Periodic table

Chemical Bonding
GOC
Chemical Equilibrium
Ionic Equilibrium
Thermodynamics
 Periodic Properties

● Atomic radii
● Ionic Radii
● Ionisation Enthalpy
● Electron gain Enthalpy
● Electronegativity
Atomic Radius
“Half the internuclear distance(d) between two
atoms in a homodiatomic molecule is known as
atomic radius.”
Atomic Radius

A Covalent Radius

B Metallic Radius

C Van der Waal’s radius

D Ionic Radius
Covalent Radius

For Homo atomic Molecule

A A
dAA

rAA
 Covalent Radius

For Hetro atomic Molecule

δ+ δ–
Shomaker & Stevenson Formula:
dAB
A B dA–B = rA + rB – 0.09 (Δx) in Ao

dA–B = rA + rB – 9 (Δx) in pm

Δx = Electronegativity difference

rA rB
Metallic Radius

Half of the internuclear distance between two adjacent

metallic atoms in crystalline lattice structure.

rm + rm

rm
Vander waal’s Radius

❏ For a species:

Van der Waals Radius > Metallic Radius > Covalent Radius

❏ Van der waals radius is largest .

❏ Covalent radius is smallest .

Factor affecting Atomic Radius

❏ Zeff ↑ then Radius↓

❏ no. of shells ↑ then Radius ↑

❏ Bond order ↑ then Radius↓

❏ 𝞼↑ then Radius ↑
General Trend of Atomic Radius

❏ “On moving Left to Right in periodic table, size of element

decreases due to increase in effective nuclear charge (Zeff)”
General Trend of Atomic Radius

❏ “On moving down the group in periodic table, size of element

increases due to increase in extra shell in each step.”
Special Cases

In group 13 the trend of atomic radius is

B < Al ≈ Ga < In < Tl

This is due to poor Shielding of 3d electrons in

Ga as a result effective nuclear charge
increases hence size of Ga decreases.
 Special Cases
Screening effect = nuclear charge
Nearly same

Element Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn

Atomic radius (A) 1.44 1.32 1.22 1.18 1.17 1.17 1.16 1.15 1.17 1.25

Decreases Increases
Due to increase in nuclear charge Screening effect > nuclear charge
 Comparing the radius vs atomic number, curve of Alkali
metals and halogens we can conclude that
(Give your Answer with respect to the following graph)

I -Alkali metals, II - Halogens

1
r
2 I - Halogens, II -alkali metals

Z 3 II - for both the graphs

(I) (II)
4 I- for both the graphs
 Comparing the radius vs atomic number, curve of Alkali
metals and halogens we can conclude that
(Give your Answer with respect to the following graph)

I -Alkali metals, II - Halogens

1
r
2 I - Halogens, II -alkali metals

Z 3 II - for both the graphs

(I) (II)
4 I- for both the graphs
Solution:
The increasing order of the atomic radii of the following
elements is :
(a) C (b) O (c) F
(d) Cl (e) Br

1 (a) < (b) < (c) < (d) < (e)

2 (c) < (b) < (a) < (d) < (e)

3 (b) < (c) < (d) < (a) < (e)

4 (d) < (c) < (b) < (a) < (e)

The increasing order of the atomic radii of the following
elements is :
(a) C (b) O (c) F
(d) Cl (e) Br

1 (a) < (b) < (c) < (d) < (e)

2 (c) < (b) < (a) < (d) < (e)

3 (b) < (c) < (d) < (a) < (e)

4 (d) < (c) < (b) < (a) < (e)

Solution:
The increasing order of atomic radii of the following Group 13
elements is

1 Al < Ga < In < Tl

2 Ga < Al < In < Tl

3 Al < In < Ga < Tl

4 Al < Ga < T1 < In

The increasing order of atomic radii of the following Group 13
elements is

1 Al < Ga < In < Tl

2 Ga < Al < In < Tl

3 Al < In < Ga < Tl

4 Al < Ga < T1 < In

 Solution:

Increasing order of atomic radius of group 13 elements

Ga < Al < In < Tl. Due to poor shielding of d-electrons in Ga, its
radius decreases below Al.
Ionic Radii

“ Ionic radius can be calculated by measuring the

distance between cations & anions in an ionic crystal.”
 Anionic radii

Radius of an anion is invariably bigger than that of the corresponding atom.

Reason:
❏ The effective nuclear charge decrease in the formation of anion. Thus the
electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus and the outer
electrons decreases as the size of the anion increases.
❏ Interelectronic repulsion increases.
 Cationic radii

Radius of cation is smaller than that of corresponding atom.

Reason:
During the formation of cation ,effective nuclear charge increase as a
result atomic size decreases.
 Isoelectronic species

Atoms/Ions that contain the same number of electrons are isoelectronic species. Their
radii would be different because of different nuclear charges.
Which one of the following sets of ions represents a
collection of isoelectronic species ?
(Given: Atomic Number : F: 9, Cl: 17,Na = 11,
Mg = 12, Al = 13, K = 19, Ca = 20,Sc = 21)

1 Ba2+,Sr2+, K+, Ca2+

2 Li+,Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+

3 N3−, O2−, F−,S2−

4 K+, Cl−, Ca2+,Sc3+

Which one of the following sets of ions represents a
collection of isoelectronic species ?
(Given: Atomic Number : F: 9, Cl: 17,Na = 11,
Mg = 12, Al = 13, K = 19, Ca = 20,Sc = 21)

1 Ba2+,Sr2+, K+, Ca2+

2 Li+,Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+

3 N3−, O2−, F−,S2−

4 K+, Cl−, Ca2+,Sc3+

Solution:

K+ = 18
Cl ؎= 18
Ca+2 = 18
Sc+3 = 18
The correct order of ionic radii for the ions,
P3-, S2-, Ca2+, K+, Cl-1 is

1 K+ > Ca2+ > P3- > S2- > Cl-

2 P3- > S2- > Cl- > Ca2+ > K+

3 P3- > S2- > Cl- > K+ > Ca2+

4 Cl- > S2- > P3- > Ca2+ > K+

The correct order of ionic radii for the ions,
P3-, S2-, Ca2+, K+, Cl-1 is

1 K+ > Ca2+ > P3- > S2- > Cl-

2 P3- > S2- > Cl- > Ca2+ > K+

3 P3- > S2- > Cl- > K+ > Ca2+

4 Cl- > S2- > P3- > Ca2+ > K+

 Ionisation Energy

Amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound

electron from an isolated gaseous atom to form a cation.
Ionisation Energy

IE1

IE2

IE3

IE1 < IE2 < IE3

Factor affecting Ionisation Energy

Atomic Size

Easier is the removal of the valence

Greater the size of atom →
electron, hence energy required is
less.
Factor affecting Ionisation Energy

Nuclear Charge

Greater is attraction between nucleus and

Greater the charge →
electrons present in outermost shell, more will
be difficult to remove electron.
Factor affecting Ionisation Energy

Screening effect

With increase in Screening Effect, nuclear charge on electrons in the

outermost shell reduces. Since effective nuclear charge decreases,
Ionization Enthalpy decreases.
Factor affecting Ionisation Energy

Electronic configuration
Factor affecting Ionisation Energy

● Moving from left to right in a period I.E. ↑ as (Zeff ↑)

Factor affecting Ionisation Energy

● Moving from top to bottom in a group I.E. ↓ as (Size↑)

 Special Cases

For Transition elements

Generally in period IE increases, but the increase is not so

regular (Sc, Ti, V, Cr) differ only slightly from each other and
Fe, Co, Ni, Cu values are fairly close to each other from Cu - Zn
again increasing
Special Cases
The element having greatest difference between its first and
second ionization energies, is

1 K

2 Sc

3 Ca

4 Ba
The element having greatest difference between its first and
second ionization energies, is

1 K

2 Sc

3 Ca

4 Ba
The first ionization enthalpies of Be, B, N and O follow the
order

1 O < N < B < Be

2 Be < B < N < O

3 B < Be < N < O

4 B < Be < O < N

The first ionization enthalpies of Be, B, N andO follow the
order

1 O < N < B < Be

2 Be < B < N < O

3 B < Be < N < O

4 B < Be < O < N

The incorrect statement is

1 The first ionization enthalpy of K is less

than that of Na and Li

2 Xe does not have the lowest first

ionization enthalpy in its group

3 The first ionization enthalpy of element

with atomic number 37 is lower than that
of the element with atomic number 38

4 The first ionization enthalpy of Ga is

higher than that of the d-block element
with atomic number 30.
The incorrect statement is

