CH3 M2 Wifi

Kasdi Merbah Ouargla University Department of Electronics and Telecommunications
Faculty of New Information M2 Electronics of Embedded Systems

and Communication Technologies. WiFi communications
Kasdi Merbah University

Faculty of New Technologies of Information and Communication
Department of electronics and communications
M2 Electronics of Embedded Systems
WiFi communications
Chapter 3: The Equipment
Professor :
Dr. CHENINA Hachemi
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Objective:
The objective of this chapter is to present the main types of WiFi products
available today. PCMCIA, PCI, USB adapters, and even small access points connected
to the Ethernet port enable your computers to connect to the WiFi network. Access
points can be simple repeaters, sophisticated bridges, routers, or complete access
controllers—they are the building blocks of your wireless network. Increasingly,
laptops and many other computer devices are now sold with integrated WiFi adapters:
smartphones, printers, scanners, surveillance cameras, and more. Additionally,
antennas can be connected to most access points and WiFi adapters to focus the radio
signal in specific directions for more efficient coverage. This chapter aims to help you
understand the role and functions of each type of hardware, assisting you in making
informed choices and perhaps sparking ideas for unexpected WiFi applications."
3.1 ADAPTERS
3.1.1 The Role of the Adapter
The WiFi adapter is the hardware component that enables any device to communicate
via WiFi. For instance, to function, an Access Point (AP) uses a WiFi adapter.
In certain APs, the adapter can even be detached and replaced, allowing for adaptation
to a new WiFi standard such as 802.11n or 802.11i, without the need to change the
entire AP.
An adapter consists of a radio antenna and a processor implementing the 802.11
standard. Some WiFi adapters are capable of managing multiple radios: for instance,
one at 2.4 GHz in 802.11b(g) and another at 5 GHz in 802.11n. In some cases, an
external antenna can (or must) be connected..
"To connect a laptop or desktop computer to WiFi that does not have an integrated
adapter, it is necessary to plug in a WiFi adapter."
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3.1.2 Connectivity
Diverse Formats
WiFi adapters come in various forms to suit different preferences: some are presented
as external cards that can be plugged into a PCMCIA or Compact Flash port. Certain
adapters are cards meant to be plugged inside a computer, utilizing a PCI, Mini-PCI, or ISA
port. Others come in the form of boxes or sticks (dongles or sticks) connected to the USB or
FireWire port of a desktop or laptop computer. Small 'bridge' APs (as discussed in the
following paragraphs) can function as WiFi adapters to be connected to the Ethernet port of a
computer. Finally, some adapters are specially designed to be 'embedded' in laptops that
integrate WiFi technology (for example, Intel Centrino laptops), in specific modules for
certain PDAs, in APs, or even in industrial machines that resist temperature, shocks,
humidity, or interference.
Figure 3.1 - WiFi Adapters.
What adapter to choose?

Each type of adapter has its own advantages and is therefore better suited for specific
uses. PCMCIA or Compact Flash cards are convenient to carry and the connection is quite
reliable, but they cannot be connected to a fixed computer (unless it is equipped with a
suitable port, which is generally not the case).
USB dongles are often less convenient to carry because they are connected to the
computer by a USB cable. A few small USB sticks do not have a cable and are plugged
directly into the USB port, but in mobile situations, this connection can sometimes be
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precarious. The advantage of USB is mainly that the same WiFi dongle can be plugged into a
fixed or portable computer, as these now all have (or almost all have) USB ports.
Internal cards (PCI, Mini-PCI, and ISA) are especially useful when connecting a
desktop computer to a WiFi network or integrating WiFi permanently into a laptop. The
downside is that you need to open the computer's case to install the card, which is delicate
and time-consuming.
Ethernet adapters are too bulky to be routinely carried around. Moreover, they often
need to be plugged into a power outlet, which doesn't help. However, it's worth noting that
some adapters of this type can be connected to a USB port to ensure their power supply. In
short, they are not designed for mobility. Nevertheless, they are particularly useful for
connecting visitors to a WiFi network without having to reconfigure anything on their
computer: by providing them with an Ethernet adapter, they connect to the wireless network
through a standard wired connection and don't have any WiFi settings to configure. They
don't even have to select an SSID because it's preconfigured in the adapter. This is a highly
appreciated product among hoteliers: when a customer without a WiFi adapter wants to
connect to the hotel's hotspot, they can be offered an Ethernet adapter, allowing them to
connect without having to reconfigure their device.
Firmware:
The functionalities of the adapter that need to be highly efficient are usually
implemented by specialized electronic components. This is often the case, for instance, with
the RC4 encryption algorithm that underpins WEP.
However, many 802.11 functions are performed by firmware located within the adapter. The
advantage of firmware is that it can generally be updated, allowing for the addition of new
functions without changing the hardware. For example, many adapters can be simply
updated in this manner to manage Wireless Protected Access (WPA).
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Before choosing an adapter, inquire about its upgrade capabilities: does it have firmware that
can be updated? Does the manufacturer frequently provide updates? What functions can be
updated?
Driver
An Interface for the Operating System

