J :!I tote V •• I50 to U 9 ..
K l1:1 to U W •• 250 Dr niOre.
L" t.~ to 116 •• X .. Iwt.
Tb'" ahoTe tahl~ an- thD8e lUiopled by Hro wn and ShllrpIl.
a nd. with either .ystem, ..heeiA of thlll ....me plteh c u t with
t h_ cu t te .. are lnt",rd""nOtt'llLbl~ Tht.e eattees are adapted
to cut from a pinion 01 12 teeth to a n.e~. and af'<'l all n u m
bered Dr lettered ..... the C&IM'! rnay be. Th'" pJuh and the
u um be .... of teeth lor whic h a eutter hi adapted are alll(l
muted oo.......,h.
Equival ent Diamet ral and Oircular PiteheB.
olio.. -_<t 1D;I
.. 1I... I ta.b ~
ol .....,lar
tbe dlametnr.l pl te _ W1tb t be
p!lOboo.. . No. I able ell..-. the c1tetl1u pl loo_ wltb
:' " d ln, dia_t..l pI\<bN.
T ABLII No, I " Tu u N o, 2

u....,..,.."
•• In:-f"TriL ,.
I ]
j~ !j
I.
!'
ii£ h
O·
: ij ~~
I.
10'A
~.
!! I.
, ---r,;;-
l "li ll
1-
0 0
--
0
-,;;: ---•
'262 2 1"611 I U IlO
'I 1'8116
I "ie
If "224 11 1' 616 II 3"861
,:1 ese "

I '21i1 '196 II 1'196 I 4'1811
I't42
~ It
It ,....
1'988 U Hil0
.
'171i
•'I -zes
-,,,
""
11141 ' 11il
'143
'181
In
II
2'186
2'286
I
/0
J,I ....
6'027
li'li8li
,•• -w.'"~ "" ' /0 2"3U 7"181

' 112 'I 2"618 8'8 78
10
,• ""
"
.
"U ll
... .
'8n
'I U
-rcs
I!I I I,'
-DO'
'" ,'"
-."
11
2il4 6
2"7U
2'1l57
8"1'2
/0
h
~
I
10"061
I 2'5U
I IH Ii~
2fi'1U
11
13 11>\
." II 3'351 liO"2U
S PUI< W H Il KL~ .
DiametraJ Pl t.eh.-Table 8 howi n~ Depth of Hpau

and Thi ck ness or Tooth in pur Wh eels.
I'u" h ul boo
"",,",.
--
_ .
IM ploh ...
0.:., II>
---- - - -
Tbk ll:,,_
cI T"",t.b
••
t"Itch U ....
1 1' Il.< h 01
01"""'.
o..~ ...
....,.
'" T""t.b.
boo ~ I"
t"I"' h LlI>..
- - - ---- ---
..
Thlcll: ,,_
I, I~ I~ I~
•., \ ·018
· 1l ~8
· 7l! ~
-ese
It
If
· 180
· 164
· 131
· H2
"., .eea .1128
.,,,
.sn
If · lS~
.reo
0,"
..,
· ; 84 · u87
•
,"•
· 711l
.eie
.fin
· 411
·U8
·31lS
· SH
."""
ee
· IOJ
-cse
....
·" O
· 071l
.en
·0"
,•
7
•
,8~1l
·308
·270
· 2t O
,211 2
·224
·198
.us
, I li7
to
80
.. · 077
· 072
· 0117
· 060
,Olit
.ose
· O!,2
·Ot'
·OU
·08 9
10
11
· 216
.t ae ·US
" " .ors .0 33
To obtain pitch line diameters. c-See Table for I in.

circ u lllr pitc h . For an y other pItch lIlul tiply pitch diaw"ter
j( tV{'1l hy t.h.. t pi tc h .
'1'0 oiJl....in p itrJl d h..lllilte r for .. wh ool l\Ilovin fl; a fl;lv6II
nurnl",r of teeth ...n d pitch, U ><8 li La foll ow lnfl; ta ble of
doolnml eq u tvaleu t e of pitch line dl ...m tJlOfI<.
Rnle. -No, ot Te e th )( Equtvale nt = P itch dl Il.IU.
Lj;u1nlon L PI"' h ltqululo"l..
I, . I, . I,. I, .
'Oli9; I' -assr
I", '07911 I' '3919
'099li Ii 'U 17
l'
,, I.
' 1194
'1393 I'
II
'H 7li
'~5 70
'1591
' 11189 •'I 'S366
"7162
I ""l387 z '71158
I .,., so 'I '8763
I 'St U a 'll fiU
~PUIi W H E EL ~ , 38 7
CIrcular Pltch._Tuble Show'"t Depth of Space a" d

Thlcllmeu of Tooth In Spur and W orm Wheels.
P;",k. Deplh to ~ c..

1'IUcll.... ol
Tooth" Pite~
"_ n. "dded
101'.0.
iD Wbood U .... to o b l " a 0. 0.
ID. I D. ID. ID.

2 1·3732 1 1·2732
II 1·2016 .1>15 H I4 1
Ij 1-0299 ·75 -95049
·!-I.... I ·R754
II
II
Ij
·8510
·7724
"""
-625
·5625
-7958
" 162
I -6<66 .s ·6j66
-4375 ·557
I
I
<lOIl7
·5 15 ·37 5
, ·4115
II ·472 -3437 ·4:177
I ·429 1 ·3 125 ·3979
{. ·3862 -2812 ·358 1
I ·3433 ·25 ·3 183
,. ·3003 ·2187 -Z785
t -2575 ·IR75 ·2387
·2 146 ·1562 - 19..~9
," -17 16 I ·125 -1591
• · 12R7 .Q937 ·1 194
~
I .oss -<l625 -0796
• ...29 ·0312 -0398

38.
Module Pltcb.
(Th .. ,l,rlrl.. nrl "m o f th e T ooth i ~ ,ft aU CA.ieS t he ......
a~ tt... Modu.I •. ,)
-r- r-t
Mod ul"_ Cito n lar P;,~h

II Tol .lll ";~hI
",I Too'!>,
I C<>l'Tellpond ln.
B,,~h.h
Ml m. M' m. M/ ", . Di.molnea l
I ~ , \c l>.
·5 \· 57 ) -08 50·RHO
1 3 · 14 2· 16 25'400
1·25 3· 93 2,7 20 ·3 20
1·5 4·7 1 3·23 16·9:J::1
1·75 5·5 3·77 14·514
' ·0 6·28 4·31 12,700
2·25
' ·5
. 7 ·07
7 ·86
4·85
s.•
1!'Z!l8
10·160
2 ·75 8·63 5·93 s.aae
3·0 9·42 6..4,1 8' 466
3 ·25 10 ·2 7·0 7 ·8 1
3,' Il ·O '·55 '·257
3·75 ll ·77 ' ,09 6·n3
"0 ) 2·57 g '63 6 ·350
,.,
4· 25 13· 35
IH 4
9' 17
9·'1
5 ·70R
5,64"
4·75 14 ·92 10 ·24 5 ·347
5,0 15,7 1 10·78 . 5·080
5·25 16 ,49 11·33 4-1\38
5·5 1" 28 11 ·86 4 ·6 18
'·0 18-1:16 12 ·94 4 ·2;13
',5 :W·4 1 14·02 3 ·90 7
7·0 22· 0 15· \ 3 ·628
'·0 25 , 14 17·26 3- 175
',0 28·27 Hi·4 ! 2·822
10·0 :J1·4 1 21 ·5 7 2·540
11·0 34 ·56 23·72 2,309
12·0 37 -7 25 -88 H17
- - --
SPOt< WIl""1. ~. 389
TlolUh, uf I'heh L in .. and O llr"i,lf' nillmeten to r

Cut Ccnrs of !-ill. Pitc h.
Ii" of I P; '~ b O u ..Hle N o . of P;'cll

- --
Outsld.
T..,b. D;,,
I Di • . T<;<th. Di• . ",.
- 10 1·592 1·910 38
- 6·043 G·3H6
1·7.:0 1 a-ces as 6 ·207 6 ·525
"I
12 1·910 2·228 40 6·36(; 6·684
13
14
2·069
2 ·2 28
2,387
2· 546
I 4142 6·525
6·684
6 ·84 3
7,003
15 2·387 2·706 43 th~4:i 7' 16 2
16
17
2 ·546
2·706
2·865
3·024
I 45 44 7·003
7,162
7·32 1
7,480
15 2·865 3 ·1.'l :4 46 7·321 7·639
l' 3·024 3 <l42 47 7 ·480 7·798
2Q
21
3 ·1a3
3·342
. 3·501
3·6(,0
, .,
46 7 ·639
'·798
'·958
8·117
3·820 7 ·958 fl·276
"23 3 ·50 1
366Q 3·979
50
51 8,117 8·435
24 3·820 4· 138 sa 8·276 8 ·594
25
26
3·979
40138
4·297
4·4 5f' I 53
54
8,435
ts·594
8· 753
8 ·912
27
26
4·297
-4-456
4·61 5
4·775 I 55
56
8·753
8·912
9·072
9· 231
2Q
30
'1
4·61 5
4·775
4 ·934
4·9 :14
5·093
5·252
I sa 57
ss
9·027
9 ·231
9·39(\
9·390
9·54 9
9·708
32
aa
5·093 5·41 1 I 60 9·549
9·708
9 ·86 7
10·02B
5 '2 52 5· 570
"
34
35
5·4 11
5·570
5 ·7 29
5·889 I 6263 9 ·867
10 ·026
10· 186
10·345
36 5 ·729 6·0H 64 10 · 186 I O , 50~
>7 5·889 6·207 I 65 10·345 l('I ·M:'
-
390 S P UR W IIKBLS .
T lIbl~ g f Pitch LID. an d OUh,ld., l>ia m et e n fo r

Cu t G ea rs of \ in. Pl tch-o"I"II...J .
,.. Pitetl ~ No. 01 l'i l<~

rn•.
---
O uu.,d<
t)i-.
.
T... t"-
..
T~I b. Pn OIlUid.
67
10·504
10 -663
10·822
10·981 95
14 ·96(}
15,119
1 5 ·Z7~
15-431:'
I•
ee I 10-822 11·1-11 96 IS·271l I 15 ·597
10· 931 II <JQO 97 IS ·4:l8 15·756
"
70 11 ·141 11-459 98
99
1 5 ·5~7
15-756
15·9 15
16 ,074
71 1) ·300 11-6 18
72 11 -459 11·777 100 15 ,9 15 16·233
73 11·6 18 11-936 101 16 ·07 4 16 ·392
74 11·777 12-Q95 102 16·233 16 ·55 2
75 11 ·936 12 ·255 103 16,392 16 ·711
76 12 ·095 12 ·414 10< 16·552 16 ·870
77 12·255 12·573 105 16 ·71 1 17 -029
78 12 ·414 12 ·732 106 16 ·870 17-188
79 12 ·573 12 ·891 107 17 ·029 17 ·347
eo 12·732 13 ·050 106 t H &! 17 ·501
ar 12-89 1 13·209 109 17 ·347 17_
...
aa 17 ·507 17 ·825
8:1
13 ·0 50
13·209
13 ·36 9
13·369
13 ·528
13.(;87
"'
I II
112
17·ti6l)
17·825
17 ·934
18 ,143
6S 13 ·528 13 -846 113 17,984 18 ·302
13 'AA'] 14·005 II . 18'143 18 ,461
87 13 ,846 J<H64 115 1l:1·302 18-621
8S l 4-(lOS 14 ·324 I 116 18 ·46 1 18 ·780
1<_ I
ss 14 · 1604 14·483 117 18·621 18 ·9:\9
90 14 ·324 14-642 118 18 ·7!IO 19 .w8
91 14 ·4S3 1401101 119 18·939 19·257
\Y.Z 14-642 120 19-098 1941 6
P.1 j 1.801 15 '11 9
I, I
I
SPUR WRI!1!L.!i . .19 1
Ta b l~ of I'lll'h t.tnc and O ulsi d .. U iam.. tt! r" fo r

Cut Ge lu;,,, of 1 In . P itch.
No. o f Pil Cb Ou l !iid e No. of I P; tch Ou .<id .

T ..,th. Via . D;a. Tee t h . I Di •. VLa.
10
II
12
3-lR3
3·501
::H~20 I
3 ·8 20
4 ·138
4 ·456
'" I
39
<0
12·09 5
12·414
12 ·732
12 ·73 2
13·05U
13';1(;!l
l'
14
4-\ :l8
4·456
4 ·775
5 ·09 3
H
42
13 ·050
13<169
13,(>87
14·00 5
15 4·775 5·411 4;-1 I:H;il7 14<:124
16 5·093 5· 72 9 44 14·005 14·642
17 5 ·411 6 ·04 8 45 1<1·324 14 ·96 0
l'
I'
2<J
21
22
5 ·72 9
6·04S
6·366
6 ·684
7·00 3
6·3 66
6·6$4
H lO3
7·32 1
7 ·6:N
....
.,
.6
50
14·642
14·960
15 ·278
15· 597
15·9 15
15·27 S
15 ·597
15 ,9 15
16 ·233
16 ·552
,.
23 7·321
7·639
7 '95:~
8· 276
51
52 I
16·233
11, ·552
16· 870
17 · 18S
25 7 ·958 8 ·594 53 16 ·870 17·507
26
27
8· 276
8·594
8 ·9 12
9 ·:!:J1
5.
55
I 17' [1'l8
17·507
17 ·825
IS· 143
28 8·9 12 9·549 se 17' S25 1!>-461
29 9·231 9 ·867 57 18 · 143 18·7HO
30 9· 549 10 ·186 sa llH 6 1 1 9·0m~
31 9 ·867 10·504 59 18 ·7f!0 190416

32
33
10· 186
10·504
10·822
11·14 1
I 606 1 19 ·091;
19·416
19·735
20:053
34 10·8 22 11·459 , ea 19·735 20·37 1
35
36
11· 14 1
11' 45!'!
11·777
12 ·095 ,.
63 20 ·05 3
20· 37 1
20 ·690
21·00$
37 11·77 7 12 ·414 I 65 20 ·690 21 ·326
-- I I I
- 392 ,. PU N W H I!:EL S.
Taol.. u f I' U" h Line ana Outside Dlamelen for

C ut Gear s of I i n . I'ltch-,onl", ,,. d.
iI
N• • I Pitc h Ouhide N o. of Pitch Outside
T"' lb.
I Di a.
I
D ia . T . <lb . Db , D, •.
66 2 1·008 2 1·644 94 29·920 ! 30·557

67 21· 326 2 1·963 95 :~O·2 39 I 30 ·87 5
6R 2 1·644 22·28 1 96 :W-S57 31·193
69 ar-esa 22 ·59 9 97 30·875 3 1·5 12
70 22-281 22 ·918 98 31 ·193 ;11 ·l\3Q
71 22 ,599 23·236 99 31-512 32,148
72 22·9 18 23 ·55 4 100 3 1·830 3H67
73 23 ·236 2;1 ·873 101 3H 48 32·785
3.1· 103
"75 23 ·554
23·873
24 · 19 1
24·509
102
103
320467
32·78 5 33 ·422
76 24 ·191 24·827 10< 33 '1 03 33 ·7 40
77 24·509 25· 1<46 l OS 33 ·422 34·058
78 24 ·827 25 ·464 106 33·740 34·376
79 25, 146 25 ,782 107 34 ·058 34·695
80 25·464 26·101 108 34·376 35·0 13
81 25·762 26 ·4 19 10' 34 ·695 35·33 1
R2 26·10 1 26·737 110 35 ·0 13 35 ·650
83 26-4-19 27·056 III 35·331 35·96l'I
84 26·737 27 ·374 uz 35·650 36·286
ss 27·056 27 ·692 113 35·968 36·605
86 27·37 4 28·010 II' 36·2A6 36·923
87 27 ·692 28·329 liS 36·60 5 37·24 1
86 28·010 28 ·647 116 36·923 37·560
89 28·329 28·96 5 117 37·24 1 3Hl78
90 28·647 29· 284 l iS 37·560 3!:l· 196
91 28'965 29·602 II' 37·878 38·5 15
92 29,28,; 29·920 12. 38·196 ' 38·S33
93 29·602 30 ,239
- - I
s .. t' W WHltI<L!> 3113
Speeds of T oo t hed Whoo18.- Th e loUowlu lC may II)
ta l..m ll.e ~ h 6 Rreat&lt MpeedM a t w h ich t he dill 6r UI1 t d llflCrip.
tlOll80t toot/led wh "",le may be ~te lr run, Th e Mpeed 'I'
t b 8t a t t h e pik' h e teete, in tee t per minute. I n bevel w heel..
.......
t he pJtl'h drde I.. taken as t hat .. t ti,.. l.... ~ .... t d lam et",r Gf
th e wnee tr-.
, .... ... .. ID
Ol d l1la ry \·_ t.-lron ...be..l .. I,'"
H.,l l... l " 'heel 'l ..•...............••_
~ l,) rt l"' .hee b. .•••............•• .•..
\[ at' hlne .n,o u ld .-d ea..l· lron ..-hN!!ll .. ' ,000
!oluhln •. m oal rlfOd ..t_1 whee l..
MA<:hln e r .h l . .
. .
',"
. s, ..,
Re lattn P it-eb e s o f Teeth of Equal Stren gtb ror

DUrer ent Materlals
a..1.Uve
Material. Pitch.
CaKl. lron
Wroultht·lroo
.
,
.
'<
. ce
S tee l . 0"
\ Vood . I"
Gun m e ta! __. , .. I '~
Strength or Wh eel Tee th.- Many rules ....I! p;lveo tor

the ..tronl{th of " pur whool t., eth, »eme ba..ed on the
all>\'Unptl on t ha t th e load ma y (10111e on one co rner, a mi thu ..
fracture &/, 1(,...., off d lllll:0ll llll y , a nr! ot hBI " t ha t It III 61'" nly
dlllt rih ute( aM'OOI>O th " point of the to oth li ke a load on the
end of & ..ant tlever, In the ease of roDlC h ly made C&lIUn l{8
a'ld lOOIIe ooalln ll:", t he &IlIlUlnptlon or a eomer loa d IIla y iH:'
delilra ble , hu t w it h m&Chlne~ut lCea" &od rIlCld bea ri n lf"
.neb &II arlO Dll ually met wit h in mll-In .1rI vln l{ wheel... the
assn m ptJoa of &11 eveD bearl n l{ ll.<TORII t.he w hole t...... of the
"' bee l _m il rn o ", ~D & ble.
Tn Dl&Ch ln ll tool prlLCtloe t he fo nnula evolved from ... *,x.
~u.iv " IMlriM of teaul by Mr. WU t!"lld Le....-tlo III ~pt Nlll&
One or th.. mOllt r elia b le.
:J9 4
Lewin I'ormnla (or Strength of W heel Teeth.

\\o'ork in ll: lQfl.d onon e too t h = S x J' ILeh " 1"_ x v
:-0. of tetoth .,
,
Tabl " for y ll"actor ot 1;lr.,nj{thl,
""'" ra U is .. 17 18 19
,
No. o r t<!eth..
...
'" ..""
1170 117'
....
es
117'
ss
1177
" '"
"" -oe
.. "" as
.,'..." .,',""'" .
11011 "00 " 00 " 01 ' 10 7
,
No. ot teel h., rs 100
"
-uu
00
' 11:! '"
' 114 '118 ' 118
'"0
-reo
Table for S (Allo wabl., SU'~~
V..loel tJ lD
tee t p er
m in ute .. _ 100 800 IlOO r.eco I , Em 2,400
W o ..e n ft",b.
roil Pin ion 4.750 ciso iJ,lJili 2,750 2,llOO I,IDJ r.sso 1,100
C'...... t-t rcn ... 8,000 6, 000 4,fOO 4,(0) aooo
2,400 2,0:10 1,700
Stool ... 111.000 15..000 12.(U ) 10,IUl 7,!lOO 6 ,000 1i,000 4,300
~ OTIt .I'i tc h -l.'ircular Pi tch . I'ILOI' - W id t h of tcetb In
tne b e...
Bro wn &: Sharpe g ive t h e followlll jl; :
Ol" ' Mt, loooI Hr
I' r
klo K
" r •.
.."
til· ,......
~· Id,b 01
,,
lO't. .b . P ... .." ••
1400 lhs. 4&llbl!. U in.

, \t!:.!O "
2470 " "'" ..
7.1lJ " ' h ..
U "
T ll.ble o( B oue P owers o( Cut PinIOU8.- 1;illce wurre o
l .e wl ll p u hll ~I II'(1 hl~ ..ll1l1&b le form u l... for I\n d lnJl: th "
IItren ll:th ot jl;t'ftriD,u:, ...-itb meaIl8 for Ia kl n,u: &<'COunt of
I tlftl,U reoJ other than the dlmeD8ion8 o f t he e.."th, th e re
liabili t y a nd value of IiliI eql1&tlo n8 have been",.. w"U ee ra b
liAtuol. T he tebl. . OU Jl&jI;'Il$ T.o.3'i :l were ca.lculaJo.d from
th_ for mul/e b:r M r. Joh u 1'"ll<'h ,ol Lockport, U.~A., and
contributed by him to the A "ltrlCan Mae hi n t.t. Jlor eaeh
plLeh a ..kith of f&ceot av&1l.jle proportion wu ..elected, and
these d illleUllioD8 &M8il{lllld to pin ion .. of VariOWl num bel" ot
tee t h. The ho"", pDwel'll of meee pin loDA. at llpeed~ vllryi u jl;
1....01 100 to l,tO) reeolu rt cn.. pe r m ln n te, were then ul.
u lated. Jlrorn thill table the proper jI;"'" for tnon..mi tti n jl;
¥UiOD II powers a t variOWl ..~ .. <"a D be ... teeeed, wlth . 0
:Jg:u rl n ll:. .. ..ce pt t.n 100II1,.. ea.- a Utll,.. m .. n lal i'l ter po latlo n.
395
PRACTICAL TESTING of
DYNAMOS and MOTORS
By CHA RLES F. SM ITH,
WI..Sc., A .M./nst.C.E., M.ln.s~.E.E.
CONTA INS CH AP TERS ON
General Purpose of Tests.

Measureme nt of Arma ture and Field Resis
tan ces.
Produc tion of Electromotive Force in a
Dyn am o.
The Magnetic Circuit.
Armature Reac tions .
Shunt Wound Dy namo
Series Dynamo.
Compound Dynamo.
Effect of Curren t in the Motor . Armat ure.
Efficiency Tests of a Motor.
Efficiency Tests of a Dynamo.
Miscellaneous Tests.
Motor Generators and Boosters.
S cientific Publishing Company,

.0 Halton Street, Rochdale Road, Manchester ,.
3" lIor•• Power. o f
Calculated from
0/.ai'oRmllOOR"~ I '50 R.-=GI oo Revs

o~ ~6 g,; .. a 0.: ..;~ g,; ~:::: p.; ...;::;;
z ::c~:;X""ti
Po. Po
til10t
p., p.,
A 14 117 ' 981 149

.l:! • 16 20- 50 176 268;
~ 23 1\
268 j
n~ ~
..
636 32S 80S
340
37010n
~ ~ 18 23 ·04 201 302! 303 604 1 363 905 4031208
.; '" 20 25 ·57 224 335 3.1/>' 670 395 1004 4331340
U(.., 2228·40250372 357 "'.. 425111 .. 460 1488
• 24, I~ · &t 270 402 3SO 8()f .f461202 4841608
.... 26 133 ' 18 288 435 "02 870 .eR 1310 5091740
1
.d
~ e 14
16
15 . 73
17.95:
104 206 170 412 207 618
123 235 193 470 235 705
I·n 264 2~5 S28 2601792
235 82 4
270 9«)
tiw ~a 18
20
20 - 16
22 ·36 158 ~ 584 285 877
2961056
320 1168
~_ 2 i: i::g : ~~ ~~l l ~8 ~~~ ~~g l l:~ ~: :::
... 26 29.02~ 380I~I~~~ 3801~
.d
.:.t •14
16
13'''1
15 · 38
68 177 110
80 20 11 127:
354 140 529
402 160 604
160 708
184 804
it ~ 18 1' · 28 93 226 14~· 452 ISO' 678 205 904
.", 20 19 -" 106 1 2 5 4 1163 508 198!1827
763 2251016
do.. 22 21 ·0 11': 2761 17 552212 240 1104
24 22·98, 13() 30111891 602 224 902 252,1204
26 24 ·84 138 325 200 650 232: 977 263\1300
0')
_ f----- -----. j l --I

.
~ ~
14
16
11 -23
12 ·81
46
52
147
168
68
80
1
294 87
~ 102
4411'118
503
03 588
672
0; i 18 14·40 58 189 91 3781 114 565 132 756
..:'" 20 15 · 98 6.& 210 101 420 126 628 143!W)
i:i:::.. 22 17·57 70 230 110 460, 136 689 153 920
• ~ 124 19 · 15 76 255 118 570 145' 752 1631020
=- 76 20 ·74 83 272, 126 544 155 813 1741036
I I I I
Cast Iron Cut Pinions, ~9 7
Wilfred Lewis's Formula e I
250Rev. 300 ReV!! 350 Rev9 400 Rev91450 Rev.: 500 ,R""~
-"I"""1.,, ~. ." "": I
X 10< ~ ~ ! ~ ~
_~ __Il. _ 1j""' "-;:;r:;;1-"-:;
I---=:: _-_ ~~ -i-~--~
:IJ: It Il ~ lii~ :e: ~ ~
365 1075375 11412J387 11644399 1888 409 12115,417 2350
395:, 1340418 1610432 18~5444 21441452 2412'468 2680
430,1506452 11810,470 ,21 48512416500 2710
465 1669 485 20081503 2340525 2680 I
./,95 1855 515 22~535 2600560 2976
517 2404560 2810 t 1
5402166555 i2620j
- 12002535
-f- - -:C - -I-
2601027273 1236290 1407295 11648305 18503152054
29011173305 1141°'1320 '1641 330 18803402110:350 2346
3181317335 1584345 11841360 2112365 i2370i375 2634
341146035R 1754370 2040 385 2336390 2630395 2920
365 1600380 1924 390 2245405 25681410 1'28801
28811752400 121061"10 '2450 420
402 1897420 2280430 2657
12808 I
1
178 882190 11058 200
2001 1005215 12081225
''~
1 4 6'2
::-1 14 1 612151::12-'2-+'7-"
~' 235 1608240 181° 1245 2010
222 112723711356,246 11580257 1808264 :2030 270 225./,
2<, 1258 254 1526 254
2571377270 16541280
1778275
19 268
20322862280 288 12538
1298 '24803102754
2701500285 1804295 ;~ 1 ,300 2408310 2700;
28311624298 1954307 12273 3 12 2600320 1'29301
12208
1l~1 ~~~~
132
1130
139 106~1148 1171
124 1882 1 1.oza!: - I: t :I: : i146
1344 158 15101163
. ;
1676
144 94 15211130162 1317 168 1512,173 11690179 1188.
156 1044 164 125~174 '1462 180 1680 186 1880 190 2088
1154 11840 194 2070200
167 11471 76 1378,185 11605,190 2394
1771251 187 1504195 17~i,199 2040204 22501212 2502
18711355196 116261205 118971208 12 17(),12 12 1244°1219 j2710
Horse Power, o'
Calculated from
I~~
1100 Revs 1200 Revs 300 Revs 400 ReV"!
; ~
. ~~' ~. ~~.... ~- .I: · ....~ ~. --
~~ ,._.~
~ .~ ~
ito :Ii :It ~::; :Ii ~ ~l;;

I"' '"' 1:Ii ::.. ~::; :rl
- 1 -- - ---" - -
e, l;;
~ I
:;~
".- l'l'
488 67 733 74 977
~~
14
15
9 · 33 35
10·00 38
10·66 42
'" 54
261 59
279
523 73 1785 80 1047
63 , 553 76 837 86 Il17
, .a0 17 11·33 45 296 67 593; 80 1 890 90 1I 87
~a:; 12,00, 48 314 71 628 84 943 94 1257
_.,
O . 19
_u 20
12.66 1 51
13 · 33 53
331 75
349 78
663
698
88 995 98 ,1327
92 1047101 '1396
-- - - - - -- I - - - - ----,-
o.
'"
~.
~ .
I
0
I'
15
7 ·00 16
7·5 I 18
183 26 366 33 549 38
196 281 392 35i, 589 41
733
785
~ ~ ~~ ~:go ~~I ~g~ i ~~t :~~, ~gl l ~;i:~ ~~
p.;~ 18 9·00 22j 2351341 471! 421 707i 48 942
ci ..: I
9 ·5 231 2481 361 497 45 . 746; 50 995
19
,",, 0 ~~I~ 261 38i 523 46' 7851~ 1047
~~ 14 1 4·66 5 j 122 91 244 12t 15 488

~;'" 15 5 .001 6 j 130 101 261 131 392 16 1 523
..:. r::
16 5· 33 71 139 li t 279 IS) 41 17 558
I ~ 17 5 ·661 7 148 121 296 16 445 171 593
c,;a: 18 6 -00 j 8 157 13j 3 14 17 471 lSi 628
ci..: 19 6.331 81 165 141 33 1 18 497 191 663
..-,13 20
__,_ -',
6 ·66 9 174 15 349 19
---- - - --- - -
I
523 21t 698
I' 3·5 2 91 4 182, 5 274 61 365

15 3 ·75 21 98, 41 196, 6 294 7 392
16 4·00 2t 104' 5 209· 61 314 71 419
17 4·25 3 111 5 222 61 333 8 445
18 4· 5 I 3j 117 5l 235 7! 353 Sa 471
19 4 -75' 31 124 Sf 248 711 373 497
20 5'0t 3i 130 6 1 262 SI392 91
9i 52:-1
1 1
Out Iron cue Pinion.
Wilfrid Lew!"', F or m ulae) '"
1 1-'
15~ Re~ : R~: 17:X R~; '::r R~: : ~~: I 'x~I'":]

:c ti:::;~ :c "'t;
~
~.
~
t>.y
~
...
.
u.. ~t ~
1- -1- - - 1
8S 1463 88 1710 91 1960 9-4 22Oll, 96 2....
E
9 1 1568 9.f 1832 96 2093 99 2360 102 26 17,
1695 100 19M 102 2230 lOS 2510 lOS 12792
1790104 2077106 2375110 2670,111 2967 1
1885 108 ZZOOllO 25201 14 2835 115 '3 143
1990 111 2322 114 2655 119 2985
2{)94 115 24431 15 7785 120 3 140
-+- -+----r-
41 9 16 44 1099 ~~ I~ ~ 49 1465 50 1 !~8 53 18::12
44 98 1 47 1177 49 1374 51 1570 53 1764 55 1963
47,104 7 50 1256 52 1466 54 1872 56 1880 ' 57 2094
49'1112 53 1335 55 1577 57 17801' 59
5111 7
55 '14 13 57 1649 60 1880 6 1 2 120 62 2356
Zl'25 2000160
58 11492 60 17411 61 1990 , 63 22401 6 4 ,2487
52 124
~I~~ ~~ 1 832 ~ 20951~ 2352:~ 26 1 f
17 610
18 654
16
20
I 784
732 2U
21
&';5 20 97 6 21 1100 22 12211
915 22 1046 23 1179 24 1308'
1
20 1 69 21 ~7 23 976 24 1116 25 1396
1255 1
' 25
21: 741 22 M91 ' 24 11038 25 1186 26 \335 27 ,1483
"'; " 942 25 1099 28 ' 255 27 1415 281 510
Z3 25 994 26 1160 T1 1325 1 28 1492 29 165 7
,~ 872 28 1047 27 122'1" 1 396~1 1870 ~ ,,<5 1
~ 1781 '56
49(;1
,
8J 588 91'
'" '1 1839 'I
8M 10
730
1'85 'I 822 10
lOt 883 l Ot 98 1
I'"
'I ~
9
' 9j 628 10
10 667 10 1
I 733
77fl
IOi 837
111' 890
II 942 1111047
III 999 1 12 III Z
91 10i 706 1· II 824 111 94{l 12! 1060 121 1178
10 621 11 745 II I 870 12t 995 13 1120 13 1243
101 6S4 111 785 12 916 13 1047 13111178 13} 1309
I I I j 1
.00 SPU R W II KIU .S
Strength of Machine Cut Spur Ooarwg. - Til.......

