Unit IV: Alternative Media

Marxist Approaches to Media:

Introduction
In Britain and Europe, neo-Marxist approaches were common amongst
media theorists from the late ‘60s until around the early ‘80s, and
Marxist influences, though less dominant, remain widespread. So it is
important to be aware of key Marxist concepts in analyzing the mass
media. However, there is no single Marxist school of thought, and the
jargon often seems impenetrable to the uninitiated. These notes are
intended to provide a guide to some key concepts.
Marxist theorists tend to emphasize the role of the mass media in the
reproduction of the status quo, in contrast to liberal pluralists who
emphasize the role of the media in promoting freedom of speech.
The rise of neo-Marxism in social science represented in part a reaction
against ‘functionalist’ models of society. Functionalists seek to explain
social institutions in terms of their cohesive functions within an inter-
connected, socio-cultural system. Functionalism did not account for
social conflict, whereas Marxism offered useful insights into class
conflict.
Media as means of production
The mass media are, in classical Marxist terms, a ‘means of production’
which in capitalist society are in the ownership of the ruling class.
According to the classical Marxist position, the mass media simply
disseminate the ideas and world views of the ruling class, and deny or
defuse alternative ideas. This is very much in accord with Marx’s
argument that:
The class which has the means of material production at its disposal has
control at the same time over the means of mental production, so that
thereby, generally speaking, the ideas of those who lack the means of
mental production are subject to it.
According to this stance, the mass media functioned to produce ‘false
consciousness’ in the working-classes. This leads to an extreme stance
whereby media products are seen as monolithic expressions of ruling
class values, which ignores any diversity of values within the ruling
class and within the media, and the possibility of oppositional readings
by media audiences.
Ideology
A central feature of Marxist theory is the ‘materialist’ stance that social
being determines consciousness. According to this stance, ideological
positions are a function of class positions, and the dominant ideology in
society is the ideology of its dominant class. This is in contrast to the
’idealist’ stance that grants priority to consciousness (as in Hegelian
philosophy). Marxists differ with regard to this issue: some interpret the
relationship between social being and consciousness as one of direct
determination; others stress a dialectical relationship.
In fundamentalist Marxism, ideology is ‘false consciousness’, which
results from the emulation of the dominant ideology by those whose
interests it does not reflect. From this perspective the mass media
disseminate the dominant ideology: the values of the class which owns
and controls the media. According to adherents of Marxist political
economy the mass media conceal the economic basis of class struggle;
‘ideology becomes the route through which struggle is obliterated rather
than the site of struggle’
Media as amplifiers
In Marxist media analysis, media institutions are regarded as being
‘locked into the power structure, and consequently as acting largely in
tandem with the dominant institutions in society. The media thus
reproduced the viewpoints of dominant institutions not as one among a
number of alternative perspectives, but as the central and “obvious” or
“natural” perspective’
According to adherents of Marxist political economy, in the mass media
there is a tendency to avoid the unpopular and unconventional and to
draw on ‘values and assumptions which are most valuable and most
widely legitimated’
Differences within Marxism
The different schools of thought within Marxist media theory are
variously framed by commentators. Michael Gurevitch and his
colleagues listed three ‘contending paradigms’: ‘structuralist’, ‘political
economy’ and ‘culturalist’. Althusserian Marxism is structuralist. Purely
structuralist analysis focuses on ‘the internal articulation of the
signifying systems of the media’.
In the Marxist fundamentalist tradition, ‘political economists’ see
ideology as subordinate to the economic base. Work by Graham
Murdock (Murdock & Golding 1977; Murdock 1982) represents the
‘critical’ political economy approach, locating the power of media in the
economic processes and structures of media production. Onwership and
economic control of the media is seen as the key factor in determining
control of media messages.
Work by Stuart Hall (e.g. Hall et al. 1978) represents the Marxist
culturalist approach, which sees the mass media as a powerful (if
secondary) influence in shaping public consciousness. Culturalism
follows Althusserian structuralism in rejecting economism, but unlike
structuralism, it emphasizes the actual experience of sub-groups in
society and contextualizes the media within a society which is seen as ‘a
complex expressive totality’. The culturalist approach is reflected in the
work of the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (CCCS) at the
University of Birmingham, of which Stuart Hall was once the director.
As Curran et al. put it, ‘Marxist theorists vary in their accounts of the
determination of the mass media and in their accounts of the nature and
power of mass media ideologies
Limitations of Marxist analysis
Critics argue that Marxism is just another ideology (despite claims by
some that historical materialism is an objective science). Some Marxists
are accused of being ‘too doctrinaire’. Fundamentalist Marxism is
crudely deterministic, and also reductionist in its ‘materialism’, allowing
little scope for human agency and subjectivity. Marxism is often seen as
‘grand theory’, eschewing empirical research. However, research in the
Marxist ‘political economy’ tradition in particular does employ empirical
methods. And the analysis of media representations does include close
studies of particular texts.
The orthodox Marxist notion of ‘false consciousness’ misleadingly
suggests the existence of a reality ‘undistorted’ by mediation. The
associated notion that such consciousness is irresistibly induced in mass
audiences does not allow for oppositional readings. Marxist perpectives
should not lead us to ignore the various ways in which audiences use the
mass media.
Neo-Marxist stances have in fact sought to avoid these pitfalls. The
primary Marxist emphasis on class needs to be (and had increasingly
been) related to other divisions, such as gender and ethnicity.
Strengths of Marxist analysis
Unlike many approaches to the mass media Marxism acknowledges the
importance of explicit theory. Marxist ‘critical theory’ exposes the myth
of ‘value-free’ social science. Marxist perspectives draw our attention to
the issue of political and economic interests in the mass media and
highlight social inequalities in media representations. Marxism helps to
situate media texts within the larger social formation. Its focus on the
nature of ideology helps us to deconstruct taken-for-granted values.
Ideological analysis helps us to expose whose reality we are being
offered in a media text. Whilst Althusserian Marxism helps to undermine
the myth of the autonomous individual, other neo-Marxist stances see
the mass media as a ‘site of struggle’ for ideological meaning, opening
up the possibility of oppositional readings.
Marxist theory emphasizes the importance of social class in relation to
both media ownership and audience interpretation of media texts: this
remains an important factor in media analysis. Whilst content analysis
and semiotics may shed light on media content, marxist theory
highlights the material conditions of media production and reception.
‘Critical political economists’ study the ownership and control of the
media and the influence of media ownership on media content cannot be
ignored. It also remains important to consider such issues as differential
access and modes of interpretation which are shaped by socio-economic
groupings. Marxist media research includes the analysis of
representation in the mass media (e.g. political coverage or social
groups) in order to reveal underlying ideologies. We still need such
analyses: however oppositional it may sometimes be, audience
interpretation continues to operate in relation to such content. Because of
the distribution of power in society, some versions of reality have more
influence than others.
Various Forms of Alternative Media – Village Puppetry
Let us first try to understand the meaning of the word
‘alternative’. According to The Oxford English Dictionary alternative (in
this context) means available as. Another possibility or different from
what is usual or traditional. When do we look for alternatives in our
lives? We generally look for alternatives in our lives When we are
dissatisfied with the current option available to us. For example, if You
are disappointed with the performance of your mobile phone; you start
looking For alternative mobile phone or any other alternative
arrangement which can Enhance the performance of your mobile phone.
Similarly, alternative media is ‘another possibility to the mainstream
media’. Alternative media can be any medium – newspaper, magazine,
newsletter, radio, TV, films, new media, wall paintings, graffiti, street art
which provides an alternative to the mainstream media. In other words
we can say when the mainstream media creates discontent and
dissatisfaction; the audience look for alternative sources of information
(media) which provides them relevant Information and different
interpretation. They either become the producer or the
Consumer of the alternative media.
In their book “Manufacturing Consent” Herman and
Chomsky (1998) have mentioned the evolution of radical press in first
half of the nineteenth century in Great Britain. “This alternative press
was effective in reinforcing class Consciousness; it unified the workers
because it fostered an alternative value System and framework for
looking at the world” which encouraged them to collective action. At
one time this radical press became a threat to mainstream Media as well
as to the legislature. Alternative media differs in content, production and
distribution from the mainstream media. It should be noted here that
Alternative media should not be seen as opposite to the mainstream but
considered As a platform where opinions of all shades and pluralistic
views are Accommodated. The alternative media aims to voice different
opinions rather than enunciating only popular or adverse opinion of the
mainstream media.