Except for Ethernet WiFi adapters, it's generally necessary to install the driver for the
WiFi adapter on your computer. The driver enables the operating system to understand how
to communicate with the adapter. It's usually provided on a CD-ROM accompanying the
product. Before purchase, ensure that the supported operating systems align with your needs.
Some WiFi adapters have drivers only for certain versions of Windows, or for Windows and
Linux, and less commonly for Windows, Linux, and Mac OS.
Feel free to check the internet for customer testimonials regarding the product's
quality, stability, and ease of installation. This is, in fact, a general piece of advice for any
product!
User Interface:
In addition to the device management tools provided by the operating system, the
driver generally offers a user interface as well as advanced configuration tools. The user
interface should be as clear as possible since it will be frequently used (Fig. 4.2).
Most adapters allow users, with just one or two mouse clicks, to detect and display the
list of available wireless networks, those whose identifier is broadcasted (the SSID, see §
3.3.1). Users can select their preferred SSID from this list or manually enter an SSID if it's
hidden and doesn't appear in the list. Some drivers indicate the BSSID or the channel of the
nearest access point (AP) or other useful information. Users can generally choose a preferred
SSID (or a list of SSIDs) that the driver will automatically connect to when within signal
range. In short, this is the central interface for the user. Some are highly comprehensive and
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intuitive, while others are not: try to gather information before purchase because it's a rather
important aspect for ease of use.
However, if you're using Windows XP, it's important to know that a default interface
called 'Zero Config' can often be used instead (or sometimes in conjunction) with the
interface provided by the adapter driver. The Zero Config interface is quite basic (Fig. 4.3)
but practical and functional: it enables detection of wireless networks, association with the
preferred network, establishment of a list of preferred networks, and entry of WEP or 802.1x
security configuration settings. After downloading and installing the appropriate updates,
WPA is also supported by the Zero Config interface in Windows.
Similarly, Windows Vista and all recent operating systems have a default interface to
manage WiFi connections, which can be used in addition to or instead of the interface
provided by the adapter.
.
Figure 3.2 - Example of the Intel

PROSet Interface
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Figure 3.3 - Zero Config Interface

Integrated in Windows XP.
The advanced settings:
The adapter driver often allows manipulation of advanced 802.11 settings such as
enabling power-saving mode, transmission power, sensitivity, RTS Threshold, etc. Some
adapters can be configured in monitor mode, very useful for 'sniffing' (i.e., listening) and
analyzing a wireless network without even having to connect to it. A few adapters even come
with genuine wireless network analysis tools.
3.2 THE ACCESS POINT

As we explored in Chapter 2, Access Points (APs) form the core of an Infrastructure-
type wireless network. They handle various functions such as station authentication,
association, and the routing of WiFi packets among associated stations. Other functions,
though optional, are quite common, including:
• Handover management: allowing users to seamlessly switch from one AP to another
without disconnection. For this, the involved APs must communicate via the
Distribution System (DS), typically a wired network.
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• Authorized device filtering based on their MAC address.