"" lUuch dlvt'l'lIlty ot opinion fi'jol'"rdlllll: the l!lnmjl,"lh of
machlnEH::ut IIpur Il:""" r injl," w ben used In machine LOom thac
t h e lollowlol/i tah le I.... u~ted by Mr. T. R. Sh.. w &lI ~ving
n l1la bhl I"e'flultol. Speed a nd form of tooth lOre no t taken
Into alX'lOunt, th_ be lnll: delli t with by the Lewlll form ula..
and thOlle who wl8h to ItO inr.o reti nelllPntJI may IltMl
IJOth eonjoilltly , but II mUllt be ,,1... &1" born" In mind
t.h.t t~ drmgt" 0/ an1l' t .... i .. of g<'<1n tt17 U ddorrminro
/>y tM IIt ..m.ytA ol /Ju Ilmal1( lIt J"'n ic>o i .. tM 'rai... (A ]lj()
_ Jl!'ll', ,37!i I.
- -
Sugges ted We Pressures Per In ch of Width. Cu.
Iron. -Cue
..• "~ '" ""

"~ I.. Lbo.
10.
" 0 I 700
"0 1 800
••
<00 II ' 00
8
'00
800
1/
II
1000
1200
1400
Th e table oo low lll vtlll so me pr _ "u t ll.. rt"COr n,,,1fro m ..c l na l
praetloe :
Pressures on Wheel Teeth from Act ual Prac tice.

Cut Teet h.
- - -
-,..
,
Ij o. .;
s
1i
~.! "
1'; ... c
~~
-; "'0;;
> • •• • .t~~
- - -- -- - - - - -- -- -Lb- - Lb.-
ss
"8" " ,, 'I"
e
I
11
.'", . ,
1230 1008
228
'1
81
270
no '"
'"
'SO
.....,
H 8/ 1194
11 " 1 "' I
SO eas 1170 18 f2 :? '80
1911
._....
eo 310
88 50 a 193 12'ii
'I.
a ,
ie 1
I·
'I 800 800
880 1000
<0
80
1Ii50
" .
1320
Sl' UR W H KK L H. .0,
Dlametral P h eb e. for 1 5 ~ In volule a n d Cycloldal
C .... t· ...o.. Gee .. Tee th , per Inch Width or ,"'ace . rc ..
Con tInuouli Serv ice In O n e DlrectJon._" Machln
e t')' . ..
Based on Wilfred Lewis's constan ts for ~ and form o f

tooth . For o nlinary steel castinKS. halve tbe pile" for
corresponding load. or double the load for eorrespcndtng
pitch.
Po<o~.1T_U..
11-13 1 14-16 11-10 ! 21.25 126-14 1»-H
T_<l.. Teetlt.. TM1b. TMl b. T......
I :. •• ", "• ,• .,• ",•

-.
:::
eoc
51
:1• •o ..• ••o • :1
•
0
. .
.,•• •.. H ,.o.
"'"•,
••
I !' ,s ,,11 ,,~I H ..
'j
' j
• •' I
, ,~f
1000
"00
,~ ,, H
'~ I
,-
"00 • , ,11•
'
S' •• D O. Ta u ., 100 TO 200 FUT ,a 1I,.ll'n.
...
1 ' 00
~ "•• ", "• ,• ,,-' "•• ",• ",
"'" • U ••
. 00 0
:t •:1
OJ
.. • "
..
"'" ..
'j 0
"'" ,• ," il • •' 1 11'I

'.
'00
il
"'"
''''''
,".
"'"
• • ,• ~I il
• ,, ,,'. .
402 SPU R WHIl.IILS
Uiamdra l Pucnee for 15 ° tnvotute ami Cy d o lt lu l

Cast. Iron Gear Teeth, p er In ch W idth o f suce, for
Continuous Service in one I.H r ectlon.- C_ li Nued.
DU.. ,..,.Ul P'rTCII.
~ I
1' · 1' I4 .UI II1-ZO JI·25 :lIl-S4
_ _ _ T""'llL ]"_tl>., T_tI>. T"tI>. T.. lb.
""54
TMtb.
55 ·\3'
T.. tb
l~ _'
T""lb
lI.acl<.
--......
", :t "••
,~
"•s ..,. ..,,

S,... .D O' TIn.. JOO TO 31'0 f . n m M,nT>"
,
.. ••
.. u
11 ,. • ;1 ,
• ~:~ ", , ," ,• ,"• :1
•11
~
" ," ," ,,"
"" ... " ,
s
, • to,o. T .n•. "" ~,
... . .., ,. u....
.... .
• UD ~
, ",,
,•" ,, , ","• "••• I "•
.. .. I
,"
... I
'O .
" , , 1\'1
" , ," ",,
I ,"
'O. 'O. 'O.
--
'O.
'O.
'O.
'O. I 'O .
'O . 'O . 'O . I 'O .
to, ro
,":1
.
ra
,"
•"" ",
,"... I 1'I... I':... " .
, , ,• ••
..,,"
.•. .•• I ... ~l ,'1 ,'I
••
•
';,
I .. I ;, I
,
",
S"" U> o. T.~. 1800 .... t _ F..........
"=c_--.,"
"-..-l--'c_
",,,trn-;
:: I ~ I "
" - '-1- - '---'
'i '. :1• •• ,••
... I .._ •
'03
Gr lllnt 'l lnvol ute OdoDtograph. - T h".r~ ha ve hfofo n
luan1 m et.hod....nd lwItrumenUi devl,....J lor b.y1oj/;-ou t
... h..el teeth On the d raw i ul( board. Tll_ nltlt bod>l a re
called ·'ooolll.Ol(Tl\ph"," whtch \R a te rru derfved trow t w o
GnlI'k w01'dll ,,,,,,, nlnJl; .. a tooth - and .. to r1 tlO1Cri be.'· Of
th_ ...riOUIl odontograph... an llxrellen t one h' that oriKi·
hawd by 1I1r. (;eol')l.'ll B. Grant, 0 1 Ib oon , U.S.A .• and
puhlil,ht!d by him In hi" "TTeatlMe on , .....re, " l ro m whl~h
tho! 101l0..-luII: ill extl'>lcted;-
Th.. tooth eeleeted lUI the atandanl lor the I01'oluUl fonn
two aJI an,el", 0 1 obUqult1 ot Iii d ep:.• wbleb brinl[ll the hoo.o.o> li ne
..taoont -hlh of the plte h d i&met..r lro m the pitch li n", As

tbe t.M une mUllt alway. ~ drawn. It h.arlviMhle, to _ve
work . to loca te the eenteea 01 t b e appnll:lmat4> d ",olAr a l'l'll
upon t hat I1"A. It I.. ,,1>00 n~ thM the po intll 01 the
teet h "hall 00 roDolil'd 0 \'''' toa'l'llid lnt", fprt'noe.
Tet'th ""..- I'tl fan'lu lly drawn on a ..pry I. ~ .-..Ie. oee
qUllrt.., ptt('h. lririOIl: .. tooth 81n . In le ngtb, Th_ teeth
.....Nl ~M lo r Inteetereace hy I(lvl o p: them e pl..,.el otd a J
poIntA that ........Id rJ ... r tho! radial fla nk" of th", I! -Ioothf'/l
{lInin".
to. GR ANT'S O DO NTOGRAP H,
O ra nt'e Involute Odontogr-aph.
Dh l,). by th " Ill. ","t.a) Ihtl t lply by tho Oltenl.,

Pltd, . Pitch.
T... tb,
1'.,,.,
----
,~.
lIadh,.,
Ji'hlD.
11",11,,"
1"1.".
fu"ll"• . ll.ad!ll'
- - -
10 2"28 'eo '78 -as
II 2'~O '88 '76 'v
12 Hi 1 ee 'RO
"'SO
."
18
14
ie
10
2'62
2'12
2"82
2'92
\'09
\-22
I"S4
1'4a
'88
"
90
sa
..
.""
17 3'02 1'~8 se M
1. 3'}2 1'69 w
3"22 \ '79 1"03 '51
"sn 3"32 1'89
j'98
I.' '60
""
aa
S' 41
8"49
3 '~7
2'06
2"16
]'09
\ '11
}-18
'88
ee
eo
24 . S'64 2'2 i \ '16 71
.."'SO"
S'71 2"88
"26 3"78
3'85
2"42
250
\'18
1"20
"as28 S'92 2-59 '"

\ '25 ...,"
ass 2'S7
,,,
i -s
-aa
90
u
' "06
4"1S '"
2'85 ) "31
.••"
. -se
.,
420 2'93
"83
34
4"27
" 33
S"OI
8S'1.'6
} 'S4
1'36
1-38
"se ' "39

, -45 8'23
" 311
] -41
'.1
\'03
31-400 "20 I 'S4

41- 45 4"63 \-48
46-51 5"06 \- 61
52-60
61-70
6'H
tH:i2 ,.,
\ '113
71- 90 7-72 2..U

91-120 9 -18 S'11
121-180 I S'S8 4"26
181-36 0 21"62 6'8 ~
~ PUR W " E Il L~" 4115
Ti llm th".rro\",C "euLe ".. on t h e btl"" Ii""

wur" delll r m hwd
by ee poete t e a ll!, and tooth c urves o btained Ihat wo u ld
"" r"" w it h the tr ue jm'olule up to th" limit point, a nd IItlll
r lO;lll.r th.. co rrected point. The odo n toJ;l:raph table lI . record
of th_ ",d U. whld, are believed to be &8 lI .... r l1 correct &Ij
th.. J(iven l'OudltloDJI wlll perm iL It w"'"fo u nd that ... Jlftra t<>
cUry"" ......... reqll~ for face and flank np to :t8 teeth, ou t
that One eune would an .....r for I_th bejoud. It WIl.6
(ou od lleceMNlry to devlll6 a !It'paZ'ate method for dn.wlu ll
t be ......11. tooth.
To draw the .bool tooth lay olf the plu-h, add lllld u w,
root, a nd e1earan<'>e lin"", and ..pace th.. ptteh li ne (01"
th .. teeth, lUI III 1"1~ 1. Draw the l . - Une ni h of the
plt('h dlam"t..r In1Oid.. the pitch line. Take th .. tAhular lau
radlu .. on til .. dJvi,I"",, &ft.o!r mul tivJrl lll/.' ee dl.ldlnll: It ....
required by the tabl ... and dra w in all the 1_ from thO'
pik h line to t h.. addendum Hne (rom eenteee 011 the buoo
line. Set the divider!! to tho! tabu w fla nk tadlu ... and d mw
in al l the I1anlr... from th" piteh line to t he I_ line. Dmw
RtJ'lliJo(h t tadb.l l1anke lrom tb" ba>oe lin e to the root lin e, lUld
roun d thmu in to the elee.mDce lin e . For the hick tooth.
d ra w tbe IIldM of the tooth. Fi~ . I , ILII8lmijoCht IIn .... indlned
to we line o r e<lntl'lllll at ILl' anltle of Hi deg, ~me peo ple
make t hli, 14~ dllll:. Dra w the cuter huH. oz, b. of tho tnee,
on e-q \lAr f~r or th" whole length of the tooth, with Il nadlu ..
of 2' 10 tn. dl"lrlNJ by the dillmetrll.l pi tc h, or "(f1IIl. multtplied
by the d rc ull.r I,II.("h . a nd rrou, a centre a u t b.. ...I....h lin {\.
Brown and Sharpe'. Method of Drawing Involute
T e et h.- 'f h e bM II mr cJe i ~ tuad e -Utlll 01 t he' d i ll. "' ~ t.. r 01
t he pitch c lr d e, lUlll the m d lu 8 ol the tooth c u rv e l>I eq ual
on e-fourth t.he tadlu " of the pitch ctrele,
Wheel ArDlB . -'fh" ..h apt18 ot th.. arm e of ",h""I" ..re
8"t tl "d more loy (·oo ....' nl ..nee 01 Illlln ul....tu r e t hllll by n.ny
hard ....tul. fn..t m il'!\. The 8trl\n l(t:h ill ItOlnUfIl.Uy much In
exeell'l o f that of the f,I·cth. In order to a["",rb vlbratton.
The MllI ll are of T or H. or a ..(..,Uonll. t.he latt..r oolnll:
chl,' fly uJlO'd on oonn jtl.\ If"ftnl. T and +
are ." Ul.'lored
""}IOt ly In pnU..m wheel8, and H in thcee nllwe by u,ac hm e,
whil e t he lli m pl~ diM' Is reee rved for many wheel .. of "",al l
diaml't..r.
Gears with H. and Oval section Arm. (:ie. F1K_ l!
~n d 3.j
W '" S > pilch Y "
G = I'
II'
t~l~
c :=
II = r c
K - I e
~ I'
U "" C • t in. per foot in
IolOjtt h Q
R
,c
M", lihor"
P = t bore + h in .
=
= 1c
I
~ U.&I sec tion.,
'""
T
.
M : .
.--".-'
Bore I :
-i
Fill , 2 - Gear w h~1l 1 wi t h II .. rlll ~ .
w_
I
VVLr r . A
R',
Rawhide Gears.
We "no Indehted to MellfU1l. Imv ld Bro~1l a n d So n.. Ltd.
lo r the Jollow ln Ft Inf orma t ion On ....w h ld e ltMrB. I t i8
ImpolUlible to I{("t enuee n olaelMHll_ w ll,h t ..."O me tal
Io{e arll ~orlctnlC toll:ethl"il". ho....e ..-er a.<:cu.... t""ly u,_ may be
cut, W he n thill .. d...ureC!. It ill betlel' to u..e thOOlt' mad .. ot
...whlde.
Ad vantages of Ra whid e PinionJI.--{l j Sile nt a od
..mccth runnlnp;. 1:1, Hedu<'ed rrktlon. lSI T hey require
p....,ti=Uy no lubrl""'tlou.. (41 A I<JI"'Clally valu able t~tu.re
of thill malcorialI.. il.>l elAIJt.lcity. enabUnp:; It to adapt l tee lf
1;1) vlll')'llIp; ..t .... ln" and condition,," (ID Be ln IC , of 1Ill('.......lty.
m&<"hlne ..ot., thpy en"ure atTUl'1L!'J' In worki np:;. (6) Th ey
w ill RlMh .... ith whetW! made of a like. or of any otbpr
uosterial. If cut to IJUiL As a /(.. n",ral ro l.. In a ""'" ot
two ","_no. It I" only IUlC_ary to u se on e of rawhilie, In
which _ the f ..lIow_ wheel may be 0 1 a ny 01 the UIIUal
materials. m The li fe of a mf(aJ whoo l will beronsld ......bly
prolon~ II ulMlrl In conjunction w itb a p inion made or raw
h ide. tSI 'r1",lr Ktren!ltb a nd Mpaclly for t ranllm illiog
powe r a re Ilt It"",t equal to t hllt of C&IIt-lro n ..-1"",1... for ... hldi
th~, Illa y In n 'OIIt ca><e8 be exch&ol/:oo.
SiZeR Made. - Haw hltle wh.... ls ca o be m&.l1" of pr actlc·
a lly allY "Ise. They " re u sua lly lI,ad" 01 801I d raw h id e hh..nb
lip to a!Jod l :.!II In. dl .. me ~r ; .. bov" t hl" it I" uldal tOl
"''IIno m l,',,1 W'ouud ..) to h"ve " M ilt -Iron hod y w l t h a raw hide
ri m (th" I.. U.'r whole. or 10 eee men ee, ..ecordtn g to circu m
IIt" I"'''II). M._ no. Hn vld B r ow n ..nd So n .. Ltd . h"HI made
wuut. " re no do u bt ure IU l(ellt ra w h id e ",1" ....1" Ilw""u rlnll
aII'll In, ont8ld.. dlumeter x r un. fl\ e, ~
Shroud ing.c-J'neee pi nl ollIt. oolUIC bull t up f r oUl a
n u m be r of hld"I"y" ffI, t h e l" t ter. " Itlloujl;h c"Illlc'"nl.1<\ togetber
under 'UI "l[~iI'J.(l y po w.. rful pr....eu re , wo u ld be n"ble to
Mpl'tllld lIOOne r or luter. und ..r th" l"tt·r,,1 "tr.. I" t.hey " re
lIuhjected to when ..-ork ln /(,
In ord"r to l(UJt.r d "wUnllt, t hill . "II raw hide w h eel " ..he uld •
..-It.hcut excepucn , be f1tt 4lll. with ..ujteble m etal pl" I.,IOn
both ..Id,·.....nd In order to be t h oroul/:hly f' tTecll~e. 11,_
plAle fl fthould In "ll ~ be ea rried to the toll of t he teetb .
8ll it III "t rhe Mild" of thelatte.r ..-h"no th e ftu ppor t 1ft m OltI
""""....
If nOI tlO "hrouded, th" !Ret h Are a pl to I pread our ..... rd"
at the endft .. nd I~ t he ir true "ltalJt' "UN' ''ery lit tl e time.
and the oolu,,,,qullnt PArt lOR a! the hid.. la,...", c pe ne Injl;ft'8/l
to W-""'- lint .. nd oth"r del"lerlou" nlAu., r, thull to:> ndlnll to
amuth ..rli"r d....rroetion 01 un ..hroudeorl ,,1,,10011, ... ee m.
Jl8I""(i with the life of t1uit&.bl y shrou.ded onee. Compree>tl n/(
the hide blAnk m,,",ly by n' '-'''"'Isof rh e a or 8e~w,..t hol t&. In
-,be l'A!lIt~ ' ....i thodt ~<I .. plar.....l ..m nAt urw.J1y e.u .... t hp hid ..
to flP!'8&d at the rim.
41lH KAIV IIlU K GK A KS ,
A furtlwr nd van tall;lIof t he side plattlll Jl«H In their luc r.......·

lOll; to a oerl.$lo exteo t th e ril/;ldl ty or t he wheels, and
alfordinll; a IIrmlll' hold to t he k ey...
The two platM Dr shroud.~ IlI'fI l(ene""lIy con oec ted witb
e.u::h other a nd t he hide by s uitable, st,ronl( ly cou ntersu n ll
rivetA : the method o f shroudlng M~ Bro wn employ i~
.., followlI :
Gun metal piau.. rlllU:hin~ to the oute r cl l'l:u m fe l"llll.~ of
the pinion (vlx., to the top of the teethl, t h .. tePt h rut throu gb
the plfLtelIand the hi de on all pinions up to IIln. d ia me ter.
Over 91n. d iameter they ..h roud with h ee, .". eMt·lron eheoude.
a n d lit bUMh_ tbe ew e bel ug ('alit tojt..th"r, and for I~
pln ionll tbeee are equal to gnu metal or steel.
W idth of F aee. - I t ill _ nthll. In ord ..r to ene u re
no lllO'l l - . - . that t he sh ro udll o! the pillion......bUe t he
lAtter are in gear, IIhouJd not rom e In ro n tAet ,,"th th e
co u n!A'r wheel s. It ls therefore n ~ to malle t he hid e
JIIUt o f t he ""whid e pin ion ll1il/;htly ,,"der th&D t he metal
lello....... h eel... The u su al d earant'll IllJo1ll"ed III tram l in .
tc ~ In . on IlIlCh Bide.. The worklnl/; wtd th of fa.ot, Ilhou Jd be
not 1_ t han three timll8 the p itc h.
Substance Below the Root of the T eeth.- Th...r...
IUllllt he llu Rld"nt left of t MII In t heee plo lon8, f1l'lltly, on
accou n t of I'Itn.'nl/;th Illld r ijl:id lty , and "","ondly, to ho.'<e
enou,Ilh room for ri veting up eltklenUy, A pinion 8hould
hav e no t 1l'M tha n ~ teeth.
They Ilhou ld he kept lUI fr ee a8 pDMMlhl" from otl an d !lJ'eI'I.AII,
....h1ch a re a pt to hllv"" " detrhnon tal (,ned, 01. the h ide.
Th e plnlon~ "houln he !Iu ita.bly Jlrol,,~ted Irom e :lceKl< 01
grit, M m p, and hllllo t,
L o.brican ts,- No ord i na ry g rease , 011 , or t1uld lub ricant
mUllt be u sed with the l\ll plntone. A IIIIp;ht Ilppl lr.n Uon of a
lit tl e hlnc k ltl/lot or jen-nch chalk at t111~ lItl'lr t wlll oft en prove
Mn e tlclal a nd may be re peAted Inte r on I( fou nd nOCeAA&ry.
W he n workinl': In a very dry or e:J:ceedln lCly wa r m place,
t he 1I11l1lilest qlUlnt lty of llU'd or tallow IIllly be IIlbr....1 ....I th
t,he blAck l{'l ld. Very li ttle of th is s hou ld be u "' '';\ a t cue
time ; In !ad a 81l,llht 1I1DeaJ' lIIhoul d be quite lIuniclent.
Anoth••r'lOUd m....n8 of pr"""rvinll; t h e rawh ld<l teeth III to
a ppl y to them ('ICIl;&8lonaJ.ly, a fte r thoro u l/:h d ....nlllnJ!', ..
1101&11 quantity of ""111" lin&ef'd 011. Thill wllltend to leDp;t be n
t be lI!e of the pinion s and prevent JlO""lble IIhrtn~, wben
rnnnlnp; In a very dry atmOflpht'1'fI.
All and any lubrl....nta aho u ld be ufMld llparinll:ly and
appl ied. to the working 8UrW-- o f the teet h oo ly wtth a
hrullh. Th ey Mould n ot be a llowed to ecnect In an,
pu.antlty li t the bottom of tbe teeth.
A ~Ir tof ~ one of wh ich I. of ""whld... must run
noilllll"".ly or at I-...t praetleall, 80: _ y ondue nol!\ll, ell:
<:eeIllve WIlV Or otberunaati8!aetory ~....rll lnR ....sul t (where
kAW H I U Ii ljl!AII~ <0,
llot ",,"U,...,j,bl o" ....load or eXDeIlII of oi l, Jl:rl t ,1Iu n lJ, or heAt /.
w ill practi cal y .uwa,... be fou nd to I", , 1u~ to ei ther non .
conformity of th., tt'e t h, IllCk of ri i/: itt it y . h"u'~u"'te ehdtll
Imp&fec:t alhmm",n t... or incorrect lld jU8tmeil t of eenree,
8&fe W orking Load. ~Ac"or<:llnfl,: to W . H . Il iefendo rt.
n
In .. Amerlca.n "" ....h lnl " t. the ..afe worklnfl,: loa ,t for ..
rawh ide I,ill l"o of h lj( h",,,t jl:rade I" ISO Ib&. per Inc h of fare
(or lin. d~nh\r pi tch . O ther pitch es . a,y 10 direct prO'"
portion up to a nd Do l to ex~ a m axi m u m I.....d of 2.'I01bs.
P"" Inch of fare . A t a po in t n ot far above :$() lbo!. 10M. pe r
Inch of face the llurfM e of rawh kl.e be g illl' to CO"'~811,
t he re by p"rmltUnjl: a dis tort ion 01 t he rece c ur ve, r"'\1IUnj{
In f.!cl lon which. prod\1cinfl,: beat, will In time erystallhoe
the bid e. A tem po" lllt n n! of a ooo t 2:l5 d",p;. flAh . ls sumdent
to &erolllplish t hl .. cry'ltaIll8ation. CalculatlnK on the baMl"
of the po!'rml....lble load aho....e ruent lollM, il w m be fte .. n that
.. :!':"-,() lbIL load ror r fIMpon d & to "" rl ....ul ar o itch of approxl ·
ma.tely 1il6 ln . It dOO"," not lleee>lll&rlly !,,!1ow , h ow ever,
that It I.. u nd~l rab l .. to uee rawhlde jte&rll of .. tcN&ter pit ch
than l "6li ln . Sy m m e t ry of d ""lfl,: n, dia me ter of p inion,
selNlt ion of " t()('k I':ear patterns , e Le.• m ay m .. ke It prolltah le
and de..lr .....I.. to u .... a larJ(er pitc h. I' lnloDA aod fl,:'eJll"S of
2in. circular or I i dl""le'tllll pitch, and e ve n la'll: er, bave
bee n oonktr u rl., ·d , hu t In ~ueh e&.SI'tI t.h e tooth load i ~ unde r
:&.'iOl r Ineh of faN!. Or, in oth", Wl)/'dk. In lI"lni/: t il"
follo inJ( for ",ula : I" ebcald no t be j(r~ ..to'rth ..n !·f\,:;in.
t hat. l~, if t h .. c l....a l"r plteh IR 2 t n., use 1·1l.~ In .. el",.
H orse P ow er. - T he a ho ve deductlonR "'111 Iw fo und to
con fo r m do....ly t.o th", followlo,ll: [or ",u1l. :
I" '" CI."ull.r p lt.ch In In'''mll ;
I' n = P lt,·.h dll.meter;
~. ::: It ..." , of ll",a r In In eh_ ;
...
It .P. M. = n"volut.l onll per m InuI.8.
I' II ~~. " 11l'. M . '" II f'
.
1'lIe...' lllotu r" .. a~ (or pi nlow. of t he hllth""t I<!llld"of raw·
hid" ami h.villl<! IU' "ii-raw hi d e workhlK tece. With low..r
Il:I'ad.... ol m aU!ri ..l t he f""tor In t h.. de nomlna tor m lt" t M
Inen'l&..ed from Il5tJ to a bout 1,000. a nd 1OO1r.~:.imflll more.
where t he Dlnlon" a ni eenste u ct...d with hi Jl:h·"...d e bron ze
fta ullftl a t sM .... b",vlu~ teeth cut t h ro u Jl: h and formio ~ part
of t he wor kin l': f ......, t h tl &trenJl:th of t he pinion ... m be In
CJ'(".....,.t from 10 to :t5 per cent, """"rd ln A: to t he J(f&rle of
hron a.. u-' and t he thicl.:nellS of th " n"nll""_
Silent F a.b r oil Pinions..-A no te i':orth y d""llto 01 noise
I"",,,. ....U·lubrieatlnlt ~r whee l, made up of I. numbe r ·o f
11.1 " "' of <'01llI,r,,-.1 te xtile fabr ic, h .... """"" Introduced In
41" WORM GIlA R1N'(l,
Ame rica by the Gen"ra l Electric Co .• 01 N"w York , a nd io