Folk Media:
Folk media is considered to be the most important alternative media in
the rural india. It is the oldest form of entertainment and information in
our country. Folk media took its shape and form as per the culture of a
region. For instance, Nautanki from UP, Bhavai of Gujarat, Tamasha of
Maharashtra, Jatra from West Bengal, Rajasthan’s famous Puppetry
show, Ramleela and Rasleela are performed in various states. In modern
India in various cities and colleges Nukkad Natak or Street Play became
prominent folk medium to reach out to people with social
messages. Street plays have evolved a lot since past three decades and
have become voice of various radical groups. In 1940’s, one of its kind
alternative medium was started in the form of Indian People’s Theatre
Association (IPTA) by the Communist party of India, which still exists.
The primary objective of IPTA was to bring social reforms and to act
against British repression. They disseminated their messages through the
medium of theatre and made people aware about their rights and
responsibilities. IPTA highlighted the issues that were ignored
by the national media in the wake of the freedom struggle. Many popular
names, including KA Abbas, Dr. Homi Bhabha, Ismat Chugtai, Sahir
Ludhianvi and many more were members of IPTA and they worked
hand-in-hand with common people to bring about change. The
Government of India after independence realised the prominence of
folk/traditional media and established Song and Drama Division. This
unit works at grassroot level and promotes Government
programmes and policies through live and direct folk performances.
Feminist author Urvashi Butalia (1993) in her case study, “Women and
Alternative Media (India) discussed various alternative platforms
available to women in India. She highlighted how Kerala Shastra
Sahitya Parishad (KSSP) had used Yatra as an outreach tool for engaging
the audience by using various tools such as public speaking, puppetry,
songs, plays, posters etc. “Save Narmada Yatra”. Was a campaign on
similar lines against building of Narmada and Saradar Sarovar Dam in
Central India. Another medium was street theater, a play – “Om Swahs”
By Delhi based women group ‘Stree Shakti’ against dowry highlighting
the plight of women who could not bring enough dowry.