1 The first ionization enthalpy of K is less

than that of Na and Li

2 Xe does not have the lowest first

ionization enthalpy in its group

3 The first ionization enthalpy of element

with atomic number 37 is lower than that
of the element with atomic number 38

4 The first ionization enthalpy of Ga is

higher than that of the d-block element
with atomic number 30.
Solution:

On moving down in a group ionisation energy decrease

∴ 1st ionisation enthalpy order is Li > Na > K
Zn has more ionisation energy as compared to Ga because of their
pseudo inert gas configuration.
The five successive ionization enthalpies of an element are
800, 2427, 3658, 25024 and 32824 kJ mol-1. The number of
valence electrons in the element is

1 3

2 4

3 2

4 5
The five successive ionization enthalpies of an element are
800, 2427, 3658, 25024 and 32824 kJ mol-1. The number of
valence electrons in the element is

1 3

2 4

3 2

4 5
Solution:

There is a sudden jump after 3rd I.E. due to attainment of

noble gas configuration. So, the number of valence
electrons in this element are 3.
Electron gain enthalpy

Energy released when an e- is added to the valence shell of an

isolated gaseous atom.
Factor affecting Electron gain enthalpy

Nuclear Charge

Higher the effective nuclear charge, higher is the electron affinity

EA ∝ Z*
Factor affecting Electron gain enthalpy

Atomic Size

Higher the atomic radius, lesser is the effective nuclear

charge and lesser is the electron affinity

EA ∝ Z*1
EA ∝
Atomic radius
Factor affecting Electron gain enthalpy

Screening effect

Electron gain enthalpy value of the elements decreases with the

increasing shielding or screening effect. The shielding effect between
the outer electrons and the nucleus increases as the number of
electrons increases in the inner shells.
Factor affecting Electron gain enthalpy

Electronic configuration

Atoms having half filled and fully filled configuration is most

stable and they do not show tendency to accept the extra
electron.
Electron gain enthalpy

Group 1 ΔegH Group 16 ΔegH Group 17 ΔegH

Li -60 O -141 F -328

Na -53 S -200 Cl -349

K -48 Se -195 Br -325

Rb -47 Te -190 I -295

Cs -46 Po -174 At -270

 Electron gain enthalpy

Group 16 ΔegH Group 17 ΔegH Group 18 ΔegH

Atomic radii increase

He +48

O -141 F -328 Ne +116

S -200 Cl -349 Ar +96

Se -195 Br -325 Kr +96

Te -190 I -295 Xe +77

Po -174 At -270 Rn +68

ΔegH Decrease
Which one of the following arrangements represents the
correct order of electron gain enthalpy (with negative sign)
of the given atomic species ?

Cl < F < S < O

1

2 O < S < F < Cl

3 S < O < Cl < F

4 F < Cl < O < S

Which one of the following arrangements represents the
correct order of electron gain enthalpy (with negative sign)
of the given atomic species ?

Cl < F < S < O

1

2 O < S < F < Cl

3 S < O < Cl < F

4 F < Cl < O < S

Solution:

Correct order of electron gain enthalpy is O < S < F < CI

since F and O have more electron electron density with
respect to Cl and S.
Which of the following statement is correct?

1 Electron gain enthalpy may be positive

for some elements.

2 Second electron gain enthalpy always

remains positive for all the elements.

3 ΔegH (K+) = - IE (K)

4 All of these
Which of the following statement is correct?

1 Electron gain enthalpy may be positive

for some elements.

2 Second electron gain enthalpy always

remains positive for all the elements.

3 ΔegH (K+) = - IE (K)

4 All of these
DPP
In general, the properties that decrease and increase down
a group in the periodic table, respectively, are :

1 atomic radius and electronegativity

2 electronegativity and atomic radius

3 electron gain enthalpy and electronegativity

4 electronegativity and electron gain enthalpy

In general, the properties that decrease and increase down
a group in the periodic table, respectively, are :

1 atomic radius and electronegativity

2 electronegativity and atomic radius

3 electron gain enthalpy and electronegativity

4 electronegativity and electron gain enthalpy

 Solution:

Down the group electronegativity decreases and atomic radius

increases
The first ionisation potential of Na is 5.1 eV. The value of
electron gain enthalpy of Na+ will be

1 - 2.55 eV

2 - 5.1 eV

3 - 10.2 eV

4 + 2.55 eV
The first ionisation potential of Na is 5.1 eV. The value of
electron gain enthalpy of Na+ will be

1 - 2.55 eV

2 - 5.1 eV

3 - 10.2 eV

4 + 2.55 eV
 Solution:

Na ⟶ Na+ + e-- First IE

Na+ + e- ⟶ Na
Electron gain enthalpy of Na+ is reverse of (IE)
= - 5.1 eV
Which of the following order is wrong.

1 NH3 < PH3 < AsH3 -Acidic

2 Li < Be < B < C - I.E

3 Al2O3 < MgO < Na2O < K2O - Basic

4 Li+ < Na+ < K+ <Cs+ - Ionic radius

Which of the following order is wrong.

1 NH3 < PH3 < AsH3 -Acidic

2 Li < Be < B < C - I.E

3 Al2O3 < MgO < Na2O < K2O - Basic

4 Li+ < Na+ < K+ <Cs+ - Ionic radius

Solution:
In which of the following arrangements the order is not
according to the property indicated against it?

1 Li < Na < K <Rb : Increasing metallic radius

I <Br <F < Cl :Increasing electron gain enthalpy

2 (with negative sign)

3 B< C < N < O :Increasing first ionization enthalpy

4 Al3+ < Mg2+ <Na+ < F- :Increasing ionic size.

In which of the following arrangements the order is not
according to the property indicated against it?

1 Li < Na < K <Rb : Increasing metallic radius

I <Br <F < Cl :Increasing electron gain enthalpy

2 (with negative sign)

3 B< C < N < O :Increasing first ionization enthalpy

4 Al3+ < Mg2+ <Na+ < F- :Increasing ionic size.

 Solution:

IE1 : N > O :due to stable configuration of N.

The following qualitative plots depict the first, second and
third ionization energies (I.E.) of Mg, Al and K. Among the
following, the correct match of I.E. and the metal is

1 X-Al; Y-Mg ; Z-K

2 X-Mg; Y-Al ; Z-K

3 X-Mg; Y-K ; Z-Al

4 X-Al; Y-K ; Z-Mg

The following qualitative plots depict the first, second and
third ionization energies (I.E.) of Mg, Al and K. Among the
following, the correct match of I.E. and the metal is

1 X-Al; Y-Mg ; Z-K

2 X-Mg; Y-Al ; Z-K

3 X-Mg; Y-K ; Z-Al

4 X-Al; Y-K ; Z-Mg

 Solution:

K Mg
Al
4s1 3s2
3s23p1
Order IE1 K < Al <
Mg
Order IE2 Mg < Al
<K
Order IE3 Al < K <
Mg
Given that covalent radius of F(EN=4) and Cl(EN=3) are 71
pm and 99 pm, find the bond length of F-Cl molecule.

170 pm
1

2 71 pm

3 165 pm

4 161 pm
Given that covalent radius of F(EN=4) and Cl(EN=3) are 71
pm and 99 pm, find the bond length of F-Cl molecule.

170 pm
1

2 71 pm

3 165 pm

4 161 pm
Solution:

In picometer units,

Bond length = RA + RB - 9 |XA - XB| = 71 + 99 - 9(4-3) = 161 pm

Arrange in order of increasing energy for removing an
electron from 19K+, 18Ar and 17Cl-

K+ < Ar < Cl-

1

2 Ar < Cl- < K+

3 Cl- < K+ < Ar

4 Cl- < Ar < K+

Arrange in order of increasing energy for removing an
electron from 19K+, 18Ar and 17Cl-

K+ < Ar < Cl-

1

2 Ar < Cl- < K+

3 Cl- < K+ < Ar

4 Cl- < Ar < K+

Solution:

K+, Ar and Cl- have the same electronic configuration, but they
have the nuclear charge increases in the order
K+ > Ar > Cl-, so the order of the ionization potential is
Cl- < Ar < K+.
Which one of the following ions has the highest value of
ionic radius?