Grea t Britain and the Colonies by The British Thomso n
H ous ton Co. Ltd., of Rugby. 10 making these pi nions the
follo win g pT0C<"9S is followed: Oil-lIOI\ked cotton fabric is
ccmpreeeed unde r several toIlS pressure and held in com·
p ,"",ion by lICrewed steel studs which are screwed into the
fabric and screwed and rivetted into su~taDtial steel
nang~. This rn ogh blaok is turned to proper diameter
and machined allover. and teeth generated on same,
thereby "nsuring absolute ac curacy of tooth form. It is
t h en again _ked in oil. emerging a finish.-d pinion which
is silent in open.tion. self-lubricating, strong. "Iutie. oil
and waterproof. With th~ pinions the U!!oe of lubricants
is DO t strictly necessary (though an occuionaJ dressing oj
graphite and vaseline is an advantage).... the oil which
was ab$lrbed by the fabric previous to compression and
aftl!'f being fmished, will keep the teeth of the pinion fairly
lu bricated fo r an indefinite leogth o f time. In runnin g
these gears the teeth take on .. me tallic coating, which
te nds to protect them from excessive wear. Owing t o the
flexi b ilt y of the fabric the pdon can adapt ittelf to sligbt
inaccuraclee in the driven gear, and be in g 'SOaked in oil
rend e rs theae pinions entirely waterp roof. !\ large nu m be r
oj th_ pinions a re in aervi<:e where sile nt d ri ves a re
reqoued, and are 3iving en tirely &awfactory resulta T o
dete r mi n e the wor kin g load o n the teeth . th e well-known
Wilfred Lewis for m ula should be used (He" p ag a 3M).
Wonn G eadn4.
by F. L. BaRRY, M.I.Mech .E.
Modam W orm Gearing is a n engin....,ring p rro;;isio n job
from which u nceaaing research and experime ntal ,,'ork has
removed tbe prejadlce which fo r many yeara cl u ng to i~.
owing to its h ea vy friction loss when employed o n power
transmission work. The I~ were evident; ler;s 50 the
.....
fac t that t he lault lay more "';tb the maken than the
I t is not always realised hnw clOH is the connection

be tween the efficiency and tbe augla of the lead beli%,
lead heli.s meaning the angle developed by the thread as i t
winds its spiral ..ay around the worm. ID the old days it
was the custom to make wonns with flat angles, largely
because they could be de.alt ".;th on general purpose
mach.i n and being of inferior quality in other r.,.,peets.
the C r as a wb e l.- . atfarad
W ORK GR"RING.
Ma ny f..ctors go vern worm gea r perform a nce , vital in

..Imost a ll cases bein g :- ( I) Angle o f the Le a d helix.
(2) Co-elficient of friction between thO! tee th. (3) T e mper.
a ture o f the o il bath, a nd (4) Material s.
Taking th e a ngle o f helix fir.;t , it ma y be repea ted that
b y lead is meant t h e d btance the wo nn Of sc rew would
adva nce if ro tated one complete tom o r revol u tio n throu gh
a fix ed nut: the pi tch bein g the d istance from a poin t
o n one thread to a corresponding point o n the next one.
In the CaMI o f a single t h read ed worm the lead and pitch
me-n the same thing, but in that of a m ultiple thread t'd
worm. -..y wil h . i", threads, the lead is six ti m et t hO' p itch.
The Ie-d a n gle fiXe!! t h e re la ti on w p bet.... eeu the ta.ngO'n t
of the angle, represe nting the work d on e peT rC"nlu ti on
of worm, a nd the lengtJ::. of the hypotenulle of th e angle
re{lrese n ta the \c ngth of fri cti on line tra v ened in doing
th ,. "'nrk. I
T h e angle may easily be determined , Bet nft a h ori~ ontal

line e<jual tn the clrcumferen("e of the pitch circl e diameter
o f til .. worm (al ; lhen eet u p a v ertical ordi nate at right
angles t o (a) to represent the lea d , wh ich is equal to the
tangent o f the angte, re p resen ti ng work d on e pe r re v. (b ).
Th" hy pc t euuse of t he angle rep resen ts t h e fri ction li ne
to be tra ve rwd (c). Draw these to a ny ICll.le Wflvenien t.
If, for instancf', t he len li:th of (cl is un d u'y lon g as
compared with that of (b) it means tha t more than neces
sary fric ti on loss is occurring . and wo uld be reduced by
ma ki ng the line (c) more in kee p in g with li ne (h). If t he
lead an gle is doubled the work d one pe r revolution is abo
doubled , b u t the len gth of line Ie) only iDCreues &1igb tly.
and therefore the ....o rk is doubled with o nly a al.if:ht
in crease o f fric tion toU and a more efficient gear " in view.
No mat ter bo w perfec t a wo rm may be , d it hu a Oat
angle it cann ot be as efficient as one with a .b.a.rper anele.
r.••..<t ffl"lm tb t llb.od pci.nt of efficie ucy.
WOl< lol GKA R I N O,
Th ere a re cases wher e efficie ncy ia Jeu importa nt t han

other advantages which t he uM- of flat angles can confe r in
other directions. In thia cate gory a re s uch plant aa Cranes,
Hoi. ts, lifting gea r and sim ila r machinery. whose running
timf' i. inte rmittent and whose current coDlumpti on ia
not. very gnat factor. H ere th e flat angle ICO'",
by it!
ahility to assi.t the brakes by partly maintaining the load.
and if thf' angle is selected with t his poin t in vie .... and
made flat en ou gh it will hold the load f'nti re ly, leaving the
brakes t o act more or lew .. governo rs to put 011 the final
touch. Thi e. and the smooth ru nning. lack of noise, small
floor 'pace. and reliabilit}' j ustifies the use of nat angle
worms in Uri" field. The angle . t which the load begtns
to run ' ru n back ' naturally vari es with the fin ish. but
it may be taken that the maximum angle st .. hieh the
wonn will hold the load is in th" reltio.ll uf • t o 5 degrees.
Naturally the Co-effici en t of fraction plays a Inding
part in the performance of worm ~_r_ The thread i. in
effect a revolving spiral wedge, .bic.h does it!l work by
li terall y pus binlj: th e load along an inclined plane. whose
ang le of in clination i. that of th e lead helix. lind t oe amount
of fricti o n gen erated betweec the s ur tace of th e gears in
co ntact will be largely governed hy th e smQOthnellllof th ose
s arracee. Running a t high velocities It might be t hought
th at with the incre ase of velocity, the Co-efficient would
incre ase, but a.s a matter 01 fact it tend s rather to decrease
Table of Wonn Efficien cy.
ceee Angle of Inclinatio n.

dent or
lri c tion
5 " 110-1 15 - 20" 125- 130" 35 - I 40 - 145
0·01
- - - --
89 ·7 &4 ·5 96 ·1 97 ·0 19704 97 ·7 97·9 rs.o - 98·0
0 -02 8 1·3,89,5 92-6 9 4-1 95·0 95 ·595·9 96·0 !:"H
0-03 7.,3;8500,89,291 '4 92.7 193.4 93-9 94·1 94·2
0 .. 68 ,4 so-s 86·1 88·8 00 ·4 91-4 92 '0 92·2 92·3
O-OS 63 ·477·283' 1 8MI j88 .2 89 ·'90 -1 90 -' 88-'
0-06 59 ·0 73 ·8 80 ·4 64·0 86 ,) 87-S 88 -2 88' 9O-S
0'07
0-08
55 .1170.7 " ,8 81·7
51'9 16HI 75-4 79-6
SH
82 ·2
85·' 86 '4
83-8 84 ·7
j86 .9
85·2
86 '9
85·2
0·09 48 ·965·2 7J.l 77-6 80 ·3 82-<> &10() S3 5 183·8
0·10 46·3 62-7 75-<> 78 ·5 80-, 81-4 18 1'9 818
17lHl
WOKlot G Il.... HING . 413
P articula rs ta ke n fro m an ord in a ry standard eet 01 gear

by Mo!lS G.,ar Co. Ltd. show efficien cy 01 8 4 pe r cent when
runnin g a t 720 revs per mi n. with a reduction ra ti o of
SO to I. At 960 re vs per min the e fficiency I"O!I'l to 86 an d
at 1440 was 8fI per eect.
1'.,
FIG . 5. - Ex a m p le of f1a(anll:le wo rm o f tow elficiency
Non re ver..ible. For hois tin g gea r and 1ifl5.
The rubbi ng spe-ed or slidi ng velocity between the tee th

is ver y high on mode rn gea r, 3,000 feet pe r m inu te bOli ng
common p ra c t ice whi le on specia :wo rk dou ble this figu re
woold no t b<t cons idered excessive , results aho w that with
high spe eds efficiencies tend to rise. Another set b y th e
above make rs, h avin g a red uc t ion ratio of 50 t o 1 gave an
efficien cy of toO per cent whe n runn ing a t 720 revs pe r
min. The same k t at 1440 gave 86 per cen t , th o, co n fir
min g other te sta.
FIG 6-Diagram o f modem worm designed for tran"

mission wann . Five threads 21 pitch II ! Lead 92
per cent Effici ency ,
". WOR II c;R"IlINv
F or .hYinu! n- uonll it is imp..eticabl. to predu ce "orms

with la rge an gl" on eingl", threaded un its, 8ll the t., eth with
proportiont based o n the lead would be e u mbereome and
th e wbole outfit heavy and costly in pr opo rtion . The
d iffic ulty is overcome by the U5e of mu lti p le t h reads, whose
proportions are based 00 the p itc h. small teeth all ow s
the co re diameter of the wo rm to be reduced to a min im u m
consist.,ot with the lItnoOgth to stand up to the torq ue
a nd withstand side strain and deflee ion. with the resul ti ng
shortfriction lin.. and lighter Irt of gear all round.
The phenominal speed reduci.Dg capacity of worm gear
Is d u e to the fact that in effec t a worm is a pinion wi th an
abnonnally .ma.U number o f teet.!). in the cueof a !ringle
th readed worm there is o nly one, and if geared up to a
..bed having 60 teeth the reduction would be 60 to I .
The sa.n>e n u mber of tee th geand up to a worm ha ving
~ thread. wou ld only have a ratiO"c r 2Q t o I. T o obtain
a 60 to I red uction i t would be nl:'CedAJ'}' to U5e a wh eel
t hree time!! as la rge , .., one revol u tion of the worm would
rotat.. the ....heel rim three times all (at , as a si ngl e threa ded
worm with the aa.me p itch,
Theor e ti ca llv the efficiency o f worm gear increase with
the anR:le nntil 45 d egr ....s is reached, bu t aid e st ra in is
al so iucr..ased which ten d s to cause incorrec t mesh in g of
the gears and ll.3 e fficiencies run ning "' ell o ver th e 90 pe r
cen t mark can b e obtain ed with standard sets usinR: angleli
around 30 d ..~re es th e re is little point in e xceeding this
unle ss for special work , further the effi ciency c u rve flattens
out on the ex treme a ngl es.
Alth ou gh 80 m uch depe nd s of an gle a nd linish of gears,
the .... bole ,""ult may be easil y u pset b y the use of un.uit
s b le "ill, o r fa u lty lu bri ca ti n g syste ms, a IIC: t ...hich iJ onl y
modera t ..' y overheated may lose 30 to SO per cent o f its
capaci t y to cany the load. and 1.180 the sur/ace in contact
may be flO badly scored that inefficie n t runnin g ~ t h e result.
With 1hil in mind every effort is made to keep the t empera
ture o f the gear box down to well below I ~ d egrees F ah ,
a nd to do this cooling radiating fins are cast on t he gUT
case wherever possible, fa ns are used lor cooling, and every
1hin, possible is done towards this end. a nd mai n taining
a n 011 film bet............ the tee th of the wo rm and wheel . If
this film is d estroyed failure ;s almO'lt ine \'iuble. GenenJly
apeaking lubricants with it. castor oil base .... ilI ca rry for
heavie r l.-ds tha.n other oil e. Mi n~ oils are also suitable
bo ' mUl t be filt.lW'l be t",", use. h u . 1.., OeeMN. ry te
'#0'011..1,1 G KA RI l'' 'J .
periodically change th. oil in th" CaN, N tha t there i~

no cb&nce 01 its congealing. a nd canKilg 1000 lu re. So
im porta nt is this point tha t ma kers usually advise .. ~
to t he Krade, type, and quality o f the oil. afte r exte nsive
tests with the lubrication specialists, and it is highly
d ~labl ", that this advice should be accepted by usen o f
wor m lll"lor.
Naturally th l' materials of which the gear '. made, is of
gTeat importance. and only the ~t is good enough, The
practice to-day u to make the worm of high tensi le steel.
which will give the maximum hardneM, combined with
t il", ability to relIIist high pressure without KOring, after
tardenin.l!: It is Kivl'n a final grinding which producn the
ideal lJurfa.ce, The worm wheel is JIlOlde in two parte. the
rim is o f entrifugal!y cast bronTe whicb provid~ a dense,
uniform metal fr.,., fro m spongiaess or 110ft spots. The
rim is mounted on a cast iron or steel centre to which it is
shrunk and loca ted by dowel pins. Or it may be attached
by meant of a nan g'" and bolts, both method. are in every
day use. The bearings used on this gea r have been
developed and desigoffl to deal witb the ax iltl and side
t h rust and are of the ba ll a nd roller thrust type, thl'i r uSC'
i. general, plain be aring:s are not used.
There are several form ula e for calculatiog the eJric il'o cy
of th e gea r. all are ba...ed 00 the Co-efficien t o f friction a nd
the angle of the lea d helix. Some formulae are invo lved,
othe rs more simple a n d not always relia ble, b ut o ne
formula which has stood the tC'!'it o f o ve r fort y ye ars is
t ha t ei ve n by PrOJe$90l Barr, a nd is of Allwrica n o ri gin.
T his (onn ula g ives resu lts which agree c losdy with pr esent
da y pr a cti ce and in using it o ne ha.s the assu rance th a t t h e
res ults tu rt b er agree with the test resu lts on modern gear.
Efficiency E = toaD.,. ( I - ,
toaD,- +
\II) tin
Wh er e \II _ angll' of lead helix.
f - eo-efficient of friction.
Owing to ils silent running, .mall floo r epece and
adaptability worm gl!af is making beadway rapidly.
The fact of it.! being hermetically _11!d in • (eaT case,
makes it a first choi~ for dusty location!l. It also can
handle the straight forward shaft drive. a vertical drive
Of one on the .kew with pqual facility often solves a
difficult problem for the plant engio.,..r in l_yinK Dllt a
fac tory.
4 Hl
Practical Alternating Currents

DDd
Alternating Current Testing

Deals in an demmJary and jJTadical man1W'
.un 1M priKCipks oj altunating cum rUs and
alUrnating current machitW)'..
By CHARLES F. S ~ l IT H.
Wh .Se., A.M.Inst.C.E., M.lnst.E.E.
Contents
Alterl1lltin'l E lectromotive F oree and Current- I mpe
da nce- Po wer and Power Factor -Virtual Value of an
Alterna t inll: Cnrren t-Effect of Capacity-The Trans
for mt'r_ AIt.ern a ton __ SyDchron ous Moton- T he Poly_
phase Cir cuit-The Rotary Convertt'r- T he Poly ph ase
Inducti o n " fotor-Sin gle-p hase Moton- Th e Com
pos ition uf wevee.
Press Opinion.
MW. l blok I h. 1.... Un.ot of t ho oub j..,t V"'fy d-ar . . .. d ""'.. .. th .,
• hoo k Ollbll Iypo .. Ill be ul lar m o... pracllcal 11M 10 l b. Iludoo l
l hao coe "b lob I.... lull 01 dlft l""ll m . lbo ......U., Ih.1 l be 100J>(
.Ioo<lticl.n beec",. dl.beartonod I t I"'" belil1wc.: '-T., 6,.,;_ ••.
" Th. boot .. Ul t.. ....1..1 10 eludo ,," . . . ,old. h. perlo"" IDlI
uporl....Olt.nd In _ t l... dooea trealed. aDd 10 uodenllGd 11'" 1"-1
ndorlyl.., lboir ~ onno.oce:'-E,.,; ,.;... N•••.
~'! ... booil lo falrly """"pl. .... and y he ~ 10 "'" a
UMtIoo _ 1110 •• b jecl.. _ 6 u.-lri<M 1' .
The Scientific Publishing Co.

40 Dalton Street. Rochd ale Road
S I' IR ,l.L G I!,l.It I N G
,,'
S ummary of verroue Result. of Aluhentlc al..d
Trlalll.-(F. Berry) .
...... No.
,, ...,.,.

eec UOO
,, nee
n, u'" n
1 'M no, ,.
'M
,,•• UOO
". ....
.,
m
~.
.• I , ." I.SO
".
,~
12· 0
,,s ueoeoo seoo

UOO '00
,..c
,
G~rman
mah
I , :1 '"
'_0 No'
I 10 ·0
1 10-0 ,. I
Spiral Gearing.
Spiral wheels, sc rew wheels, twist wheels, a s th ey 3'.
various ly termed, differ from wo rm wheels in ammou n t 01
an gle, and not in any essential principle_ The advantage
that sp iral wheels possess is sm othness o f action, an d a l
tbeir contact is of a slidi ng and no t a ro lling nature, t hey
should a lwa y s nm in an oil bath to prev en t h ea ti ng and
excessive wea r. The best Iorm of tootb is t ilt' involute.
Spiral gearing is the most flexible fonn of toothed gearing.
It is tbe o nly form o f gearing in which t h e d iameter ia no t
entirely dependen t on the number of teeth : that is , a 6-ineh
gea r may have either 10 o r 40 teeth o f the same pitch, !IO
that in linch a cue the pinion may be o f larger diameter
thau the gear. Thill makes it possible in a gr eat many cases.
to ebange the ratio without ch anging the siz es of the ~ears_
Spiral gears may only be used to co n nec t abaft. wb 08e
centres do DOt intervct OIt any poi nt.
14 IU
SPIK A I.. (,;I!AKING
&>Iu"t i'ne>! It i" hard to o ht aln Jo(Ol'UII 01 t il" r"'1u ir,, ' l
dltlleulllotlll lo r IIh"flJl a t .. lhud ce n tre d illLl UlCtl II,·
,'a l
cu latl nJo(, b ul t hey can be I1l(ured to a c1011tl ap prozhlla ti oll.
l'hen If the d lAm et er l!'l no t too lar o ut t h" 1I11p:ht varia t ion
III llIade up by cuttinlCtile t.... th deepur, or viu tyrll'a, All t h e
_ may require, \\- bell t he variatlon I" v..r y j{Tt'ft.t, t h e
blank may be rolled. t-Idl!fl belnp: cui deepee, 110 that
m Ofl1l1"'1 pit <'b I" ohtalned.
Spl....11(..n ta .. be ti,,;ured f or a ltiven e.llltre dtlltanl'lll !to
_ ( 0 m ille exact .. ithln very IImall limit. : but the proeese
req ul"", a lIOmewhat eomplh:ated f orm u la. and th",dilJl!l'Pnl'lll
between the doctond I(9aI' and the pl'I'fllCt one mIlO "mall
that the ext.... ..ork ls not ..a.nanUd.
I n wor m I{eIIrlni/:. Il lonl .... Jl!"l".lly 'III1th ~ 10 worwso l
l in. 1....:1 or 0,...1', It III ","""utlaJ (or the 1UJl0000h ..orkin R 01
tbe~, and lor eon'l'enteoC'IEI 10 ruulnl( In the ...orkl!, Ihat
the eorreer dlalu"toor and plkh 01 cutter noquiftld for hoti,
wor m and whf<el be ~rtalned. I t III Ionnd U1Dnl «Gnoml.
0111 to mill " 'OTIIl" than to cut th"m In the lathe, and t hill
Ope UII tip pDAAlbl1ltllllJ of u lllnp: fr&('(lonal plt.<'ho;oe w h k h eao
bl' obl&Ln oo by thlll rnettMxl. , and th,l't'by ollinp: ordi nary
cu u.- from 'dOl'k_ The cult..r IIhould be for th e OOTmal
ptteh, ...Meh varlM w it h t.he a op:le of IIpiraL
tri ll:. II h. A r"I'~n tatlon of t he plteh lIur (A<'e 01 a
lIoir ..1 .... h ...,l. A' U' C' III the ci l'<:' uJa r pttch, an d A Delli
1"11•• 1I. -11\ajl;rs.m Illu lltrat ln p: N ormal PiLch a nd Real

Pilch.
th.. ""me circulAr pitc h IIOOU u pon the pertp htlJ'1 of the wheel.
I"'" A D I"" a tooth, a od U C a ~ pace. To cu t this apeee
U C, t h e peth or <' u t.ting ill a Joni/: the dotted lin e a b. By
nlt're In"l'et"tion ....eo ean _ that the Morte.n distance
cetweeu two u.eth a lon g the piteh lur~ IA not t he
dlt'l.ance A D C.
Let the line A E B be a t r1j.(b t anl/.'les to t he sldl"ll 01
r-th upon the pltcbed s urfece. Thlsllne, re....hl u i/: ov er a
tooth a nd wpece . III called tn e normal p ltcb.
S PI R AL G RAR I NG
Th.. lin e A .E 1l
e c r r e e p ou a »
to th e c o et n ..
o r th e llQ Il; If!
C A U. lieu",
the rQle :
Norma l plk"h
= e e e Ln e o f
IIplral .. nJZI'l"
d .....ul.... p; t eh
ort'OKlne =
norm .. 1 pitch
c-b~ld .. r pltch-
With di.. me
tral pitehtfl we
obt.. i" the eoqne
by d lvid lllll: one
p itc h hy t h e
ot he r. the I.. r ll;er
Dum h,,' r 10,,11111:
t he d lvh.or,
Irill; . 13 lIlu ,,·
t,rlLWII A IIplral,
A rlll;ht · fln,ltilld
trlll.ll,ltle o( pol-per
III r""ten ed
aroun d A cylln
dpI', t he bR"" or
t he trl"lIp;h
h.' lnll; l! in . And
the perpend ic u ·
1101' II In. H we
tu rn the cy li ndpr
A HC II one t urn
In the d irection
of the a rrow ,
the "plra1 w ill
... hn"oo rron! 0
to l-:. Thi" ad _
.... nee I" t he lead
o( thll ~ pi raL
1"1 ~ . 1:t.-l':1.. mple of S plnrJ Wheo- l Ill'! .... : Drl..in ll

Wb~1 6 I n. dia mete r Spin dle Whael4 i n. d iam e t er
l;P!RAL GEARING
The t111ll;lo I<: 0 I!", w hi ch the ftplra l ma ke.. w ith the axl ..
~;o i .. the &lllllill or the ftpirn.l, an,litll natural
T&Illl;oll t = clrcu mterenee of c yJl ll-,:!~ or lilplml .

lead 01 spIral '
w h.. n the anll:le an d 16Bd a re lllven. to ftnd clreu m lere nce.
thill eq uIll1l
Tanll:ent x lead.
The aUculIltion .. ~ uired for sp lr&! wheelll wil l be t -t
unrlentood hy oonll id..rlnll: trn. followtnll;;
F
I'w. Hl.- i)hl.ll;ralD Il hl llfr a Un ll; .. Sp iral.

Method to Find Diam et ers, &c., or SpIral Wheels.
/l,·x ,.. n fJI~: I toq ulre d e worm a n d wo rm wheel t he wheel to
hfl.ve 40 !A'llth fl.nd the worm to 1106 5-thn"'-lled, th e r aUo helnll;
~ to I. To be cut with standard cutten of 8 dlamotral pitc h ,
NOTlc. - 'J'ho worm I.. prIl.ctlcally II. ftpin.1 pinion havlnl':
~ teeth .
l.i't no rmal plteh = 8 dlam. pitch and lLIl.Il.ume p itc h
dhl."'tlt...r ot worm = 2~tln., Lb"n, .... ti,e wor'" (or wh.,..,11
""" II teeth, the real dlAm. pitch or the worm =
num~r 01 ~th = !. = :t"f1%i
pltt'h dlll.lIlt'wr 2"1
.'. K-I pit ch = t:'n'll dlam. pitch. The COIl.ine 01 the
" PII'lOl anille of the worm '= r-.I..P lteb h"
norlll plte
. '. ('.QIIln.. = 't"!i'l1 = ~ and looklnll 111 • table or
8
OOIIIlnetl, _e lind thu the ne&..-t "nltl.. t'OrnIRpondlD II: to tb..
eMilie = 7Jr :ur.
SPIRAL G Il A ltl N G
4"
T t... l.....:l o f t he ~plra l =~rcu m l!,!Il.nl>:l ot~E~II~
lanJo/:elll of s pl n .l ILnll: l",
~'2 x a"1416 6il llS :: 2"04710,
S-:r.5U a~.r;5IJ
Thtl wor m wheel h&1140 teetb,
Normal plte h '" 8 d lam. !?itch.
A 0Ii:I" o f t he ~p iral:: 90'" _ 7::1 34f = I '" :WO,
w d t he I'MI pitch = no rmal pitch x fOlIIn..
= 8 x '9SB8 = 71r.o.i.
0'
th" a nICI",
I"l tc h d lam. = nUDlbez' o f tooth = 40_

l'N. 1 plt<:h 7"lJjl.\t
=
5"tHB i n. pitc h dlam.
<on_,
Leed of lIpiral = ci l'C ul1lf~n<'E'
=
.....
5"21"1 " S' U IIS = ~~~ = M-:nMn.
"""
:'ol OTL - The lead of the lIPiraJ. 01 the wheel 11I .. lltO eq Ull.1 to
th e e1rcu u, fe re nce o r the worm x the ratio = tll1l Hi x 8
= 5O"ml n. Ue iwOOJl the two t here!>ia 1l1ljo(ht error, due to
nl)( tall:lo K the IlhNO ln te ly ec ereee &Dll;le. 1'h lll error 18 of n o
pnlCt k al IIll{lOrta nee. hut It ill ad vi8a ble In Illl,kln ll: ee leu le
tiOllll for IllllraJ w h eel s to wor k to a t leAl'll fOU f pl llCt'lI of
decllllAl... T he foll owlnl( Is co n ve n ient fo r C'alrulatln ll;S piral
Wheel e :
Diametral Pi tch-
Ooaine =~plteh ~ or", .. l pitc h = UllI.1 pitch
Norm,,1 pit ch CcHille
Hl"A1 pitch :::z NUPI", heh·'do., tooth ::: Nor",,,1 pitch" Deeln e
tc ra m .
Pi tch dlll m. = N u mbcr of toot h = _N u n l ~ 01 t-th
IWlI p ttch Normw p itch x Co"in p
Lead of s piral = Pi tch (" rcu", r eroo~
TanKtln t of Anjl;le
Size of en t ree to u""" = X u w OOr of teet h
Co.d ne ·
Th ifl jl;iv<lOl the number of te&tb in a s pu r wheel lor ...bi"h.
suitable e u tter would be found.
Circular Pltch-
CoIIln e = Normal p lk h
Ciffnlar pilCh
Sormal pitc h = oeetne x Cireu la r pitc h.
Clreular pitch = Normal p itch
Cosine
Ta nll:eu t 01 aOjl;le .__ ~ _
Circum feren ~
S PI RA L G BAR I NG
Wonn,.
Ci r. P itch X No. of th rea d s.
Pitch dram.
Cotao. X 3· 1416.
The a d d" nd u m a nd depth of tooth should coITO"'Spon d
to the normal pitch.
Another m ..thod of calculating is to wor k from the
a ngles, first li,.lllg 0 0 a pproxima tio ns. t hen ob taining
cO'line from ubles. the n rul p itch, a nd Irc m t h is the
r1iam"t..r.
T u sirnpltty calculations when t he angles requi red a re
elth"r -4S · , 20 · , 26 ° $1' and 63 °26 ' , the foll o>ring U bi",
,"re rep rod uc..:d by special pe rmissioo fro m t he tn"absc
un " ~aring." published by M~n . David Bro wn Com .
panl", ~I ..lt ha rn, Yor kshire ;·
MO:lthod
~ um ber 01 t,...,th Pi b
Ru] pitch - uc d iamete r.
P itc h di a m. + •N o rma1
2 . h
puc - \\no l.. diam. o l the b laoks
E:fll mplf.-To find th e p itc h d iam eter a od th e whol..
d ia m..ter for a wb"el with SO tee th, if nor mal diamete r
pit ch _ -4 a nd a n gle gf the sp irlll _ -4S d eg rees. (s"..
Tabl.. I).
50
\::!8 - I 768'
2.l' , - pi.tch d iameter.
i
17 ·68 +l _ 18 · 18 ' _ whole d hLlo"t. , of the bl.o k.
~l~"""
SPJRH. G~"ARISG
Table I.-For obtainin, D1a.meters o( Bplr"l Gun"

Dia mllt ral Pi tch ,
Il'or lllul. : N"",,.! Uiam_ I'it""." eo.....= I(."",J Dillin. Pitch,
It...1 ]li.. m }'itc h
!'lnrmal Anll:l...
Piteh
... ,.. ee- . I ". ze
ao
18
14~~
12 '728 I 1811H
17"888
16'01111
8'9~ 4
8"OIllJ
.
18 JI "814
11 "81111
I
1r;"OS5
IS'l M
14"810
12522
7"IM
6':r:~1
" "48r;
7 '778
1 1 "~ 16
10"331
10"738
11"88 8
5 - ~ d ll
4"g14
"
I
10 7'071 11 "3117 8'1141 f '17:1
• U6t 8"451 s-ese 402~
,
8 5"857
411ft!)
1518
8"fi78
7"16r;
6"261
8 "618
8'180
6 4-2 48 51188 5 "8611 2"68&
• 8'5 36 4'6119 4'H2 2"23R
• 2'828 87 611 8'11 77 I "711 Q
•
II
2"121
I 768
2 '8111
n fll
2 -688
e-sse
1'341
l 'U8
I 1"414 1'819 11' 89 ",
II
II
11181
1 -on
I 'flU
1'410
t ...
l"lU I
".
'571
42-1 SPI R Al.. GHAItING
Table 11 F or obtaini ng Diametel1l o( SpiriLl Gears

Circ ular Pi tch.
F"nu ul.. : :-;0"",,1 f'itcb+ Cooo... "" Circ ula. Pi t.cb.
I~
Citculv I'itcb
SotIllIII I'ik'b "
I ~h _"
- -
l)jyjrl " ". ec se ... .. se
I
I
118
-l UI
"3536
"5303
2660
-3g91
"U g5
6193
"
-8386
.
,,
-159 ",0 71 "632 1 "6590 1-1119
I
-\99 883g -6115 1 6988 1-8914
-sas , -0607 -1981 8885 1"6169
\-2374 -9311 11788 1"9664
I "219
1 -8 18 \"414 2 \ "0642 ' "11 80 2"2359
II "S68 1"6910 1'1912 1-261 8 2"5168
II "S98 1"1678 ' "3802 1 '8976 2"1949
I'
II
-6S8
-477
1-' U 6
2"1218
\- 46S2
1-6968
l'ri818
1-6770
8-0744
8 -8638
\I "617 2'298 1 ' -7293 1-8168 8"6338

"667 2 "4149 1-8623 )-g565 3-11 128
" 4"1 928
,
II
'"
'631
2"651 7
252!!:'
1"9968
2-1288
2"0963
2"2M(I 1'4118
" ". 8"1820 2"8944 2"6156 5"(1808
'l ". 313M 2"6604 2-1960 5"589 7
•• '" S-8Sg1 2"9265 IV' 6 -1487
I -9 66
I 4-2427 8"11125 a -IU D 6"1071
SP IR AL G IIA R H I G <2,
Method
Number of toot h x clrcul..r pitch _ itch di t
:!'1416 .._ - - P 'Ull ll llr.
Pitch diameter +2 x nor~'~4ritch = whole dlaJIIl>ter.