Small-Scale Newspapers
Initially, alternative media in India was largely limited to the
small newspapers And magazines circulated by some radical groups.
Khabar Lahariya is one such Newspaper started by a Delhi based NGO
–”Nirantar” in 2002. It is an eight page Weekly publication from Uttar
Pradesh and Bihar written in multiple local dialects And it covers the
functioning of panchayats, government, schools, hospitals, social issues,
civil issues in the region. Women from the marginalised sections of
society With little or no formal education are provided training to report,
edit, design, Illustrate, and take photographs for the newspaper. They
even distribute newspaper Via small shops, teas stalls and block
headquarters. According to
Khabarlahariya.org “it has 40 members, Khabar Lahariya team sells
6000 copies Across 600 villages of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar to a
readership of 80,000 per week. Khabar Lahariya began as the only
Bundeli newspaper in India and now has editions in Bhojpuri, Awadhi,
Hindustani and Bajjika”.
Community Video
On similar lines, in 2007 Appan Samachar, an all-women
community news Channel was started by Mr. Santosh Sarang in Ramlila
Gachi, Muzafarpur, Bihar. The village girls were trained to undertake
various activities related to news Production on their own. The 25-
minute news capsule was exhibited in haats Using projector. Urvashi
Butalia (1993) highlighted the contribution of Cendit – A Delhi Based
group and Self-employed Women’s Association (SEWA), a Woman’s
group based in Ahmedabad. Cendit on one hand was making videos For
women keeping their way of story-telling (Swang) and modeling them in
the Video so that the video was not alien to them. On the other hand,
SEWA, a large Trade union of women workers in the informal sector in
Gujarat were given Training in video production which empowered them
to shoot their own routine Issues and exhibit them. Social campaign
videos are still shown in cinema halls and on television but digital media
has given it a new impetus.
Community Radio:
All India Radio has a wide network of radio stations connecting
the urban and rural parts of the country. Being a public service
broadcaster it incorporates Regional and people-centric programming.
While private radio stations are entirely Devoted to entertainment.
Community Radio Stations (CRS) fill this gap created by public and
private radio stations and emerge as an effective alternative broadcast
medium and as the name suggests, the CRS serve a certain community.
CRS operate in an area of 5-10 km radius and aim to function for the
betterment Alternative Media of the society by democratising
information. The CRS are largely owned and operated by Universities,
NGOs, independent media practitioners and media groups (which are
not part of any big corporate). They broadcast content which is useful
for the people residing in that community and highlight social issues
ignored by the mainstream radio stations. Community radio
programming is aimed at social development keeping the information
needs of the community of that area in mind. The Community Radio
Guidelines 2006 stress that “the programmes of community radio should
be of immediate relevance to the community and focus should be on
issues relating to education, health, environment, and agriculture and
rural and community development. And fifty per cent of the content
should be generated by the participation of local people in the
community in local language and dialect”. For instance, discussions and
debates in studio, phone-in Programmes, traditional music promotion
etc. The essence of such people. Generated content is that they know the
pulse of the audience and can contribute. In making a content rich
programme. Though the content produced in all the media platforms
discussed above may be amateurish but expresses the spirit of the
alternative media. Thus, community radio can be termed as peoples’
medium which is for the people by the people and of the people.

Citizen Journalism:
The Indian broadcasting sector is now majorly dominated by the
private players and corporate houses. The Government control has
become less with the increase. In 24X7 television news channels in past
few decades but these private broadcasters also repress the alternative
voices instead of articulating them. Dasu Krishnamoorty, former
journalist and academician (2003) in a post – “Defining Alternative
media in Indian context” stressed on the weakness of mainstream media
of not fulfilling the role of mass communication and informing the
society. He said that government and mainstream media both do not pay
much heed to the public opinion and alternative media should provide
training to its manpower against mainstream media rather than the
government.The citizen journalism related videos broadcast on the
private national news channel can also be considered as alternative
media. The CNN-IBN broadcasts a special programme called Citizen
Journalist wherein the video shot by common citizens of the country on
any social issue or human rights violation etc. can be sent to the TV
station which can telecast it, if found relevant. The issues picked up by
citizens are generally related to their neighbourhood but also have
relevance. For other sections of society. These days many newspapers
also publish a column contributed by citizen journalists and all these
initiatives can be considered as the alternative media.