1 O2-

2 B3+

3 Li+

4 F-
Which one of the following ions has the highest value of
ionic radius?

1 O2-

2 B3+

3 Li+

4 F-
 Solution:

O2- and F- will be larger than Li+ and B+3

O2- F-

z 8 9

e 10 10

z/e 0.8 0.9

More the z/e, lesser the radius

The correct order of decreasing electronegativity values
among the elements I-beryllium, II-oxygen, III-nitrogen and
IV-magnesium, is

1 (II) > (III) > (I) > (IV)

2 (III) > (IV) > (II) > (I)

3 (I) > (II) > (III) > (IV)

4 (I) > (II) > (IV) > (III)

The correct order of decreasing electronegativity values
among the elements I-beryllium, II-oxygen, III-nitrogen and
IV-magnesium, is

1 (II) > (III) > (I) > (IV)

2 (III) > (IV) > (II) > (I)

3 (I) > (II) > (III) > (IV)

4 (I) > (II) > (IV) > (III)

Solution:

⟶EN Increases
EN decreases
Be N O
↓
Mg

IV < I < III < II

IE1and IE2of Mg are 178 and 348 kcal mol-1 respectively. The
energy required for the reaction Mg(g)⟶Mg2+(g) +2e-is

1 +170 kcal

2 +526 kcal

3 – 170 kcal

4 – 526 kcal
IE1and IE2of Mg are 178 and 348 kcal mol-1 respectively. The
energy required for the reaction Mg(g)⟶Mg2+(g) +2e-is

1 +170 kcal

2 +526 kcal

3 – 170 kcal

4 – 526 kcal
Solution:

Mg ⟶ Mg+ +e- IE1 = 178

Mg+ ⟶ Mg+2 +e- IE2 =348
Mg ⟶ Mg+2 + 2e- ΔH = 178 + 348 = 526 kcal
The correct order of the ionic radii of O2-, N3-, F-, Mg2+, Na+
and Al3+ is:

N3- < O2- < F- < Na+ < Mg2+ < Al3+
1

Al3+ < Na+ < Mg2+ < O2- < F- < N3-
2

3 Al3+ < Mg2+ < Na+ < F- < O2- < N3-

4 N3- < F- < O2- < Mg2+ < Na+ < Al3+
The correct order of the ionic radii of O2-, N3-, F-, Mg2+, Na+
and Al3+ is:

N3- < O2- < F- < Na+ < Mg2+ < Al3+
1

Al3+ < Na+ < Mg2+ < O2- < F- < N3-
2

3 Al3+ < Mg2+ < Na+ < F- < O2- < N3-

4 N3- < F- < O2- < Mg2+ < Na+ < Al3+
Solution:

All are isoelectronic species, so more is the Zeff less will be the ionic
size.
∴ Correct order of ionic radii is
Al3+ < Mg2+ < Na+ < F- < O2- < N3-
Which one of the following statements is incorrect?

Greater is the nuclear charge, greater is the

1 electron affinity

Nitrogen has approximately zero electron affinity

2

Electron affinity decreases from fluorine to iodine

3 in the group

4 Chlorine has highest electron affinity.

Which one of the following statements is incorrect?

Greater is the nuclear charge, greater is the

1 electron affinity

Nitrogen has approximately zero electron affinity

2

Electron affinity decreases from fluorine to iodine

3 in the group

4 Chlorine has highest electron affinity.

Solution:

Order of electron affinity of halogens:

Cl > F >Br >I
Which property decreases from left to right across the
periodic table and increases from top to bottom?
(i) Atomic radius (ii)
Electronegativity
(iii) Ionisation energy (iv) Metallic character

1 (i) only

(i), (ii) and (iii)

2

3 (i), (iii) and (iv)

4 (i) and (iv)

Which property decreases from left to right across the
periodic table and increases from top to bottom?
(i) Atomic radius (ii)
Electronegativity
(iii) Ionisation energy (iv) Metallic character

1 (i) only

(i), (ii) and (iii)

2

3 (i), (iii) and (iv)

4 (i) and (iv)

Solution:

Atomic radius and metallic character decreases from left

to right across the period and increases from top to
bottom down the group.
Which of the following order is correct for the size of Fe 3+, Fe
and Fe2+?

1 Fe < Fe2+ < Fe3+

2 Fe2+ < Fe3+ < Fe

3 Fe < Fe2+ < Fe2+

4 Fe3+ < Fe2+ < Fe

Which of the following order is correct for the size of Fe 3+, Fe
and Fe2+?

1 Fe < Fe2+ < Fe3+

2 Fe2+ < Fe3+ < Fe

3 Fe < Fe2+ < Fe2+

4 Fe3+ < Fe2+ < Fe

Solution:

With increase in positive charge on the element, radius

decrease.

Fe3+ < Fe2+ < Fe

The electronegativity of Cl, F, O, S increases in the order of

1 S, O, Cl, F

2 S, Cl, O, F

3 Cl, S, O, F

S, O, F, Cl
4
The electronegativity of Cl, F, O, S increases in the order of

1 S, O, Cl, F

2 S, Cl, O, F

3 Cl, S, O, F

S, O, F, Cl
4
Lewis Octet Rule

● Every atom has a tendency to complete its octet in

outermost shell.
● H has the tendency to complete its duplet.
● To acquire inert gas configuration atoms lose or gain
electron or share electrons.
Lewis dot structure

● The Lewis dot structures provide a picture of bonding in

molecules and ions in terms of the shared pairs of electrons
and the octet rule.
Steps to write Lewis dot structures

❏ The total number of electrons are obtained by adding the valence electrons of

combining atoms.

❏ It is important to know Elemental symbols and it’s valence electrons.

❏ For Anions, we need to add one electron for each negative charge.

❏ For cations, we need to subtract one electron for each positive charge.

❏ After then the central atom is decided.

❏ Depending on the number of electrons (2,4,6) shared single, double & triple bonds

are formed.
Lewis dot structures

Examples:
Limitations of Octet Rule

● Incomplete octet molecules :- or (electron deficient molecules)

Compound in which octet is not complete in outer most orbit of

central atom.
Example - Halides of IIIA groups, BF3, AlCl3, BCl3 etc.

Boron has only 6 electrons

Limitations of Octet Rule

● Expansion of octet or (electron efficient molecules)

Compound in which central atom has more than 8e- in
outermost orbits.
Example - In PCl5, SF6 and IF7 the central atom P, S and I contain
10, 12, and 14 electrons respectively.

10 electrons around P atom

Limitations of Octet Rule

● Odd electron molecules :-

Central atom have an unpaired electron or odd no (7e-, 11e- etc)
of electrons in their outermost shell.
e.g. NO, NO2, ClO2 etc
Others Limitations of Octet Rule

👉Formation of noble gas compounds.

Ex: XeF2 , XeOF2

👉Doesn’t discuss shapes of molecules.

👉Doesn’t discuss stability of molecules.

The number of molecules or ions from the following, which
do not have odd number of electrons are______

(A) NO2 (B) ICl4- (C) BrF3 (D) ClO2 (E) NO2+
(F) NO
 The number of molecules or ions from the following, which
do not have odd number of electrons are______

(A) NO2 (B) ICl4- (C) BrF3 (D) ClO2 (E) NO2+
(F) NO

Ans: 3
Solution:

ICl4 - , BrF3 and NO2+ do not have odd number of e- .