If a pair of wheels have ratio of 1 : 2 and pitch di ameten
II.
equal, the s p lral of t h e wheel wi th the larger number of too th
18 :lll" 114', ttm sp iml of the wheel with the emuller number of
t oot h Is 6::l" ~1I' . Takln ;!;these Nplrnls Wll find t]ulttl",dlan w t (lr
of eaeh whool III u(lII.rly th6 lj8.1II&,
E:cam,>l~ . -To find the pitch d1&meter . eentre d i"t.a.noo,
&nd whole diameter of the hlll.n kll for & pair of Bpiral whool8,
..... touewe (See Table 2) ;
(I) 40 teet h normal pitch t", "plral anJl:le 26" :14'. and
(2) 20 f', 63" 2/1'
(1) «J 3:1~~~ == 10'07 = ptrch d teo.eter.

l ll) ID 3:1~~(Ilil = I Oir.'li = pi tcb dlanl eter.
Cen t ro dllltance = 10'675 i nches,
W h ole dlam. of t he hlan k ll '" 10'675 +2 x O '~~87 = II'IDS In,
A nother IDPt h od o f calculating III to li Me .. tahle of
Seea.nts, &8 (O U O W II;_
Clrcnlar pitch '" Seeant~3' 1 ~

Di& IU. pitch .
DI t I Itch Seceut x No. of too t h
ame ra pI '" - - Pitc h dtam . "
Pttch dla t ", Socantx No. of te6th
.... ""me er Dlam. pitc h •
N f tooth=P1tch dlam. x Diam. pi tch
0 .0 , ~ecan t .
A 1 of p' I See&nt of _Pitch dillm. x Il la m. pitch
nil: e ",r a . - No. of tooth "
I.....d of spinJ ", Sec:ant of 00"- ~gle x No. of teeth " :J'l 41 ~.
Diam. pi tch
E:camplt.-Let It be re q uired to conne...t two IIhafbl at
right ..ngl ell to each ot h p,r by eptml gen.rs luwlng teet h at 4li
to be cut "'ith 8·pitch cu etere, and havlDIt 1I3 s n d 3l!
d lll/:l'OO8,
teetb In pinion snd;l;alU' l'eIIpeetlve l,.
Secant of %" ", l ' n~
pi tch d iameter or pln i on ", l 'UlJ x l~ 2"8284 in ch e.,
8
'" BI!VEL G KA RI NG
. ' It..., h dia mete r of Jl:8IlT = 1'414; x ;12 5 Il5&l Inch ..".
'f h .. IMd of " piral",
For pi nion, ~-1~~ X16 " S"U I6 = 8"87 ineh_
P'or p:ear. 1 '4~-l2 x at x S"U I6 = 1i', 5 in<:"h....
Secan t s Dr ABides.
II~ . 6 ..... ~...,.
i' D Soeo..,.. D llw~. 11 8 "" ..,'1.
I- 1 _ '
1
e
a
1'0001
1'0006
1 '0014
I"as
'26
1'0946
1'1084
1"1126
41
""so
1"t 668
1'4945
1'0242
70
71
2"9238
8'0 11 5
1
s
t 'OOH
1"00<1 8
37
26
1'1228
1'1826
1"5667 "73
3'2361
3'42 08
•
7
I 'OOM
1'0075
aa
30
1'\4 33
1'1M7
"eaea 1' 5890
1"(\243
1"6016
"t s
76
3"6279
8'S637
4'1836
e 1'0098 at 1'1666
• 1-0125 32 ] '1792 "se" 1'701 8
1'14.34
77
76
"U54
~' 8 09i
.."
IQ
11
1'0 154
) "0187
111223
111263
33
""ae
\"1 924
\ '2062
t -aece
1'2861
"sa
\'7 883
1' S861
1'8871
"
80
81
aa
5~408
5',588
6'3924
" 1"9416 7'1853
...."" 1' 080 6

1"0353
1-0403
1'0 457
37
ee
as
I 1'2521
1'2690
1'28'7
80
81
ee
ea
2'0000
2"0627
2"1800
"es
..
Sf
8"2055
'"5668
11'474
17
1 'Q515
"
H
1"3054
1"3:1:/iO
""ee
2"2027
2"2612 87
14'335
l~- IO;'
"
20
er
1"O/i. 8
1 -06.2
1"07Il ..
""
1-34/i6
1'3678
1'3 902 87
ea
2"3 S6t
2" 5B6
2' 56 93
ee
"
28-6 5 4
57"251 11
"
ea
11)7B5
I1)Bat I""
1'. U:l:
1' 4895
,"
2-6695
2"790 4
Be ve l Uearlng.
HlIv",J w heel s Me used to t r ll.n 9mit moti on tJllt woo n t w o
9hll. n~ who"", a xea i nl;o"rlKJct.. T h ey represent tim Iruat ra or
Im ap;JIlM Y cones h" vi np; UH,lr co m m on 1LPl'X a t t.he In te r
section of t he shaft /U('.!I, T h e con tact bet woon t he t w o
ecnea Is, t here fore , a 9trllJIl:lLt Une JII1'l3inll: t h roll,ll:h the co m
Dlon ILpeL &..eh cone ill provided wi th tel>th which enll:'LKe
w ith ecrreepo ndlng "pac6llln t he othN,lI.lld not only prevent
allppln p;, hu t transmit r.:wer, On the e:raet wpe of t h_
l.ee t h depends the e m~ .m~y or t h e Jl:N. T,
IlE VE L G EARI NG
T h.. pro111.. 01 be>'1l1 wheel tooth III d"""riDo.d .. ~ th.. iarIl:..

end , on .. dflVlllo!'lIleut of the outer conical boundlD/( "Deface,
and the tooth III IIh.. -ped hy direeti oK .-.:h cut to .... a rd .. th..
piteh eoue a pt..... Th_ are "Iemtlnt.ary d"W IIJ. hut it ie
new........·,. 10 keep them cl l'lll.r ly in mind to e p pr....IA{e the
pr inelplfle ot OOIllll ruct lon in a bevel whl'!lll c utter.
It will be IIIleIl t hat the eecrfon of tooth oon.fttantl,. " li d
unlfol'mly d lmlnl ..hl'll!l to""ll'ds the apex of the pitc h M Ue,
and that, ....umillJl: tbe elll'Ve>8 of pointa and daub (0 tw
&fCB of elmea, their radII at the inn.... end of tooth are rela·
tivel y much e!,o!'tt'r thaJ,ll.t the outer end. Obvlonllly, then,
101''' .u:h·en Dumboor of teet.h in a wbeel th., Iurthes- awa,. OIIe
l{1'la (rom tbe .. pel: Oftiteb cone the IlLl'W'l'the toolh and
"JlB<"l! will blIcollle, au hy chooeioll:" lIulrabl... dlKt&uotl a D
en\4nl:OO profi l.. mar be '""'" ont ot &Dr required size.
1"11{. III I, .. d~m a.bowloJ( the Nl'll'ntlal ' '''' t n"""
of Ii be...,1 wheel tooth. S OppoMl tile . h",,1 blank A to
be made or butter, lWd a "apa.ce template" to be
mounted at the ar. propri.&te relative pcettfcu thereto WI
at U. SUPIIOMe, a lIO, that an exth'IllWY thi n and rl KEd
...Ire III plv ot."rl by ene end a t tbe alJO!:I: of t he pitc h cone,
and the other end j(ulded over
_ _ the llDlarll:ed J:"ollie n, t he
~ Pfl OFIITCH wiN m Wlt nll" & IIWetl p ou t ol
C()N. II
I"
the blan k R pel' foot bevel wh eel
tooth lIpaoo, a nd every Jlf'Cu
, lIarily of the protlle wou ld be
, fa ltMu ll y re prod uced III eve r
di fu ln illh i nll: IlIlnllLt urt! Ill!
the piv ot ill e .pproeched, By
brin ll:ln j( t he ,id.. 01 t.he space
te m plate t.oII:etllt'T ti ,t! pi teh
.-. coul d be red uced to IIu lt all,.
requirod nu m ber of leo.th i n a
whMl
I . I t w uet he co n teMN!, there
tOl'\'l, t hat It Ie practically im
i I I \ po!IIIlble to cut correct be vel
whee l t-Mth with rota"y e u tt~TIIo.
I I \ Ma cutte r 01 lb ed ou t lin " ran
not cut a eon..tan tly TlU'J'inl[
B "'·r: protlle. 1'0 " IImali pltchl'8.
.... d in CIUIH wh..", but l it tle
power I", tranllm lttM and the
1I11ll:ht. It may no r matter
Weal'
Tery m neh, and an appro:l:i
}t1G. l11- l)ia.l;nm o f Bev el w ate t y oo........,t toot h boo _ti...
Wh "'t!l Toot h Sp"Ce. lu tory.
- . 28 BEVEL GK,\II.ING
OUtUn, Bevels W1th Rotuy OUtterB,,-G.,n.,caJl, •

",-, ntr,,] eut '" ft....t taken all ro u nd t h e w heeL blank with"
eutter ",hleh mu"t be thin eooujth-to P'"-'<'l th ro ull:h the epece
at t he " mall end of the tooth. Th e n tdlll cuts a n! m Ade .
lI",t 00 one aide of the tooth an d then on t h" other,
' he thle k n ~ of tooth at top IlIld boI:tom beln~ care fully
me"'"lrOO., and such eol'n:lCtionll mad" In the iM!l:UnlP: of
the cutter and movement o f the blank All found n~7.
All tbtl eu ne e cannot be any t ht eker t"-u the IImalllllllt width
.r 1Ip8(l8, It Ia Dectl!lIl&J"y to set It ou t of centre and rotate the
blank to rnU:e the Ilpaeel1 of the r ll(ht width at !.he la1;{e end
of the teeth, T~ dh1dlnll.' mechaniJIm til arranJotlld to allo...
Dr thbJ mceement of the bla.nk:, all already refl'lT'lld to. The
~utl en aftl D"'UAlIJ of a form tMt will Itlve the outline of
tbe teeth at the la~ end , th_ leaviop: th" ~h a t the
IIlllAn end too thiek at the point, and not rounded enough.
Con-:juently It 110 ~enllly uecell8aZ'1 to n le the faceo, of t h e
teeth Rlll1:ht ly above the pit "'h line at the RfRall endlL. It bSlI
become ll:f!1l_11y ~ that. in ord.,.- to gee a properly
RhapM tooth. t he teeth oC bevel re aring mUJJt be
planed.
W h en the t ransmitted mo tion 18co nveyed tbrc/ujl;h wheels
of dllfemnt dl..llIeterli. It ia cUlItomary to d.,..ll/:Ilate th~
11ll'f(t".T wheel the l1:eBr, &nd the amllUer wh...,] the pinion.
W hen they &re EIqILBI. &nd thelr ....;1.. at rlRht ILnjl;l.,.. 00
8ftCh ot he r, they&re technlca.lIy ca.lIod m lt 1"C/l. Til" ~Il er lll
la w .... 10 v"loolUllll of rota.tlon a n d pr essure. conv eyed
through b.. ve l 1l:6Il.r inR. is prooillely the ~",n", a ~ in t he raM" of
~pur j(ol\r... '1'he .....rne rem l\r k ...... to t he lIu ltz"b lll t y of toot.b
formM apply ..qU&lJ y well In be>Vel llll III "pur 1l,'(lILrlnj(.
Bevel Wheel Calculations (S..., FiR · 171.-'£0 lind

pitch aill/;Ie. d iv id e t he n umher of teet h In the pin ion by
t he n u m be r of teeth III t he wheel . Th", quotien t lrl".... the
ta nl/;1'nt o f the pi tc h a nJl: le of the pi n ion. H"p.-:l as ..
rorma l ~
TllDj1;80t '" No. 01 tooth"!!!"'pinlon
No. of teet h io ... hPel.
To I\nd d1lune ter Increment. muJtlply t he <:08lne of t he
pitch AnJl:le by tbe "'"01'11:1011: deptb of tbe teceh, T hi s p;i vefl
I.be amonnt to be added to t be pitch diameter to oht410 the
eu tsld e d b.meter of the blank.
The anRle Increruent. ill tbe llDjl;le. ","hleh. ...bllnad -ted to
Ute pitch anj:tle. glvea the fare anK le.
To t10d aDl1:le Increment, and alllO anjl;le decrew8ll t:
Ta n X ~ Si n_ ~~~ &IUl:le" He ll!: b t o f tooLb ahove P .L.
B gVEL OEMl.INO ,,.
T"n. 'I = Si n.. (If Itc h "n Ie l< l.le(Jth (II tuoth below P .L.
",,!lU B
A m..t horl p;IV IID by Hro ...n a n d ShMp" 00 I1 nd " nl/:le
In ..renw.n l h. B.II fo llo..., :
Tan, x _ S IDe ot pi tc h -.np;le
- One-helfo! S o. of teeth.
!'lB . 17.-UI.....: nuu or Anll:leol fo r Bevel W heel T....I,h.

a b " l! =. d iamete r Increment,
An l(le X =. 8.nll: le hll'roment.
An}l;lo Y = !I.nll:lll dec remen t.
Amount to Add to Pitch DiameterB or MUre
Wheel" to Obtain Olltside Diameter".
-
!'Itch.
IDch
......,...", Added.
- I ,,~
1,,,,
A_,,,. I Add.....
I 'OM ZG 1
II ' 1125 2 II
II
"'"
'50fl34
, 18878
'22 50 4
~8 130
II
II
"5G2GU
' G7 5 1~
'787G t
I
I
'33 766
' 3(1382 • (10011
430 B E V E l.. G F-AlllNG
Octcrmillhtlt Dtm en s ron e 01 Bevel (Jcllr l n.!C. ·

wn e sr, I'J NI O N.
Let ~ le = Num ber of teeth. Let N v= Numoor of teoot,h.
d tl' = Pl u h dia mete r. d 1' = 1'1I"h d iam<'t..r.
n .r= Outlli d e d ia meter. II p: Outlll<ltl d ia met e r.
A ,e = P lt ('h anl/:[e. A p = Pitch aDl/:Il'l.
U ,1" = FAOI! an ll:le. It p = flaM a n"le.
M '" Modu le = Circular pitch or C1re ulu pttrh ~ ~i l H:n.

3"l U6
p :: C'trcular pilch. b = Top a n ll:le.
M. ~Iodu l tl tor rli. m et ral plt.eh = 1 _
( )\ am.. t r.! p1teh.
PD· ---~~d
-0 0 .==
Fill. t il.
Permutes .
WIIKf: 1. PU<I O/'f.
Np xP
I. Pll .chdift''''' '.. r :::: ~~4~lt 3' IU6
'to Outliide d la. = d tl' +(l! l'oI J( cu.. A ..,. d Jl'" (l! M J( l.'O8. Ai'l l
S
S. Pitch "njl;le = S tl' = taDI/:. A ., ~ P = tanl/.'. A "
Nt' Sv
4. t·........nll:lp = Av + 1l Ap + b
1".011:. b =: /Lud
1:1. = l"lteh d iameter
11 aln. pit ch a UIl:Ie.
Double Helical Oeartng.
ll eHca l 1(........ wo r.. lInt .. u ~t ..d by IJr . ll ooktl, ot Call"
nrldl(", wlth t h.. ohj...,turobt.J n lulI:oon t ln ultyo l ,, "I(II~ tl llltl nt
an d ..moothu"l18 of acttou, T h.., we re made lor mall'
y"","" wit h ca."t teet h, and "sten"lv"l, adopfed for certain
d..- ot he,,,,, wovk whe"'" lOtrenjl;th w all the flr"t co n
"'deration ; h utow lnjl; to the prartleal d lrtl{"ulth... or m..ll:inp:
them wlth m""h1nfH'ut teeth, thlly" Were llU IW'"",d ..d tor
blllh."peetl work hy madllne-cut g ..""" with ..trall(b t I.... th.
DQrlllr thOll I."t t"w ,eafl<, howe ver , tho .,urtln/( of d ou b le
hef i .... t_th h"" !:>e.-n d.-veloped , IIl1d tb.., . rt' now pro
ducNl. with thlllLllmll tacillt,. &8 "tralll:bt-toothed j{<'al1l.
Adva.n taa"e ll.- \\' h" n oorrectl,. d ....ijl;ned &ml a("('unlt'l,.

eut, dou ble nell{'..l lI:earinjt ~ advantajCe" hath In
principle a nd uti lity, w hleh may be llulIIlll"rllled a" follo ....
Ol ('ontln ul ty of eOj;call:ement. ....hkh ..lIlIIln.'_ vlbratlon
" nd e nableIJ a greeter loa d to be I ran"'u ltt.-d,
i2~ P in ion .. w ith II f1rnlLlI nu m ber 01 I_til ran he u llt'd·
allli In thl" wILy h lll:h ratlOlJ CAD be obtai ned wlt h on l
n" hlll: a whee l ot .. lmo n nal d iame ter.
(Sl A hl lth ,'r l'I1'1kl"nc'y than In Ih " """" of Ilt",tj;cht·ttlo!hoo
g('-./lrlnl': I" ohtll.lnc-d, r rIJeul..r l, w!Len t h e nn m ......r o f '-'th
In r.he pi nion III "mll.l Thlllls d ue to t h e dln oren t ..rtlon 01
th o teet h durtn jt enll:"~llment . In Iltr..l/(ht eu t g ........ th..
lin e of oon tll.ct Un" p.ua.lle l to the ..d" of rot .. tlon , an d con
eeq uen 1,ly t.he p!IltIlU" of .. "glll/;e m ent lOre NI\lIlIlLntly dlllllll:ln p;,
"-nd the ac tio n I.. un e ven, W ith do uhlll h"Ul"&1 j("lIrl njC th e
line or ccntnct 1M 1L e u rv e e xt en din g dlllll;On lLlly ae rOtlll th"
t.ooth , ..n d .. Il Jlh " ~ll~ of engagement oceur "ll\lultat\l'ou~ly,
(41 Silen t runnln jl; at high "peed" 1M obtaIned o ",h' lI: to t he
g r..dualenj(alte lUent e nd lLh""n ee of vlbl"ll.t1oll. Th..re I.. n o
uec,e ~ l t ,. for u ~l n p; Roft pinion m..wrlal" IIueh all r.... h id e .
M a te ri&l.a.-J t 18tt'enllra llyfouod thata rorj;c....1"'-eel pillion

l/;eariDjI; wit h a esse-Iron ...h...1 Kivtlll the ~t. ",,,nit>! fo r
ordinary mill PUrp<lO\ell. I n ten..ln CUtIIl, ... here "udd..n
ce erlceds may bOl expect&1, piniofl'l mad.. Im lu bl..:h carbon
or niekel steel. 1/:.,...-101/" with ClL.'lt-fltefll ... beele. or .. ",h.,,,1
"';th ~t-ImD cenlnl and a fOl1/."ed ..teel rim IIhl'unll: on
IIhou ld be u..ed .
Cutting Do uble Helical Wbe e la. - Til..ee are th ....e

.y"Um.. of cu ttinj;c double hellcal wheel.. from IIOUd hlanb.
ODe depo.ondll 011 the WM! of end mill.. made 1.0 ClOrTeIIPQnd
to the epece 1.0 be eut ; cae is a jl;eo"raUnj;c proo..e .... ln wbleb
432 UO OII U t H~ r" lCA I GR A R I N G.
holJII ar.. 11l1cd ; ...n d t ho t h ird III 8. s ha pin .... jl;<JIH,ratinjl;

proeee-. I n t h" flrllt ey" t<:llu t il" IIarne tool c utl! both
riKht and 101ft h an d port ions of t he teeth. The meehll.nlll IIl
In the mach ine for I(lvlnll: t he leed to th e blank 11M t herefore
to be rever"ed w h en t he tool re ach ea t he ce ntr e . The use of
end II1111 11 for th lll work e ntail" eome ,UlladvanlAl/:os, as these
toolll cu t slow ly a nd WOlI. r out q u ickly. B-lrlell thi'l., when
re vl'r~ i n ll: a t the een tee. a rlllltu R III left hy ti,e too l lit the
pIlle" ...h" r" t h" bh. o k I~v,," t h" <·u tte r ...h"n cb..nKlup; th e
d irectio n of ro tati on . T hl " md lu" llho uld t b..a ruti Clloll y be ..
" ha r p co rn e r, a nd u nleMfi eorue eom pro mtse is erree ted it
fOl:lIl, t he poin t or apex o f the toot h which te intended to
gear w ith It. All a eonee q ue nce t he poin t of the toot h m ost
be ch ipped or III ..d off by ba od, or otherwise the Mldill.'l
m o st be recessed by A special tool in a separate operation
after t he eu t tln ll: of the teeth h"" bee n com pleted, Th e en d
m lllinll: .., ..tern I" used to a li mited ex ten t for whoell. with a
large pitch, but It ls on llu lted for e malle r pltclte a than l in .
The lZen ersti ng sy ..te m by mea ns of hebe is a continoous

process. Two hobtl are ueed , one rlll:'ht han d e ud on e left
hand thread; th_ I'a>lpectl1'ely c ut the r lll.'h t and left hand
porti on.. of the teeth, Tbe dIal'" of the hob thread .. ls made
to co rrespond to a rack tomh. and the hob8 are Keared wi th
t.he blank IJO 8.11 to p;:lve tbe correct ratio fo r t he number of
tee th to be cut, The machine hAIl Il "ilE'dal mechanism to
ll:ive the req u lelte lead 10 the blank tor the desired heU x.
ueere made by this llystem ha1'e the teeth eteggered,

i. t . , the tooth on one elde ls eppoe tre t he space On the
ot her. Thill h&ll .. IIlmllar effect to halving the p itch, a nd
I.. in thla " ·ay conduci ve to sIllooth wo rklnll:' ....Ith a sIIIall
8piral angle. A further advan~ in this llysu,II1 te the
contlnuou.. rotation of both the cuttin>e wol and the blank,
whte h preven t.. anV baek-Illllh In the machine havin ll.' a dele
terloo " eff",..t. No fntennlet.eot dlvldlnjl; Illl'cha nillm is u'led,
a nd, therefore. the rl8k at Inaeeuraelell In IIplLdnll:', which a re
eouie tt mes experienced w it h other prcceesee Is reduced to a
min im om. As fine pi te h I_ th and a lal'll:e face w idth are
.....own tlal t or h1l1.'h... peed p;ear>i, e.g., t hOMe oeed in ec a n ec rton
wi t h steam turb jnee, t he hobbl njl; eylltem I" in variably used
for tbelle. Gean wi th Il peri phe ral speed of 3,000 to i,OOO
fee t per m lno t e are now 1"t"lI.'u lllrly ma de by t he h obbi ojl;
proee ea, W h en &(leurste mac h ines a re e m ployed , a nd the
Ola teri a lll for the blan ke a re <,a retoll y c hOllen, a o efficie ncy
vf 111:1 to DB~ per ce nt I.. obtained, an d the weill' hll." l>een
found to he almOIlt nil afte r prol on K"d te ..te at '011 Imub
u nd a r IICtu al wo rkl oll:' con d ition$.
OOu .. .. O H E Ll C .... GII:"R I!'lG.
A 111"",1,1110 \Sr ko~· j '"t.mtl wo.rkllll/;" on a K"lloratlng

Mlu.plnj( lIyHt"'" l1a1l rl"<'l'lltly corne In W u..... Two cutters of
9io)l:Ie helicAl pillion formation are ufMld. end ~ h of t hese
te rec lproeatt!d &CJ'OM half the lac e of the blank, Oil ... eurtlng
the rlj(h t and one e utrtng the lett Mud po rtiOnM of thtl
teet h. UurlUi{ n.clprocatioo the cutten ha ee a hrbltiug
mot ion hUJ:arted to them. ""hich j(i..ee them" llCrew-lIk e
llCtion, thu" l'I'I.ulllnjl;" them to tI'IU'l! helical path" On thfl whee l
blank. 111 afranjl;"inj( them eo that one makN a workl njl;
Huoke ",h1iKt the other Olakes" return .troktl. teeth ean be
cut ba ..lnj( Inner and outer pointed aplcea, aDd MII"""'IUeDtly
110 ~rllljl;" sorfa.ee Is 1000t at tbe centre of the 1 - . Thi8
mA('hine can all.ocut atl\.il:jI;"ered teeth. lIIeall" 1..,1111/: pro'O"iiled
rOt ....I.«1UI/: the ....«inR 0' the eutteno Th" tooUl protllell
" " ' jtl!IIPl'I'lted by&lowly ...,'O"olvlnl( tbtl rutU-rtI and the wh ee l
blank In UnlIWlI during thtl lIhapill!'= ..,.llon. t ne m ot ion
bftinjl;" the IIoIl.<IlP ... a wheel II.Ild pinIOn In operation. The
cutten uafld lwblch are allW patented I haVtl tee th I/:round.
after hardeDlnll:. on the Bides by a Iltlneratl.njl proceee,
wbich de'O"elopll t h.. Ibeoretir.ally cor",",t proJ1le. The
tneelute cu rve ill adopted for thelooth p rotllee, a>ld. thert'
rore . all p:""rt1 cut ",ith the ""rut' cutten wtll I/:"ar &Ccu....tel y
toOJ(eth"r. It I" dairued t1ll1t in thiM 8y81"Ul 01 cuttinR
theoretk"lacruracy Is oh, e tned without allY oompromille of
lLIIy d\"OlCriptlon. and thAt till' wholll procp"'l III hooIItld (nOI
onl y In theory but also in practice\ on II. I(rDu nd cylinder
and '" plane lIurfM'6_ lementll wh ich ....... reAdily obtatn
a ble by well.k nc wu methode.
Spiral Angle or Teeth.-Th", IIpira l lUll(le sho u ld he
1LIIIIl1llUI lUI I" 1'0nlllllt.ent with t h e attlo.itLIlloll t of oon tln llou ll
OllRal(eme nt. In d etennlnlog t hl ll a nl/:l" th8 proport ion ot
the (.aN:! "" hl ll i to the pitch mUlle bll tliRen InWCOnllldp.rlLt! oIl,
and It III usu...1 to wopt a cert.ai n spi ral a DjI;"l" ILII a II tan d lU'd
a lld m ...kc tho la,.., width II. fixed proportion or til l! pitc h .
Th... 1'01(1"", gene....lly adopted are 4.5 deg•• :iO dtll:. a nd :!a
d ejl;".•with a face ""Idth or 3 &Dd 6 umee t he pilch reepee u ... el y,
A larRII anl':le Is jl;"enerallvecnslde red to btl a dl"lLd...e uteg e,
beca u"," whon running Ilnde r he a ...y pr......Iltfl. wedge ecttcn
oeeure bet.. -een the teeth In eoneeee, C1Lwdnl/: 'rlctlon and
d ecre.tl.ll<:'ld tlmdency. It te. therototfl. ad ...l....bl... to u"'" a
"nlall.ogle and", comparati.ely wid" f _ .. Idt h.
S trength or Heli cal OearlIlA': - We &re Indebted to

M~ The Power PJ&Ilt Co. Lt4_ for the folloW'llljl;" pa.r
tkulatll and fortPul.....hi,," a", appUtabl", to double hellcal
ie..... cut by the ~neratinli: pt'OCOlS, ... Ith a ILplral &Il g le ot
4:14 DO U!l LE H ELle ,\! . (.;l:lAK\N G
i0 dill/;..." d,. hi..... w idth II time " lh~ pltch, fOf ' rat iO>! u p to
II to I , afturwa rda incrtllUllulI: wi t h rati o-
L<' I' '" pitch In Ind,es.
• '" toot h pr_ur" i n It.. at p l ~h li n ...
W '" w id t h o f f..ce i n iu eh,,,..
V ". pi tch line velocit y in IMt per mi n ute.
r '" , .. tio of redu ction .
K = pe r ml88ible at.".. fU,ke n froru rutve ....11(. I I.
+
""
,.. .
......... -
'" 100 &OIl l l.OO I~ OO ~o oo 2500 1000

V Vo!o<ll lT. It " ., t.
l' ",ll. ll. l' . x 33,I)(lO p .W.K.
V ,
1<'or , ,,t loo< up to tlto 1 p:J'J ~'K

l"or , .. t,lo" oo t well ll !San d 10 t o I W =r p. \ r = r:ltlo to on,, )
/2"5 l'
[I = VrK
f' o r rat iON aoon, 10 to 1 ape<:i>d t reat n",u t I" ad "j""ble , lind
n o fixed ru l"" call be lai d down. Each d rive s houl '" be eo n
!Iid er1.'d w it h f'ell&rd to th.. lCeneral c<:tJ\d lt lollll.
Pro port ion . o f teeth: -
Thlekn_ of tooth '" ~_
... , p = I~
AJdomdu m = Ded6Dd ll.lD A Ii
•
Thb formula only " VPIl... to tHotb eat by the hobbl o ol
PI'lX'AlM, a o d in th ia only to eircular pltcheos lrom I in. to l! la.,
a
Slid dt.met.ral p i t<"h ell from II UP Ul U P . (lor larJl to r pu...h...
hf' t lltl t h e re QMu al1,. m ad...bortclr .
435
Metallic Testing
and Heat
Treatment
by
LEOFRIC F E N N. A.M.I.Mech.E
The Scientific Publishing Co..