Village Puppetry

Origin of Puppetry

Every region and religion all over the world has its own origin
stories of this art form but they all have something in common and that
is they all originated from ancient times dating back to the caveman
period. In India, it has been found that puppetry may even be a 4000
years old cultural art form.

The origin of puppetry Is still not very clear, Ancient Hindu philosophers
have paid the greatest tribute to puppeteers. They have likened God
Almighty to a puppeteer and the entire universe to a puppet stage.

Puppetry – Importance

Puppetry is important because it can help children in

developing the following skills.
Language and Communication skills Helps in social and emotional
development Helps in increasing
listening skills Helps in using their imagination.
Forms of Village Puppetry

As kids, puppets used to be the main centre of attraction for us. We

would get charged up with energy every time we saw a puppet. The
origin of puppetry art dates back many centuries ago. Puppetry in India
has been very famous. There was a time when puppetry shows were an
attraction in the carnivals and the streets of villages. Through puppets,
we could witness people displaying various societal issues, everyday
problems, and their life stories.
There are different forms of puppetry which are:
1. Hand puppets
2. Glove puppets
3. Finger puppets
4. Stick puppets
5. Sock puppets
6. Shadow puppets
7. Marionettes
8. Rod and arm puppets
Marionettes
The marionettes originated in 1800. Marionettes are full-length figures
controlled by strings attached to all four limbs of the puppet. A puppet
handler uses these strings to control the movement of the puppet.
Rod puppets
A rod puppet is the modified version of the marionette. These were the
puppets supported by rods. The rod puppets are controlled from the
bottom. A stick is passed from the head through the body, which aids in
controlling the movement of the hands and legs of the puppet.
Hand puppets

Glove puppets or hand puppets are controlled by wearing over the hand.
They are made from cloth and are worn by a person whose hands fit in
the glove. The person can fit their finger into the arms of the cloth
puppet and then control its movement. The puppeteer can operate two
puppets at once as it requires the usage of one hand per puppet.
Flat-figure puppet
This is a two-dimensional puppet operated from above, just like the
marionette. The use of flat-figure puppetry arts began in England in toy
theatres.
Shadow puppet
A shadow puppet is a flat figure puppet where the shadow is projected
on a screen. Figures are placed between the light and a screen and are
used to depict various scenes and conditions. They have the form of
stick puppets shaped into clear outlines and utilised to form silhouettes.
Bunraku puppets
This is the form of puppetry where the person controlling the puppets is
visible alongside the puppets. Each person holds a different part of the
body of the puppet. Three people can operate these puppets at once.
Stick puppets
These puppets are used in elementary schools for making learning fun
for the kids. They are formed from cut-out images. These are then stuck
on a stick.
Finger puppets
These are the simplest puppets and are controlled by the fingers of the
puppeteer. You can have various characters on the one hand by placing
one character on each finger. They don’t have any movable parts. The
only source of movement in these puppets is when the puppeteer bends
their fingers.
Ventriloquist’s puppet
This is perhaps the most exciting type of puppet where the audience gets
an illusion that the puppeteer’s voice is coming from inside the puppet.
Earlier, hard wooden blocks were used for making a ventriloquist
puppet, and now soft puppets are also used. The puppet is made to sit on
the lap of the puppeteer, and he passes a hand from the back into the
puppet. You may have seen the use of these puppets in many movies and
films.

Street Theatre

Street theatre is drama taken to the streets and can be

Performed anywhere, from a street corner or small alley, to A public fair,
park, shopping centre, or recreational reserve, With the minimum of
props. It is usually shorter than a formal Stage drama (about half an hour
to an hour). The objective is Mainly to arouse social consciousness and
often to protest against injustice through Entertainment. The lack of
elaborate stage effects focuses audience attention on the Message.
Street theatre or drama has a long tradition in Bangladesh and gained
momentum after the country’s liberation in 1971. Street theatre is
generally aired in the open on the street or in the community without a
stage. In earlier times different theatre groups performed street theatre
all over the country to observe different festivals as well as to
voice demands for rights and democracy in terms of crisis. These days
street theatre has become a useful communication tool to promote the
issues of poor people and has become a part of social development.
'Jatra' is another popular open air form of theatre which literally means
'going on a journey' and combines acting, song and dance delivered in a
stylised, oratorical, and exaggerated manner. The beauty of street drama
is that it costs less time and labour to produce and reaches to a broader
audience than other means, and it can deal with serious themes and
deliver development messages without sounding too serious or 'preachy'.
Different tools like puppets, comics, and popular folk songs, have been
incorporated into this modern drama form. Street theatre is very popular
in Bangladesh and many theatre groups in the country observe week
long street theatre festivals.