• Data encryption and device authentication using WEP, WPA, or WPA2 protocols.
In addition to these WiFi functions, various higher-level services can be added. These
functions determine the category in which an access point falls: bridge, router, access
controller, and so on.
3.2.1 Bridge to a Wired Network
The Role of a Bridge
WiFi bridges enable wireless devices to connect to a wired network, typically
Ethernet, by simply relaying packets received on the WiFi interface (referred to as the
'WLAN port') into packets suitable for the wired network (via the 'LAN port'), and vice
versa. Basic bridges operate at the OSI Layer 2 level, specifically handling no IP routing
(Layer 3).
It's worth noting that the wired network is commonly used as a distribution system to
manage handovers between multiple APs within the same wireless network.
Figure 3.5 - Example of 802.11g/Ethernet

Bridge
Broadcast and multicast

It's important to understand that a bridge operates at the Layer 2 level of the OSI
model. It doesn't divide a network into two separate subnets but rather connects two portions
of the same network. Particularly, if a broadcast request (addressed to everyone) is sent by a
station, then all stations on the network, on both sides of the bridge, will receive it. At the
Layer 3 level, all stations will be in the same IP subnet. Therefore, the bridge is entirely
transparent to layers higher than Layer 2.
Handling multicast traffic is a bit more complex since the packet's recipient is a group,
not a single station. The simplest way for a bridge to manage multicast traffic is to treat it
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exactly like broadcast traffic. For this, it's just a matter of forwarding it across each port.
Multicast traffic can be easily detected because the first byte of the destination MAC address
is odd (the last bit of the first byte is 1). Unfortunately, this isn't the most optimal way to
manage bandwidth: if no one on a branch of the network is interested in that specific
multicast traffic, why transmit it to that branch? Advanced bridges have an intelligent
learning mechanism for multicast: they detect which ports contain members of a particular
multicast group and only forward the multicast traffic of that group to those ports. The
primary method for this involves detecting stations requesting to join or leave a specific
multicast group. These requests rely on the Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP),
which is a Layer 3 protocol.
3.2.6 Configuring an Access Point
Whether they are simple bridges, routers, or hotspot-in-a-box devices, Access Points
(APs) typically offer an administration interface (Fig. 4.6). The exact procedure for
accessing this administration interface, the required IP configuration, and default
'administrator' credentials can vary from one product to another, so consulting the AP's
documentation is necessary.
The administration interface itself is usually a web-based interface, sometimes
accessible via Telnet (command line). Occasionally, it may be necessary to install
administration software provided by the manufacturer. Regardless, it's important to ensure
that the interface is intuitive and comprehensive.
Some APs can automatically download their configuration via FTP, HTTP, or even
RADIUS. This can be convenient when dealing with a large number of APs, allowing for
centralized and standardized configuration management. Another useful function is the
ability to export the configuration into a file for later reloading.
3.2.7 How to Choose an Access Point?
To conclude and summarize this section dedicated to Access Points (APs), here's a list
of questions to consider (or ask the seller) before purchasing an AP.
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Physical Layer
As with all WiFi products, the first criterion for choosing an AP is the standard it uses:
802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, or even mixed APs (802.11a/g) or proprietary ones (802.11b+...).
Figure 4.6 - Example of a web-based administration interface