40 DALT ON ST REET
ROCHDA L E ROA D
MANCHESTER. 4. EN GL A ND
4:16
Rope Dclvln~
Vur the l.ran"ml,.,.lon 01 powe r trom the fty * heelll hlltt to
the li ne ~h arUl on th e n rloull noo ra in tex tile ",III " direct
I"OJ'll d rlO'ell are no w ltene rally &dopted of pl _ 10 I{Nori n lt
&od uprllth t Ilha ft<J, the Ilywheel ....rv lnlt &I'l t h e ma in rope
drh l nll; p u lle'!. Th e fr iction gf rope driO'ln ll; Ie ratber m ono
tm.n th a t 0 jl;ood ll;eII.rl nR:. b u t It ~ &,:han!.&ge5
..bleh more tha n out..ei ll:h th lll objeetlcn, the pri ne lpal
be lnll: the Immu n ity from Ilerlou. aceidenta Of' Iltoppages,
an d the meapn_ a nd ra p id it y ..It h ...hleh a n y repal", or
a ltera tion 10 speed an be .. tr.. cted.
I nd iv id u&l Rope and Continuous R ope Systems.
'I wc m ethods
of power traDlllUIH.lllon by ro~ are ulle<'l . 10 one a
Illnll:le lXlntlnugl1l1 1'OPf' wound "plrally round t be _ vera!
pulley.. III e1l;,ploy..d, th" la "t w ind pllAAlhll: over II. It'Dlllon
pull"y 011 It~ way to th " fl",t groove to pre H"rv" ,. conllt&n l
tlKh t lLllHH. Tilill llyHletn I" eJOlenll lvely "HllplQyed III Am e rica .
Th e cbjeeuon to It I.. t hat th e rope pTells"" h!U'der aJl:ain&t
one ..Ide or t he llplral J(roo ve lh an t he olh er and th a t Uneven
well.r I" "et up : th e le ll..Ion Jlulle y I" .. 1110 d ea t r uc t tv e to the
rope a nd In vol ve" conlliderah le .ora.a te or pe wee. Furt he r, In
the e veu t o r th e fOpt! hrea kl njl;, there III II. f lA k 01 1t.lJecgnll oR
hQpt!leM31y e n tan ll:led , whil e th" entire drive i. bro u ll:ht to II.
.t&llI t until It can he r"palred.
Th eother method con" I,,'" of ualnlf a _ riM 01 Ind "JH'nd"nt
l"ll'\':ular IffOOVM .. It h a OIflparate rope for ea.rb Il roo ..e. Tbb
la the pla n ll:enen. lly &dQ pted In Eng land a n d all. the (:ou
tlnen t : noteulIlon <"a1"riaKe I. R'q uired ,and the pl&n ha . man,
ad ..an~ee over therontlo UgUame thod . eJOce pt In t heC&8tl of
.."rtlea l drl.,,,, ..here l10111etenalon &1T&ll1fl'ment 1.0tl«'M&Z'1.
Diameter of Pulleya.- Th_ ..boul d n o~ , If poealbl., be
I.,.,. than ao tlmel' the dlamet..r of the ropeL Sm"" pulley&
are d"",tru" tl O'., Qf rot - and ""...teful of pe wee.
D iameter of Ropel .-Th. ro~ ulltld ... r, In diamater
' rom abou t 1 111.. to ll in. I.<'rom 1*In. to 11111.. I" ~ he . 1. . mOllt
trequ"ntly u..ed In te z tl le millfl.
OI"OOVeB fo r Ropes.- The nl Olll 11.11011.1 lorm o r I':roove III
One h... ln ~ it.e aide.. Inellnfld at an anllle o r 43 d"'J(., and ot
..uch II. ..be that there III n o rl"k Qr the rope hearlnll: on t he
bottom of the groove . In th e r...... e of nll:h t a ll":!e d rl ..e...
how eO'er , It III ullu ,,1 to Op"'11 out the jl;rooO'e to 70 de ll:. '10 &#I to
&Void "ny rlllk: of t he TOf1"" ru n nl n /C ov er t be t1 anll:""
Driving Side of R op e . - whe ue vee po....lbl e th" bottom
.hould be m&de the dr1vlnll; aide of the rope, .. tbe _ll: of
the Id le Qr top Bide thell ln crea llflll the arc of contact.. a n d
tblla permltll o r eaeh rope tn.n"mltti uJiC more power.
A na:le and Length o f Drive.- Rope, ""ori h.... t ""hen
runolng eit h er horizonta lly or at an anll:le or 4 ~ dOll(. If rue
at greater angle t han th lll a t'Ol'1'tl&pondlnl( w Ul(lo or PO""U
.......1tI be t1lo.. 00d . The horl_nt&! d iala n.-e toet......n th e
RO PR DRIVING 437
pu lle yMma y boll_ lu u ch ,..... 100 t o 100 teet apll.r t, hu t ...h eo
th e dr;v e>! are 10 111l: t he pulle;rs s hould be la rJl:e, anrt th e rap"
s ho u lfi ha ve plen t y of "sal/:.
Power Tr&Dllmittold by Ropea. - The pow er tr AUb'
", lt ted by a rope III the product 01 the dl tl"er ene<o In t..n llion
b..t w.... n tlll:ht and alack IIlde, an d epeed In tee t. pcr minnl" .
If Tl '" to ral tenaion on tlKht "Ide in po Undll.
1'1 '" total ten.'1ion on alack aide In po und",
S '" apeed. i n feet pe r minnte.
Th,-'" I T, T ,l >< S '" foot-pound" tran'''nlttfld pe r 'u lnu ,",, _
and ho..".. .....WeT " ' ( T, - ~.!.l.§
.... :I3,lXXl
In eope pO_fOr tranlln>!sIr.lon it miKht \,., thouKht t hat t h e
reneron III the Iliack elde is ni. or ooly that dne to the II&It"
of th .. fOpe betw.,.,n the twa puUeys. Thi.ll is not the e&3e_
howev er, .... a tension ill !let u p in both Ilidee of t he fOP'"
wheo lD motion owiul!: to the action of centrifup:al fOl'<'l8, ....
the ro pe PUIl6~ round the p'\lUey", and anll t r a lU'm i SlriOft
o! IJO./;,er ran onlll be e({rded by a fu rt~ t rrnl lon in rZUII~
of thill . \ Vltb t he workinp: load u llu a Uy allowoo 10 cotton
drl vlnp: rc pee t he IItr1>B8 a risi nl/; from ctmt r lfUR"al ac ti o..
&lone w heo run n ln p: at speedw of mlldm um etflehoocy ill
abo u t on e ·t hl rd of the t.ntalIOll.d .
Effect of Oentrifugal Force on Ten810n 1n Rope.
A geed d"al of cenfullion and mieapprebenelou .u IHt~ witJ,
eeepect to th'" tIff"Ctof een trtfu g al torce on drl ,·j nj( rop es. and
a. littl e ex p llu llI.t!on m ay therefore w it h Ildvautal/;e be atven.
When allY etrcular shell auch as a pulley or whee l
rim revclve e, a t llDSlolI is Bet up in the rim by the aetlon of
centrituI/:1I.1 tor ee, all a l~oull to that ee e up III ... lJoll",r Mhe ll lJy
Internal pressure , /I.n d when Il rope run» rou nd e. pull"y it is
subject t o preeleel y r ne 811me kind of ll.treSII. Th " mlip:nitud~
of thill au-e.... &<lt08il any eection 10 the C&/I" of a rope III
wneee lD '"
Streee = ~ ,
"'ell/;ht of A foot lenj(th of ro IIe (n pound...
tI '" veloc ity i n Ie et p .. r second.
g = lI:n.vlty = :n!:.
Th is s trel\>i, whieh Is II eeneeq uence of "",ntr lfup:Ai loret>,
lIlust o ot be co nf u~d with comtrl fnp:al fo....e il.8elf, alt houl/;h
re sem blln p: It somewhat io eJ:pre88ion. Fo r convenie nce II
ma y bedellCri'-l as """otruuj(al tensioo." TblslltreM8 illquie t
Inde pe n d eut of the diJf"~=r. i.. trn.fWn hootween the ti /l."h t
and slack side.s of rhe rope rrq "ir~d to tr",~mit POler.., bu t
It Ulnllt ohvloullly boo uken into lI.CCOunt In eaUmatin/l." t M
wtal load put upon tbe rope wh... n It III runninll at a Il:\ven
~peed, end deeeloptng a given powe r. A particular point to
notice i.lI that thllllll:re8S inerell.ll611 &B the 8<)uare of the speed.
ff the sJl"'f'd II.doubled the " cen tri fugal tension I" IneJ'fllUted
M
f our ti m"" lind It treOI lI'<i..1t I!I in c~ uln e tin''''''

4" RO P It DRIV iN G
II 10-" oJ(,n.rt by allowing a 1{f9t1D ....o r l<l...OI: lwod OU .. rope.

t hen In IlOIUmatioll: Lila power It NUl Lr .. n ~m l t ",e any II.'lven
oJpooJ \O'e m u ,.t llrllt deduct from thb. wor ki ng load t h "
.",ount &rial np: fro m "oonrnfujI;&l tenlllOIl" at t h.. t ~peed.
Til" re,UAInh ljl; load a 1'a ll a ble mu lti plied lJy t h e 1IJ'lt'f'd of t he
rope will t he n re prMen t the ma x im u m a",ount o f worll
tbe rope III ('Ap"bl e o f t ranllJUltlin ll: w ith tho ....o rklo ll
itl'8luo allowed.
Oplnlo". ma y d iffer ILl; to tllfo ... o rl<lnll: IOU"1lU which It III
;H'rml....tble to Impotle on repeL H, however, we " '00111.' ..
w Orklojl; "t.-- of llOOIb. per "'lUll"" In ch of ~tlo n, .. o d
take t he ... "ll(ht per foot run to be Ol!'i,j', whlch -om
la ir ly ..Ith ropell In p"""t loe, It wlll btl foulld that the
m adllHIP I po..er I.. tranflmlu<'ld at .. -r-I or about
t. !OlIt. per min ute. Any inen.-.e of Il~ beyond t hl..
point w o uld r "",o lt In .. d lm ln n tl o ll 0 1 the llOw "r ( ....n ...
rnl ttt!<t . OOeaUJMI tbe" e..-olrltulQll t .. muon ~ would dl m lnillb
the . t...,..... . .... llable for power pu r t - In t h" ro pe m ore
r.....ldl y t ha n the 8peed would In,~, ~nd h"D~ ae
rejn.rd .. llD ..... r tr.. n "miK~ lon. _ollid ",,"u,,", JUore 10l'l'l f h.. n
ll;.. in.
II .. hll(her ... orl<\l11I: ~ tr<ltl .. 011 the rope tlnt.o 200 lb. pet
Ilqnal'll tnch be f ..l<en tilen th" .. ~ tor mu: imum flOwer
trAo8m h." lon .o ~d h" rna '" [h"n t ,800l t , per minUle, b UI
It "hould "" <'le..r ly recegu tsed t h .. t tl ll_ hlll:h"r "peed"
Involve .. rApid I nc~ in t he et re.... on the rope rrom
"ef<ntrlfuI(AI een eto» ,. 4.... .. tated , It Inc"",_ " e t h...
"'lUM.. 01 the " ~I. Wit h t he w el l(h t 01 rope ....s u rn...l a
.. ",\Ill! or .. litt le ov er H,ilOO f t. l"'r m in ute would , In lac t,
MO"'" ... lit re ,," or 2011lb, per 8IIU"~ Inch on t .be ro pe !rtolll
.. oontrlfujl;Il1 tenercn ' ...lolle, and If t.t",t. W Il r .. 110 1'1 w or k lu l(
loa d allowed there would btl no ' ""rICIIi !l.ft ror tll" trail" ,
mh... lon 01 power.
T he Practical Limit to Speed o(Ropes.·ln ro pe drl ..lnl!
IOlltAUatioo. w e hllve not only to oon"id.r lhl'l ..tre .... In the
rap" ba t ..1"0 t hILt .." t up by centrilu l{lU..cllon In Ihu rllll 01
t h" d rl .. 1nll:culle y tre eu. Theee .. ru .. In.u:w.t In .... ri .. bly hullt
up of caet ru n . alld with t hi" m a u. r la l It I.. II0t wtse 1.0
exceed a linear "peed Of 5,000 It . poor mln ul .. 11l t he ri m. I n
ac tu a l mlll -d rl .. lnll; pra et lOllIt ranI/: .... l rolll 4,000 f t. to 1i.00J1t.
On e or t ... o In "talla t ioo" hne btlell tltted up III wh l" h I he
ro~ Illue been ru n at a _ipeed oti,lXJO II. per minute, Thill
speed, howe..e r, ill exeeortonet..."d n ..........II.. tee the use of
"'"'Oul/:ht Iron a nd "pedal con"frl1~lonof the drl ..lnll: pulleJ,
...hil e It , hol1ld be clea rly undeI'Rtood thaI It c.. onOt be
l'f'ICanlN 1M the best d ri,.i nll: "poled, unl_ a Oll1eh hl l(h e r
loa.d t ha n l!Oll lb. per eq. In. be taken ... the -01'1<101{ ..t nllU'l.
Workinc Su. . on RopeL -ln l/:llIl.era l lUlll pr&Ctk:" In
th ia count..., t~ _orkinor ..tt_ On m"",,, <I,.,..,. no' , ...... ru l••
ROPII. DR IVING.
eaceee uno 10< d ') In. where " I.. the dl • ..,eu:r 0 1 t b.. rope In
Iud,,,,,, TI,I" oorr6llpond. to the .tre.... 01 .I.>out llOO lb. per
oqu,.n' ln d , lIlIIIume<! in th " e:r.n.ple w .. ha..e talu.n for
pu rpcee of lIlull tra llon. Thbl IIlr_ j{l ....... a very Jllrjl:e
factor of . fet,. for the rope. Teo. r.a of t wo cotton ropee.
1 ·~l l n. and l '6a In . d iameter. by K lrkald,.. ahowed an
••e rAfl:1l br klnlC IIt r...... of .bout 6.:iOO Ill. per IKltlafe inch
o f lIeCtton nd an e aten.. lon of 1:1 p"r r e n l .t ru ptu re .
Kl[perlennl. how e"" r. ll'Oe8 10 ..how Ihat a low wo rkiu)l:
"tn_In a rope I• • w ble one. It m.....nll 1_ friction a nd
e...,. runnlnll". t-l<Itwlit l.. alway6 well to h,,"e a rnarwn of
rope pow er. Ho~ are 1_ (';08l1y than b..-kdo....1 l6.
If l6Od" lb. ::: l!OO lb. per roquare inch be taken A8 the llafe
....orkinll: lItr _ then 4.!lOll ft. per minute ill the eeee IlpeOO
for IlU"laM of ro~. an d the fo llowinp; table I'lI!pre&eDta t he
pow"n w hi ch dlll"reut IlIJ!ell of ro~ ..·m tUD~mit In•
•J>f!Ml.. r lLDll"ln ll' frolU 4.000 to 5.000 ft.. ppr mln u'....
P ower Tranl!lmJtted by OrinDA, R o pee.
{Centrifugal tensio n tabn in to aooou n t I
Olllmete. of 11,,,1'" i" h.rbooa.
Si:e~
I
I 1/ 1
1/
1
1/
I 1/ I t
II
Kqnt...l."t Diam.ter In MUilmet.., •.
II 1
a
~,
min.
::~~J 28/ 1 32 / 1
35
1
37 .
0YfW
Ho.... po ..... l....n'mltt.-d
14·8 18 ·7 ,3-2 28· 1 33· 4 39·2 4S'S 59· 4

' 000
" 00 IS·O ts-e ,3-5 28· . 33·7 39 ·8 48 ·0 00 ·0
. 200 rs-i 19 ·1 23·7 28~ 3.... 39·' 48 '3 00 ·'
. 300 IS·2 19·2 23·3 28·' 34-2 40 ·2 46 ·6 60·8
..00 IS·3 19·3 23·' 28·' 3... 40 '4 48 ·8 8 1·2
• 500 15·3 19·4 ,4-0 29·0 3-1-5 40 'S ee.o 61· 4
"00 15·-4 19·4 2·H 29·1 3.... ,,~ " ,1 8 1·S
"00 IS·4 19·5 24·1 29·' " ·7 40 ,' 47 ·2 6 1·6
.800 15·4 19·5 2"'2 29·' "·7 40 ·8 47 ·3 81 ·7
. 900 is·of 19·5 24·1 29·' "·7 40·7 4" 2 6Hi
5000 IS·4 19·4 24·' 29·1 ,.~
'0' 41, 1 'I~
some muers o f driving ropes. itlSt~ ot adoptmg •

definite worlcing stress tor all speeds. take a I f in . rope ..,
• standard and allow 10 H.P. per 1,000 ft. of speed, a nd
a llo w a proportionate working lrtre!!I!l on other ropeD.
4-10 ROPE DRIVING
.L
"
<6'
BELT DRIVING
BtnlD~h. Thickneu, and Work1ng 5 t r_.-T he
Itrrnl{th o( luther belting Yarl"" ~tJ1 with dltl"e r.
e ut hide. and the part trom wh ich it I", CDt. Ita
D l tlm.l~ tenac ity r an/l:ea (rom "bout 3,000 lb . to 5,000 lb. pe r
~D &rn Inch of ....et lon. T he ac tual teDlL('lty of ~ ml leA A
be lt .., how e ver, Is rt.'d uced t o a hout one -t hlec of t hls.t t h@
JOIOt8, whi ch m a y be ce mented, laced, or elveted, &.C.
The t hlckne.... of 81 01Ol:1e beltl! varlea fro m h to .;. Inc h
..nd double belta trom I to &Inch. In order t.h-.t belt.. m ay
wear well t he wor k illll: te ollmn or pu ll In the ti g ht aide
mu~t be low, say not more than 400 Ib. pe r &qO&r<l Inch
tn th.. ca- o f bellA which hav .. eerueeted and llllwnjotnr""
and i'75 lb. pe r Rquartl locb for thQll.e whleb are "I"'pl,
l&«ld. I t I", mor... ec nvemeer lor ulculatlon to expre"" t he
",orklojl( tllo"IOD pe r Inch of width, and on thl" b."I" t he
lollo wio g are the wo r kl llg "t.--" which may b6 "llo w"cl
Inr ..ariou " th lck ne..""" o f be lh:-
Ord Ina r y 1I101l;1e ben ", Mllb.
Lig h t double b6ltll, 70 lb.
R ea ..,. clouble belt.11, IlOlb.
Unk lH'It.A 110, thick. 42 lb.
., in... 48 lb.
in. 57 lb.
l In.
in.
lin.
(111b.
ill lb.
90 lb.
U T : workl nl': te oAlon per Inch or wi dth
P :: neree power tl'a ll"mltted by helt,
S :: " pee d o f he lt In teet l' er mln ut ..,
w ..... ld t h of belt,
_ P x ::13.000
- TxS
"
P "'W~&irs s =r:-Txx~~
Length of B el ta. - T be rol1owl"lt formo la, gl ...m tb.
rad io Aof the polley" and the dllliallce bet ....en two /lhattl>
Rl..ell the lelll':th ot belt eeq u tred r-c-
R = HAdIOll of lURe pu lley . c = Cen t re d illtance .
,. :: .. " mall L = Totalle nJtth.
1" 0" op en bclt-
L :: • (H + ,.) + ! "'~+TR - ,.ji
or for t'JlJ.nl r>UlU'II/1
L .IR+ rl+2".
F or cr~ud btU-
Total llln g:th L '" ... (R ... r ) + Z v· ....~It ... ..1- •
44 2 BELT DR IVIN(;
Speed. or Belting .-On ord lnar, ~hop 1I11 t'! .. har t" t be
• .,Iocit, of the belt" VlOri",,,, from l , t~lO ft. t o 1.500 ft . per
m i nute . Mnc hlne tool belt./! vary from 1,000 (t , to :1,300ft.
per m l nn t e.
Centrifugal Force of Belts.-A t t h.. ord lna r, velocltlfl>l
edepted ce n t rlf u~ action does Dot waterlally aff~t the
po w er t ran " w it Ud. At Ilpe<lds of about3,OOO ft. pe r mi n ute,
and u p w a r d .., however, the ac tion of thlll force t .. od" to r eo
dnce the amounl of powe r the belt hJC&pRhle of lransw ittl n jt,
Double Belts, i .e.. those from I to ~ In . Ihi<'k , am u eed
... he ... &lIinl(le belt would be o f lnrollveniellt width. T he,
are made by cemf'ntloj!; two Illrapt'l of IMther toKethe r, a nd
then lOfl ... loll: or riuting them about cue r i vet to each 3 or
4 lIqulOre Inches or belt. Doubre I""ll.ll are not Ml pliable and
shou ld not. If poulble. be e m ployed on pulle'll much le/l.I
tha n 3 feet In diameter.
Link Belta.-O wln l/: to th e ir greete r IItreo Kth a nd
t eJcJ bill t y. Iiu k beltll are Kuperior tc ordl nll.r y belts at 10...
I t>e",:h, aud can be u....d on Ilmaller pu lle y.., Thei r open
eha l'll.cter ateo pe r m itll of til" e-qcapll of a ir, II. nd probahly
u !Jillts t hei r adhesion. "\t hl j!;h veloc ltiell thei r j(rea t <lr
..elg h t. re nd er them u lle l""lI, i ll co neeque nee of th" actio n
of <'tIntr lfuKal Ioece.
Compound Belts.- Th lll "y,.lem conlll,. t.", 0 1 l ,laein!t
In depllud e nt bollt", upon M.c h othe r. Me ...."". Tulllll etete
tha t in a t,,~t mad " , n rs t. w ith e, 81nloC\ol belt., a n d .. [wrward"
p lllcillloC .. no t her bol t u pon t h e ft....t. show ed Il. I/:ll.lo of iO pe r
eentIn the amoun t of po w e r t r a nKIllItl.e d. For heavy lon d s
the 1l<lv.. ntOI(8 at t h lll SYllteru is o1>vlol1 ",
Blip of Belts.- 'l'h e veloc ity raL lo ot p u ll"y", d r iv en b y
b"ll... I.. not ex actly proportion&! to th " dhu'letfln o n socouut
ot the Kltp ot the bel l ; t h l'" r&n ll:"l1 fro m 1 to 2 per eem,
Belt Pulleys ehcutd be w ide r t hAn t he hel t, And the
rim lIhou ld ue oonVl:\l< to kee p the be lt Iu t he cen tre ,
about ito! Inc h of col,,·e Jit)' Is u llu all y allo wed In
pulle ys up to 12 inebell .. Ide. The r a t io o f t he di a mete n
of two pu lley'" ..hleh ..ork toge t her Ilhould n OI eJ:~ed
9 to I. The dilltance apart Ilho uld If poulble be 8u ('h
t.ha t I h e an' ot ronl&<'t OD th'" IIm",II"" p u lle r I,. not I" ... Ihan
1M d"ll. It t he an: of contac t I", 1_ th.. widt h o f Ib e belt
"'hould be Ine...,lUM'Id. T he d iame ter of pulley", I", _!dom Ie»l!
than 110 tlmllll t he Ih ldrne8!J ot the belt In the <,a.~e of o rd i
an,
n ary belt4, or :it) t i m es the thkkn_ot li nk belta, that i'" iI
re&lIOllable amou nt of power- u. belnj( t r&mllllilted.
Strstlgt1ul of DifI"erent Belt Join tB. - The follo_lnp;
Klvea t h e result ot experiment.....Ith new IMth"" bel li ng
to d "" ...r m ln " 1.1'0" llU"f'n!lth at dlff",.,...."t 1IOf!"" of joln"'
IlI\LT~DRI VING 443
To tea r 1IOl W do ub le llll&t her belt _ _ __ ,..