Postulates of VSEPR Theory

The shape of a molecule depends upon the number of valence shell e-

pairs (bonded or unbonded) around the central atom.
Postulates of VSEPR Theory

Pairs of e- in the valence shell repel one another since their e- clouds
are negatively charged.
Postulates of VSEPR Theory

These pairs of e- tend to occupy such positions in space that minimise

repulsion and thus maximise distance between them.
Postulates of VSEPR Theory
 VSEPR Theory

B.P. L.P. Geometry Shape Example

AB2 2 0 Linear Linear BeCl2

Cl Be Cl
 VSEPR Theory

B.P. L.P. Geometry Shape Example

AB3 3 0 Trigonal
Planar
Trigonal
Planar
BF3

B
F F
 VSEPR Theory

B.P. L.P. Geometry Shape Example

AB4 4 0 Tetrahedral Tetrahedral CH4, CCl4

 VSEPR Theory

B.P. L.P. Geometry Shape Example

AB5 5 0 Trigonal
Bipyramidal
Trigonal
Bipyramidal
PCl5

Cl

Cl
Cl P
Cl

Cl
 VSEPR Theory

AB6
B.P. L.P. Geometry Shape Example

6 0 Octahedral Octahedral SF6

F F
S
F F

F
 VSEPR Theory

AB7
B.P. L.P. Geometry Shape Example

7 0 Pentagonal Pentagonal IF7

Bipyramidal Bipyramidal
 VSEPR Theory

B.P. L.P. Geometry Shape Example

AB2L 2 1 Trigonal
Planar
Bent SO2, O3
 VSEPR Theory

B.P. L.P. Geometry Shape Example

AB3L 3 1 Tetrahedral Trigonal

Pyramidal
NH3
 VSEPR Theory

AB2L2
B.P. L.P. Geometry Shape Example

2 2 Tetrahedral Bent H2O

 VSEPR Theory

B.P. L.P. Geometry Shape Example

AB4L 4 1 Trigonal
Bipyramidal
See Saw SF4
 VSEPR Theory

B.P. L.P. Geometry Shape Example

AB3L2 3 2 Trigonal
Bipyramidal
T-shape ClF3
 VSEPR Theory

B.P. L.P. Geometry Shape Example

AB2L3 2 3 Trigonal
Bipyramidal
Linear XeF2
 VSEPR Theory

B.P. L.P. Geometry Shape Example

AB5L 5 1 Octahedral Square

pyramidal
BrF5
 VSEPR Theory

B.P. L.P. Geometry Shape Example

AB4L2 4 2 Octahedral Square

planar
XeF4
Match List I with List II
Choose the correct answer from the options given below :

List-I List-II
1 A-IV, B-III, C-II, D-I
A. XeF4 I. See-saw

B. SF4 II. Square planar

2 A-IV, B-I, C-II, D-III
C. NH4+ III. Bent T-shaped

3 A-II, B-I, C-III, D-IV D. BrF3 IV. Tetrahedral

4 A-II, B-I, C-IV, D-III

Match List I with List II
Choose the correct answer from the options given below :

List-I List-II
1 A-IV, B-III, C-II, D-I
A. XeF4 I. See-saw

B. SF4 II. Square planar

2 A-IV, B-I, C-II, D-III
C. NH4+ III. Bent T-shaped

3 A-II, B-I, C-III, D-IV D. BrF3 IV. Tetrahedral

4 A-II, B-I, C-IV, D-III

Solution:

XeF4 Sq. planar

SF4 see -saw
NH4+ Tetrahedral
BrF3 Bent ‘T’ shaped.
The decreasing order of bond angles in BF3, NH3, PF3 and I3- is
:

1 I3- > BF3 > NH3 > PF3

2 BF3 > I3- > PF3 > NH3

3 BF3 > NH3 > PF3 > I3-

4 BF3 > NH3 > PF3 > I3-

The decreasing order of bond angles in BF3, NH3, PF3 and I3- is
:

1 I3- > BF3 > NH3 > PF3

2 BF3 > I3- > PF3 > NH3

3 BF3 > NH3 > PF3 > I3-

4 BF3 > NH3 > PF3 > I3-

Solution:
A list of species having the formula XZ4 is given below.
XeF4, SF4, SiF4, BF4-, BrF4-, [Cu(NH3)4]2+, [FeCl4]2-, [CoCl4]2-
and [PtCl4]2-
Defining shape on the basis of the location of X and Z
atoms, the total number of species having a square planar
shape is
A list of species having the formula XZ4 is given below.
XeF4, SF4, SiF4, BF4-, BrF4-, [Cu(NH3)4]2+, [FeCl4]2-, [CoCl4]2-
and [PtCl4]2-
Defining shape on the basis of the location of X and Z
atoms, the total number of species having a square planar
shape is

Ans: 4
Solution:
Same energy & same shape
 Hybridisation

Intermixing of atomic orbitals of an atom of nearly same energy, but different

shape to form entirely new orbitals, equal in no. of mixed atomic orbitals,
having identical shape & energy

s + p + p + p = 4sp3 Hybrid orbitals

 Types of Hybridisation

s+p s+p+d

sp sp2 sp3 sp3d sp3d2 sp3d3

Types of Hybridisation

Type of Atomic Orbitals Bond Angles Examples Shape

Hybridisation

BeCl2 , BeH2
sp s+p 1800 Linear
BeCl2, ZnCl2,
C2H2
Types of Hybridisation

Type of Atomic Orbitals Bond Angles Examples Shape

Hybridisation

BF3, BCl3, AlCl3

C2H4, CO32-, Trigonal planar
sp2 s+2(p) 1200
NO3-
Types of Hybridisation

Type of Atomic Orbitals Bond Angles Examples Shape

Hybridisation

CH4, SnCl4, SiCl4

sp3 s+3(p) 109°28’ SiF4 , H3O+, NH3, Tetrahedral
PCl3 ,NH4+, ClO4-
Types of Hybridisation

Type of Atomic Bond Examples Shape

Hybridisation Orbitals Angles

Trigonal
s+3(p) +d 90°, 120° PF5, PCl5 bipyramidal
Types of Hybridisation

Type of Atomic Bond Examples Shape

Hybridisation Orbitals Angles

s+3(p)+2(d) SF6, CrF63-

Or 90° Octahedral
2(d)+s+3(p) [Co(NH3)6]3+
Types of Hybridisation

Type of Atomic Bond Examples Shape

Hybridisation Orbitals Angles

90° Pentagonal
s+3(p)+3(d) IF7
72° bipyramidal
Consider the following species: NO2+, NO3- and NH4+. The
species with least % s-character of central atom and
highest bond angle around central atom are respectively

NO2+ and NO3-

1

2 NH4+ and NO2+

3 NO3- and NO2+

4 NO2+ and NH4+

Consider the following species: NO2+, NO3- and NH4+. The
species with least % s-character of central atom and
highest bond angle around central atom are respectively

NO2+ and NO3-

1

2 NH4+ and NO2+

3 NO3- and NO2+

4 NO2+ and NH4+

Solution:

Order of bond angle: sp > sp2 > sp3

 Match List-I with List-II:
Choose the most appropriate answer from the options given
below

List-I List-II (A) -(II), (B)-(IV), (C)-(I), (D)-(III)

1
(A) [PtCl4]2- (I) sp3d

(B) BrF5 (II) d2sp3 2 (A) -(III), (B)-(IV), (C)-(I), (D)-(II)

(C) PCl5 (III) dsp2

3 (A) -(III), (B)-(I), (C)-(IV), (D)-(II)
(D) [Co(NH3)6]3 (IV) sp3d2
+

4 (A) -(II), (B)-(I), (C)-(IV), (D)-(III)

 Match List-I with List-II:
Choose the most appropriate answer from the options given
below

List-I List-II (A) -(II), (B)-(IV), (C)-(I), (D)-(III)

1
(A) [PtCl4]2- (I) sp3d

(B) BrF5 (II) d2sp3 2 (A) -(III), (B)-(IV), (C)-(I), (D)-(II)

(C) PCl5 (III) dsp2

3 (A) -(III), (B)-(I), (C)-(IV), (D)-(II)
(D) [Co(NH3)6]3 (IV) sp3d2
+

4 (A) -(II), (B)-(I), (C)-(IV), (D)-(III)

Solution:

Complex/compound Hybridisation of
central atoms

(A) [PtCl4]2- (I) dsp2

(B) BrF5 (II) sp3d2

(C) PCl5 (III) sp3d

(D) [Co(NH3)6]3+ (IV) d2sp3

The correct order of increasing s-character (in percentage)
in the hybrid orbitals of following molecules/ions is
(I) CO32- (II)XeF4 (III)I3- (IV) NCl3 (V)BeCl2

1 II < III < IV < I < V

2 II < IV < III < V < I

3 III < II < I < V < IV

4 II < IV < III < I < V

The correct order of increasing s-character (in percentage)
in the hybrid orbitals of following molecules/ions is
(I) CO32- (II)XeF4 (III)I3- (IV) NCl3 (V)BeCl2

1 II < III < IV < I < V

2 II < IV < III < V < I

3 III < II < I < V < IV

4 II < IV < III < I < V

Solution:

CO3-2⟶ sp2 % s character = 33.3%

XeF4 ⟶ sp3d2 16.6%
I3- ⟶ sp3d 20%
NCl3 ⟶ sp3 25%
BeCl2⟶ sp 50%
DPP
The correct statement about ICl5 and ICl4- is

1 ICl5 is square pyramidal and ICl4- is tetrahedral

2 ICl5 is square pyramidal and ICl4- is square planar

3 Both are isostructural

4 ICl5 is trigonal bipyramidal and ICl4- is tetrahedral

The correct statement about ICl5 and ICl4- is

1 ICl5 is square pyramidal and ICl4- is tetrahedral

2 ICl5 is square pyramidal and ICl4- is square planar

3 Both are isostructural

4 ICl5 is trigonal bipyramidal and ICl4- is tetrahedral

Solution:
Assuming that Hund’s rule is violated, the bond order and
magnetic nature of the diatomic molecule B2 is

1 1 and diamagnetic

2 0 and diamagnetic

3 1 and paramagnetic

4 0 and paramagnetic
Assuming that Hund’s rule is violated, the bond order and
magnetic nature of the diatomic molecule B2 is

1 1 and diamagnetic

2 0 and diamagnetic

3 1 and paramagnetic

4 0 and paramagnetic
Solution:
Consider the Lewis dot structure of CO (carbon monoxide)
molecule and identify the option which is correct about the
formal charge on C and O.

1 C has +1 and O has —1

2 C has —1 and O has +1

3 C and O both have +1

4 C and O both have —1

Consider the Lewis dot structure of CO (carbon monoxide)
molecule and identify the option which is correct about the
formal charge on C and O.

1 C has +1 and O has —1

2 C has —1 and O has +1

3 C and O both have +1

4 C and O both have —1

 Solution:

In CO molecule there is bond order equal to 3 in between C and O.

Consider the molecules and their polarity and identify the
incorrect orientation of the molecules in the presence of
external electric field shown.

1 2

3 4
Consider the molecules and their polarity and identify the
incorrect orientation of the molecules in the presence of
external electric field shown.

1 2

3 4
Solution:

In CI — F molecule, fluorine is more electronegative

If AB4 molecule is a polar molecule, a possible geometry of
AB4 is

1 Tetrahedral

2 Rectangular planar

3 Square pyramidal

4 Square planar
If AB4 molecule is a polar molecule, a possible geometry of
AB4 is

1 Tetrahedral

2 Rectangular planar

3 Square pyramidal

4 Square planar
Solution:
Specify the coordination geometry around and
hybridisation of N and B atoms in a 1 : 1 complex of BF3 and
NH3.

1 N : tetrahedral, sp3 ; B: tetrahedral, sp3

2 N : pyramidal, sp3; B: pyramidal, sp3

3 N: pyramidal, sp3; B: planar, sp2

4 N: pyramidal, sp3; B: tetrahedral, sp3

Specify the coordination geometry around and
hybridisation of N and B atoms in a 1 : 1 complex of BF3 and
NH3.

1 N : tetrahedral, sp3 ; B: tetrahedral, sp3

2 N : pyramidal, sp3; B: pyramidal, sp3

3 N: pyramidal, sp3; B: planar, sp2

4 N: pyramidal, sp3; B: tetrahedral, sp3

Solution:
The number of species below that have two lone pairs of
electrons in their central atom is ____
(Round off to the Nearest integer)
SF4, BF4– , CIF3 , AsF3 , PCl5 , BrF5 , XeF4 , SF6
 The number of species below that have two lone pairs of
electrons in their central atom is ____
(Round off to the Nearest integer)
SF4, BF4– , CIF3 , AsF3 , PCl5 , BrF5 , XeF4 , SF6

Ans: 2
Solution:
According to molecular orbital theory, the bond order of
Li2 + is X and Li2- is Y. Calculate the value of X + Y.
 According to molecular orbital theory, the bond order of
Li2 + is X and Li2- is Y. Calculate the value of X + Y.

Answer : 1
Solution:
The interaction energy of London forces between two
particles is proportional to rx , where r is the distance
between the particles. The value of x is :

1 3

2 -3

3 -6

4 6
The interaction energy of London forces between two
particles is proportional to rx , where r is the distance
between the particles. The value of x is :

1 3

2 -3

3 -6

4 6
Solution:
AX is a covalent diatomic molecule where A and X are
second row elements of periodic table. Based on Molecular
orbital theory, the bond order of AX is 2.5. The total number
of electrons in AX is ______.
(Round off to the Nearest Integer).
 AX is a covalent diatomic molecule where A and X are
second row elements of periodic table. Based on Molecular
orbital theory, the bond order of AX is 2.5. The total number
of electrons in AX is ______.
(Round off to the Nearest Integer).

Ans: 15
Solution:

AX is a covalent diatomic molecule.

The molecule is NO.
Total no. of electrons is 15.
Which of the following molecule have only one pπ-dπ bond
and zero pπ-pπ bonds?

1 ClO3–1

2 SO2

3 ClF3

4 SO32–
Which of the following molecule have only one pπ-dπ bond
and zero pπ-pπ bonds?

1 ClO3–1

2 SO2

3 ClF3

4 SO32–
Solution:
Which of the following molecule is polar ?

1 CO2

2 BeCl2

3 COS

4 BF3
Which of the following molecule is polar ?

1 CO2

2 BeCl2

3 COS

4 BF3
Solution:
The correct order in which the O–O bond length increases in
the following is :

O3 < H2O2 < O2

1

O2 < O3 < H2O2

2

3 O2 < H2O2 < O3

4 H2O2 < O2 < O3

The correct order in which the O–O bond length increases in
the following is :

O3 < H2O2 < O2

1

O2 < O3 < H2O2

2

3 O2 < H2O2 < O3

4 H2O2 < O2 < O3

Solution:
The “O—N—O” bond angle is maximum in:

N2O
1

NO2+
2

3 NO2-

4 NO3-
The “O—N—O” bond angle is maximum in:

N2O
1

NO2+
2

3 NO2-

4 NO3-
Solution:
Select pair of compounds in which both have different
hybridization but have same molecular geometry :

BF3, BrF3
1

2 ICI2Θ, BeCl2

3 BCl3, PCl3

4 PCl3, NCl3
Select pair of compounds in which both have different
hybridization but have same molecular geometry :

BF3, BrF3
1

2 ICI2Θ, BeCl2

3 BCl3, PCl3

4 PCl3, NCl3
Solution:
Inductive effect

Displacement of an electron (shared) pair along the carbon

chain due to the difference in electronegativity of the
groups present along with carbon chain

Example :
Halogen atom present at the end of a carbon chain
Mesomeric effect

When a group releases or withdraw orbital electron in any

conjugated system then it is called M effect group and
effect is known as mesomeric effect or resonance effect

+M/+R group -M/-R group

Electron releasing Electron withdrawing
group group
Mesomeric effect
Order of +M group :
Mesomeric effect
Order of -M group :
Resonance

Resonating
Structures Resonance hybrid
Pi alternate pi
Example :

:
Benzene

:
Pi alternate positive charge
Example :
Pi alternate negative charge
Example :
Pi alternate odd electron
Example :
Lone pair alternate positive charge
Example :
Which of the following carbocations is most stable :

1 2

3 4
Which of the following carbocations is most stable :

1 2

3 4
 Solution:

Is most stable carbocation

The correct relation between the bond lengths a and b is:

a=b
1

b>a
2

3 b<a

4 Impossible to predict
The correct relation between the bond lengths a and b is:

a=b
1

b>a
2

3 b<a

4 Impossible to predict
Solution:
Give the order of stability of following resonating structures:

1 I > II > III > IV > V

I > III > II > IV > V

2

III > II > I >IV > V

3

4 I > II > V > IV > III

Give the order of stability of following resonating structures:

1 I > II > III > IV > V

I > III > II > IV > V

2

III > II > I >IV > V

3

4 I > II > V > IV > III

Solution:

In (I), there are maximum number of Pi bonds. Therefore, it is

most stable, in (II) and (V), the number of pi bonds is equal but
charge separation is greater in (V). Therefore, (II) is more stable
than (V). In (III) and (IV), there is maximum charge separation
but (III) is highly unstable due to electrostatic repulsion. order of
stability is I > II > V > IV > III
Which of the following orders is correct for the stability
of these carbocations ?