Little Magazine

Jibanananda Dash, one of the leading Bengali poets in the post-Tagore

era, wrote in an essay named “Kovitar katha” that, not everyone but only
few are poets. In that same tone, it can be inferred that not all the poor
noncommercial irregular short-lived and slender periodicals are little
magazines. Little Magazine is a rare intellectual phenomenon. To be a
Little Magazine a publication has to satisfy some strict ideological
criteria. For a copybook definition, we can quote—”A non-commercial
periodical of limited circulation, usually dedicated to publishing
experimental art and literature and/or unconventional social ideas and
political theories. The term little refers to the circulation, rather than the
physical size, and is a relative and variable measure. These magazines
fueled the turbulent movement called modernism.” (Index of Modernist
Magazines, 2014) The popular mass magazines began to flourish in
Europe and America at the end of the nineteenth century; and, the Little
Magazines appear in reaction to them (Peterson, 1956). Little Magazines
were initiated from about 1880, and flourished in the
United States and England. Moreover, the French writers often had
access to a similar type of publication and German literature of the
1920s too was indebted to them. Foremost examples of such magazines
are the Poetry (1912- ) and Little Review (1914-29) from US; Egoist
(1914-19) and Blast (1914-15) from the UK; and the Transition (1927-
38) from France.

According to the theoreticians, the adjective ‘little’ actually came from

another contemporary movement namely the ‘Little Theatre’ in the US.
The objective of that movement was to free dramatic forms and methods
of production from the limitations of the large commercial theatres by
establishing small experimental centers of drama. According to the
Merriam Webster dictionary, the first known use of the term Little
Magazine dates back to 1900. The dial was the first ever magazine
with features of a little magazine. It was an American magazine
published intermittently from 1840 to 1929. In its first form, from 1840
to 1844, it served as the chief publication of the Transcendentalists. In
the 1880s it was revived as a political magazine. From 1920 to 1929it
was an influential outlet for Modernist literature in English. After the
1880 there was a sudden explosion in number of the Little Magazines in
the US and in Europe in between a period of 30/40years.Until 70s of the
last century, there were four principal periods of the Little Magazines in
the West. Those were- (i) The introductory Age (1890-1915), (ii) The
Golden Age (1915-1930), (iii) The Age of Leftist Little Magazines
(1930-1950), and (iv) The Age of

Magazines (1930-1950), and (iv) The Age of Spreading out (1940-

1970). In India, the first Little Magazine Sabujpatra was launched at
Kolkata under the editorship of Pramatha Chudhury on 1914. It was
none other than Rabindranath Tagore who mentored and inspired
Chaudhury to edit such a magazine. Predecessors like Bangadarshan
(1872), edited by the great novelist Bankimchandra Chattopadhyay and
Sadhana (1891), edited by Tagore prepared the soil for sprouting of
Sabujpatra. From then on numbers of such magazines were published
from
Bengal over the years. Renowned literary personalities like Nazrul
Islam, Sudhindranath Dutta, Buddhadeb Basu, Premendra Mitra,
Achintyakumar Sengupta, Nirod C. Chaudhury were associated with
them. The so-called “Little Magazine Movement” in India was initiated
after the independence. The movements came to prominence in the
fifties and the sixties of last century in many languages like Bengali,
Tamil, Marathi, Hindi, Malayalam Gujarati etc. However, Bengali Little
Magazines always lead from the front. Some kind of unyielding activism
and madness were associated with the movement in all over the Bengali-
speaking region including Bangladesh. Leftist political ideology
influenced the movement largely in the 70s, as it occurred in the West
during the 30s to 50s.The principle eras of the Bengali Little Magazines
are: (i) Sprouting Age (1914-30), example: Sabujpatra, Kallol,
Kalikalam; (ii) Golden Age (1930-40), example: Parichay, Dhumketu,
Purbasha, Kovita; (iii)Age of Spreading Out (1940 50), example: Ek
ak ,Samasamayik, Uttarsuri, Chatuskon; (iv) Age of Poetry (1950-60),
example: Shatavisa, Krittibas, Simanta, Samakalin, Kovipatra; and (v)
Age of Ideological Influence (1960-70), example: Aneek, Anustup,
Alinda, Ekshan

Key features of the Little Magazines

According to Buddhadeb Basu (Basu, 1953),

firstly, the word ‘little’ is for protest: protest against
the importation of everything in between a pair of
covers, protest against the big publicity and the
extensive mediocrity. Little Magazine; by the name,
it is clear that the stigma of popularity will never
touch its soul, and it will never be available in an
open market for cash price, but some day there may
be some eagerness among the learned society for
an old issue of the magazine. It would be possible
because it never tried to entertain; it tried to awake
the mind.
Pondrom, Cyrena (Pondrom, 1965) describes the
little magazine as serving in avant-garde function,
whether the publication is commercially motivated
or not, whether it appears regularly or irregularly,
whether it is short-lived or long-lived. It simply must
be in the vanguard, help establish a mainstream
current. Pondrom suggests that avant-garde
magazines exhibit six characteristics:
1. Publish “little known writers with ability”;
2. “produce a ferment of ideas, . . . serve as a gadfly
to the status quo”;
3. maintain literary standards to “shield the writer
from some of the demands of the commercial
press and social convention”;
4. “extend the audience for good work”;
5. create a “place where experiment is
untrammeled”; and lastly
6. Maintain a stimulating and congenial
environment of personal relationships– a
community of interest and friendship among
writers and editors and readers.
Shibnarayan Ray (Ray, 1988) pointed out some
reasons, for which a magazine cannot be
regarded as a Little Magazine-
1. Magazine having the main objective to earn
money is not a Little Magazine.
2. Magazine published to entertain the public is not
a Little Magazine.
3. Magazine administrated by any political party,
even if its circulation is very little, is not a Little
Magazine.
4. Magazine speaks for any professional group or
organization is not a Little Magazine.
5. Magazine depends upon the income from the
advertisements or upon the compassionate
writings by famous authors is not a Little
Magazine.
So we can summarize, Little Magazines are short-lived and non-
commercial periodicals having courage to protest against any kind of
establishments. They publish little known writers with ability and
provide the space for experiments. With very little capital and small
circulation they extends the audience for good work.
Scope of the Study

For the present study, the entire “300” class of the

Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC, 21st Ed.) has
been taken into consideration. Moreover, the
subjects which belong outside “300” class but deals
with the human society are also included within
the parenthesis. The outsider disciplines are-
Information Science, Media Studies, Social
Psychology, Dialects, Social Geography, Folk Arts,
Folk Songs, Local History and Biography,
Archaeology etc.

Community Radio and the Indian Farmer

Introduction of Community Radio in India

Many non-governmental organizations and media-activist groups

struggled and campaigned for setting up local radio broadcasting
services to help and address the issues of their community and serve
their needs, interests and aspirations. In 2007 the government announced
the Community Radio Policy and all these voluntary groups joined
together to constitute Community Radio Forum (CRF) of the country to
support and promote the setting up of Community radio stations in India.
The Bangalore-based communication campaign Group, ‘VOICES’
convened a gathering of radio broadcasters, policy planners, media
professionals and not-for-profit associations in September 1996 to study
how community radio could be relevant to India, and to deliberate on
policies appropriate for such an action. A Declaration calling for the
establishment of Community broadcasting was signed. A Suggestion that
AIR’s local stations should allocate regular airtime for community
broadcasting was put forward. Requests were also made for grant of
licences to NGOs and Other non-profit making groups for running
Community radio stations. Subsequently, UNESCO made available a
portable production and transmission “briefcase radio station” kit to
VOICES to do experimental broadcasts of programmes for a hands-on
learning experience towards the objective of setting up an
Independently-run community radio station (Kanchan Malik,
VinodPavarala, 2007). By Early 2003, the government of India released
the First set of community radio guidelines, but Restricted eligibility to
educational institutions Only. Marginalized and voiceless communities
Continued to remain outside the ambit of the then released community
radio policy Guidelines. Deccan Development Society (DDS), an NGO
organized a workshop in hyderabad sponsored by United Nations
educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in 2000
urged the Government to allocate space for community Radio.
Representations were made by voluntary Organsations, academicians
and individuals to the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting (MIB)
which led the MIB to organize a workshop supported by UNDP and
UNESCO in 2004 to work out a framework for community Radio in
India. In October 2005 the draft Community radio policy was referred to
a group Of ministers, and finally it was approved by the Union Cabinet
on November 16, 2006 which Permits NGOs, educational institutions
and Agricultural institutions to own and operate Community radio
stations. In 2007, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting Government
of India announced that in the next few years, 4000
Community radio stations will have sprung up Under the new enabling
community radio policy. According to Compendium 2012 of the
Ministry of Information & Broadcasting(MIB, 2016) “Community
Radio Stations in India” there are 126 functional community radio
stations Transmitting their programmes in India.

Role of Community Radio in Promoting Agriculture

There are many community radio stations Serving the needs of Indian
farmers. Among Them the Sangham Radio,a community radio Was
launched in Telangana (earlier in Andhra Pradesh), India, on World
Rural Women’s Day That is on October 15, 2008 by the Deccan
Development Society, a non-governmental Organisation (NGO) that
works with 100 groups Of the economically poorest Dalit women. This
CR radio is owned, managed, and operated Exclusively by women from
rural marginalised Communities (the “Dalit” caste). The radio
Broadcasts covers 25 kms that includes 100 Villages. The programme
content of broadcast Includes news and views of local people, tips on
Herbal medicines, news and reports on farming Tools of agriculture, folk
songs, stories etc. The Themes include seed sovereignty and women;
Food sovereignty and women; women and Biodiversity; women and
land, ownership; Women and ecological agriculture; ecological
Enterprises for women, healthcare and plant Medicines; creating
awareness about child Education and its importance, legal education For
women etc. DDS helps the farming Communities and women specially
in many Ways including ―getting credit and linking Women to banks,
conducting participatory Natural resource documentation and planning
Exercises, overcoming resistance from men and Upper castes, trying to
get women ownership Over or rights to lands they are cultivating
(Ashish Kothari, 2015). The community radio Provides a lot of
information on the dangers of Chemicals, fertilisers, hybrid and
genetically Modified seeds. It also helps the women and Other farmers
in marketing of their organic produce through a cooperative called
Sangham Organics.

Krishi Community Radio is established on May 17th, 2007 by the

University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad in Karnataka. It Covers in
15-20 km area in and around the University. The CR is completely
dedicated to The service of agriculture and the rural Community,
keeping in mind the largest Economic growth sector and broad in the
rural Community. The community radio station is Engaged in active
involvement of farmers in Production of programmes. It creates a
platform For the farmers and also looks at preserving Local culture of
the farmers. A study was Conducted by MadhuPattanashetti and D.A
Nithya Shree in 2009-10 to analyse the impact Of the Krishi Community
radio on its listeners. According to them the CR ―gives useful
Information on agriculture as the major reason Followed by
―information on pesticides, helps to Adopt new agricultural
technologies, Information about new varieties and increases Knowledge
(Madhu, Pattanashetti, D.A. Nithya, 2012). The community radio also
Helping the listeners in gaining knowledge about improvised varieties of
seeds, seed treatment, Seed selection, storage, better methods of
Agricultural practices, control of pesticides and Diseases and harvesting
techniques‖ (Madhu, Pattanashetti, D.A. Nithya, 2012).

Another community radio SharadaKrishiVahini launched on January

18, 2011. It was launched by KrishiVigyan Kendra, In Pune, This CR is
funded by the Agriculture Technology Management Agency (ATMA)
Scheme of the Government of India and the Station also receives
funding by broadcasting Local advertisements. It provides latest
Information in the field of agriculture to the Farming community in and
around 25 km from KrishiVigyan Kendra, Baramati. It provides
Platform for the farmers, farm women to share Their experiences, skills,
art, problems and needs To their other farmers and farm communities.
Farmers, Self Help Groups (SHG), students, Doctors, local artists,
agriculture Businesspersons, teachers, experts in agriculture Participate
in programme production. The Programme producers of the stations
goes Around the farmers in villages in collecting Information about their
problems of livelihood, Their farming techniques and experiences and
Record them and broadcasted on the CRS. The CRS also records local
folk songs from the Members of the community and they were Played in
the CRS. The CRS airs information by Agriculture scientists and experts
to help the farmers to improve their farming. The CR also broadcast
programmes on human health, market prices and weather forecasts. A
study of SharadaKrishiVahini revealed that ―a majority of the farmers
(67%) preferred agricultural success story programme followed by live
interactive program (62%) and phone in programme (57.50%). A
majority of the farmers were interested in programme like rainfall
prediction, agricultural news, disease and pest predictions and inputs
availability (Indian Agricultural Research Institute -airi.res.in).

VasundharaKrishiVahini community radio station was launched on

April 2004 by VidyaPratishthan Institute of Information Technology
(VIIT), Baramati, Maharashtra. It focuses on the socio, economic
development of the farming community in its region. It was launched to
bridge the gap existing in terms of Information needs of the farmers. A
study was conducted by AnujaMahekhka (2007-08) for her dissertation
to Mudra Institute of Communication, Ahmedabad to analyse the
communication gap if any that exists between the providers of the
initiative and the beneficiaries and the role of VasudharaKrishiVahini CR
in it. It caters the farmers by providing a lot of information relating to
agriculture like new varieties of seeds, updated commodity rates,
weather forecasts, various pesticides and medicines, animal diseases and
information on research done by the scientists from various agricultural
universities. It airs Bhumiputra a programme on success stories of
farmers, Shashandarbar-programme on governmental schemes,
Pashudhan-Dairy and animal husbandry, KrushiSandesh –weather report
and agricultural advices for the benefit of farmers. According the study
the CR ―can leverage and empower the community with a platform to
address their issues. It can not only be used for addressing the issues and
information needs of the farming community but also for providing
social development to the entire community (Anuja Mahekhka,2007-08).
It is providing ―social, economic and cultural development
(AnujaMahekhka, 2007-08). There area few more community radio
stations established for the purpose of promoting agriculture in the
country. They are Allahabad Agricultural Institute Deemed University,
Uttar Pradesh launched a community radio station called Radio Adanto
promote agriculture. It engages villagers and farmers in programme
production to increase their knowledge in various fields of agricultural
crops/ produces. The themes of the programming include agriculture,
health care, hygiene and social issues as they are relevant to for the
community members. The programmes are produced with the help of
agriculture experts with an aim to inform and educate the farmers. The
primary aim of the Radio Adan is to empower its listeners with skills and
capacities to enhance their agricultural incomes and strengthen their
livelihoods and other security opportunities.

Another community radio station PantnagarJanvani was launched

on August 15, 2011 by GovindBallabh (G.B.) Pant University of
Agriculture & Technology in Uttarakhand. It reaches more than 80
villages in the radius. The community radio station was launched to
create a platform for the rural people and to use the radio as a tool of
participatory development at grassroots level. Along with that the
community radio disseminates agricultural information to promote
sustainable development. The radio as part of extension and
communication efforts by the university disseminates the relevant need
based research and technological information to the farmers and allied
beneficiaries. The programming of the radio station includes agriculture,
animal husbandry, fishery, health and other issues. One more community
radio ChaudharyCharan Singh (CCS) Haryana Agricultural University in
Haryana called CCS Radio. The CR was launched to disseminate
technology related to agriculture and its allied sciences among the
farmers, farm women and rural youth. The programmes of the station
not only interest them but also benefit them with the information which
they acquire from the station broadcast. The station was launched with
the infrastructure and other support provided by the Ministry of
Information and Broadcasting. The station broadcasts success stories of
farmers to motivate them. These stories help the listeners (farmers) in
knowing the problems faced and helps them in finding out the ways for
solving them. Alongwith that, the radio broadcasts agricultural
information on day-to-day, monthly basis and seasonal basis. The
broadcasting programmes includes ‗do‘ and ‗don‘t‘ of agriculture,
knowledge of new seeds, fertilisers and pesticides, rabi and kharif crops,
remedies for various plant diseases. It also includes veterinary and
animal husbandry information, dairying and animal products. The
―farmers, farm women, scientists of university and people residing in
the coverage area‖ participate in programme production. TANU e-
Community radio (Tamil Nadu Agricultural University) launched in
October 2009. It covers 15 to 20 kms radius. It was established with the
help of World Development Foundation (WDF) (a NGO based in Delhi)
and Media Lab Asia (MLA) (it has been promoted by The Department of
Electronics and Information technology, MCIT, Government of India as
a non-profit company). Both WEF and MLA joined together through a
Memorandum of Association and started community radio stations for
enhancing the life of poor and marginalized sections.The e-community
radio was launched to provide information for farmers which benefit
them. It uploads information on TNA Agri Portal for wider coverage and
to effectively reach its audience. The TNAU e-radio is integrated into
the University e-extension network and it aims to compile, record, edit
and fine tune the content of the technologies for the benefit of farmers,
farm women, youth and other stakeholders in the broad domain of
agriculture and rural development.

KisanVani, a community radio station established as an extension tool

by the Indian Society of Agribusiness Professionals (ISAP) a Delhi
based NGO established for community development. The CR reaches
surrounding 350 villages. The ISAP also runs a Kisan Call Centre which
is located in Bhopal. The CR was launched on September 30, 2009 in
Madhya Pradesh. The CR station covers entirely farm- specific useful
information, social issues of the community, important announcement
from the government departments along with information on various
schemes of government departments and banks. It covers agricultural
information, market information (market prices), weather, health
programmes, government schemes and subsidies etc. The programme
formats include Drama, Folk Songs, Farmers choice (includes phone-in,
farmer talk, farmer goshtietc), interview with personality (include
persons from agriculture, medical, administration, public figure, health,
food etc), live play, special features on various occasion like festivals,
world literacy day, women‘s day, children‘s day, turberculosis day,
independence day, republic day and so on. The community radio also
broadcasts farmers and community benefit schemes and programmes in
the state and central supported by the government in the state (i.e
Madhya Pradesh) and around the country. The local community is
benefiting with the CR services as it covers a wide range of topics that
are required by farmers. It acts as advisory instrument on plat protection,
irrigation, market prices of commodities, credit and finance for farmers,
bank schemes along with some programmes mend for promoting health
and education.