To tear t h e ljlLme belt at I5tn. _rfed aDd cemented ''''
~ pllce . sc
To t ea r t hll llalll e bett at r iveted epuee _ . eo
To te~ r out ~ pah nt) IIplral llteel· lre joint w it h
r bide bluge
To teer out br • ire lad':'lI:
.
. "ss
To tear out ordinary raw·hide laclnjl;
To tear out b r&88 s t u d s
.
. '"
OJ
Woven BeltiDg.-Drlv iDjI; beltJI .. re \lJlualJy made of
INother, but ",oven ma[eriall~ new ,,1110 l..lltely u86d. The
fellc ...lnjl; ad ntajl;e8&re claimed for woven be ltinjl;: H I
Great .t....0ll:t with ilexibility_ (lll I t ill unatfected by
'arillllooa 01 t.,,,,pen.tnre. water, IIteam. c h e ullcal fum"""
etc. (3) In eonsequenee of ita .uperlor atreojl;th , • much
thi n nl'r belt ma y he Oiled.
Lamin ated Leather Bel ting .- T h lll belt III con
8t ru ct<ld o f a n u m ber of lltripll of lea ther throug h which
holes have be"n:..run('hed Ilt regu lar Intervale, Th rouJl:b
the"" ho le... th....., I. drawn 110 that the IItrlr al'<' atltched
to fl;e t h er alld fnrm a belt nf any require. wid t h. T he
Ilplleln!l: IlI lIlad l! In the ""'Ille maoner. with the rellu lt that
the be lt i ~ or a u n ifor m thiclme.... throuJ(ho llt, nnd ra n be
m a d e end lll'tll, of a ny lenJ(th, and [rae from "U IIpllcllll(ll.
Cork Inserta tor P nlleYII.-Wbere pu ll ey s Il.re o ver
Imu led or ..llppillJl: OCCU l'>l cork In ller h. m a y he a pp lied
....itb l':ootI rellu ltll. It III_ how eve r, "h"ol u t" ly ue ce......... y
that t b e ec rke e re ap plied unde r ecmprusefon.
Hints on Belt Drl ving.- A comfor tll.hl tl work lnl': 8tra in
(or a 1Iingie be lt I.. ahou t 50 Ihll. for every Inc h or bread t h,
..nd for II. do uble be lt t!U I b~ . A hel t r Ullnllljl; wi th the ItOlt
O"",h IIlde ll~ &t the pulle y w ill wear lou/(ell t. When II.
pulle y hMI the appe ara n ce cf pcllehed 1I1.1l't1r. then be eur e
the be lt III llUpplnJl:. To c ure thJ.JI apply bl-lt greeee. Th e
dr l'fIDlo( side or II. bel t should be kept cla m Uly. Th e be lt
will t he n r u n IIllL("k w it ho u t Blip. When a belt Jl:etllllll.t u rated
with WlUItt'I oil apply ground chalk 10 ahllorb t h6 oU.
Tb ln bette, .... wide ILl!l possible give the ' - t nllIulta wor k lo li:
l'tir t ieally. A thiek nn.i.ea1 be lt will not hUll:the pullep', A
CfOII3 be lt " hould Dot be put on the pull eyll in lIuch a ..-a y
IIJI to o::attlle the end" of the SpliOO8 to m"'&t at the p laoe o(
CfOlllll n ~ 11 -no the jointll wtll econ tear up.
Cal culating Speed of Pulleys an d GeIol1L __ I ll lIny
sy lltem of PUll"yll or M-rl< the general rul e holdll that the
pI'Od llCt of the dillmetera or DUmbe r of ~th of the d rhiu,l!
..-heel" and the n umber or revolutklnB J>i<r mlnuteof the lIrat
.!river m ullt equal. the product of the diameters 01" number
" f t..eth of th ll t1 rl'f..n ..-h...lll and t .... Ullmlo>-"f .....ollltYw:i.
444 CHAIN D RI VI NG
~ mi n u te of t he 1,," ( d ri Ver! w heel . Th e l oll ow inj! r ll. l e~
life hll.lled u pon (h" above prlnciple:
"_ , d Dia m. of d rIve r x re".. ot d r h 'er
• ..,.'0 •. 0 r lv,," '" - -- Dlam. ofllr! ven- - -
D ' d . Diam. of dri ver )( rev.. or drher
lam.o 1'11'. .., '" Revw. ot d rlveD
Ue f dn Warn.. ot d r-h en" re '!'. . of d r iven
..... 0 yer = Dl101ll. of d rher
HI td J !.>tam. or drh.m " re.... o f drlvO:!o
am.o r .."', = - Re o f d rive'.
To /1M l ilt! 'purl u-h.m Ou'u mor" .1laft. art! Co>lo ,
" "cled b~ bdu:_
KULa : Multiply tOI(ether thO' Dumlwor of ....".... pe r ruinate
of t be lint d river. and the diameters o f eech d river and
dlTlde by the prod u ct of the d.la.meb'1'1I of the d rl ...eo p~ Je,.llo.
The quoUl'ot will be the n u m ber of revll. per m lnu t<'l of the
IAllt d ri ven.
C HA IN D R IV I NG
Chain drives are a positive means of power transmission
and their efficienc)" is high. I n the case o f a roller c hain
d rive connecting t wo shaft<; the efficiency has bee n shown
by t est to be as high as 98·... % and to be main tained
throughout t he useful life giveo adequate lubrication and
satisfactory running co nd itions . Chai n d rives are co mpact
and may be used successfu lly at centres too short for
belts a m I t oo lo ng for gca:rs.
T he Io rmc r popularity o f inverted-too t h a n d b loc k
cbains has given way t o the a lmost excl usive u se of b ush
ro ller chains for most power t ransrulssion applic a t ions
si nce t h e la tter t vp e of chain is IJcnM"lllly more r obust,
ch ea per t o manufacture and OCCUPll~ a somewha t sm al ler
wid th for a given power capacity. T he adva n tages of
mass-production methods combined wi th strict control
o f heat t reatment an d mc:ehanical fits e nable such chai ns
to be produced economically and to provide a rel ia ble
rneat1ll of power transmission.
Standardisation of roller chai ns bas been achieved both
in Britain and the USA and these standards have been
followed in other countries. The relevant British Standard
is No. 2"..8:1962 and this standard gin.. not only detailed
specificatiollS for the ranges of bush-roller chain. but also
d imensions and tolerances for wheel rims to geu with
these chains.
De sirable C o n d iti o n s for A p p li cation of Chain
G earin a _- The approximate limits tbat us ually obtain in
CH ...IN DRI VING 445
t he llConom ica l application of ro lle r c hain geari ng are :
D ri ve Ratio: Nonna! maximum is 6: 1 b u t ratios up t o
8: I can sometimes be prov ided.
Pinion Speed For normal drives ha vin g pinions o f 17-25
(R PM);' teeth the maximum RPM depends on t he
chain pitch as follows:-
Pilch (ins.) Mu:. RPM Pi tch (ins) Max. RPM
·375 5000 1-5 900
-5 3750 1-75 700
-6"...5 2750 2 -6 550
·75 2000 2-5 .50
I .() 1500 3-0 300
1·25 1200
:O:umber of teeth in wheels : Pinions outside the normal
range 01 17- 25 t eeth may be used in suitable circum
sta nces p ro vi ded the wu:imum speeds give n above
are red uced pro-rata. Wheels up to 150 teeth may be
used in most Instances.
Ce n t re D istance Between Shaftll.-Chaio drives a re
suitable for use over a considerable rango of centre d ist
ances a nd particular drives have been used !lucce.'lSfu Uy
a t centres exceeding 30 teet and a l!lO with whee l teeth
a lmost touch ing.
Wh ilst the ideal drive wou ld h ave a chil.in length 01
th e o rder of 100 p itch es. in p ract ice it has been found
th a t t h e most economica l drives havin g regard to both
firs t. cos t a nd chain lif e are obtained with the following
p re ferred centre di stan ces :
Pi t ch (ins.) -375 -5 ·625 ·75 1'()
Centre d istance 1'6' 2' O· 2 ' 6' 3' 0' 3' 6'
Pitc h (ins.) 1-25 1·5 1·75 2 ·0 2· 5 3·0
Centre distance 4 ' 0' 4 ' 6 · 5' 0 ' 5 ' 6' 6' 6' 7 ' 6 ·
AdJu s t me nt.- 1t is advisable to provide su itable
means o f chain adjustment to take up either 2% of the
chain length or 2 pitches, whichever is the smaller. \ Vhere
possible adjustment by shalt movement is ge nerally
preferable b u t in other cases a toothed jockey equal to
or larger tha n the smallest pinion in the drive should be
adjustably mounted and arranged to gear with the un
loaded strand of chain so that at least three teeth are
in engagement.
Adjustment should be checked in terms of the total
to-and·[ro movement a t the mid-point of the unloaded
446 CHAI N D RIVI NG
strand , measured a t ri g ht ang les to t he d irecti o n o f c hain
mo ve men t and in the plane of the drive. If th is distance
is "A" and " L" is the ho rizontal span o f the unloaded
strand a general reco m me nd a t io n is :
A ....!:....- for steady drives
25
A --io for impulsive drives
xcee that in no case should A be smaller than pi~t

Dlspollit ion of drives an d Di ~tl on o f Rotat lon.
Drives may be ounnged to run borizontally. inclined or
vertically. In general, the loaded strand of chain may be
u ppermost or lowermost as desired. Where the lie 01 the
drive is vertical or very nearly !Kl. it is preferable for the
pinion to be above the wheel : however, even with a
dri~'e of vertical lie it is quite feasible for the pi n ion to
be lowermost pro vid ed care is taken that correct adjust
ment is maintained.
Clearance (In inchcliIl.- The minimu m radii to aJlow
adequate clearance from t h a t portion of the chain in
con tac t with the whl.-'els, are : -
Clearanc" ra d ius
(to allow for pitch "x tension) ·5 (1 -05 PCD + P)
(to all ow chai n t o pass tips
of whee l tee th) ·5 PCD + ! ·34P
where PCD = pi t ch circle d ia met er
P = pi tch of chain
The recommended clearance to a llow for sail: Is ·375 · per
foot 0 1 centre distance in the case of drives of vertical lie
and for t he upper strand o f o ther drives. For the lower
strand ef drives other than v ertical lie the recommended
clearance S is-
(·375 · per foot of centre distance + p) x F
where F _ 1·0 for centres lip to 7 It.
t'l •• of 7ft. to 11ft .
1-2 11ft. to 15ft.
1-3 15ft. to 19ft.
1-4 19ft. to .20lt.
Note: The position at which S is measured depends on
the lie of the strand. If N ill the distance of positioo'
CIlAIN DRIVING 4 47
S Ircm t he point of conta ct 01 t he chain with the
lo wer wh eel and l if t he length o f t he "free"
s tr and , thl:n-
N = -{- for an inclination o f O· to 40" from the
,
ho rizonW
I
I 70" to 90"
T
The la teral, or side, clearance is sometimes determined
by wh eel boss dimensions. Where this is not so it is recom
mended that a clearance is p rovi d ed at each side of t he
chain track dime nsio n o f :
·5- fo r centre dis tances up to 4ft.
·75- " of 4ft. to 101t.
1~ " over 101t.
L ub rlcatioD.- Lu b ricatio n of t he wo rking joi nts is
esse ntial l or chain geari ng. The most effective fonn of
lubrica ti on is to enclose the drive in a case and pump a
constant s tream of oil on to the in sid e fa ce of th e chain
from a su m p to which the oil return s vi a a filter. An
alternative m ethod is to run the ch ain through an oil
bath. Where t his is impracticable due to the pinion being
lower most and of smail diam et er an oil t hrower d isc of
larger diameter than the pinion is sometimes used to
direct oil 00 to the chain .
T he form of iubrication to be 'a dop t ed and the rate of
oil de livery required depends on the size of the drive a nd
the sp eed a nd powe r transmitted. Detailed reco m mend
ations arc ge nerally given in manufacture rs' eaWogues,
b u t as a g ene ral gu ide it may be assumed t hat pump and
sump lu brication is necessary for pinion s peeds GXcei:d.ing
50% o f t he maxima g iven for ch ains o f ·375 - to 3" pitch
and for a ll drives of 50 h .p . and above, where the normal
d esign life o f 15,000 hours is requ ired.
The most suitable lu b ri cant is a p u re mineral oil of
v iscosity rating depending on the a m bient tem perature :
Ambient T emperature SAE R.1.ting
°C OF (app rox.}
- 5 to + 25 25 to 75 30
25 to 45 75 to 110 40
4S to 65 110 to 150 50
448 C HAIN D R IVI N G
F or slow ru n n ing d ri ves wh ich am nocess<lrily exposed
anu wh"re drip-Iee'\ lubrication by o il is no t acce ptable.
chains should he relnoved periodically, t ho roughly cleaned
by scrubbi ng in paraffin and allowed t o d ry. T h ey should
then be im mersed in a hath o f p ure mineral grease of
med iu m weight, the grease be in g hea t ed su fficiently t o
assist penetration into the ch ain join t!!. The grea.<;e s ho uld
be allowed to cool betore t he chain is remo ved and surplus
grease wipo-I [rom t he outside. Wheel teeth should be
cleaned before refitting th e chain.
grecrlo n.c-Cbaf n wheels must be mounted o n ri gidl y
su pported shafl.8 which must be parallel a nd preferabl y
h ori zon tal. The wheel t eeth must be correctly ali gned.
W h ere possible, wheels should be placed ctcee to bearings
and must run truly o n t h eir shafts. Care shou ld be taken
that the chai n jo in t is properly leCured. Before starting
up t he drive, t he c hain should be lubricated and a djusted
to gl\'" t he co rrect amount of slack.
Malnte nll.ace.- P criod ic examinat ion Is advisabl e to
asce rtain: (a) if correct alignment o f the wheels h as been
m a intain ed ; (h) if undue chain elonga t ion due t o we ar i~
tak ing place; (cl if adj ustmen t to red uce chain slack
is n"""led ; (d) if t h e chain req uir es cleaning ; (e) if lubrica
t io n is be ing effectiv ely ca rried o ut, I mproved service
usuall y resu lts when cha ins a re remov ed frum time to
t im e for etcantng, a nd, where a ppropriate, re -Iubricafion
u S in dicated a bo ve.
Wh en fitti ng new chain, a lways ascertain that undue
wea r h a s n ot ta ken p la ce on the t eeth of the wheels.
Brltlllh S tan d a r d Chains a n d Whee lll._ · DS,228 wa s
fu lly revised in 1962 af te r t h e p revious re v ision ha d s tood
for 27 years without a mendmen t of a n y ki nd. The present
standa rd speCitms"· ;r'range of· 22 . bu ~h-l"Qll cr •.chains in
standard pltch-.-.froti1 ·..31S' , (8 mm. ) to 6·0 ' III SImp le,
duplex a nd triplex (C?~ a ria in cludes fu ll dimensional
p a rti cu la rs as well 'a'S" bte:1k ing istreng tha. proof loads,
measuri ng I.....,JJ; a llot: length:J.C;,Curacy. . Also in cluded in
t he standard are 'wheel nm p r06 1e diniellSion.!l a nd toler
ances with rnetbud~ "6i w_ "'l rcmr;:(l..t-i.l!~Jooth ga p form
Iimil.8together with dimensions of rotary and rack generat
ing cutters. Appendices give wheel pitch circle diameters
f ro m 9 to I SO teeth and details of extended pitch chain s
(!limple form only) and wheels in wh icb the ro un d parts
from the standard pi tch chainll are u".,.:l t o make chains
of ",-ice the pitch.
C IIA I S PllIVl S G 4 49
It i ~ no lo nger considered fea.si b le to reproduce here
t ha cOl1lprel1l'nsive dat a given in BS. 228: 1962 a nd au y
atn-mpt to summarise this or to p ro v ide extracts from i t
wuuM " 'su it in t he omi.....ion of importa nt item... It is
l h,-rd o re reco mmen ded tIm! t he standard he consu lt ed
fur a ny f"rU"'r info rmation requ ired.
Amc r tcan Si u m la r d Chains and " 'he<>ls._ D imt'lI_
sin na l and strc"Rth specifications fo r b ush -roll...r chai ns
a m) wheels an: gin'lI in AS." specification B.29. I- I 963.
l le'<ign an d construction is similar to t hat of chains to
British Standard lout the gea ri ng diml"n.uons are n ot
'''<J ui u l,-" I in every case and derivatin's o f grea te r width
th a n Irip le ll' are indu,!("<l. Chains t o Am ...rican s tanda rd
are manetaceurea in the UK P.l.ainly for ",p lacement
pu fll'OSC'l and Jor supply to markets ""h..rc American
»tanda rds a rc adopted.
I n gcn ..ral . chains to llri l isb standard a re t he correct
ch oice for t he majori t y of transmission a p pl icat ions ,
",b..re a high s tandard of pt'dormancc and lo w rate of
wea r are t he rll iing criteria.
Th~ Ilbewe article Oil CIIAIN D N I VI NG has

/,rn. rf l.' i.'r ll a mI brought up 10 dilln "y Ih e
coll,. I, ''<Y oJ R r"obl ChaillS Limiled, lI1" nchr"lrr
AUTO & O~OA~

"£NGtNFER
f..a. au-X J.f., . ,!1i,rr lliC"
'5 :\fA
'50 LIFTING CHA 1N ~
(0 ) M .u ulUu BUll WORKING LoAlI S or S nORT }.1N£

C UJ.JN H.
Th e follo wing table se es ou t th e muimum safe wor k ing

loads of th e mo re comm on . izes ot I I'or t link chaioe of
good q Ulllity chai u iron.
T ABLB I
M axi mum Sof e Work i n g lead in. TORJ and

Cwh.
Si u »t
C~oin .
a.e., T WlH t l1 l1 cd alifl,lI 0 1 di ffer ent o'l'll1'lu.
di umet n
fJ! ir on S in gle
i .. inchu. le g.
1/. ... _
,y
T. C. T. C. T. C.
7' -15 - I<
I"i\ I A - ra _ 10
~ ~
T. C. T. C. T. C.
- 7
3/8 ... 16 1 I 13 112 I 9 I 3 _16
112 ...... 110 3 0 2 17 212 2 2 I 10
5/8
:3/4 ...... 2 0' • 13 4 .10
3 7j 615 6 10 • 0
.5 17
3 0
.15
2 6
3 7
7/3
I
...
...
... II,
4 ll ~ 9 3
6 0
t
9
12' 0
817
llIL
15 a 14 12
18 15 18 2
7 18
10 7
13
16 5
,
0
e
10 14
13 s
9
9
.II
0 0
7 II
9 7
H ...... II it 2'1 13 21 17 19 12
za 8
16 0 II 7
:1
...
13 10 27 0 26 I 10 I 13 0
... 15 16 31 12 3012 27 8 22 8 15 16
I, ... 18 7' 3615 35 9
II
s ... ,.
... 21 0
0
0 "'I<
0 46 , 31 16 25 19
36 10 29 I'
41 11 ll3 1S
18 7
,.
21 I
0
F or other sius use the followin g simp le r u le :_ Max imum
tl'or kiuj:l Iond=6 d t .to ns, ,,-here" d ' i l th e diam eter (in
ioc),l's) of the iron of ,,-hich the lin ke nrc mado. Eum p le,
. 'hat is the mll.x imum workin g load of a 3-i nch chain?
10h ximum Safe Work iDg Load=(! d' toll a= 6 x3' tt>DS=
6 x 9 to nl=5 4 ton i .
L I~'T11'G C R All'S -l5 1
(b) M INUltlM S I U I or Sfl OItT LINI Cnll,.1 rua Dll fl KlIoNT
LoAO I .
Th e followinJt t a hle sets out th e minimum sizu of the

chaill.l whi ch ebculd be used for <lilfe rcn t h.ad...
T... BLI II .
Minimum S iu rll OA ai~ t o bt w td.

l_d
t o bt TlllrHtr",td din, af d iltrtn l a1lgfu.
l i/h d BiRgit
i ll Ton'
I"
and Owl,. ,lin".
,y ..J\ A A .c-;
T. C.
I
-_ 5
... 6/ 16
<0 ' 3/ 16 3/16 aae 3,'16 3{16 1/'
10
... &
1/4 1/4
5{16 I" 1/'
5/16
5/10
:l/8
- 15
I 0
1 10
... 7/16
... 1/2
1/'
5,116
alB
5{16
3,_
5/1'
Sll6
7f16
:1/8
7/16
7{16
I i2
, 0 ... Gl8 618
210
3 0
4 0
...
'" 1l /I G
3/1
... W{16
7{16
1/2
I"
' 18
'"'
1/2
9/16
5/8
1/2
lf2
9/16
5jl1
1/2
9f10
5.18
11/16
lI/lO
:1/4.
718
e 0 ... I5fJll Jl /16 11/16 3/. 13/10 15116
6 0 ... I :ll' 3/' tvie 7/8 1
8 0 ... 1.3/Hl 718 718 15(16 1 1.3M
10 0 ... i.snu 16/16 15/16 1 1.1l3 i.sne
16 0 ... UIB 1.3 (16 l.3/UI J.1/4 1:l/8 I.U ll 6
eo 0 ... 1.i /8 1.5116 1.5/16 1.7116 1.9/ 16 1,7/8
If in doub~ about thc ac tuul ...oigilt of a loed to be lifted
give t he bellefit of th o do ubt to tho , Iiog. aud uao a larger
liu to OOlur. safe ty.
Jl<oPf'Orlooed b, PfO.mi..,lOn 01 l.be eo.. ' rolle' 01 II .H. ll....li o.. ~u

0111"" 1l'UtD • I'Illlph",' on - No... 00 th.. A,oa' U I.JN<l ANO
to _h ic'h 00 .
-ni<'QI .....
.-d.... .......
(J~ lIr. or W R0I1GIIT II<ON C HAI N>!.,- F orn. 1105. 1' 111<::" 1<1. Il ~l
r..rred 101' lorlh... Itl t.o....U...
452 BELT PULLEYS
Prcporttc na or Belt Pulleys
U '" d l. mel e r 01 pu Uey .

A. '" ... Id t h 01 face = B 1"' to I ~.
B = w idt h olllei t .
e .. t h lclr. uegg of belt.
E = thlcknegll of r im = ' 005 lC J) + r '.
~' = cro wn or lace = i" pe r I ll " fa c",
O= !Of ,'.
11 = o f I ,
1 = wi dt h o f arm = ( '04 )( 1) ) of- ~,
J '" thlckn ,,~ g o f arm = ~ of J.
K = Lap"r of rhu = i 01 l;;.
L = m et.a l around bore = ,'. of bore.
O=\ ofl .
Ann•.
I ", wi dth 0 1 a r m .
J '" thldmeS>l of a r m ", I or I .
M .. radl u .. = t o r T.
N= r ad lu .. '" l of I .
Number of Arms Ln Pull ey&.

fl " to ~ 4 ~,
...r rna. S' to 16', S arw i .
' 4" to 31'1" ,:; a rml. 16' to 24', 10 a ......._
31'1" to 1Hl", 6 ar m.
'"
l h.>lM' I''''''''T Ihlll () ifh,r~lll L",.. t h c r Ut' Il11 wlU
Tnlll"m ;l I,..,r I n c h In W id th at ,".. ri uu" S I'c",b.
~l LiD ~ or Cba.., Bolt o.
,.,
.. ..
-
' 00
ace
ecc
' 00
soc
. 00
I
sec ., '·00
."
••
'- 27
."·00,
..,
"-es. "' " ·n-se" ."
·n
, 00
1·2 1
I ,~ tl
.ss
."
..,
H9
,,.
) ,70
1'9 1
.sa
'HU" ." r-ea
·n
." 00 1 ." n
'21
, 00
Ill!
'"
rec
. ,"
."-ss"
I ,. n I , -ss
2' 111
2 -45
·00
..
,,.,
1-16
2-1, 2-45
] -3 1
. ,.~
~
·00
, ~
I -:U
l - ~~
.~
~
.~
, 00
, ~
,~
Hti
1 ' ~2
' ·00
..
, ~
\ <;IlI
2 '1 8
10\1"
,., 1·5 1 2 -12
' 00 '"
2· 3:1
2 -73
'" 1-40
] -.5
1-6(1
,~
2 ·311 2 ',3
,.,
I I U\I 1'90 2'20 H I(l 3- 00
1200 , ss
255 H5 s-n 2-0 7 2 40 2 -81
, '"' H I' '"
,~ , 2 -76 IUS l ·ti 5 ' 00 2 '25 2'lIU 3'07 lH5
H OU 2' 12 3 2-". II:.! 1-7/l 2 -41 2' 110 ~ -3 1 ~ ' ''2
. 00
..
,-,
tsco
" 00
,~
aoec
221
2, . 2
2 ·511
2 ·7'
2·1l>l
3· .. ;1
3 ' 111
3 '39
' -lI l
H i2
4 -0 3
. -H
. 00
.· 36
4 -64
4,,,:
5 ' 111
5 45
[ ,9 1
2 'U4
2·16
2'2~
2-42
2 ·5 5
2' 111
2'33
2 -47
2 '6'~
2'711
2 -1/1
2· 59
2' 76
H I.
"1 1
3 -211
3' 45
' 00
3'2U
3 '4U
HiU
:10110
. 00
." ."
8 '5 5
3· 78
4'25
4 '4 11
. ·73
H it
5'""
5 .5
" 00 " \11 4·H .~ '13 2'117 ' -U5 HiS 4 ·20 HIt; 5·7 3
22 00 aaa H7 6 -VO , W 3·Z0 3· ~O H O s.ao fi -, KI
" 00 3' 4~ ' M 6·Z7 2' 93 3· 3 .~ 3 97 H ;o 3-4~ ij ~ 7
" 00
asoo
3· 64
3· 79
'00
.~
6 ' 33
6 ·3Z
3 -03
3' 18
3' 49
, ~
. , 15
3- 32
. 00
3-'11)
3'67
5·9 1
8 ·M
6 -62
-- ... .n
zseo 3 ·9 4
.4-H00 5-3~ ' ·00
,., ,,."W
3 -'U 3 ·711 4 -49 5· Zl) 6 '13 ' 00
5-13
.w,.",,, 6-311 7 ·;,0;
2700 ,~ .~ 5 ' 40
, ~ ,. ~ 3 -31 . ·73 3 -64) 6-6 Z H '
..
,.,. ,,,
. ~ 6-11l 7-111 3-3 2 3-67 4' 7M H '
. ~ .~ I- Ill 'M 3 -117 ,~
.- ...
3·31 4·75 11-16
," 00 e-sc
'"
,~ , ~ ,.~
6' 45 4 '73 8 -43
.. . .
.~ 1170 362 .-7 1 1:1·73
esoe '3-19" '"
4·77 '00 .~
'" 3 ·71
." .n
4 ·70 8 -M
,... ... "n ... .n I

', "n
.~ 7 ·2 1 ' 00 3 -7 1 HI7 ' M
asoc
.4·9500 1 7·3 1 '00 3-\3 a-er
., '·00
.-=1,..
7' 4(/
...
lHII 3 '03
,'- 24 '00 ,,,
,W ." 7-111 8-, 11
, ..
7'4 6 HI! 1I~9
5·0 3 7·5 4 ' M 3- 41
." 1
4' 13 11'4 1
ssoo ' 00 ,~
,~ " . I '"
1I S7 ,~
1 .115 3-"1
4-70
HI !
.n 1I-Z7
~
15 M A "
,
I~
e
"
I
~~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~~ ~ ~
~~ 9 ~ ~ ~ " ~~ ~ O
8 ~~ ~ ~~~~
_ _ _ ft~9~
_ _ ~ ft
__ _
I
I
•
'. ·"p Ul " l
'PO, j "011 ".1
B E ARINGS
Table or Distllnces Apart of Bearln«s. Centre

to Centre
O lam. " f
~hall..
- --
,.I ..•
~-
,.
0
Dkm.cl
Sbah.
,.
'j
.. ,..•
~-
11
Ula... . u,
Ilhatt.
,.7
0-
h-
te
•• ••
Ij 12 0 7j
I,
Ij
7 I
'j
• 12
OJ
"
• 0 eo
0
0
••
'j
"" • • "ee"
0
• "" • " ..
I 0 0 'j
•• ••• . •••
Ij 0 'j 0
'j 11
,'1
to I
"•OJ "re ••
0 12
Ij 11 0 17
The aboTe ta.bllll 111 caleulat«l from the tollowlnl1; formu la :

C_t""" = (; V d1:.meu. r of lIhiLft In Ineh llllo.
The strengths of Shalla a re propor tion a l t<l th e ellooll 01
th eir d ian lt' w.n,.
To dDd the power w hle b wl'(luj;tht ·lron IIha lUng ca n
tnm8mlt 11.>1 lI""t m over.
Th ~~ ~ of t ho dl ",n!.-~ r x rev olution.. ptl..!.I": l n uu. = II P
100 . •
N OTK.- A II II. IItlOOlld m over d IvIne by !lli an d 3rd mov er hy 7D.
To find the POW6/' wlilch Atool IIhatt lUIl: will tranllmlt
divi do by 1iO.
Stool llharUnj:( wlll treaemn from Ii to ~ tim..... l1..li milch
(J.P . lUI wrought-Iron "h a ft in j;t.
... SHAFTING
Power that Bte el ShartlllR

f'rolll • C&talO\l:ufI by M 8MIlnt. J ohn
•gi D I.I.MKT II:R
".'
.-
,i
'I
I I , I " I I I • I I'
II 'I 'I '1
UO_. POW .R~
-
.. ,. ,. I" ." . .. ,
."" ."" ,,'

,',
H
., Hi 21.
S"
.
.
. "
11"2 " 10'.
10.
181
10.
18"8
20"8
25'0
29"1
I
00
71
\00
II'
ee
G',
",,'
, ,\
. .
S,
Hl'1
Il'S
12"8
",'
..
14 '.
16'0
17'6
, 9<
.
..
IN
1~'6
2U
26"1
2:;-0
31'2
lIH
llU
31' 4
4\ '6
45"8
411'9
0<
10.
77 '10
tee
HI
,0<
\20
'"
12"\1
IS '1I " '"
20'8 28"S
37"li
'0'8 5" 1 70 II'
'"
'"
S"
10"'
\ 00 10 'S
15'0
UI"l
17'1 ." '"
22'4
2"0
25'S
30"5
32' 8
34'8
' S'S
46'9
60'0
58'2
82"f
66'5
te 12'
'20
187
' 92
20.
". " ",. ,". '".

170 11 '5 18"2 27 "2 37'0 5S"1 70'7 92 H ll 21'
100 12"2 is-a 28'8 39"2 66 '3 74'9 10'
' 00 12-8 20' . 30"4 41"3 1\ 9'4 \ 08 \
' 00 13"5 21'4 32"0 ras 83'2
62"6 10'
m
'"
'"
'" .
".
16'\1
18.6 . 24"1
26'3
sas
'" '"'" ,"..
36'0
'"
'" '"
U "O 70'S 93"4
'" . ,
66"4
59-S
18'1 10411
86" 114'4
820
...'" ". . . '" '" ...

,.
"0 20'S .0> ' 8 "0 61\ 'S U'7 124'8 182
70'; 101"e 1S5"t , /0
21 '\1 34"8 62 '0
'"
... ... ...".
m
10'
25'S
21 '0
28'7
. 01
37'5 56-0
' 0-2
m
45"t
'"
'" ...
,'". . , ,'".
00 ' 81-8
81'0
11 2"fi
n 'll
t OH
111 '2
145"8
IIie'O
12511 168"4
ISh t 17S'S
H O-e 181 '2
21'
.00
82.
sse ete
'"
'" 32"1
U ";
".
".
56.
'OS.
53·0 ". .",,,
lOS·.
10S-S
1411 >. li7 >0
16U
257
270
407
'"
SIlAP'TING
'"
will Transmit at Various Speeds
MoslCra ..e all d SODfl, Globe WorkR, Holton.
0 .. S IlAFTS .
"I • I " I •I I 1" I •I •I" 01 1
THBY \VILL TR.l.N~MIT
.1
109
125
109
166
20'
210 '16
..0
...
m
422
090 Oil '"
'"711 '"
1000
'" '"266 '"

1200
lOs 480 .91
'02
'"' 1021 1(00
146
164
192
200
225
'"333 '"
20' see
'89
-aa 50'
."
432
604
680
'" '922
617 16.
494
."
" ... 102~
112 5
1166
1812
1468
1604
1600
1800
2000
2200
'00
219 '" ".
'"50' 39.saa ste III '"
92' 1012 122~ 1760 2400
287
'65
'" .00
826
'on" "0 ." ... ...,,, '79...

'" '24 89'
16' 96'
10H
1181
1029 1266
1881
1484
1686
1S96
2041
2187
2600
2800
3000
" .., ...

'92 '92 891 1097 1350 1688 2388 3200
425 650 1166 1434 1741 24711
'". 840 0
......n, ...'" ... 86.

'"~
.00
.92
0"'
i78
831
.89
I OU
1099
1235 U U
1303 1603
13 72 HI87
1843
lU 5
2048
2624
2770
2916
3600
3800
4O110
501
92•
. , ."14' 912 1286
1080 1313
. 16 1188 isro
1543 1898
1115 2109
1886 2320
280~
2560
2816
8280
3645
4009
HiOO
60110
6500
.."......"." '"'"... ""

.41 16' 129 6 16t8 2058 2531 3012 4314 6000
1081 1404 1186 22211 2142 8328 4139 6500
H I 6 1612 1922 2401 2953 3684 5103 7000
1248 1620 2060 2672 31U 3840 6468 7600
1000 1881 1728 2197 2144 8374 4098 6832 8000
175 1068 1414 1836 2916 3585 4362 6191 8500
1126 1491 19U 2472 3087 3798 4608 6562 9000
" 0 1188 1680 2062 2609 8268 4001 4864 6926 9500
611 1'09 166' 2180 2HG 3480 4218 6120 1290 10000
.58
Ball Beartnge.
The IUl>!I. IrnportAnt (cl.on In the Muc<:e.u.hd U>Oe o r ballll
lo r Ih" purpose or <:Ilrryinl\: la.d~. wbether In t bru~t or
Journ.llx>&rln~, are perfection of ~h.pe and uniformity of
ebe: In other ....ord. It I......eull.1 thet all the ba1l1l of any
0011 ll.e .hould be ahaolutely round ao'\ of uniform dla
meter... any ball In a aerie.. that IR .,llheT larp:llf than Ita
companlo... or DOt perfectly Ipberleal will be roc-elvinp:
eitber cootllluoualy or oeeuloually more Ibn Ite proper
ropo rt lon 'It thllioad. Ibull apNdlly eau"luit the bearing to
r.
.11 throull:ho",,·rl-.:l.iut(. eeen thouJ(h the totall..d Imposed
1\1 ...ell ..Ithln tb...ea~lty of. peereet t-.rlng of that "ize.
Uall., ",hleh ran~ In "lite from l in. to ~ In. In diameter
ahould only be pu~h...ed (rom reli.ble mak" ra, ....ho uKually
p;uarantee them to be JM'lrfectly round and t rue to ... lthin·
on e-t.en -t h ou u.n d t b part of aD Inch.
Crushinl L oad.- T h e a",..ragll eruNhln~ loads bet..Peb
h a rd ..IIM Ilat plateA of .. Autc" .t",",l ball•• at manufactured
by thll Anto Mac h ln..ry Co.. Co"'entry, a~ ... fol1o.... ;
m..m.to, Cn,.hllli 1»......,.. eru.hlu. VIam.tot Oru,hiu~
'" u.u Loed 01 U.II Loood 01 Ball l..-d
I" In rh.... I" lbe. I" Inch" In 11>0. I" lnrb. In lbe .
I, ....•.• _ 100
4300
0 1"~ ._._._ 2::1500
\ ...• _ ••.:50500
I
l'
12:;1000
130 000
'I,i ...._ _ 5B,~(l
7650
" ••_._ ... 3!,r;OO
II . 411600
Ii
II
lj OOOO
100000
,', _ ltOOO t _._._ 6115 0() 1~ :.1.20000
ft .... ..••.1700n Ii ...•_.• 114000
A" lIUjl p l\lllltln t h l l{ thll aoovII In for m at i on the rono wtng
a.IJrl'l!:1l •.,,,ul1 " nee I/;I v60 of n ee r tee of hINts to a8cer tll-io the
ectu ...l hr"a klnl/; lIt renl{th of s tee r hai ll. nu, d ", It t the Hall'"
l'oly t lld lll ic I nMl.l tu t e, e nd record lld III a papc r read befor"
t he Am. Soc. o r Mllch. Enl!:in ee,". by Mr . F. J . ll8.I'Till.
'-'---
B,..kin. l-.:l Bill n ..... kln. ~ 1><1. ...n
Db"",' . ...I· on u.n. l lal plal...
••• ,~. ,~
I
'~ "'"
esse
4153
"
, eseo
sese
16710
reseo
"""
II...LL II E ... RlNG S 459
P ermissibl e Preuure .- T bll tollo.. h ll( .... Iu ... ot the

perruhlOdble p r1lall u ", on b&ll beouinp;a 01 h&rdened at«ll arl'
recommended by Prof. R. S tribecll: a~ the ""'lilt of h i"
eJ:pef'lmentA :
For DaU~ rUDnl01l: on nat 8urfacee P::: eood °
Por ban. nlnnlnll: In grccvee wblch ha ..e
a radio" of fd• .. .........._ .... 1· '" 1.2OJd·
Where 1'::: pennlM"lble load. In pound" pIlr ball
&lld d: dl.. ml'~r of t.l1. In inch......
Safe W orkin g Loads.-A~ .. r. " u lt of .....r. lul te-te
the S.K. F. Co. ha.... deriv.. d rhe Icllcwlng formol&, ... hleh iM
"ppllCfthlll to all m.1l:1IS of r&d ial t1 pe bft,1I l>f'arlnjta :
P= K,. ~ "I>'
...here P ::: _fll worklnl/,' load In II.....
K '" ro-eftkillot.
Z = t h.. numoor of balli, in the bP" rl oj:t.
U ::: diamete r of halls in it h" In ('h .
CO 'Kl"fI"IC llt~ rs,
Re .. ... J>l'r min '" 0

eo.emele Dt K = 4S'4
re vanfd r no In . ::: 100,1
Oo-e elent K 1:l' M
1<,
;10:1 '3
~IUO
12'1
1;;0
;.I\1·{)oI
asoo
10'56
:\110
U'2
3000
0118
."••
11100\5(100
8'5~ 57';
..
I ooc
15'6 2
'05 116
MOllnting.- Grl:!.. t eeee ebc uld hI:! t ak eD to en au ee tht
ra ".,11 bclug I.r uly concen t ric wi th t hll IIh aft epen w hich
they ere to work. a nd tha.t n o play I" ll.llo...ed. &II thi.. wo u ld
C"U"I:! the load to be .. pplled wi t h a blo.... T hill 18 p<ortleu·
lady nl\('&MM ry III t hOll., CI&"lli; where the 10fU'! ill Interm it t-eot.
betug alt.. matllly ap vll."j end r.,leased. o r whe n t be 10000d
com"" 10 eithe r dneeucn .... In r e ve r'llin jl; worm d rive... I n
thift lalt"r e..ooe either .. dcuble th rQ~t h"a rlnJl: should be
u ...ed . or two ~Injl;lll """ring'!. one OD e it her aide of t.he
...me bODlllol/,'.
L u b rlcati o D.- l t I.. _ n l lal that th " beulnlt" be "fI\.
d ently l ubrl.... ted.. Only the ""et Quality of lubrl.... u t, eu~ h
.... lIpenn oU. should be woed. perlectly tree from acids end
fo rl'lj{U matter. }o'or Blo... SJlI!'l'dJI thicll: llftI&'Wl lor ill s the
besl lubrl ....nt. and U tbe bearlna" are Il.1led when belnll
"Clled one application will be fouud to w.t
for .. oon~lde r .
ab e 11m". Por medium and hip;h ,,~ft oll ehould be 0...,.;1
pnlf"rably runnlnll: the bearinJl: In an oU hath.
Ball Bearinp are of three classes, vi e. :
{I I Thrust Bearings.
(2) Journal Bearings.
(3) Anllllliar Bearinp
4130 BALL BEA R I N GS
t hrust Beertnga, _T hee" may be dh' trtett tncc wuee
lE! nde a ceo rdln,l( to the for rol of the plate em p loyed , (l<) w ith
lIat plate havln,l( no groov es, (b) plate.. b av !l' ll: V KTOO \8e,
,,' r.11\t 88 ha vlo l/: r()u nd grooves, eac h or ....htc h m",. be
SoRA n d ivided Into t wo t y pe:!!, w ith DOe row of ballll, or with
t wo (Of pe rhap8 more l rewa ot ball... F u rthe r, e it he r of
the..e c1,,_ ma y be of t he ord inary k i nd . t hat 18 with the
to p and bottom f-.eM parallel, 01' o f t he "lMllt ",lIlminp; ~
kind In whic h t he 8eati ng Iaee of the botto m p la te te
sphe ric-al. tbus a llo w in p'; t he bearing to move u po n it>! seat·
ing 1IO t hat t he load ill equally dilltributed ove r t h e balllJ.
\ V h ll. [ the flrRt ellLSll la) of Deee8Ilitl mUlI[ em ploy .. CI1K" t o
re ta in the baUIl in pcettton, either 0 the lut two eteeeee (hI
or (el m ay have the balls lleplLrated by .. eage or be of [ h tl
" full hall ~ enloe. but are n ow 110 p:enerallJ made with a ball
separalin..: C&Il:e that the ot he r aod Older type IOAy oe dis
miMed w ith the remArk that. uce-ptlnp: tor ve ry h eavy
loa dll at 1110\11" IIPH'd&. lIuch all crane w or k . the CAf\:ed type ill
it['flfttl y au pe rlo r AS an a nt.ifrict ioD device. I n the" loll
ball~ ty pe the adjacen t bal"~ tend to revolve i n op pos i te
directlon... re .. u ltin ll," In eli d inll," iuetead of ralll nll," fric tion.
Th e loll.d ea rryinll," capacity of a ball bear iol/: de pe nd "
upon :
(1) The num ber of balls contai ned In t he bearin l/:.
(2) T he IIlaeof th e be ne employed.
(3) The apeed of rotation.
(4) Th e 1I1\!l.pe of the race .... dopted.
(6 ) Th e lllLture of the material u eod , !Iond ~ a rt e ll dl re.ltly
ae t he n u mber of balls ulled an d t he s q u a re or the ba ll
dl..met~r...nd tnve-aely all the equare root ot the IIf eed.
whtlllt wIth rOl..:" rd to t h e shape ot the race adopte' the
r"l"t.ive value of flat plat. ell or pll\tell with V K!'00Vl\H to
thoxe havlnp: round g r oo ves ill all .~ ·7~ to 16,
Tile coe nIc lOl n t. of friction tor hall t\ lrUJlt he"rinp:1l may be
t" ken .... 11 '001. thlll betug t.he re.. u lt arri ved at. by Prof.
Strthe..k In h ili ellh auliti ve i nve>ltlp:lll ionH.
J o u rna l Bearings.-T h e..e ma y be div id ed In to two
elA>l>l<l Hhllvl nll," "Ither one or tw o ro Wlior hall". a nd a lthough
ori lrln a lly ula d e of tbe" fu ll ball " t ype no w lll mOllt un iver
IlA IIy empl oy a ba ll se pe ratl ng cage. There I" prACt ically
oo ly one t y pe oon8 illtinll," of a n In ner end out er 8teel riOIl,".
bardened aod &eeu rllteIY ll:fOu od. between which a nuwber
or ball" lire iURerted and re tain ed by t he e4l{&. It IIIIn the
me thod or Insertinjt the ballB and In the for m or cage
em ployee! tb .. t tbe di ffere nt maklls or beariOK'l vary, a nd
l{1'e&t Inll:en ulty hll.8 be en expended in devl/dop: mean " of
Introd ucinl!: the be.lls lind lleenrinll," them In poIlitlon.
Tbllioad rarTyl nl{ eapa.city or t hese journal ball beari o ll:"
de pen d s 01'011 t he same racoon ll.8 the tbrullt Oe&rln~. bot
'h,,_'O">fld nt rnt...tinn within "'f!" ...."'.. Ilmlt'l. aeen rdlo p: .11
Pro f. Strlbeck. d~ n ot aff«t t bis _
IWLLB R OKARING:; 461
Tb .. cOllmclent of trlotlon w h lln fllllD l n p:: umler f u ll losd
I~ 1JOll!, IInd lll ha ~ f load 'OOHi, a nd under Quarter load 1lllIM.
And iii in d l!pe nJ e lit of th.. apetod.
Angular B uarinJr: s .- Tb en are of the cup And COli.,
er se , &li d are lnte noed to take a 10&<1 that I. n ot pu r~l,
ra<li31 or u: lai ln ch ar.c te r hut whi"h Ie A com bin a tion of
botb . T ber a re a lmooat exeluelvely IUled upon e,.d e.., and
ere only ada pted lor QnltellJl:bt Iot.da on aeoou n t of A 811g h r
uiud lnjt &cllon alway A belnll: preMlnt. Th ei r form i. 110
....JI kn o-n A. 10 nflo'd no d-nptlOl1.
R:olle r Be.rinc e.
Holler bMrluJl:a are prhn&rily Intended tor u- l.n
.....,hlllery, .. h ..» the load on a bearlOjl; I. In esc.-- o f
that w h ic h eou ld be ron .... n ie nt ly horoe hy a baH bearlll jl;,
...hU.. th ..,. ro n " q ually well o nder light loads. Ther h av e
to be man ulac tu red wi t h oc.nlliderabl ... aec u ruy, And the
ma terial mue e he o f th e be1Jt to obtain reall,. !(OOd re sults.
The,. ca n be applied to an ordi ua ry jou r nal wlth on t
n ...,,,,,,,lta tin jl; a jl;rellt a lteration In t he lonn of heari ng .
Th ey ca n be u eed " ll h Itteat ad va n t"lle for t raction pur.
pllIIeII. t h r uet bloc kll, OTd loar y IIhaf t he&rirljl;ll, ro lll njl; m ills,
an d mAny oth er y u rjl(lMell. TeMta 01 roller bell.ri nll:S han
ehc wu that a li r vlnll( e lTort of on ly;; pl"r te n t of that
recurred with au ordhJAry th r uMt bear l n~ hM been
euftlcl,,"t at IltArti n g , w h ile roller bflArInjl;ll a p plied to
electrlc ear wor k requlre about. II or 10 per ee ut of the
effort required h)' aa me ....r fit te d w ith ordlllliry bea.rinjl;8
&t 8t.artlnl/:, and ah out 60 to is pe r C'lIl t a t a s peed of l!O to 25
Inn eH per hour, the le HM Raving at hlp:h ll pel' li befng d u e
to the influ en ce of ai r reHIHt.anee. whk h haa noth lnll: to do
wi th jour n al frict ion.
Th f'H. \>earinp:8 In rolll uli: will pract ice w ill permi t 01
a preoollure or 2O,lXll lb. pe r sq. In. of projected area or Jou r nal .
T""tll ... Ith lln e IIhaWu/!; !'QUer benrlnll:'l un lie r lOAd gave
the low co-eftkient 01 frletlon of 'IXII:I, thl" resu lt ne iu ll
pr..ctleally independent of t h e "Jl'f'ed of the .haftlnjt .
Bolle r bearlnlll! aho uld not be applied I.G e haftinj't w hic h I.
worn or out or a li ll;ll m en t . In ftltiUIl: !'QUIlr be a rin~, Ih e
e--n' rea . hon lli not be Jl:l"8&ter than t hooae jl:IYl'In he low :_
~ m--two'....... _ I .... c...lr.
11 111. _ •• _ •• HI.. U ..
1+ 111. _ til.. 1111.
11111. _ •• •• _ •••• _ ••••••••• • •• _ ••.••• Ht. 0 111.
t III. ••••• • . . . . •• . . • . . . . . . . ...• . .•••••• 1ft. 0 1".
ttlll. _ . . __ •. .. __ ...... ... •. • _ _ •• 8 ft.', 1...
!lin _ •. _ •. _ _ .. _ .. . . . . •. •• _ 0 1.. .n.
t l lD. • _ .•.. _ . • •• .• •• •••••.• • lit\. Un.
• I" _ •.•. • . •• _ _ _ I Oft.ll ln.
' 1 In . •. .• _ •• Ill\. Ola.
• I" •• •• li lt u.
462 Ll NE SH AFT HEA RINGS
l'uno llllllb!u l'rellll ure, 10 Poundll per Lln6ftf Inch of Holle r

In 1II0tl on:
Fo r caIIl Iron ., ...................,.............. ... ...p =
Fo r.tee! e.etl np .., _... .................. _........." = . 00d.
"""'.
1'or ade .tee!. ......... ........... _........ ........... Jl = """'
For toollltef!1 .........................................." =
Por urdened tool steel .......................... p = 1,000d .
"""'.
W here P = pnlallure per linear Ineh of roUer:
and d."" diameter of roller, In lneh"".
Th" lorl'll:OlnR "alo"" are lor rol1f'U ~d ~rlnl( . ur fat'e!l
of the ....11" material.
Oompa rative Tests of Lineah&ft B earin'!t- Th e
"",ult. 0 1 colnpll.ratl"e te~t8 mild" by Prof, Cui C, hom&fl,
r800rd ed In a pape r be lore the Ame rican Society 01
lIIech a n lca l KnRlne" ...., are ~ven bPlow:
100ft. per III.lnllt-. ..,. fT.. per m l.lOU

_ r ln wa,
77 d~i:' , 10(1 d,'C. , '17 d...-. , I OO d "ll"_ ,
B . U ,_.. ......... , ,-,,ae I ,
R';lller ......
Babbitt .........
z-a
a '"i' ••
The t,,~tl. were made at the UnlTe",lty of W iloeo n ~in , and
covered a Jlt'riod of lour ye--IIJ'II. The IIha-rtll, which carried
u n ifor mly di~trihuted 10000d~ ra-np:loR (rom 710 to 1,74011.»<..
were s u p porte d sI1OC&11i\'ely by rlnp: oiled babbitt,
roller a-nd ball bearinltS, the urne numbe r of btoa.rio~
being used 10 each ease. The e>l:c_ o( power required
by babbitt over rolle r bearinl{"l. and by the latter tYJlll over
ball bearin~ increased, witb an incre_ of llpo>ed lor all
loads. Breakdown teets "'e" run on each type of bearing,
a eouMant speed o ( 200 reee, per mlnuu being employed.
T""ts bel{&D liLt 3.,~ 11:,0,;. per ht>&rinl(. -.od (allure oecurn.d
a~ about 4.t50 lb"" in the ea..... or the babbitt beulnJt,
~lbrI_ for the "-ll bearinlt. and 5,IOOlboo, (or the roUer
bu.rln~. The be&rio~ did oot in any cue rail structunlly.
but ..... ~lmpl1 doe to tbe brnakin~-down of the lubrieant.
wbell te8uJted In immediate locre&M of the power noqoirM
to maintain the of'i«in&11<peed of ~be Ilhal't.
F LA N G K CO U P LI N G S .63
Standard Fl6n1'1II OoupliDp
o. • •
0 ....
8bdT..
c , • , • H , ,
C
..
-~ -
,. ... ,. ...'I ,.. •... ,.2.

-
... ,..
~II ''''
I. :1 •
.
II 7.
21" 21 .,<<'. 111181 11'.1
'1
'1 8
II • •
.•<, •, 11 '. .
'1 8. •
21 'I 8. <I
<I
2' 21 • •
,•
',. '. "...
.~ 121 IS 21 'I 7
• 11
" 1O. 8
..."
DI&. 01
• , • , o
- - - - -- - -- - - - - - -
Q
~ ...
& ,~
<Jl
...II ,. ,,•. '"1. ,•. ,·.... ,.II ,•. ,.. s

.,' I 1•II I,I III ......I ..... '1'1 ·.....·.. I"r
'. ...
" ..1. •s
.~
•II 11 1 ,\, ... '1 ... I"' ,•

~
• II I 1 .~
'1 .~ r x• •
464
K eys.
I;· ~~~
Pia. I .
L~
---o ~' .... L
~. .
n T 1'_-;-;:0...".. ~I_T_ ~~M"', , ~ ~,
~ to I
.. I . i
... "'. Ii •
J ilt 41
to., II
~,
II I
II 1
1
S
Ii 5
5
)l u .
iO
III
I
II .. Ii
It .. II
.. I t 1\
I
it
I ' . II ''I
s .•5ol
&i •• ',at
I
I "
It H "
'II 'SI •1
"
I ""' t14
2' I
I I .. t ', ' ',1.. 1 .6 2 , 7
. .... I.I '1 I',', ". '

, .. 'i f .. 11 1. 2l ' 8 .1
21 .. Ii I tI 71 .,' 2 I 2. S .18
2~I
'I .. I so
11 .... 10 II S, "• 10
10 20
.. II 2 II at , 1:1
'1 .. ' 1 Ii II .. I' , t" I I' ,.
Taper o f K ey _ KeY" are usual ly made with 110 taper

of i in. to the foot. ",hich is ~ll ivaJen t to 1 in 96, but the
E n ginee rin g StaDdards Committee reco mmend a taper I
in 100 for aU keys in whicb the length i. not more th;w one
and a half times the diame ter o f the h a ft.
In many machine tool worlul t h e k ey i. made sq u a re ill
eececc , the .in across the n ata be ing 1 of the d iameter
of the shaft.
F or sliding feath eA , . uc h .. for ctctcbee, the thklro Nl!!
llqn ..1 kl ':he wid th.
... 46'
-
ROPI';S FOR HOISTING PURI'()S~S.
Worki ng Loads for Manilla Rope.c-, Th e acconlpany
in~ ta ble frum a. pa per rea d b y C. W. H u nt Defore the
American SQCidy of Med ia nical Engineen in 191)1 gives th e
st rength of ordinary commercial manilla rope. The table ,
the autho r states, ca D be depended u po n as a r~ lia bJ e aOG
safe gu id e in e:3ti'oating the factor o f safe ty for an y case in
band. T h e proper diameter of p ulle y- b loc k 5h~ves for
di ffere nt classes o f work, given in the tab le, is a comprom i..oe
of the vario us fac tors a ffectin g t h e case. An increase in
th e diame te r o f sheave will ma terially increase the life of
a ro pe. The ad va n tage, h owe ver, is g:\ina! by in creased
diffi culty o f ill.5ta.llatio n, a clumsiness in h an d lin g. and an
increase in fIrSt cos t. T he diameters given lD the table are
a n av e rage o f the practice o f a large numbe r of users. In the
table the work req u ired of the rope is, for co nve nie nce ,
di vided into three classes-" rap id ," "mediu m. " and
" slow," these terms being used in t he following sense
,. Slo w " -Derick cra ne and quarry wor k : speed from 50ft.
to 100 ft . per minute. "~fed ium "-¥/harf a nd cargo,
hoist ing ISOft . to 300ft. pe r minute. "Ra p id " -.-OOft. to
800ft. pe r minute.
a •• •- •
Wo rkJ n Lo d I n< ,M Dill R Oplll•
- ---
Wo aI'MQ LoAO ,. N IM''' U'' D1A...... o.
Oi_mot.. Ultlm_ ta l'<lOlt o a. SMIU" 1M h ClII.a.
o! R0p", S" on. ' h,
i'" ,l>oo. ""nodo.
- ---
I - 7,t OO ~ 400 1,0oo - 40-- 12· .,..
II 9,000 250 500 1,250 45 13 9
II 11,000 300 600 1,500 50 14 10
II 13.400 3S0 750 1.900 55 15 II
II 15,800 450 9UO 2,200 60 16 12
II 18,800 53U 1,IOU 2.600 65 17 13
II 21,800 620 1,250 3,000 70 18 14
Stre ng th o f ~1an llla Rope FastenlnCs,- T he fa llowlDg
uble gives th e res ults of tests to dlllltruc tia n of nine
methods of fas ten ing m a nill a ra pe made at the Watertown
Arsena l. Th'" tests were made on three-strand manilla
ro pe of abou t 085 in. diameter. In addition to t h.. types
illu st ra ted the rt! were fa.ste~ A . con,isti ng 0.1 a n eye
splice with t ....o tucks on ea.ch strand: a nd 8, eye'5pli~ 01
the same character except that fo r the fint tw a tucks the
fu ll s=tian of th e strand was used , for the t h ird tuck about
one -t hird 0.1 t he section was cut away, and lor the fourth
tuck a no ther th ird w;i,5 Cllt a ..-av. th u ~ p ro.Ju cin,; .. ~p1ic e
whic h ~r.-d ltratlually to tlw' dJ ..... _r 0/ lb........
'66
Anral1e Oreaklnll Load . tor Rope Falltenlnllil.
IUIK! "I
1..... lD'.
1..::F:.i I
"" !W(I
T ime ", IT.D6lleLbL, Ur..,t b
.... Jut 1. 0
MOlbo<'l 0'
,~ =
--ni
' ,., _•.
' atl ...m... l u l.eClnp.
MiD,,_ T. ~
•.m
...
..,.,
-.:a. III.
........
If. I "' U A I eod of ~
B 4·0 .......c •.m .~,
AI ...t of opIlre.
. ...s
,.,
C
D
(HI
.,
••,.
• 2 ,163
MOO
..~
1,'70
4,1 40
f a l bo tI ..........
AI.~
AI tbe pia.
_ d.
tl:ili t.
,. ,0-" '''1
0
AI 1M
G
H
, ,. ,
lo-U
.....
1,441
.~ '.~
' ,IiI
AI t ho
At tM biChL
Al tIM ble b\.
toll"
~ill: """"g;;.
:;;;.._ _. _
, • X F ~T_T......
1-0. _ ..
~ . I_4";;" J ... ~
.OPlIS FOR HOISTUI G. 467
Wire Rope".- Th e principal cause s 01 failu re i ll w, re
ro p es ar,, ;
( I) Externa. l wear.
(2) I nternal fri c tio n.
(3) Repea ted bending, which in d uce s Iatlgue .
Externa l wea r may be cou nterac ted by using a good
desi gn of rope, such a.<I Lan g 's lay. in wh ic h the twists botb
in the strands and in the rope as a wh ole are in t h e same
direc tion , and also by the a.p p lica ti o n of grease. I n the
ord ina ry r ope, as each wire comes to t he s urf ace at a poiut
wh ere the rope passes over a pu Uey, the wear is co nc eu
trated on just th e crown of the wire . but in:ro~ mad e o n
La ng's system the crown is not so acute, and a mu ch lo nger
co nti n uous sur fa ce of a n y -....i re is e xposed to view . Such
ro pes a re stronger, more du ra b le , a nd rnore n ex ible .
In te rn a l fri ction is a much more im porta n t ma tter t han
ex ternal. T he a p p licati o n of grease to th e outs ide o f a rope
is of no use in l ubricating t he inside. To e nable the lubri
ca nt to reach the insi de. i t is necessar y to immerse t he ro pe
for se ver al hours in hot oil. T h e oil s hould not contain a n y
ac id. If it d oes, it s ho u ld firs t be neu t ra lise d by the addi tiu n
of a little slaked li me. A test made hy Mr . A. E . Biggar t 011
rop es I i in . in circ u m fere nce . oiled a nd unoil ed s ho ws the
oecess it y for internal lubrication. The uncoiled ro pe wa s run
o ver a p ulley I O ~ i n , diam" wi th a lua d eq u a l t o on e ·tenth of
the b rea k in g load, 16,000 times before any scrin na deteriora
tio n appeared, A piece of sim ilar rope, but oi leol, ran 38,700
times over th e same pulley before sho wi ng t he lik e eff ect.
Pieces of rop e mad e 011 Lallg 's sy ~tem, u nolled aml oiled,
passed ov er t he Sa m e p u lley 53,000 ami 107 ,600 times
respect iv el y . Similar p ieces to t he first , tried ove r a 24 in.
p ull ey , passed 74 .000 a nd 386 ,000 times, unoiled a nd oiled,
re specti vel y .
Repeated bend ing may be o bviated to a large e x tent by
using a n ex ib le make of rope a nd r u n nin g it over pu lleys of
large dia meter. The shor te r the pitch o f th e spi ral s o f wire
a nd the fine r the wire , the more flex ib le the rope. The re
are two pitches, one of the individ ual wires in th(" stra nd ,
a nd the othc r o f the strands them se lv es . The pitch o f the
individual wires 11Ia y be fro m 2 in . to 6 in .. and t hat o f t he
st ra nd s 6 in . to 12 in. The limi t of t h e fine ness of wire t ha t
I:aO b.. u _1 is soon reach ed. For flexibility the co~ both
o f rope....a.n,1 "traIl,ls should preferably two of Iw-mp. Mr ,
ltuPIlS P O ll 1I 0 1 ~ TI N G
Hlggart, who Investigated the strength of eh" ,",'ire r0p""

u.><:<l in the building of t he Forth Bridge. Icund that t h.,
fra cture of crane rope" wa:i most often due to bendinl{ round
small pulleys, and says that t h ree -fourt hs o f the ul ti ma te
ten,ile etreugtb of the rope may be taxed by bending alone.
Th.. pull..ys over which the rope is to be run should no t be
leM in diameter than five or six times the circumference of
the rope . The la rger they are the better.
CHA I NS.
M a t e rial.- To ugh fibroos iron o f even textu re through

oot. and free from red a nd cold shortness and la min a ti on s,
should be used. It shou ld be fai rl y rou nd in section, o r th e
h llks will bea r uneve nl y upon a ile ano ther . It should
fur t h er, be o f a u ni lonn ma lleab le quality, o therw ise di ffi
c ul t y will be ex perie nced in the wel d in g . Steel as a mat.-rial
is not !IO reliable as h igh -class iron in chains which have to
be w.-ldod, but for wel d less chains i t is p re fe ra ble to iron
o winK to iu gr eate r stre ngth a nd du ctilit y . (See re ma rks
on w phll",,~ chain s .)
Fo r-rue of C hllln 8.- T h e for ms 0 1 chains most used are
th e " s t ud lin k " a n d t h e " open lin k ." T h e pro por tions o f
t h e link s a re t he same fo r all sizC$. "stu d links " ha " io g
a length over all o f 5 to 6 d ia me ters, a nd a width o f 31 to
31 diam eters, the co rrespondi ng p roport io ns o f t he" open
lin k " being 41 to 5 i a n d 31·
Loee o f Str e n l1th du e to) W e1<lIng .- F ro m tes ts made
by Mr. E. T . Tayl or on several t hou sand samples o f chai ns ,
he fo und tbat th e ave rage s train per sq uare inch, calcu lated
fro m t b e e xa ct size o f the finished chain, was IS'5 tous. a nd
the average . trengtb of the iron u sed in the ma nu fac t ure o f
the cb&ios ",as 23 tODS pe r sq. in. T h is shows a loss o f 41
t oos pe r sq. in. for the reduction o f stre ogth due to weld in g
and going thro ugh the fires.
Galvanlsln & Chalns.-Ga lva n i.'Jin g h as n o a ppreeiable
e ffect on t h e streogth o f chaillS. Some makers are a pt to
bla me the galvanising process in the case of t h e fa ilure of
chaill3 so treated. whereas it is due to inferior quality of the
metal uged in manufacture. -
Anne all nil C hai n s.-All chains should he carefully
annealed at certain periods il accid..l1u are to be avoided.
In the precess the CIu..i Wi are p laced in a mufOe fu rnace,
CHAINS . 69
and u uil ol llu ly h" ...ted (o ut 'of co n tact with a ir } to a

t<' lllpe ra turc 01 at least 650~ C (abou t 1 200 ~ F ) i.e . to
a dull cherr y red . A lower te mp eratu re is un su itable,
a nd may he detrimental, t h erefo re see t hat th e correc t
tempera t ur e i~ rea ched. Slo w cooli ng is t h en m os t i m
po rtant, so either let the chai n cool do wn in th e muln ",
or cover with fine as hes if withd ra wn. Aftcr annea ling
ex a min e lor laulty welds. cracks, etc. a nd c ut o ut faulty
links. The chain should t h en be submitted t o a " p roo f
loa d ." The period to whi ch s uch chains sh ould he a nn ...aled
deprnds entirely on the amount o f work the ch ai n is doi ng .
T he usual period is abont every tw el ve months . t ho ugh in
~_ whe re they are being n sed freq uen tl y , as, lor instanc e,
i n a steel works for con ti nuously h lti nR molten m...tal , it
is advisable to anneal. the chains every t hree months .
Streoltth o f various te rms of Chalo• •-Some e x pe ri ·
menta made On variou s fonns of chai ns in the Walker
E ngineeri ng Laboratory were giv ..n in a paper read b y Pro f.
H. S. Hele Shaw before t he Briti"h Association. The ty pes
of chains i ncluded were single jack, d ou b le jack, ord ina ry
welded , IUId Triumph. From the e xperimentll Prof. Hele
Sbaw deduced the following formula ;
P =CA
Where P _ b reakin g load in Ibs .
A _ a rea o f c baiWl i n square inches .
C _ constant.
Safe load _ 1 breaking load.
Th e values of C for the various chains are
(I) Sin gle jack, I X 104 - (3) W elded. 5 x IOf
(2) Douhle" I x 104 _ (4} Triumph, 10 x 10f
A simple rule to adopt fo r the maximum safer workmg
load is 6 d 2 t on s, where d is the d ia meter in inches o f the
iro n of wh ich the links are made.
Ad m I ra lty ant! Elswick Tell tll . -II d _diamete r o f
iron in inc hes .
Ad m iral t y test load in tons _ 18d2 fo r" Mud lin b ,"
_ I W for" ope n lin ks ."
Els wic k u5e$ a test load 10 per ce n t h illher th an
'\ d miral t y .
Weldleu Chaioll.- F or short lengths of c hai n, such as
ate used fo r collars and sling'. we ldless steel chains o ffe,.
specia1 advantages. ow i ng to tht';r su perio r st r..ng th. The
chains are rolled a nd c u t out of a .,lid bar, a nd t hus obvia t e
a ny risk of frac ture iLt a _del SUit
all :svoa. IC a-. inla __
'0'1' ... tbrv are twKe
470 CR AI NS
St re n~fh
[l, ~ .... ter. I

..
lind Welr-h t .. r (run Chllln".
s r---,o:,.d
L.., a kiu g rood. B reaki", Irnod.
e'g , 1""
fatho m.
I ncb ~ . To n ~ . C..... ts. T ons, Cwts. 1.00.

h 0 S 1 0 ;:1·5
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NOTB.- li .B, '1u>lhty IS about 20% wea ker than R B.B.
B. quality is abou t 30% weak er than D. D.S.
Safe w" r k l l1 ~ load ts nne- fourt h the hn-akin!: load .
Srud-H n k Ch u l ns.-~lu l til'l y sa fe load in table hy 1·5 .
A good feat u re in co n nec t ion with weldle sa chain slings is
that t he en d s 01 t he li nks where greatest wea r occurs are
mad e thicker t han the sides, and there lo re st a nd co ns id er.
able wear befo re t hey are reduced to an area a t wh ich the
ord in a ry weld<!d ch ai n begi ns its lile . Wh en usin g sling s
care shoul d be take n that each leg o f a d ou bl e sli ug is only
lifting its fai r p roportion of the load. W ood packing s ho u ld
be usn! to a d ju st the le ngt h i f nec eMa ry , and o n no acc ount
sh ould k nots be t iro o n !lling cbai ll!l. T he links s ho ul d also
be protected from the sharp edges o f casti ngs, etc ., to
prevent no t chin g a nd bend ing .
Sale Loads Cor Ropes a n d C halns.-Tbe fo1\0"on8
tab le. p repared by the )<atlOnal Fou nde rs ' A5oSOCia tio D,
.hows the _f", loads which can be camnl by ...ire rope,
c rane chain a nd manilla rope of various s ius. T h ", load s
r eoo m m ",nd ed a re lower than t h ese us uaUy spec i fied . as ill
bulllllnjt opera tlo lL~ a h"olul.cw("ty is the hnt ("o n..iderati<.oD. .
( In f-' ou ntl ,).
'"
--
Sale Wold! (If Rop." and Ch itin.
C"'UTIQN.-\Vhen hand lin g moll ..n met al . ....11 e ro pes " "d
chaina aho uld be 25 percen t st ro nge r tha n lndicatedm table.
-- -
~. ~ ~ .~. """. n ...~ -.,.

~"- ....• """ " .... b..., Who1l Wbotn WbeD
N'ou..- Tbe .. f<, load. '" uOO'd .....t II ....-1 al
f1lJ"! or cb.oln. Wbrn ""'"
....NoP -. III QI .... lIl
t l>< Ioodo
propoc..ar
ultlpla
be itlauooed
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PLOw STfUIL W I RE
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CRA NE C" "'N. , .~
~
1,0 25
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2,400 2.0 $0 1,1' 10 1,200

\ I'leol G rldo 0 1 Wro n« hl
. "n, Hand·lll. d.
3. 400 a.eoc
T•• ,l'd, Li nk s.soc 4.700 3.11UO 2 .1$0
3,7 00
ChIll.) • t.soc
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6, 400 5,20 0
a.eec 4.700
a I ,0
12,000
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1, 100
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5, 100 ..
::;L1~(iIN(i C.... STIN"""
S lInatug, Ca.tlnlt.. ~h W1.II be Rnl. tha t if the ""_

sup porting c hains or the two part.!! of one suppo rti n g cha,.
belo w th e hook. as (el. make a great anKle with une another,
the tensiun in the c ha in may be v er y severe .... ith e ven a
comparatively sm all load . Thus i i, a.!I in II. the chailUl

each make a n angle of 60 deg. with t he vertical, the t ension
in eac::h chain would suffice to support the whole load if
ap plied vertically.
If the chai n were arr:a.nged at the angle shown a t (b).
the tens ion in each chai n would be abou t double o f the
who le load, and if, as in t he d otted l i n~, tr ebl e o f that load .
Th e follo wing table shows the rela ti on between the
incli na ti o n o f each cbain, iLS5urning bo th chains equally
inclined. and the ten$on in it. in terms of t h e ...b ole load :
b .di.. . tioo of "'~ T-.i.oa l.a l be e/oai.IIl
dl.oi.. to~. t .. _ ~ - Il
60 deg. . .•.•. . . .••.•. .••• . .•.•. 1

65 1·18
70 •••••••••••••••••••••••• 1·<46
75 1·94
80 2·88
85 •.. ..••... ...•. . .. •••. .. 5·75
90 ............ ..•.. ......• I n fini te.
It is th us see n ho w im po rt a n t it is to keep the chains at a
mod erate a ngle, if o n ly out of consideration for the t ensiOI
ill the chai n. But th ere is another co nsideration which
m a l<est his po int s till more im po rtant. The cen tr e oJ
gravity of the we ight t ends to ta.ke up the lowest positi on it
can find. It will always sink into the lowe!rt position .... hicb
the geometrical condition' will allow. provided it is not
pre ve nted from doing so by friction . and p rovided tha t it
bas not to rise before sinking into that posi tion. T b is
pri nciple i:s a t t he bottom of t he who le theory of slinging.
So me useful and pract ica l in formatio n on the mallulac·
tu re. stre ngth, a nd use of chains. slings. aml lift ing
ap p lia nces is given in a lIlenlOCaDdu m e ntitled " Chains a nd
Lilting Appli:.l.nr"- ." b y G. S. Taylor. H .M. Inspector of
Fa.ctorir.&, . - J . .,. tM iiocorN Offica, ~ IicI
Sir... an.:! Welllbt of aped_' SI...I Wire (;r . a e toO
LUt R op" s, Un Q, lllva n ls e d - (Bri ti sh R...pe s Ltd l
' . non ...

Ij. SU.Il4. o.ocl> 01
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m
Strenl/;lh ","d Weliht of Round Steel Win Rup".. fo r
M lnlnll. . Ha.ullng. Winding. a nd similar pllrp'''ll''.
T - - T - ~riti5 h Ropes Ltd 'cl T
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II \ '·5 '9 6·0
I 6·5 7·1 7·9 8·'
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3' II 1;.1-02 35· \ 39·2 43'3 47 ·5
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0 d u m ~ and shea v liS should be about
71'3
79 ·6
87 ·"
I 87·2
78 ·1
I, 9 1;·7
thirty times the circumference of the rope,
For nrdiDary purposes oo e-9ill:tb of t he breaking s t rM~ 01
th.. TO1M' may be taken AS th e w orlrinllloa.d. b ut th e fa ctor
of .""tty vuiu in shaft &ad other hi,h-iip'!'od working. to
U wllch .1 SO \<I I of the IDn:"II ..... • u ... . • • .. ~~....~' b~
iN tIuo ..-pI &44...... tit. \IIMI
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Imperial, Birmingham and American Wire Gauges ~
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7/0 · 500 2 7 · 213 6 · 162 4·1 14
8/0 ·464 2 7 ·01 0 6 · 160 4·064
... I ... 1000' '460 a 6 ·578 9 · 148 3 ·759
.. . 0000 ... · 454 2 6 ·527 9 7 · 144 3·65,
' /0 ·4 32 3 6·400 10 · 134 3 ·403
000', ••. '4 25 4 6·045 10 9 · \ 28 3·251
ooo ~ '409 4 5·892 11 · 120 g ' 047
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0000 · 400 3 5· 816 11 ·116 2 ·946
001 ••. ·380 5·588 9 ·114 2·895
000 ·J72 5·384 12 ' 109 2·768
00 · 365 4 5· 181 12 ·104 2·641
00 ·348 6 5· 156 10 · \ 02 2·590
o · 340 6 4 · 876 13 ·095 2- 412
o · 325 4 ·6 22 13 -092 2 ·-388
o ·324 "; I ' 4 · 571 11 · 09 1 2·286
1 · 300 7 i 4 ' 470 14 ·0 83 2·1M
· 289 9 4·191 14 12 ·081 2 ·032
Non.- The lilluteo given onde. Birmingh am W!•• GaU8" rela le to the old B.W.G. For t hloh"...,. cf 'ho c'"
11 'llJJc~halll Ga lli' . .. ethe. t ah l... T he Am erloan I. c~e II oll e k ncyo I. 'he Bcc .p Ind Sllul*
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C R A N E C H A IN. " MAC HINERY "
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I 'l\- 31. 4i I 2"1 11,20 60480 12100
Ii 31 'I 1 2; ~ IHO 68320 113 R60
1'1\ 3f 6l. 3t. 13·70 76160 1ti230
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."" SH R I NK FI TS.
A s h rink fi t i.s u~ to con nec t togethe r tw o metal pam
by sb rin king a heated part onto a ma ti n g part whieb i. n ot
heated. Contact is made as the heated part co n tracts OD
cooling down to normal temperature. It is a pressu re fit
of an elastic natu re which will retain itll sp ringy pip as
Iollg as the o oter portion retains itll resilience. Although a
common fea tu re of enginee rin g practice, su cil fits a re not
everyday jobs, and consequently when th ey d o tum up.
lOme men I.Te at a loss how to deal with them, d o seriolUl
damage, o r t om o u t inferior wor k.
In it!l lli..m~t fonn a shrink fit may be mm-e1y a collar
or sleeve shrunk o n a shaft or perhaps . gear .heel rim
shrunk o n a cast iron centre as in the case of ,,-onn gear.
Th" proceedure ill u follo_:_ The sleeve is bored
l1i$"htly small"!' in diameter thaD the ahaft or part OIl whicb
it III to be sh ru n k, and in order to all o.... it to pa.a ove r the
l~er diameter it is hea ted up nnti l the expansion p rovides
an ample margin to all o w it to be got into position on the
shaft . It ill Iixed a nd allowed to cool do wn to normal ; and
Il3 it co n t ra ctll it gri ps the shaft with a u intensity governed
by the amou nt o f .. nip" all o ....ed .
By .. nip" 1:1 meant the d ifference be t ....ee n the inner
d ia meter o f the Sleeve and the di amete r o f the M1aft 01
centre which ft!oCei VelI it. T his differ en ce de term in es the
a mount by "hleh the metal in the slee v e will be stretched
when it has coo led do wn to n ormal. The fit is comparable
to a pR!!l$ fit. in which a shaft sligh tl y larger in diameter.
is forced hom e in to th e bore of a wheel , by hydraulic or
other pr....... ure.
There are ....ver al p itfa.lh in ma kin g this o perati on. First
the inclination to give too much nip un d er the impression
that the grip is increased b y so doing.... herees the reverse
ia the case. Ellcess:lve nip. by stretching the metal too
severely . d estroys its elasticity . and any a d va.ntage which
one e xpects by making such a fit is lost.
The secoud pitfall lies in overheating the slee ve; the
re3$)n given being to ensure tha t the sleeve or tyTe will
expand to a n ex ten t that will eliminate any ch ance of
adze u p ",bile t he perts are being assembled. If d ue can: is
exercised there is no reCL!On to overh.....t , u n othing is
gained. b y 1IO d oin g, and m nc h is last.
The principle governing the nip allowance lies in the fact
that meW~ are more or less elastic. steel being particularly
MI. After being ~tedly stretcbed. a bar of steel will
SIUl l N " FITS 48 1
resume its ori ginal length when the load it removed ,
provid ed t hat it ha.. not been stretched to a n ex ten t which
ha!I ruin ed its e la.!ticity and cau!le<i a pe rm a nen t set, at
which poin t t h e steel re mains stretched a nd no lon ger
sprin~ and res ilie nt. A t ypical C&!le o f the ehuticit y of
steel '11 the valve spring of a motor ear engine.
I n order to &S!ICSS the a moun t of nip for a n y job, ; t is
essen ti al to consider the metal which will be nt«!, ~h
metal havin g ib own peculiarities, even the properties of a
steel bar may be e ntirely altered by beat trea tmen t
d esign ed to modify tensile strength, eLulie limi t, and so
forth . F or instance • •teel bar of 0-15 Carbon . fter being
oil d ip ped gave an elastic limit of 20 tona per 1IIlJ.. inch .
A 6-20 carbon only gave 14 tona .fter being normalised.
The 0-15 st~1 ga ve an elongation of 0-001 with a pull of
10 tons per eq. inch. while the normalised. steel gave 0 ,001
s t 7 tons. A steel with an elastic limit 01 23 tons ga ve a n
elongati on of 0-001 a t 10 tons. A sample o f Dural with a
limit of 14 tons, stretched 0-001 with a pull o f 4 tona per
sq . inch.
Ther e are t wo useful guidtll available. F irst Heek e's Law
which in effect mea ns that a metal will stretc h in d irect
proportion to the pull applied. T he second is Yo u n g's
Ml)<hllus 01 elastici ty whic h states that a p ull of :10,000,000
pounds will dou ble the length of a bar of steel o ne inch long,
and one sq uare inch in Kross sectional a rea. If 30,000,000
pounds (ro u ghly 13 ,00 0 to ns) will add 100 per cent -o its
len gth, th en according to H ooke, 13 tODS pe r square inch
should add 1/1000 part of this o r O'OOt of its le ngtb. The
rlastic Innit of steels likely to be used on sh rin k lit [cbs,
will in all cases be well over 13 to ns per sq u a re inch, high
enon gh aho ve it to allow a good margin of sa fet y; and
a.s hal bMln Ihown if the elastic limit is red uced th e pull
Q~ to produce an elongation of 0·00 1 dec reases in
p roportion. {l·00l appears to be a good allowance for nip,
and h.a.s been used hy t he writer with "very IIUCCeM on
general and locotnorive wo rk. American practice gives a
nip a llowance slightly higher a t 0·0012 and on steels with
hifl:h e las tic limits it might be used with advantage, but
with the general ron 01 .teels 0·001 may be relied on.
I n hea ti n g up the eteeve or tyre it il e!ls..ntial t o keep
the temperature a.! Jow a.s possible, althoull:h re<ltricting the
te mpera ture also restric ts the expansion. The d ull red heat
beloved by some ope:raton will nullify an the ad vantagell
which mav ha ve been conferred by previous heat t T'fla t ment
.82 S H RI N I{ FITS
Wha t is needed is a uniform slow heat, and ti me to _ k

the heat in to every part of the work, a nd cut out !OU spots.
The heat sho uld be controlled by pyrom et ..n and if none
are availab le coUa p"i ble salt cones should be used; these
will give resu lts far more reliable than t hose ob tained
by the eye and jodgment method.
There exists a d efinite co n nection between the tempera.
t ure o f a m etal and its oo-eJficieot o f el[~OD. and this
, 1I0wlon., to cakulate the temperature necessa ry to e:q>3.od
the deeve . u fficien tly to cover the nip, a nd a working
margin for a.ssembl w g the parts. eo that t h j. o pe rati o n
m..ay be compl.. ted before the tJeeVCl !lhrinkll e no ug h to be
tr ou bleso me.
Stoet,tretcbcs o r expands lHJQOOO6S for each incfU3P of
one degree fab . in temperature. a nd the expansion mU! l
cover a nip of 0-001 1"111.8 a temporary working ffia.rg'D of
0-00<175 01" a total of 0·00175 which should co ve r require
ments. Twog a 30 inch dia m eter sleeve tb.. total
expansion would be 0-0525 a nd nip a t 0 ·030 lea vin g a
working margin of O-()22 o r ro ughl y 1/50 inch, which should
be amp le.
T h e temperature to produce t his e x pa ns ion will be ;
0·00175
Te mp. Fah. _ 269 Dega, F ah. or 134 Degs. Cen
0·0000005
Shrink fits are not always mad e b y heating parts in
the furn a ce or fire , a n d a good d eal o f the heating for thi~
pu rp ose te now being d one by oil. American tru ck make rs
a rc usin g heated oil for assembl ing the lmll bearings o f the
ba ck axlea. The high ly finished parts are easy to ha nd le
an d c lean, hence the degree of expansion required is &l ight
a nd can be obtained by using oil at a temperature 0 1 180
degnee or e ve n slightl y less. T his aUo," o nly the minimum
of e xpansio n, but on this claM of gea r it is sufli<.:ient, a nd
ensu res a jo b free from s train o r di s tortion.
Conversely Rh,rink fits of a ne gative nature a re n ow made
by freezin g the in ner po rtio n ill a n a lcohol scllu tio n, which
reduces the diameter o f the s ha ft or centre u n til the sleeve
is easily placed in position. It then tightens up all the
UlIembl.y lIoIt5um" th.- temperatu re o f t he ....o eksb op.
AUTO & CU-!'!OARD

E N G I N ~ r C: " ' G
P.O. BOX 3J<:. H : ..... NG
Tole ran c e in Sta nda rd rr o te e.
Nomina l diameter-s. Up to l " !co t o 1" In" to 2" 2;,"toS" 31\-" to 4" -I t," to 5# 5 n"t o 6'
- {High L imit ... + ·000 25 + ·00 050 + ·0007 5 +·00 100 +·00 100 + ·00 100 + ·00 150
Class A Lo w L imit ... _ ·OU025 - ·00025 -·00025 _ ·0005 0 - ·00050 - ·000 50 - ·00050
Tolerance ... ·00050 ·00075 ·00100 ·00 150 ·00 150 ·00150 ·00200
Class B
~lIi gh Limit . .. +·00050+ ·000 75 + ·00 100
Low Limit .. . _·00050 - ·00050 _·OOO.~O
j + ·00 125 + ·00150 + '00175 \ + ·00200
- ·000 75 -·00075 - ·00075 -·001 00
[Tolerance .. . ·00 100 ,00 125 . ·00 150 ·00200 ·00225 ·00250 'OOROO
l
Two series of limi ts for holes are given in the above ta ble. \>ccause lo r certain classes of work th e
margins a llnwl'd in class A are sma ller tha n nec essary.
!
Allowances fo r F o r ce Fits. - f: hIS!'I F.
a
Nominal diamet ers. IUp to i"1f, " to I ~ il-h " to 2~ 2_li<_~o 3#;3 -h " t o 4# -I -h# to 5' 5 n" to 0'
High Limi t ...... ..... . ... +·00100 + ·00 200 +·00-100 + ·000 00 + ·00800 1+ '010 00 + ·01200
Lo w Limit .. . . . . . .... . . .. +'00050 +·00150 +·0030 0 + ·00 450 I
+ ·00600 + ·00800 + ·0 1000
II· T ole ra nce ............... ·00050 ·00 050 ·00100 ·00 150 ·0020 0 I ·00200 ·00200
~
Allowances for Driving Fit,. f
:-;urn;nal diameters.
I' ,~1 .. ··,·1,.,,, ,.I<)R'

," . )
to 3 3.I~oo,oo ~'::::j~~ It "'oo,oo
I " -,- OQ.J00
• to 4' ,4 ", 0 to 501"

0 to_ 6"
I
Up"
Hi): , Limit .......... ..... +·00050
Low Limit ......... ~ .... +·00025
+·00100
+·00075
+·00150 . +·00250
+·00100 +·00150
d +·OO:lllO + I
'rot ranee ............... ·00025 ·00025 ·00050 ·00 100 ·00100 I 00100 I ·00100
,sz
- A llowanc es for PU!lh Fits.
>
z
e
-- ---
S om ina l diameters. Cp to j.' 'h' to r 1",' to 2° !2Q 0 to J .I ~1 h' t n ~ '4 h.' to 50! 5'Q' to 6"
,~
~
Hi;:h Limit ............... -·00025 -·00025 -·00025 -·00050 -·00050 1- '0005(1 -·0005u
Low Limi •............... -·00075 - ·00075 - ·00075 - ·00 100 - '00 \00 - '00 100 -·00100
~e__ ............... ·00050 'OOOSO {l()QSO ·00050 '00050 ' ; ·000;';0 I ,00050 .
1
,.
e Allo w a n c e" (be lo w StllDda r d) for Runnin g !-'Ull.
~~ ,
n'
r'h
-g g, No minal diameters. Up to i" ,\" tol' 1 to Z' !21\-' to 3 13 g ' to"" 4 1\ " to S",S h ' to 6"
~~ Li mit...
- ·00 100 - ·00 125 - ·00 175 --00200 - ·00250 --00300 -·00350
~[ Cl il~ 5 X Low Lim it ... --00200 - ·00275 _·00350 --00425 -·00500 -·00575 - ·00650
~5 '
Tolerance . . . ·00 100 ·00150 -00 175 ·00225 ·00250 '()()275 -00300
r'h
~~
~~ - 00015 - -00100 - -001 25 - ·00 150 - ·00200 - ·00225 _ ·00250 .

i~
~,
CIa" Y
Li miL.
Lo w Limit .. - 00125 - ·00 200 - -00250 -·00300 - ·00:150 -·00400 -·00450
r'h
To ler ance 00050 ·00100 ·00125 -00 150 -00150 ·001 75
bl:"
• 0
·00 200
~" - -00050 - ·DOO7S - ·00075 - ·00100 - ·00100 - ·00 125 - ·00125

L.m,t .. .
f~ Cla>l.!l Z -·OOI:!5 --00 150
.t' 'g;
00
Low Ll m~t
Tolerance . ..
.. . - ·00075
·00025 ·00050 ·00075

-·00200
-00100
- ·OO2:.!5 - -00250
·00125 ·00125
-·00275
-00150
••
~ ~
~~
Class X is su itab le for engine a nd othe r wor k wh ere. easy fits are wa n ted .
Class Y is su itable fo r bigh sp<;e<;b lind good av erage, machine ....-ork.
~5 Ciasli Z is su itable fo r Iine tuol work. ~
~
~
o
an d ·
H eat Treatment
by'
L EOFRIC FENN. A.M.I.M"h.E
The Scientific Publi sh i ~g Co..

40 Dalt on Stree t,
Rochdale Read. .~
MANCHESTER. Eo"
-
Three Good Companions
FOWLER'S
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For MECHANICAL e ELECTRICAL EN G INE E R S
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Tbe 3 books comp rising 1500 pages of Rules

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Fowlers Mechanics and Machinists Pocket Book 1970

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