I > II > III

1

2 III > II > I

3 II > I > III

4 II > III > I

Which of the following orders is correct for the stability
of these carbocations ?

I > II > III

1

2 III > II > I

3 II > I > III

4 II > III > I

Solution:

Positive charge on bridged carbon is unstable. Thus,

the order of stability is II > III > I. Hence, option (d) is correct.
 Hyperconjugation

Delocalization of conjugated (C–H) sigma electrons with -bond or

positive charge or free radical is called hyperconjugation or H-effect.
Find the order of stability of following alkenes:

II > III > I

1

I > II > III

2

3 III > II > I

4 I > III > II

Find the order of stability of following alkenes:

II > III > I

1

I > II > III

2

3 III > II > I

4 I > III > II

Solution:

4α-H′S
7α-H′S
3α-H′S
Thus the order of stability = II > III > I
Consider the following carbocations.

Select the correct order of stability.

1 D>E>C>B>A

2 A>B>C>D>E

3 E>D>C>B>A

4 D>E>C>A>B
Consider the following carbocations.

Select the correct order of stability.

1 D>E>C>B>A

2 A>B>C>D>E

3 E>D>C>B>A

4 D>E>C>A>B
 Solution:

+I power of -CH3 is less than -CD3 while +H power of -CH3 is more than -CD3.
Correct stability order is
D>E>C>B>A
Aromatic compounds
Huckel’s rule

Characteristics for ring being aromatic-

❖ Planarity (2-D) [sp2 carbon]
❖ Conjugated system (de-localisation of 𝜋 e-in
ring)
❖ Cyclic
❖ Presence of (4n + 2)𝜋 e- in the ring. Where,
n = 0, 1, 2, 3...
Aromatic compounds
Anti-aromatic compounds
❖ Cyclic
❖ Planar
❖ Conjugated System
❖ 4n𝜋 e- should present in the ring where
(n = 1 2,3,...)

Cyclobutadiene
(n = 1 ⇒ 4𝜋e-)
Non-aromatic compounds
Compounds which are neither aromatic non-antiaromatic

Stability order of compounds :

Aromatic > non aromatic > Anti - Aromatic

The compound most likely to lose water on protonation is

1 2

3 4
The compound most likely to lose water on protonation is

1 2

3 4
Solution:
In the given compounds.

The total number of aromatic compounds is ‘x’. Find the

value of x.
In the given compounds.

The total number of aromatic compounds is ‘x’. Find the

value of x.

Ans: 4
Solution:

4
10 - Annulene is non aromatic

(i), (iv), (v) and (viii) are aromatic according to Huckel’s rule
Acidity
For an acid HA(aq) ⇌ H+(aq) + A–(aq)

[H+(aq)][A–(aq)]
From law of mass action, Ka =
[HA]

Where, Ka ⟶ Acidity constant, or dissociation constant of acid

Ka ⟶ Explain the strength of acid

pKa = –log Ka, Ka ∝ Acidic strength ∝ 1/pKa

pH = –log [H+]

Acidic strength ∝ stability of conjugate base ∝ –M

effect
∝ 1/+M
∝ –I
∝ 1/+I
The correct order of acid strength of compounds
CH☰CH, CH3–C☰CH and CH2=CH2 is as follows

1 CH3–C☰CH > CH☰CH > CH2=CH2

2 CH3–C☰CH, CH2=CH2 > HC☰CH

3 HC☰CH > CH3–C☰CH > CH2=CH2

4 CH☰ CH > CH2=CH2 > CH3–C☰CH

The correct order of acid strength of compounds
CH☰CH, CH3–C☰CH and CH2=CH2 is as follows

1 CH3–C☰CH > CH☰CH > CH2=CH2

2 CH3–C☰CH, CH2=CH2 > HC☰CH

3 HC☰CH > CH3–C☰CH > CH2=CH2

4 CH☰ CH > CH2=CH2 > CH3–C☰CH

Solution:

Acidic strength ∝ Stability of conjugate base

E.N. → sp carbon > sp2 carbon > sp3 carbon
Decreasing order of acidic strength of different (–OH)
groups is :

w>x>y>z
1

2 w>z>x>y

3 z>w>x>y

4 z>x>w>y
Decreasing order of acidic strength of different (–OH)
groups is :

w>x>y>z
1

2 w>z>x>y

3 z>w>x>y

4 z>x>w>y
Solution:
Arrange the following compounds in order of decreasing
acidity :

1 II > IV > I > III

2 I > II > III > IV

3 III > I > II > IV

4 IV > III > I > II

Arrange the following compounds in order of decreasing
acidity :

1 II > IV > I > III

2 I > II > III > IV

3 III > I > II > IV

4 IV > III > I > II

Solution:

electron releasing group decreases and electron withdrawing group

increases acidic strength.
The increasing order of the acidity of the α-hydrogen of the
following compounds is :

(C) < (A) < (B) < (D)

1

2 (B) < (C) < (A) < (D)

3 (A) < (C) < (D) < (B)

4 (D) < (C) < (A) < (B)

The increasing order of the acidity of the α-hydrogen of the
following compounds is :

(C) < (A) < (B) < (D)

1

2 (B) < (C) < (A) < (D)

3 (A) < (C) < (D) < (B)

4 (D) < (C) < (A) < (B)

Solution:

Acidity ∝ stability of conjugate base

(Stability of conjugate bases)

With respect to the compounds I-V, choose the incorrect
statement(s).

The acidity of compound I is due to delocalization in

1 the conjugate base.

The conjugate base of compound IV is aromatic.

2

3 Compound II becomes more acidic, when it has a

-NO2 substituent.

4 The acidity of compounds follows the order I > IV >

V > II > III.
With respect to the compounds I-V, choose the incorrect
statement(s).

The acidity of compound I is due to delocalization in

1 the conjugate base.

The conjugate base of compound IV is aromatic.

2

3 Compound II becomes more acidic, when it has a

-NO2 substituent.

4 The acidity of compounds follows the order I > IV >

V > II > III.
Solution:
Basicity
For an base, BOH(aq) ⇌ B+(aq) + OH–(aq)

[B+(aq)][OH–(aq]
From law of mass action, Kb =
[BOH]
Where, Kb ⟶ Basicity constant, or dissociation
constant of base

Kb ⟶ Explains the strength of base

Kb ∝ Basic strength ∝ 1/pKb

pKb = –log Kb

pOH = –log [OH–]

basic strength ∝ +M ∝ 1/–M ∝ + I ∝ 1/–I

Which of the following is least basic?

4
Which of the following is least basic?

4
Solution:

Basic strength ∝ availability of lone pair.

In this case lone pair of N is highly participating in resonance.

The increasing order of pKb values of the following
compounds is :

1 II < I < III < IV

2 II < IV < III < I

3 I < II < IV < III

4 I < II < III < IV

The increasing order of pKb values of the following
compounds is :

1 II < I < III < IV

2 II < IV < III < I

3 I < II < IV < III

4 I < II < III < IV

Solution:
Correct basic strength order is :

r>q>p>s
1

r>p>q>s
2

3 q>r>p>s

4 r>q>s>p
Correct basic strength order is :

r>q>p>s
1

r>p>q>s
2

3 q>r>p>s

4 r>q>s>p
Solution:
Write the correct order of basic strength ?

3>4>1>2
1

2 2>4>3>2

3 3>1>4>2

4 2>4>1>3
Write the correct order of basic strength ?

3>4>1>2
1

2 2>4>3>2

3 3>1>4>2

4 2>4>1>3
Solution:
DPP
Which of the following is least stable?

1 2
N

3 4
O
Which of the following is least stable?

1 2
N

3 4
O
Solution:

● Cyclic

● Non-conjugated

● Non-aromatic
The correct stability order for the following species is

1 (II) > (IV) > (I) > (III)

2 (I) > (II) > (III) > (IV)

3 (II) > (I) > (IV) > (III)

4 (I) > (III) > (II) > (IV)

The correct stability order for the following species is

1 (II) > (IV) > (I) > (III)

2 (I) > (II) > (III) > (IV)

3 (II) > (I) > (IV) > (III)

4 (I) > (III) > (II) > (IV)

Solution:
Which one among the following carbocations has the
longest half-life ?