for an access point.
Carefully observe the radio characteristics of the AP: transmitter power, antenna gain,
antenna radiation pattern (horizontal and vertical angle), sensitivity, noise tolerance,
supported modulations, and more. Note: while everyone often focuses on range, it may not
be the most crucial criterion in business settings. For instance, if you have 500 employees in
your company and install an exceptional AP capable of covering the entire building and
handling 500 simultaneous connections, the average throughput per user will be minimal
because the available 11 Mb/s or 54 Mb/s will be divided among 500 users. Therefore, it's
often preferable to deploy multiple low-range APs.
In a business setting, the range of APs might not be the most critical criterion because
deploying numerous APs will likely be necessary to manage multiple simultaneous
connections.
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MAC Layer
Pay attention to the functionalities at the Layer 2 level. Here are some questions to consider:
• What level of security is supported? WPA or WPA2, which would be ideal? Is it
possible to isolate associated stations from seeing each other?
• Is PCF supported? Or even better, WMM? Does the configuration interface allow
fine-tuning of Quality of Service (QoS), especially for fairly allocating bandwidth to users,
providing variable priorities for different types of network traffic (web, emails,
multimedia...)?
• Can multiple SSIDs be created? Does each SSID have its own BSSID? Can multiple
SSIDs be made visible? Can each SSID be associated with one or more VLANs? Can each
SSID have its own security configuration?
• How many LAN ports are available? Can APs be chained via their LAN ports?
• Is WDS supported? With which routing algorithm? Is there a proprietary routing
algorithm?
• Is STP managed?
• Does the configuration interface allow adjustment of various MAC Layer
parameters, such as RTS Threshold or fragmentation threshold (see Chapter 4)?
Administration and Monitoring
Finally, is the AP's administration interface user-friendly and comprehensive? Are all
settings easy to configure? Is it a web-based interface, Telnet, or another platform? Can the
AP's firmware be updated, and is this update process free? Are the updates frequent and of
high quality? To what extent will the AP be updated to keep up with security and QoS
standard developments? Can the AP self-download its configuration? Does it offer a
monitoring interface? Perhaps via SNMP?
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Other selection criteria
Undoubtedly, the manufacturer's brand is a crucial factor in making a choice.

Reliability and responsiveness naturally vary from one provider to another. It's up to you to
assess the market and its players. Discussion groups and user feedback can provide valuable
insights for selecting a provider and a specific product.
The form factor of the AP is equally important: ergonomics, resistance to impact,

temperature, and humidity are all criteria to consider depending on the deployment context.
In a less supervised location, be cautious in choosing an AP that can be securely attached to a
wall or even a false ceiling. Some APs have a detachable antenna or WiFi adapter, which is
convenient for hardware updates or changing radio coverage, but ensure these components
are not prone to theft!
Power consumption can be a significant factor when deploying dozens of APs. Lastly,
ensure that the components don’t disconnect too easily, especially the power source, WiFi
adapter, and antenna.
3.3 WIFI DEVICES
In this section, we'll provide a brief overview of the primary types of WiFi devices
commonly found in stores. There are too many to delve into details, but this general
presentation might spark ideas for applications you hadn't considered.
3.3.1 Office Devices

Computers, Tablet PCs, PDAs, and Smartphones
The primary WiFi devices are, of course, desktop computers and laptops, some of
which come with an integrated WiFi adapter. Following those are Tablet PCs, PDAs (Palm,
Pocket PC), and smartphones, highly convenient for genuinely mobile uses such as wireless
inventories or simply radio audits. Due to size and power consumption considerations, WiFi
adapters in PDAs often feature a single, not very powerful radio (2.4 GHz or 5 GHz).
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Therefore, it's crucial to carefully check the WiFi specifications based on the intended
application.
Tablet PCs strike a balance between PDAs and laptops, making them suitable for
applications requiring both power and mobility.
Figure 4.7 - Some products with

integrated WiFi.
Printers
WiFi printers are convenient in a home setting or small to medium-sized enterprises,

especially when there's no wired network available! However, in larger companies, these
devices tend to be quite bulky and are seldom moved. Consequently, if the company has a
wired network, the benefits of connecting printers via WiFi are minimal and consume
unnecessary bandwidth on the wireless network. In an enterprise setting, unless the context
specifically demands WiFi, conventional printers are generally preferred.
Another option is connecting a conventional printer to a WiFi print server: this

involves a small WiFi-enabled device with a printer connector. Several workstations can
then use the same conventional printer via WiFi, even if that printer wasn't originally
designed for network use. Again, these products are most useful at home, in small to
medium-sized enterprises, or in situations where the printer can't physically connect to the
wired network.
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Video projectors
"WiFi projectors" are particularly convenient: they allow for presentations without
having to connect a laptop to the projector via a cable. Presentations can be more dynamic
and interactive because the presenter can move around with their laptop during the
presentation, following the flow of discussions. They also enable multiple individuals to
deliver consecutive or even simultaneous presentations. However, they require the
installation of software on the client's device. Additionally, they consume a considerable
amount of bandwidth and may not smoothly project animations (such as a DVD, for
instance).
Once again, just like with printers, there are also adapters that connect to the "standard" input
port (VGA) of any projector. These have the advantage of allowing you to keep your current
projector or choose one solely for its image quality, disregarding its connectivity.
Cameras
Connected WiFi surveillance cameras are convenient to set up and are among the most
favored WiFi devices. Bandwidth usage can be significant, depending on the image quality
and frequency of captures. It's important to ensure this doesn't disrupt other users on the
wireless network, if any. Moreover, these cameras might be susceptible to interference,
which can compromise the level of security they provide, potentially intentional.
Certain WiFi cameras can integrate with a third-party security system (motion detection,
magnetic variations, infrared), activating only upon intrusion. Some products offer the option
to send an email alert to the owner in case of a breach.
Multimedia
Finally, there are numerous multimedia products reliant on WiFi: Hi-Fi systems
equipped with a WiFi adapter capable of playing MP3s sent from your computer, audio
adapters to connect to a standard Hi-Fi system, television screens that can receive a video
stream sent from your computer, and again, WiFi video adapters to connect to your screen.
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The relevance of these products for a business seems limited, except perhaps for decorating
waiting rooms, but they have gained popularity among individuals.
Vacation photos, family videos, and all those memories once stored in an old shoebox
will increasingly become digitized: stored on our computers, our memories will be
transferred to our television screen or Hi-Fi system through wireless technologies like WiFi.
The computer becomes our digital shoebox.
3.3.4 Telephony over WiFi

To conclude on WiFi devices, it's worth mentioning WiFi phones, although they are
not yet widely prevalent. Their principle is simple: they are wireless phones, like Cisco's
Wireless IP Phone or Viper Networks' WiFi vPhone, with a radio interface based on WiFi
instead of other wireless telephony technologies like HomeRF, GSM, or UMTS (see chapter
1).
The user first needs to select the wireless network either by choosing it from the list of
detected networks or by manually entering the SSID and WiFi network settings.
Subsequently, a Voice over IP (VoIP) protocol like the Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) is
used to establish communication with any correspondent.
If the correspondent also uses an IP phone, the communication simply travels over the
local network or the internet, rendering the communication free. However, if the
correspondent has a "traditional" phone (mobile or landline), the communication needs to
pass through a gateway linking the internet and the Public Switched Telephone Network
(PSTN). To utilize these gateways, a subscription with the companies implementing them is
required.
For each communication routed through a gateway, the cost will be that of the phone
communication between the gateway and the correspondent, plus the margin of the company,
naturally. Since these gateways are scattered globally, the charge typically reflects that of a
local call, often much lower than a conventional call placed to another region within France!
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Many companies are interested in VoIP to reduce the cost of their telephone
communications, especially between their branches. This is particularly true for companies
with offices in multiple countries. By deploying IP phones across all their offices, a company
can significantly cut down its phone bills. It's important to note that these IP phones don't
necessarily have to be WiFi; they can be fixed phones directly connected to the wired
network.
Advanced features like voicemail, conference calls, directories, and call forwarding are
managed by VoIP protocols such as SIP or H.323, but generally, a dedicated VoIP server
needs to be installed for these functionalities. H.323 even allows for video conferencing.
.
Figure 4.8 — Telephony over

WiFi: hardware or software.
Unfortunately, these WiFi phones are still quite bulky and their battery life is limited
(although this is currently changing). Another solution is to transform a PDA or a laptop (or
desktop) into a WiFi phone. To do this, all that is needed is to install software designed for
this purpose, such as Skype, Wifive, or Net2Phone, and plug in a microphone and earphones.
The result is certainly less convenient than a real phone, but it is fully functional!
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3.4 WIFI ANTENNAS
Antennas serve both for the transmission and reception of electromagnetic signals: for
transmission, they convert electric signals generated by the transmitter into electromagnetic
waves; for reception, they convert electromagnetic waves emitted by another antenna into an
electric current, allowing a receiver to interpret it.
3.4.1 Understanding antennas

Chapter 5 will cover radio coverage and delve into the specifics of radio transmission
regulations. For now, here's a brief overview of the parameters to consider when purchasing
an antenna.
Active or passive antennas
Antennas are divided into two categories: passive antennas and active antennas.
Passive antennas do not increase the signal's power but can focus it in one or more
directions. Active antennas, while also able to focus the signal, contain an amplifier that can
boost the power of the received or transmitted signal.
En France, due to regulations restricting the radiated power to a maximum of 10 or
100 milliwatts (2 or 20 dBm) for 2.4 GHz, and 200 or 1,000 milliwatts (approximately 23
dBm or 30 dBm) for 5 GHz, active antennas for transmission are effectively prohibited.
However, amplification of the received signal is not prohibited, but it requires a separate
receiving antenna from the transmitting antenna.
Some WiFi adapters have slots for connecting two antennas: one solely for reception, the
other for both reception and transmission. The first one can be active, but in practice, passive
antennas are sufficient and more cost-effective, so we'll focus solely on those. Having two
antennas for reception helps better manage interference by receiving the signal in duplicate;
this is known as "diversity." For this purpose, they should be positioned at a certain distance
from each other, depending on the chosen wavelength.
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Directivity
Les antennes peuvent radiate in several ways, determining their category:
- **Directional**: Focuses the signal in a specific direction.
- **Bidirectional**: Concentrates the signal in two directions, usually opposite to each
other.
- **Omnidirectional (or isotropic)**: Theoretically emits the signal uniformly in all
directions, but such antennas don't exist practically. Their radiation is never truly uniform;
omnidirectional antennas typically concentrate the signal by flattening it, much like
squashing a ball.
- **Sectoral**: It lies between directional and omnidirectional antennas, concentrating
the signal within a hemisphere or a very wide beam (for example, with a 60-degree angle).
These categories describe how antennas distribute or focus their signal, but in practical
terms, achieving perfect uniformity in signal distribution is unattainable.
By focusing the signal in space, a directional antenna allows the receiver (provided it's in the
axis, of course) to receive a more powerful signal compared to what it would receive from a
perfectly omnidirectional antenna. The classic analogy for this phenomenon is akin to a
flashlight: by adjusting the flashlight, you can concentrate its beam of light more or less.
Despite the constant power of the bulb, a person illuminated will receive more light power if
the beam is concentrated in their direction.
Gain
When in the axis of a directional antenna, there's an observed power gain compared to
an isotropic emitter. This gain is measured in isotropic decibels, noted as dBi. The narrower
the beam of a passive antenna, the higher its gain. It's crucial to note that an antenna's gain
applies equally to both the transmitted and received signals.
Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power
The power of the signal perceived by an observer is greater when the signal is
concentrated towards the observer using a directional antenna rather than being uniformly
dispersed in space. If a directional antenna is replaced by a perfectly omnidirectional one, the
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transmitter's power needs to be increased for the receiver to perceive the same power as
before. The power of this equivalent omnidirectional transmitter is referred to as Equivalent
Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP).
Radiation diagram
In reality, antennas never have as simple a radiation pattern as a uniform beam. The core of
the beam is denser than the periphery. The beam's limit isn't distinct (see fig. 4.9). Multiple
radiation lobes often exist. To better understand an antenna, consulting its radiation pattern is
beneficial. This precisely shows a projection of the antenna's radiation in a plane (horizontal
or vertical). The gain is sometimes indicated with a color gradient, gain contour lines, or
more commonly, a single curve delineating the area where the gain is 3 dBi lower than the
maximum gain (or other values depending on the diagrams).
Figure 4.9 — Antennas and radiation pattern.
When this diagram isn't provided, a simplified description of the beam can be obtained:
- For a directional antenna: through the horizontal and vertical beamwidth angles.
- For an omnidirectional antenna: through the vertical radiation angle.
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These angles provide only an approximate idea of the actual radiation. The beam described
by these angles is typically defined by the boundary of -3 dBi concerning the maximum gain.
For instance, if a 6 dBi antenna has a 60-degree beamwidth, an observer positioned at 30
degrees from the antenna's axis will experience a gain of only 3 dBi.
Bandwidth
The size and structure of an antenna determine its resonance frequency, meaning the
frequency it will emit and capture most effectively. Around this resonance frequency,
neighboring frequencies will be slightly attenuated in both emission and reception. The
antenna's bandwidth is the portion of the radio spectrum situated around this resonance
frequency where the attenuation is lower than a predefined limit (usually 3 decibels).
Antennas designed for WiFi are typically specialized to operate either at 2.4 GHz or 5
GHz, although there are some dual-band antennas available. These dual-band antennas can
function across both frequencies.
3.4.3 Antenna cables and connectors

Pour connecting an antenna to a WiFi adapter or an access point, coaxial cables are
commonly used due to their low impedance. The signal attenuation depends on the chosen
product and typically ranges between 0.2 dB per meter of cable and 1 dB/m. It's
recommended to minimize the distance between the transmitter and the antenna to avoid
losing a significant portion of the signal in the cable. Additionally, longer cables are more
susceptible to ambient electromagnetic noise.
That's why antenna cables are sometimes sold as short cables, typically around twenty
centimeters long; these are called pigtails, resembling "pig tails" (see fig. 4.10).
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Figure 4.10 — Examples of antenna connectors.

Several types of antenna connectors exist, with some limited to a specific
manufacturer. When purchasing an antenna and cable for a WiFi adapter or an access point
(AP), ensure their connectors are compatible. This compatibility check is crucial to guarantee
proper connection and prevent any component mismatch.
Conclusion:
Chapter 3 covers WiFi equipment. It delves into various aspects, including types of
antennas, their functions, and their impact on signal strength and directionality. The chapter
emphasizes the importance of understanding antenna categories like directional,
omnidirectional, and bidirectional, detailing their capabilities and practical uses. It also
discusses the significance of considering Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP) and
the limitations imposed by regulations on signal power. Additionally, it highlights the role of
coaxial cables in connecting antennas to WiFi adapters or access points, emphasizing
connector compatibility as a crucial factor in setting up an effective WiFi system.
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Kasdi Merbah Ouargla University Department of Electronics and Telecommunications

Faculty of New Information M2 Electronics of Embedded Systems

Kasdi Merbah University

M2 Electronics of Embedded Systems

Chapter 3: The Equipment

Dr. CHENINA Hachemi

Figure 3.1 - WiFi Adapters.

What adapter to choose?

An Interface for the Operating System

Figure 3.2 - Example of the Intel

Figure 3.3 - Zero Config Interface

The advanced settings:

3.2 THE ACCESS POINT

• Authorized device filtering based on their MAC address.

Figure 3.5 - Example of 802.11g/Ethernet

Broadcast and multicast

Figure 4.6 - Example of a web-based administration interface

Administration and Monitoring

Other selection criteria

Undoubtedly, the manufacturer's brand is a crucial factor in making a choice.

The form factor of the AP is equally important: ergonomics, resistance to impact,

3.3 WIFI DEVICES

3.3.1 Office Devices

Figure 4.7 - Some products with

WiFi printers are convenient in a home setting or small to medium-sized enterprises,

Another option is connecting a conventional printer to a WiFi print server: this

3.3.4 Telephony over WiFi

Figure 4.8 — Telephony over

3.4 WIFI ANTENNAS

3.4.1 Understanding antennas

Figure 4.9 — Antennas and radiation pattern.

- For an omnidirectional antenna: through the vertical radiation angle.

3.4.3 Antenna cables and connectors

Figure 4.10 — Examples of antenna connectors.

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