1 2

3 4
Which one among the following carbocations has the
longest half-life ?

1 2

3 4
Solution:
Among the given species the Resonance stabilised
carbocations are:

1 (C) and (D) only

2 (A), (B) and (D) only

3 (A) and (B) only

4 (A), (B) and (C) only

Among the given species the Resonance stabilised
carbocations are:

1 (C) and (D) only

2 (A), (B) and (D) only

3 (A) and (B) only

4 (A), (B) and (C) only

Solution:
Which of the following compounds will produce a precipitate
with AgNO3?

1 2

3 4
Which of the following compounds will produce a precipitate
with AgNO3?

1 2

3 4
Solution:
The number of resonance
structures for N is :
The number of resonance
structures for N is :

Answer : 9
Solution:
The products will be :

1 2

3 4 Reaction is not feasible

The products will be :

1 2

3 4 Reaction is not feasible

Solution:
Decreasing order of acidic strengths of following
compounds is :

1 x>y>z

2 y>x>z

3 z>y>x

4 z>x>y
Decreasing order of acidic strengths of following
compounds is :

1 x>y>z

2 y>x>z

3 z>y>x

4 z>x>y
Solution:
Taking into account of hybridization and resonance
effects, rank the following bonds in order of decreasing
bond length.

I > II = III
1

II > III > I

2

I > III > II

3

4 II = III = I
Taking into account of hybridization and resonance
effects, rank the following bonds in order of decreasing
bond length.

I > II = III
1

II > III > I

2

I > III > II

3

4 II = III = I
Solution:

The more nearly equivalent the resonance contributors are in

structure, the greater the resonance energy. The carbonate
dianion is particularly stable because it has three equivalent
resonance contributors.
In the following carbocation; H/CH3 that is most likely to
migrate to the positively charged carbon is

1 CH3 at C-4

H at C-4
2

CH3 at C-2
3

4 H at C-2
In the following carbocation; H/CH3 that is most likely to
migrate to the positively charged carbon is

1 CH3 at C-4

H at C-4
2

CH3 at C-2
3

4 H at C-2
Solution:
Among

the compound which is not aromatic is

i
1

ii
2

3 iii

4 iv
Among

the compound which is not aromatic is

i
1

ii
2

3 iii

4 iv
Solution:
Most acidic hydrogen is present in :

1 2

3 (CH3CO)3CH 4 (CH3)3COH
Most acidic hydrogen is present in :

1 2

3 (CH3CO)3CH 4 (CH3)3COH
Solution:
Arrange the following amines in the decreasing order of
basicity :

1 I > III > II

2 III > I > II

3 III > II >I

4 I > II > III

Arrange the following amines in the decreasing order of
basicity :

1 I > III > II

2 III > I > II

3 III > II >I

4 I > II > III

Solution:
Identify most acidic hydrogen in given compound.

1 a

2 b

3 c

4 d
Identify most acidic hydrogen in given compound.

1 a

2 b

3 c

4 d
Solution:
Identify incorrect orders of organic compounds against their
indicated properties

2 CHCl3 > CHF3 (Acidic strength)

4
Identify incorrect orders of organic compounds against their
indicated properties

2 CHCl3 > CHF3 (Acidic strength)

4
Solution:

Ortho nitrobenzoic acid is more acidic because of ortho effect.

Solution:
Equilibrium
At equilibrium:
Concentration (mole/L) of reactant and product remains
constant with respect to time.
 Equilibrium

● Equilibrium Constant (K)

● Equilibrium Constant ● Equilibrium Constant in terms of

in terms of conc. (Kc) partial pressure (Kp)
 Equilibrium

● Relation between Kp and Kc: Kp = Kc(RT)Δn

● Reaction Quotient
Degree of Dissociation
Thermodynamics of Equilibrium
ΔG = ΔGo + 2.303RT log10Q
ΔG = Gibb’s energy
ΔGo = standard Gibbs’ energy
Q = reaction quotient
Thermodynamics of Equilibrium

Spontaneous Reaction in
Keq > 1 ΔG⊖ < 0
reaction forward direction

Non Reaction in
Keq < 1 ΔG⊖ > 0
spontaneous backward
reaction direction

Not shift
Keq = 1 ΔG⊖ = 0
Equilibrium reaction in any
direction
The value of KC is 64 at 800 K for the reaction
N2(g) + 3 H2(g) ⇌ 2 NH3(g)
The value of KC for the following reaction is
NH3(g) ⇌ ½ N2(g) + 3/2 H2(g)

1/8
1

2 1/64

3 8

4 1/4
The value of KC is 64 at 800 K for the reaction
N2(g) + 3 H2(g) ⇌ 2 NH3(g)
The value of KC for the following reaction is
NH3(g) ⇌ ½ N2(g) + 3/2 H2(g)

1/8
1

2 1/64

3 8

4 1/4
Solution:
The equilibrium constant at 298 K for a reaction,
A + B ⇌ C + D is 100. If the initial concentrations of all the four
species were 1 M each, then equilibrium concentration of D
(in mol L -1 ) will be :

0.818
1

2 1.818

3 1.182

4 0.182
The equilibrium constant at 298 K for a reaction,
A + B ⇌ C + D is 100. If the initial concentrations of all the four
species were 1 M each, then equilibrium concentration of D
(in mol L -1 ) will be :

0.818
1

2 1.818

3 1.182

4 0.182
Solution:
Ionic Equilibrium

➢ Ostwald’s Dilution Law:

● Dissociation constant of weak acid

● For weak base

Ionic Product of water

● Kw = [H+] [OH-] → Valid at all temperature

● Kw = [H+] [OH-] = 10-14 → Valid at 25℃

● -log Kw = -log [H+] + (-log [OH-]) = 14

● pKw = pH + pOH = 14
pH calculations

➢ pH = -log [H+]; [H+] = 10-pH

➢ pOH = -log [OH-]; [OH-] = 10-pOH

➢ pKa = -log Ka; Ka = 10-pKa

➢ pKb = -log Kb; Kb = 10-pKb

pH calculations
Solubility and Solubility Product

Solubility product of salt of the type AxBy

Ksp = (xs)x (ys)y = x x yy sx + y

E.g. AgCl(s) ⇌ Ag+ (aq) + Cl⊝(aq)

Ksp = [Ag+] [Cl–]

Ksp = S2 (S : solubility of AgCl in mol/litre)

↓
Solubility product
Condition for Precipitations
Ksp = Solubility product at Equilibrium Concentration
Qsp= Ionic product at any Concentration

Ksp < Qsp precipitate will form

Ksp > Qsp more salt will dissolve

Ksp = Qsp At Equilibrium

Thermodynamic Processes

Isothermal Isobaric
Process: Process:
dT = 0 dP = 0
T = constant P = constant

Isochoric Adiabatic
Process: Process:
dV = 0 dQ = 0
V = constant Q=0
First Law of Thermodynamics
According to this law “Energy cannot be created or destroyed but it can
be converted from one form to another”. The energy of an isolated
system is constant.
THERMODYNAMICS

➢ Enthalpy (state function and extensive property)

𝝙H = 𝝙U + P𝝙V

➢ Relation between enthalpy and internal energy

𝝙H = 𝝙U + 𝝙ng RT

➢ Only for ideal gas: Cp,m - Cv,m = R

THERMODYNAMICS
THERMODYNAMICS

➢ Gibbs Free Energy (state function and an extensive property)

𝝙G = 𝝙H - T𝝙S [Gibbs Helmholtz Equation]

● Criteria for spontaneity

● If 𝝙G is < 0; process is spontaneous

● If 𝝙G is > 0; process is non spontaneous
● If 𝝙G is = 0; system is at equilibrium
DPP
The equilibrium constant (KC) for the reaction
N2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2 NO (g) at temperature T is 4 × 10−4 . The
value of KC for the reaction.
NO(g) ⇌ ½ N2(g) + ½ O2(g) at the same temperature is :

1 0.02

2 2.5 × 102

3 4 × 10−4

4 50.0
The equilibrium constant (KC) for the reaction
N2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2 NO (g) at temperature T is 4 × 10−4 . The
value of KC for the reaction.
NO(g) ⇌ ½ N2(g) + ½ O2(g) at the same temperature is :

1 0.02

2 2.5 × 102

3 4 × 10−4

4 50.0
Solution:
For the reaction, SO2(g) + ½ O2(g) ⇌ SO3 (g ),
if Kp = KC (RT)x , where, the symbols have usual meaning,
then the value of x is (assuming ideality)

1 -1

2 -1/2

3 1/2

4 1
For the reaction, SO2(g) + ½ O2(g) ⇌ SO3 (g ),
if Kp = KC (RT)x , where, the symbols have usual meaning,
then the value of x is (assuming ideality)

1 -1

2 -1/2

3 1/2

4 1
Solution:
For an equilibrium H2O(s) ⇌ H2O(ℓ) which of the following
statements is true.

1 The pressure changes do not affect the equilibrium

More of ice melts if pressure on the system is

2 increased

More of liquid freezes if pressure on the system is

3 increased

The degree of advancement of the reaction do not

4 depend on pressure.
For an equilibrium H2O(s) ⇌ H2O(ℓ) which of the following
statements is true.

1 The pressure changes do not affect the equilibrium

More of ice melts if pressure on the system is

2 increased

More of liquid freezes if pressure on the system is

3 increased

The degree of advancement of the reaction do not

4 depend on pressure.
 Solution:

For any physical equilibrium on increasing pressure equilibrium

shifts in the direction of higher density.
A vessel at 1000 K contains CO2 with a pressure of 0.5 atm.
Some of the CO2 is converted into CO on the addition of
graphite. If the total pressure at equilibrium is 0.8 atm, the
value of Kp is :

1 1.8 atm

2 3 atm

3 0.3 atm

4 0.18 atm
A vessel at 1000 K contains CO2 with a pressure of 0.5 atm.
Some of the CO2 is converted into CO on the addition of
graphite. If the total pressure at equilibrium is 0.8 atm, the
value of Kp is :

1 1.8 atm

2 3 atm

3 0.3 atm

4 0.18 atm
Solution:
Ionisation constant of CH3COOH is 2 × 10–5 and degree of
dissociation is (1/20). Then find out initial concentration of
CH3COOH molecules.

1 4 × 10–4

2 4 × 10–3

3 8 × 10–4

4 8 × 10–3
Ionisation constant of CH3COOH is 2 × 10–5 and degree of
dissociation is (1/20). Then find out initial concentration of
CH3COOH molecules.

1 4 × 10–4

2 4 × 10–3

3 8 × 10–4

4 8 × 10–3
 Solution:

Since 𝞪 < 5%, we can use the approximate expression,

Ka = C𝞪2

2 × 10–5 = C × (1/400)

C = 2 × 10–5 × 400 = 800 × 10–5 = 8 × 10–3

What is the pH of a 10–4 M OH– solution at 330 K, if Kw at 330 K
is 10–13.6?

1 4

2 9.0

3 10

4 9.6
What is the pH of a 10–4 M OH– solution at 330 K, if Kw at 330 K
is 10–13.6?

1 4

2 9.0

3 10

4 9.6
 Solution:

pOH = – log [OH–] = – log 10–4 = 4

pKw = – log Kw = – log 10–13.6 = 13.6
Now, pH + pOH = pKw
4 + pH = 13.6
pH = 9.6
Ksp of AgBr is 5 × 10–13. The quantity of KBr (molar mass = 120
g mol–1) to be added to 1 litre of 0.05 M solution of AgNO3 to
start precipitation of AgBr is

1 1.2 × 10–10 g

2 1.2 × 10–9 g

3 6.2 × 10–5 g

4 5.0 × 10–8 g
Ksp of AgBr is 5 × 10–13. The quantity of KBr (molar mass = 120
g mol–1) to be added to 1 litre of 0.05 M solution of AgNO3 to
start precipitation of AgBr is

1 1.2 × 10–10 g

2 1.2 × 10–9 g

3 6.2 × 10–5 g

4 5.0 × 10–8 g
 Solution:

[Ag+] = 0.05

To start precipitation Q ≈ Ksp

[Ag+] [Br–] = 5 × 10–13

[Br–] = 5 × 10–13/0.05 = 10–11 = [KBr] = nKBr

Thus, mass of KBr required = 120 × 10–11 = 1.2 × 10–9 g

For the reaction 2NO2(g) ⇌ N2O4(g), when ΔS = -176.0 J K-1
and ΔH = -57.8 kJ mol-1, the magnitude of ΔG at 298 K for the
reaction is____ kJ mol-1.
For the reaction 2NO2(g) ⇌ N2O4(g), when ΔS = -176.0 J K-1
and ΔH = -57.8 kJ mol-1, the magnitude of ΔG at 298 K for the
reaction is____ kJ mol-1.

Ans: 5
Solution:
Standard entropy of X2, Y2 and XY3 are 60, 40 and 50 JK–1
mol–1, respectively.

For the reaction, 𝚫H = –30 kJ.

To be at equilibrium the temperature will be :

500 K
1

2 750 K

3 1000 K

4 1250 K
Standard entropy of X2, Y2 and XY3 are 60, 40 and 50 JK–1
mol–1, respectively.

For the reaction, 𝚫H = –30 kJ.

To be at equilibrium the temperature will be :

500 K
1

2 750 K

3 1000 K

4 1250 K
Solution:
For the reaction 2NO2(g) N2O4(g), when 𝚫S = –176.0
–1 –1
JK and 𝚫H = –57.8 kJ mol , the magnitude of 𝚫G at 298 K
for the reaction is_____ kJ mol–1. (Nearest integer)
For the reaction 2NO2(g) N2O4(g), when 𝚫S = –176.0
–1 –1
JK and 𝚫H = –57.8 kJ mol , the magnitude of 𝚫G at 298 K
for the reaction is_____ kJ mol–1. (Nearest integer)

Answer: 5
Solution:
A process will be spontaneous at all temperature if

ΔH > 0 and ΔS < 0

1

2 ΔH < 0 and ΔS > 0

3 ΔH < 0 and ΔS > 0

4 ΔH > 0 and ΔS > 0

A process will be spontaneous at all temperature if

ΔH > 0 and ΔS < 0

1

2 ΔH < 0 and ΔS > 0

3 ΔH < 0 and ΔS > 0

4 ΔH > 0 and ΔS > 0

Solution:
If the solubility product of PbS is 8 x 10-28, then the solubility
of PbS in pure water at 298 K is x 🇽 10-16 mol L-1. The value of
x is _____. (Nearest integer)
If the solubility product of PbS is 8 x 10-28, then the solubility
of PbS in pure water at 298 K is x 🇽 10-16 mol L-1. The value of
x is _____. (Nearest integer)

Ans: 282
Solution:
Consider the following reaction :
N2O4(g) ⇌ 2 NO2(g); ΔH0 = + 58 kJ
For each of the following cases (a, b), the direction in which
the equilibrium shifts is
(a) Temperature is decreased
(b) Pressure is increased by adding N2 at constant T.

(a) Towards product, (b) towards

1 reactant

2 (a) Towards reactant, (b) no change

3 (a) Towards reactant, (b)

towards product

4 (a) Towards product, (b) no

change
Consider the following reaction :
N2O4(g) ⇌ 2 NO2(g); ΔH0 = + 58 kJ
For each of the following cases (a, b), the direction in which
the equilibrium shifts is
(a) Temperature is decreased
(b) Pressure is increased by adding N2 at constant T.

(a) Towards product, (b) towards

1 reactant

2 (a) Towards reactant, (b) no change

3 (a) Towards reactant, (b)

towards product

4 (a) Towards product, (b) no

change
Solution:

● Given reaction is endothermic

● On decreasing temperature backward reaction will be
favoured.
● On adding N2, pressure is increased at constant T, and
volume would also be constant so no change in observed.
The pH of a solution obtained by mixing 50 mL of 1 M HCl and
30 mL of 1 M NaOH x 🇽 10-4. The value of x is ____. (Nearest
integer)
[log 2.5 = 0.3979]
The pH of a solution obtained by mixing 50 mL of 1 M HCl and
30 mL of 1 M NaOH x 🇽 10-4. The value of x is ____. (Nearest
integer)
[log 2.5 = 0.3979]

Ans: 6021
Solution:
1 mole of N2 and 3 moles of H2 are placed in 1 L vessel. Find

the concentration of NH3 at equilibrium, if the equilibrium

constant (KC) at 400 K is

N2 (g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)

Ans: [NH3] = 0.76 M

Solution:
Solution: