Upang Cea 2bsee Ele093 P1

ELE 093
Electronic Circuits:
Devices and Analysis
This document and the information thereon is the property of PHINMA Education
PHINMA Education Network
Course Syllabus
PEN Code ELE 093

PEN Descriptive Title Electronic Devices: Circuits and Analysis
Credit Units 4 units (3 units Lecture / 1 unit Laboratory)
Time Allocation 4 hours / week
Pre-requisite Electrical Circuits 1
I. Subject Description:
Electronic Devices: Circuits and Analysis is a review on semiconductor physics and an

introduction to quantum mechanics of solid-state electronics. This course deals with the
principles and operation of semiconductor devices, e.g. diode, bipolar junction transistor (BJT),
and field-effect transistor (FET), with emphasis in diode circuit analysis and applications,
transistor biasing and small- and large-signal analyses. The course introduces the operations of
relevant electronic circuit applications including, not limited to, power supply, transistor switches,
and amplifiers.
II. Objectives:
At the end of the course, the students should be able to:

1. Familiarize and solve problems on semiconductor physics, diode and diode circuit
analysis;
2. Analyze and solve problems involving bipolar junction transistors and field-effect
transistors using small- and large- signal analysis; and
3. Analyze and present relevant diode and/or transistor circuit applications with emphasis
on their operations and working principles.
III. Course Topic, Coverage Date, Activity
ELE 093 - ELECTRONIC DEVICES: CIRCUITS AND ANALYSIS
Week Meeting Activity / Evaluation Tools Topic

Introduction to Flexible Learning and General
1 General Orientation
Classroom Orientation
1
Class Discussion, Module 1: Introduction to Electronics and
2
Seatwork Semiconductors
Independent Study,
3 Module 2: Diode Fundamentals
Homework
2
Independent Study,
4 Module 3: Diode Applications – Part 1
Homework
5 Quiz 1.1 Diode Configurations and Rectifier
3
Class Discussion,
Seatwork
1
Independent Study,
Homework
4
Independent Study, Module 6: Power Supply and Voltage
8
Homework Regulation
Laboratory Application
9 Direct-Current (DC) Power Supply
5 and Quiz 1.2
10 P1 Examination First Periodic Examination
Independent Study, Module 7: Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
11
Homework Fundamentals
6
Independent Study, Module 8: BJT Biasing and Direct-Current (DC)
12
Homework Analysis – Part 1
Class Discussion, Module 9: BJT Biasing and Direct-Current (DC)
13
Seatwork Analysis – Part 2
7
Module 10: BJT Small-Signal (AC) Analysis –
14 Laboratory and Quiz 2.1
Part 1
Independent Study, Module 11: BJT Small-Signal (AC) Analysis –
15
Homework Part 2
8
Laboratory and
16 Module 12: Multiple BJT Networks
Independent Study
17 P2 Examination Second Periodic Examination
9 Class Discussion, Module 13: Field-Effect Transistor (FET)
18
Seatwork Fundamentals
Independent Study,
19 Module 14: Metal-Oxide Semiconductor FET
Homework
10
Independent Study,
20 Module 15: FET Biasing – JFET
Homework
Class Discussion,
21 Module 15: FET Biasing – MOSFET
11 Seatwork
22 Laboratory and Quiz 3.1 JFET AND MOSFET
Independent Study,
23 Module 16: Operational Amplifiers
Homework
12
Laboratory and
24 Module 17: Integrated Circuit Families
Independent Study
25 P3 Examination Third Periodic Examination
13
26 Final Examination Comprehensive Final Examination
2
IV. Grading System
The Final Grade is computed as follows:
Final Grade = 0.20*P1 + 0.20*P2 + 0.20*P3 + 0.40*FE

Passing score = 50%
The Periodic Grades P1, P2, and P3 are computed as follows:
Pn = 0.60*Class standing + 0.40*Periodic Exam

Class standing = 0.60 Quizzes + 0.30 Activities/Laboratory
+ 0.10 Recitation/Assignments/Homework)
Final Exam is comprehensive in nature, thus, covers all topics. Passing score = 50%
V. Textbook and References
Recommended Textbook:
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 11th Edition by R. Boylestad & L. Nashelsky (2013)
Additional References:
1. Electronic Devices: Conventional Current Version, 9th Edition by Thomas Floyd (2012)
2. Electronic Principles, 8th Edition by Albert Malvino and David J. Bates (2016);
3. Grob’s Basic Electronics, 12th Edition by Mitchel E. Schultz, (2016).
4. Electronic Demystified, 2nd Edition by Louis Frenzel (2018)
5. Teach Yourself in Electricity and Electronics, 4th Edition by Stan Gibilisco (2006)
VI. Course Requirements
Attend the class regularly.

Must pass major examinations in each periodic grading, and the final examination.
Actively participate in all class activities.
Accomplish and submit student activity sheets.
VII. Contact Information
Name:
Contact Number:
E-mail:
Consultation:
3
ELE 093: Electronic Devices – Circuits and Analysis
Orientation
Name: ___________________________________________________________ Class number: ________

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________
Lesson Title: Materials:

Orientation Pencil and paper
Active Learning, 4-10 Approach, and Flexible Learning

Course Syllabus and Grading System References:
Psychosocial Wellness and School Directory
1. Course syllabus;
2. School’s official social media
Lesson Objectives: page and related links;
3. Distance Learning Classroom
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: (Google Classroom)
● familiarize oneself with concept of active and flexible learning;
● familiarize oneself with the course description, content, and
components, and grading system for the subject;
● provide and complete the necessary information for the distance
learning classroom and support for psychosocial wellness.
Productivity Tip:
We do learn best by doing.
A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW
1) Introduction
What is the new normal for the schools under the umbrella of the PHINMA Education during this trying times?
As a PHINMA Ed student, you will experience a flexible learning setup as the school continue delivering quality
education in this transition to a new normal. The school’s learning framework remains to be Active Learning. In
response to needs, it will be adopting a flexible learning approach, which, in its initial stage, is a combination of
face-to-face or virtual classes and home-based learning. This learning mode ensures equity among students.
In order to get you familiarize with the setup, this module gives you an overview with Active Learning and the
adopted flexible learning setup and modules. This material also directs you to become more familiar and aware
of the important details in your course syllabus, especially on the grade components, the distance learning.
classroom, and the school support for your psychosocial wellness.
Let’s dig in.
This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION

Orientation

2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1
What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)

1. What is your definition of active
learning and flexible learning?
2. What is your role as a learner in
the conduct of distance learning
class and home study?
3. What are the course components
and the grading system being
implemented in the class?
B. MAIN LESSON
1) Activity 2: Content Notes
ACTIVE LEARNING
“I hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do, and I understand.” (old Chinese proverb)
Our world today is now known by students as a “Knowledge Society”, where people often engage in critical
thinking, problem solving with others, using evidence in reasoning, and having complex challenges in workplaces
(Cassidy et al., 2019). Therefore, the education that students need to receive must help them develop new skills,
acquire learning dispositions, and have self-direction and initiative, in addition to the usual factual knowledge
and basic skills (Acosta and Slotta, in Cassidy et al., 2019).
What then do students need to do in order to have enhanced learning experiences? What educational
researchers and practitioners have identified as a response to this challenge is active learning.
Active learning is “involving students in doing things and

thinking about what they are doing” (Bonwell and Eison, 1991).

Orientation

Fink (2003) further expanded the definition by delineating a “holistic view of active learning”, which consists
of three primary components (see below). Note that reflection-based activities that support both the
learning environment and student metacognition is part of active learning. It also promotes both doing and
observing experiences, in which students are engaged in the process of learning, as opposed to passively
listening to an expert (Freeman et al., 2014). Students are called to “select, organize, and integrate
information, either independently or in groups” (Singer et al., 2012); ideas are engaged through techniques
that range from listening practices to group exercises.
With more than a thousand individual studies that provide evidence of the efficacy of active learning, it is hoped
that active learning can help students and teachers achieve good outcomes in education. After all, AL involves
skills and actions crucial to success in this day and age: “solving ill-structured problems, negotiating diverse
ideas and perspectives, engaging in inquiry and critical thinking, and developing a sense of responsibility for
one’s learning” (Acosta and Slotta, 2018).
In summary, Active Learning is a process that has you, the students, learning at its center. Active learning
focuses on how students learn, not just on what they learn. Students are encouraged to ‘think hard’, rather than
passively receive information from the teacher.
Research shows us that it is not possible to transmit understanding to students by simply telling them what they
need to know. Instead, teachers need to make sure that they challenge their students’ thinking. With active
learning, students play an important part in their own learning process. They build knowledge and understanding
in response to opportunities provided by their teacher.
4-10 APPROACH AND FLEXIBLE LEARNING

Based on WHO guidelines and studies on COVID-19, the school adopts the 4-10 Approach. This Israeli science-
based, cyclic reopening strategy is the basic model for our reopening once students are allowed on campus,
with some tweaking to suit specific environment. Within the two-week period, a total of 14 days, 4 consecutive
days are scheduled for classes, 10 days for home-based learning or study.
Shift. The student population is grouped into three (3) shifts – Shift A, Shift B, and Shift C. Each shift or group
reports to campus on a specific day of the 14 days period. The cycle is repeated every two weeks or 14 days.
IMPORTANT
SINCE THE QUARANTINE PROTOCOLS ARE STILL IN EFFECT, THE FIRST FOUR (4) CONSECUTIVE
DAYS SCHEDULED FOR FACE-TO-FACE CLASSES WILL BE ALLOTED FOR VIRTUAL SESSIONS THRU
THE SELECTED DISTANCE LEARNING CLASSROOM PLATFORM. THE REMAINING TEN (10) DAYS
WILL BE FOR HOME-BASED AND INDEPENDENT LEARNING OF STUDENTS. HOWEVER, YOUR
TEACHER WILL PROVIDE REMOTE MENTORING TO STUDENTS DURING HOME STUDY PERIOD THRU
TEXT, CALL, OR THE GROUP CHAT AND CLOSED/PRIVATE GROUP PAGE FOR THE CLASS.
FLEXIBLE LEARNING MODULES AND DISTANCE LEARNING CLASSROOM

In conjunction with the adopted 4-10 Approach, students are given a detailed syllabi or most probably a set of
flexible learning modules, commonly known as Student Activity Sheets (SASs), as the primary instructional

Orientation

material. The learning framework remains to be Active Learning thus, the learning experiences in the modules
are designed for full self-study in the event that students will need or be required to stay home.
The flexible learning modules or SASs are expected to be accomplished by the students in each period.
Deadlines for accomplished SASs will be determined by your teacher. However, each module should be learned
in accordance with the timeline presented in the course syllabus.
Also, remember that any additional materials you will need in the subject will be uploaded in the identified
distance learning classroom platform. Most importantly, all classwork such as accomplished quizzes, completed
modules, paperwork, and the like, will be submitted or turned in by each student using this platform.
COURSE SYLLABUS AND GRADING SYSTEM

As a student enrolled in this course, you are provided with the course syllabus containing the details of the
subject such as the description, content and the components of the grading system. You are encouraged to refer
to this material in order to keep in track with your progress in the subject.
PSYCHOSOCIAL WELLNESS
The school got you! We’ve got you!
As part of the community, your teachers and school administrators recognize that many students are undergoing
a lot of pressure due to uncertainty brought by the current situation. From what we have learned, students
perform worse in academics due to unaddressed anxiety and mismanaged effects of stress. Remember that
such stress is only beneficial to psychosocial development if properly regulated. And so, we encourage every
student to reach out to the school, through the identified advisers, whenever facing challenges triggered by
severe stress. The school have put measures in order to address these concerns because your well-being as
students will always be one of the prime concerns. Your sense of belongingness and safety help ensure a more
productive learning experience in the class. To keep with track with the programs designed for your psychosocial
wellness, follow the official pages in social media of the school. These programs will serve its intended purpose
only if students get back on the right track.
2) Activity 3: Skill-Building Activities
Complete the following details in order verify that are well aware of them.
A. Student Information
Student Number: _________________________________

Complete Name: _________________________________
Program: _________________________________
Year Level: _________________________________
Mobile Number: _________________________________

Complete Address: _________________________________
_________________________________

Orientation

Name of Parent/Guardian: _________________________________

Contact Number: _________________________________
School E-mail Account: _________________________________

Personal E-mail Account: _________________________________
Social Media Account Name/Link: _________________________________
B. The 4-10 Approach and Flexible Learning Shift
As part of the COLLEGE,

Shift of your College: _________________________________
Days of Virtual Classes: _________________________________
Days of Home Study: _________________________________
For this SUBJECT,

Days of Virtual Classes: _________________________________
Days of Home Study: _________________________________
C. Information on Distance Learning Classroom
Class Group Chat Name/Link: ________________________________

Already a Member (Yes/No): ________________________________
Class Private/Closed Group Name/Link: ________________________________

Distance Learning Platform: ________________________________

Distance Learning Classroom Name/Link: ________________________________
D. Course Syllabus and Grading System
Course Code and Descriptive Title: ________________________________

Credit Units (Lecture / Laboratory): ________________________________
Course Description (brief contents):

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Course Category (Board/Non-board?): ________________________________

Passing Score: ________________________________
Periodic Grade Components: ________________________________
Period Grade Computation: ________________________________
Final Grade Computation: ________________________________
5

Orientation

E. Student Activity Sheets I (SASs) for the Course
Number of Modules to be Submitted Per Period

First Period (P1): ________________________________
Second Period (P2): ________________________________
Third Period (P3): ________________________________
F. School Directory Related Links

Students must be aware of these details for concerns monitoring.
Checkout the posts of school as your reference.
Schools Official Page Link:

Telephone Number:
Office of the Registrar:

Finance Department:
Center for Student Development and Leadership:
College Community Page:

1. What is your definition of active
learning and flexible learning?
2. What is your role as a learner
in the conduct of distance
learning class and home study?
3. What are the course
components and the grading
system being implemented in the
class?
4) Activity 5: Check for Understanding (This is an assessment.)
Answer the following items briefly.
1. Define “active learning” in own words.

2. What is the flexible learning setup?
3. Describe the design and purpose of the learning modules.
4. Cite at least three student concerns which are common and identify the offices to reach out regarding them.
5. Briefly explain why psychosocial wellness is important.

Orientation

C. LESSON WRAP-UP
1) Activity 6: Thinking about Learning (5 mins)
You are done with the session! Let’s track your progress.
Period 1 Period 2 Period 3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Were you able to meet all the learning targets?

________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
Which strategy worked for you, easily? With difficulty?

________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________

Student Activity Sheet #1


Introduction to Electronics and Semiconductors Pencil and paper
The Electronics Industry References:

Conductor, Insulator, and Semiconductor Materials 1. Electronic Devices and Circuit
Bonding and Doping Theory, 11th Edition by R.
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductor Boylestad & L. Nashelsky (2013),
Pearson
Lesson Objectives:
2. Electronic Devices:
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: Conventional Current Version, 9th
● describe electronics and its entire scope; Edition by Thomas Floyd (2012),
● discuss conductors, insulators, and semiconductors Prentice Hall
and how they differ;
● describe how current is produced in semiconductors. 3. Electronic Demystified, 2nd
Edition by Louis Frenzel (2018)
Productivity Tip: Congratulations for taking the first step in the world of electronics.
Be encouraged to think about how electronics impacts your life!
1) Introduction
How lucky you are. You live in high-tech heaven surrounded by lots of useful, entertaining, interesting, necessary,
and even addicting electronic products, products you cling to and would not want to give up. Despite the
complexity of today’s electronic products, there is something just fascinating about them. Many of you actually
want to know how they work. And despite their complexity, these products are actually understandable. It is
possible to learn how these devices work without a whole lot of trouble. This module takes the basic ideas of
electronics and reduces them down to the lowest common denominator and shows you how to use those
fundamentals and apply them to all of the fabulous electronic gadgets you have today.
2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (3 mins)

1. What is the scope of the
electronics industry?
2. What is the structure of an
atom?
3. How are conductors,
insulators, and
semiconductors differ?
1


B.MAIN LESSON
For maximum retention, you are required to highlight important terms or phrases, and take notes.
Electronics Industry: The Big Picture

Recent figures seem to show that electronics is one of the biggest, if not the biggest, markets in the entire world.
To get a grasp of how big the industry is, we normally break it down into segments of specializations. Any
electronic product or device will easily fall into one of those categories. In some cases, the product may overlap
two or more or all of those categories. There are five major fields of electronics:
[for note-taking]
Communications - both wired and wireless in forms, it is the oldest segment of electronics and still the
largest. Electronics actually started with communications and grew from there.
Computer (embedded controller) - these are small single-chip digital computers called microcomputers
or microcontrollers or just micros that are literally part of every electronic product. These are miniature
digital computers dedicated to a specific function inside the products in which they exist.
Control - a broad general term for monitoring and control. Monitoring, of course, means sensing various
physical characteristics such as temperature, humidity, physical position, motor shaft speed, or light level.
Control refers to managing and exercising some degree of influence over items such as motors, lights,
relays, heating elements, and other devices.
Instrumentation - refers to the field involved with testing and measuring electronic equipment and other
mechanical or electronic items. Instrumentation refers to test instruments, large automated test systems,
data acquisition systems, medical tests and measurements, and a wide range of other products.
Components – in the past, these refers to individual discrete components such as resistors, capacitors,
diodes, and transistors. Today most electronic equipment is made with one or more integrated circuits or
ICs surrounded by a sprinkling of those other so-called discrete components.
As part of the big picture of learning electronics, you really need to understand how the industry itself works. This
is summed up by the block diagram in Figure 1.0.
Figure 1.0 General block diagram of how the electronics industry works from raw materials to end users.
2


Materials Used in Electronics

Component manufacturers are centered on making electronic devices or components that are in turn made
available to the manufacturers of the end electronic equipment. Electronic devices such as diodes, transistors,
and integrated circuits are made of a semiconductive material.
Great! To understand how these devices work, you should have a basic knowledge of the structure of atoms and
the interaction of atomic particles.
An atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains the characteristics of that element.
Each element has atoms that are different from the atoms of all other
elements. This gives each element a unique atomic structure. According to
the classical Bohr model, atoms have a planetary type of structure that
consists of a central nucleus surrounded by orbiting electrons. The nucleus
consists of positively charged particles called protons and uncharged
particles called neutrons. The basic particles of negative charge are called
electrons. Refer to Figure 1.1 for the Bohr model of an atom.
Electrons with the highest energy exist in the outermost shell of an atom
and are relatively loosely bound to the atom. This outermost shell is known
as the valence shell and electrons in this shell are called valence
electrons. For purposes of discussing electrical properties, an atom can be
represented by the valence shell and a core that consists of all the inner
shells and the nucleus, as shown in Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.1 Bohr Model of an Atom
All elements are arranged in the periodic table of the elements in order according to their atomic number. The
atomic number equals the number of protons in the nucleus, which is the same as the number of electrons in
an electrically balanced (neutral) atom.
Atomic Number, Z = Np = Ne … Equation 1.0 Atomic Number

where: Np = no. of protons & Ne = no. of electrons
Also,
Atomic Weight = Total No. of Nucleon Particles … Equation 1.1 Atomic Weight
where: protons and neutrons are known collectively as nucleons.
Fig. 1.2 The Silicon (Si) Atom

(Z = 14, W = 28, Core = +4)


Energy Levels and Shells. Each discrete distance (orbit) from

the nucleus corresponds to a certain energy level (see Figure
1.3). In an atom, the orbits are grouped into energy levels
known as shells. A given atom has a fixed number of shells.
Each shell has a fixed maximum number of electrons (refer

to Equation 1.2). The shells (energy levels) are designated 1,
2, 3, and so on, with 1 being closest to the nucleus.
Ne = 2n^2 … Equation 1.2 Maximum No. of Electrons

per Shell
where: Ne = maximum number of electrons in a shell Figure 1.3 Discrete energy levels
n = shell number, e.g. 1, 2, 3, …
Ionization. If a valence electron acquires a sufficient amount of energy, called ionization energy, it can actually
escape from the outer shell and the atom’s influence. The process of losing a valence electron is known as
ionization, and the resulting positively charged atom is called a positive ion. The escaped valence electron is
called a free electron.
[for note-taking]
Insulators, Conductors, and Semiconductors

Insulator Conductor Semiconductor
- a material that does not conduct - a material that easily conducts - a material that is between
electrical current under normal electrical current. conductors and insulators in its
conditions. ability to conduct electrical current.
- are compounds rather than - most metals are good - can be single-element or
single-element materials and have conductors. The best conductors compound; acts an an insulator
very high resistivities. are single-element materials. at room temperature.
- valence electrons are tightly - characterized by atoms with only - characterized by atoms with four
bound to the atoms; therefore, one valence electron very loosely valence electrons.
there are very few free electrons bound to the atom.
Examples: rubber, plastics, glass, Examples: copper (Cu), silver (Ag), Examples: antimony (Sb), arsenic
mica, and quartz. gold (Au), and aluminum (Al), (As), astatine (At), boron (B),
polonium (Po), tellurium (Te),
silicon (Si), and germanium (Ge),
gallium arsenide, indium
phosphide, gallium nitride, silicon
carbide, and silicon germanium
Table 1.0 Differences of Insulators, Conductors, and Semiconductors

4


Conduction and Valence Bands
Figure 1.4 reveals that

there is a minimum
energy level associated
with electrons in the
conduction band and a
maximum energy level
of electrons bound to
the valence shell of the
atom. Between the two
is an energy gap that
the electron in the
valence band must
overcome to become a
free carrier.
Figure 1.4 Conduction and valence bands of Insulator, Semiconductor, and Conductor
Covalent Bonding,
p-Type and n-Type Materials
As shown in Figures 1.5 and 1.6, the

bonding of atoms, strengthened by the
sharing of electrons, is called covalent
bonding. The term intrinsic is applied
to any semiconductor material that has
been carefully refined to reduce the
number of impurities to a very low
level—essentially as pure as can be
made available through modern
technology. The free electrons in a
material due only to external causes are
referred to as intrinsic carriers. Fig. 1.5 Silicon Crystal Figure 1.6 GaAs Crystal
Figure 1.7
Doping Silicon with
Antimony
(pentavalent)
Figure 1.8
Doping Silicon with
Boron (trivalent)


Doping. A semiconductor material that has

been subjected to the doping process is
called an extrinsic material. There are two
extrinsic materials of immeasureable
importance to semiconductor device
fabrication: n-type and p-type materials. A
pentavalent dopant (Figure 1.7) will result to
an n-type material (Figure 1.9a) while a
trivalent dopant (Figure 1.8) will produce a
p-type material (Figure 1.9b). Figure 1.9 (a) n-type and (b) p-type materials
Now that you know how semiconductive materials are formed, you now ready to learn how conduction happens
in these materials. It’s pretty simple. Just follow the arrows.
Electron and Hole Flow

When an electron jumps to the conduction band, a vacancy is left in the valence band within the crystal. This
vacancy is called a hole. For every electron raised to the conduction band by external energy, there is one hole
left in the valence band, creating what is called an electron-hole pair. Recombination occurs when a
conduction-band electron loses energy and falls back into a hole in the valence band.
Figure 1.10 Hole and Electron Flows in Semiconductor
Notice the effect of the hole on conduction as shown in Figure 1.10. If a valence electron acquires sufficient
kinetic energy to break its covalent bond and fills the void created by a hole, then a vacancy, or hole, will be
created in the covalent bond that released the electron. There is, therefore, a transfer of holes to the left and
electrons to the right, as shown. The direction of hole flow is also known as conventional flow. Of course, the
actual flow of negative charges is known as electron flow.
Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (Answers in Key to Corrections)
a. Categorize the following electronics products and technologies according to which segment they belong.
(15 pts)
Communications Computer Control Instrumentation Components


Appliances Diodes Peripheral equipment Transistors

Automotive Embedded Robots Wireless systems
Aircraft diagnosis Integrated Circuits Satellites Workstations
Cable Medical Security
b. If the atomic number of a neutral atom is 6, how many electrons and protons do the atom have?
c. What is the maximum number of electrons that can exist in the 3rd shell of an atom?
d. In a silicon crystal, how many covalent bonds does a single atom form?
e. Draw the Bohr model of a Silicon (atomic number 14) and Germanium (atomic number 32) atoms. How
many valence electrons are there for each?
f. Identify the charge of the core of a Copper atom.

1. What is the scope of the
electronics industry?
2. What is the structure of an
atom?
3. How are conductors, insulators,
and semiconductors differ?
3) Activity 5: Check for Understanding (5 mins). This a short summative assessment.
True or False: Write the TRUE if the statement is correct. Otherwise, FALSE. (5 pts)
_______ 1. An atom is the smallest particle in an element.

_______ 2. An atom is made up of electrons, protons, and neutrons.
_______ 3. Valence electrons exist in the outer shell of an atom.
_______ 4. Crystals are formed by the bonding of atoms.
_______ 5. Silicon is a conductive material.
Multiple Choice: Encircle the letter of the best answer. (15 pts)
1. Every known element has
(a) the same type of atoms (c) the same number of atoms
(b) a unique type of atom (d) several different types of atoms
2. An atom consists of
(a) one nucleus and only one electron (c) one nucleus and one or more electrons
(b) protons, electrons, and neutrons (d) answers (b) and (c)
3. The nucleus of an atom is made up of

(a) protons and neutrons (c) electrons
(b) electrons and protons (d) electrons and neutrons


4. Valence electrons are

(a) in the closest orbit to the nucleus (c) in the most distant orbit from the nucleus
(b) in various orbits around the nucleus (d) not associated with a particular atom
5. A positive ion is formed when

(a) a valence electron breaks away from the atom
(b) there are more holes than electrons in the outer orbit
(c) two atoms bond together
(d) an atom gains an extra valence electron
6. The most widely used semiconductive material in electronic devices is

(a) germanium (c) carbon
(b) copper (d) silicon
7. The difference between an insulator and a semiconductor is

(a) a wider energy gap between the valence band and the conduction band
(b) the number of free electrons
(c) the atomic structure
(d) answers (a), (b), and (c)
8. The energy band in which free electrons exist.

(a) first band (c) second band
(b) conduction band (d) valence band
9. Recombination is when
(a) an electron falls into a hole
(b) a positive and a negative ion bond together
(c) a valence electron becomes a conduction electron
(d) a crystal is formed
10. In an intrinsic semiconductor,

(a) there are no free electrons
(b) the free electrons are thermally produced
(c) there are as many electrons as there are holes
(d) answers (b) and (c)
11. The process of adding an impurity to an intrinsic semiconductor

(a) doping (c) recombination
(b) atomic modification (d) ionization
12. A trivalent impurity is added to silicon to create

(a) germanium (c) a p-type semiconductor
(b) an n-type semiconductor (d) a depletion region


13. The purpose of a pentavalent impurity is to

(a) reduce the conductivity of silicon (c) increase the number of holes
(b) increase the number of free electrons (d) create minority carriers
14. The majority carriers in an n-type semiconductor are

(a) holes (c) valence electrons
(b) conduction electrons (d) protons
15. Holes in an n-type semiconductor are

(a) minority carriers that are thermally produced
(b) minority carriers that are produced by doping
(c) majority carriers that are thermally produced
(d) majority carriers that are produced by doping
C. LESSON WRAP-UP
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

What portion/s of the lesson you found easy? Difficult?
FAQs
1. What is the difference between electricity and electronics?

Answer: Electricity refers to the basic energy we use for power. It generally involves the generation and
distribution of electrical energy to homes, businesses, and factories. Electricity is energy that is produced by the
coal-fired or nuclear power plant and then sent to you over long transmission lines until it comes into your house
where you access it through your AC wall outlets. You use that energy for lighting and appliances and also to
power most of your electronic equipment. All of the principles of electricity also apply to electronics. Basic
electrical components such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, transformers, motors, and other similar devices
are also used in electronics. Electronics is the field of science that uses electrical principles to perform other
useful functions. Electronics is the control of electricity to produce radio, television, computers, robots, and MRI
machines.
2. What devices are being used to control electricity in electronics?

Answer: To control the electricity, you need more than just basic electrical components such as resistors and
capacitors. What makes electronics possible are the unique components called transistors (which are made up
of diodes). Electronics began, of course, with vacuum tubes and then switched over to transistors as the main
control devices.


3. What is an IC, a popular word in electronics?

Answer: Transistors are now miniaturized and packaged in devices called integrated circuits that perform very
specific electronic functions, such as generating signals, amplifying signals, or performing some control function.
KEY TO CORRECTIONS
*Activity 3
a.
Communications Computer Control Instrumentation Components

Cable Workstations Automotive Medical Integrated circuits
Satellites Embedded Security Robots Diodes
Wireless systems Peripheral equipment Appliances Aircraft diagnosis Transistors
b. 6 electrons, 6 protons
c. Ne = 2n^2 = 2(3)^2 = 18 electrons
d. 4 covalent bonds, each of the four valence electrons will produce a pair
e. Bohr model of the Silicon (Z = 14) and Germanium (Z = 32) atoms; both are tetravalent (4 valence electrons)


f. Charge of the Copper core = +1, since there is one valence electron not included in the core
**Activity 5
The key answer to this short summative assessment will be given by your teacher.



Diode Fundamentals Pencil and paper
The pn-Junction References:

Diode Construction, Operation, and Biasing 1. Electronic Devices and Circuit
The Diode Characteristic Curve Theory, 11th Edition by R.
Diode Equivalent Circuits Boylestad & L. Nashelsky (2013),
Pearson;
Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: 2. Electronic Devices:
● develop a clear understanding of the basic operation and Conventional Current Version, 9th
characteristics of a diode in the no-bias, forward-bias, and reverse- Edition by Thomas Floyd (2012),
bias regions; Prentice Hall;
● understand the impact of an equivalent circuit whether it is ideal or
practical. 3. Electronic Demystified, 2nd
Edition by Louis Frenzel (2018)
1.
Productivity Tip: Keep your mind wide open and wonder! Gnaw and digest the fundamentals
and always get back to basics whenever you need to find your way back.
1) Introduction
An amazing and one of the noteworthy things about electronics, as in many other areas of technology, is how
little the fundamental principles change over time. Systems are incredibly smaller, current speeds of operation
are truly remarkably faster, and new gadgets surface every day, leaving us to wonder where technology is taking
us.
You do not have to be a physicist, or mathematical genius to learn electronics. Just to make you more
comfortable, I have to say that it is not all that complicated or difficult to understand. There are a few basic things
that you need to know so you can understand what is going on in the circuits and equipment. With such
background you are ready to learn about the various components and circuits.
In the previous module, you learned that semiconductor devices are based on p- and n-type materials, produced
through the doping process. The first device to be introduced through this session is the simplest of all electronic
devices, yet has a range of applications that seems endless. You will learn the operation and characteristics of
the diode. Also, three diode models representing three levels of approximation are presented and testing is
discussed. The importance of the diode in electronic circuits cannot be overemphasized. Its ability to conduct
current in one direction while blocking current in the other direction is essential to the operation of many types of
circuits.



1. What happens when p- and n-
type materials are fused together?
2. What is a semiconductor diode?
3. How can a diode control the flow

of current in a circuit?
B. MAIN LESSON
For maximum retention, you are required to highlight important terms ang phrases in the discussion.
The pn-Junction
You must always remember that the n- and p-type materials represent the basic building blocks of semiconductor
devices. What happens when these materials are joined is shown in Figure 2.0.
Figure 2.0 Formation of the depletion region (its width is exaggerated for illustration purposes)
Depletion Region. The term depletion refers to the fact that the region near the pn-junction is depleted of
charge carriers (electrons and holes) due to diffusion across the junction. Keep in mind that the depletion region
is formed very quickly and is very thin compared to the n region and p region. It also acts as a barrier to the
further movement of electrons across the junction.
Barrier Potential or Knee Voltage (Vk). The potential difference of the electric field across the depletion region
is the amount of voltage required to move electrons through the electric field. This potential difference is called
2


the barrier potential and is expressed in volts. Stated another way, a certain amount of voltage equal to the
barrier potential and with the proper polarity must be applied across a pn-junction before electrons will begin to
flow across the junction.
Diode Construction. We can construct our first solid-state electronic device: The semiconductor diode is
created by simply joining an n-type and a p-type material together, nothing more, just the joining of one material
with a majority carrier of electrons to one with a majority carrier of holes. The basic simplicity of its construction,
as shown In Figure 2.1a, simply reinforces the importance of the development of this solid-state era.
Figure 2.1 The Semiconductor Diode: Basic Structure and Symbol
Diode Operation and Biasing. If leads are connected to the ends of each material, a two-terminal device result
– the diode. Three options then become available: no bias, forward bias, and reverse bias. The term bias
refers to the application of an external voltage across the two terminals of the device to extract a response.
a. NO BIAS (VD = 0). In no-bias situation, there is no external voltage applied. It is simply a diode
with two leads sitting isolated on a laboratory bench. The absence of a voltage across a resistor
results in zero current through it. Refer to Figure 2.2
Figure 2.2 A p–n junction with no external bias:

(a) an internal distribution of charge; (b) a diode symbol, with the defined polarity and the current direction;
(c) demonstration that the net carrier flow is zero at the external terminal of the device when VD = 0 V.
b. REVERSE BIAS (VD < 0). If an external potential of V volts is applied across the p–n junction
such that the positive terminal is connected to the n-type material and the negative terminal is
connected to the p-type material the number of uncovered positive ions in the depletion region of
the n-type material will increase due to the large number of free electrons drawn to the positive
potential of the applied voltage. For similar reasons, the number of uncovered negative ions will
increase in the p-type material. The net effect, therefore, is a widening of the depletion region.
3


This widening of the depletion region (Figure 2.3a), will establish a barrier, too great, for
the majority carriers to overcome, effectively reducing the majority carrier flow to zero. The
current that exists under reverse-bias conditions, with direction shown in Figure 2.3b with
reference to the conventional flow, is called the reverse saturation current (IS).
Figure 2.3 Reverse-biased p–n junction: (a) internal distribution of charge under reverse-bias conditions;
(b) reverse-bias polarity and direction of reverse saturation current.
c. FORWARD BIAS (VD > 0). A forward-bias or “on” condition is established by applying the positive
potential to the p-type material and the negative potential to the n-type material. The application of a
forward-bias potential VD will “pressure” electrons in the n-type material and holes in the p-type material
to recombine with the ions near the boundary and reduce the width of the depletion region. The reduction
in the width of the depletion region (Figure 2.4a) has resulted in a heavy majority flow across the junction.
Figure 2.4 Forward-biased p–n junction: (a) internal distribution of charge under forward-bias conditions;
(b) forward-bias polarity and direction of resulting current.
[for note-taking]
Diode Current, ID. It can be demonstrated through the use of solid-state physics that the general characteristics
of a semiconductor diode can be defined by the following equation for the forward- and reverse-bias regions:


ID = IS * [e^(VD/nVT) – 1] Ampere … Equation 2.0 Shockley’s Equation
where: IS is the reverse saturation current

VD is the applied forward-bias voltage across the diode
n is an ideality factor, which is a function of the operating conditions and physical construction;
it has a range between 1 and 2 depending on a wide variety of factors (n = 1 is assumed)
Also,
VT = k*TK / q Volt … Equation 2.1 Thermal Voltage
where: k is Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 x 10^-23 J/K

TK is the absolute temperature in kelvins = 273 + the temperature in °C
q is the magnitude of electronic charge = 1.6 x 10^-19 C
You must always remember that the defined direction of conventional current for the positive voltage
region matches the arrowhead in the diode symbol.
The Diode Characteristic Curve
When a forward-bias voltage is applied across a diode, there

is current in the diode known as forward current (IF). Also,
IF = ID = IS * [e^(VD/nVT) – 1].
For positive values of VD the first term of the above equation

will grow very quickly and totally overpower the effect of the
second term. The result is the following equation, which only
has positive values and takes on the exponential format ex.
IF = ID = IS * [e^(VD/nVT)], VD is positive
Clearly, therefore, you will see that as the value of x (diode or

forward voltage) increases, the curve becomes almost vertical,
an important conclusion to keep in mind when we examine the
change in current with increasing values of applied voltage.
Figure 2.5 Diode Characteristic Curve
For negative values of VD the exponential term drops very quickly below the level of I, and the resulting
equation for ID is simply
ID = -Is, VD is negative
At V = 0V,
ID = Is (e^0 -1) = Is(1-1) = 0 mA
Figure 2.5 clearly shows that a diode will have this plot of its characteristic curve, showing the relationship of
voltage and current (V-I) in both forward and reverse bias operations. In general, the knee voltage, Vk, for
germanium and silicon diodes are 0.3V and 0.7V, respectively. Silicon is much preferred in diode
construction due to its temperature stability.
5


Breakdown Region. In the reverse region, there is a point

where the application of too negative a voltage with the
reverse polarity will result in a sharp change in the
characteristics (refer to Figure 2.6). The current increases
at a very rapid rate in a direction opposite to that of the
positive voltage region. The reverse-bias potential that
results in this dramatic change in characteristics is called
the breakdown potential, VBV.
As the voltage across the diode increases in the reverse-

bias region, the velocity of the minority carriers responsible
for the reverse saturation current Is will also increase.
Eventually, their velocity and associated kinetic energy will
be sufficient to release additional carriers through collisions
with otherwise stable atomic structures. That is, an
ionization process will result whereby valence electrons
absorb sufficient energy to leave the parent atom. These
additional carriers can then aid the ionization process to the
point where a high avalanche current is established and the
avalanche breakdown region determined. Figure 2.6 Breakdown Region
The avalanche region (VBV) can be brought closer to the vertical axis by increasing the doping levels in the p-
and n-type materials. However, as VBV decreases to very low levels, another mechanism, called Zener
breakdown, will contribute to the sharp change in the characteristic. It occurs because there is a strong
electric field in the region of the junction that can disrupt the bonding forces within the atom and
“generate” carriers. Although the Zener breakdown mechanism is a significant contributor only at lower levels
of VBV, this sharp change in the characteristic at any level is called the Zener region, and diodes employing
this unique portion of the characteristic of a p–n junction are called Zener diodes.
The maximum reverse-bias potential that can be applied before entering the break-down region is called the
peak inverse voltage (PIV rating) or the peak reverse voltage (PRV rating).
The Ideal Diode

The semiconductor diode behaves in a manner similar to a
mechanical switch in that it can control whether current will flow
between its two terminals. However, it is important to also be aware
that: The semiconductor diode is different from a mechanical switch
in the sense that when the switch is closed it will only permit current
to flow in one direction. Ideally, if the semiconductor diode is to behave
like a closed switch in the forward-bias region (Figure 2.7a), the
resistance of the diode should be 0W. In the reverse-bias region its
resistance should be ¥W to represent the open-circuit equivalent
(Figure 2.7b).
Figure 2.7 Ideal Semiconductor Diode:
(a) forward-biased, (b) reverse-biased


Resistance Levels. As provided in Table 2.0. you must always remember that certain amount of resistance in
a diode will be present. Its level is defined special characteristics.
Table 2.0 Summary of Diode Resistance Levels
DC or Static Resistance, RD. The application of a dc voltage to a circuit containing a semiconductor diode will
result in an operating point on the characteristic curve that will not change with time. The dc resistance levels at
the knee and below will be greater than the resistance levels obtained for the vertical rise section of the
characteristics. The resistance levels in the reverse-bias region will naturally be quite high. In general, therefore,
the higher the current through a diode, the lower is the dc resistance level.
With no applied varying signal, the point of operation would be the Q-point, determined by the applied dc levels.
The designation Q-point is derived from the word quiescent, which means “still or unvarying.”
AC or Dynamic Resistance, rd. A straight line drawn tangent to the curve through the Q-point will define a
particular change in voltage and current that can be used to determine the ac or dynamic resistance for this
region of the diode characteristics. An effort should be made to keep the change in voltage and current as small
as possible and equidistant to either side of the Q-point.


Average AC Resistance, rav. If the input signal is sufficiently large to produce a broad swing such as indicated
in Fig. 1.28, the resistance associated with the device for this region is called the average ac resistance. The
average ac resistance is, by definition, the resistance determined by a straight line drawn between the
two intersections established by the maximum and minimum values of input voltage.
Table 2.1 Diode Equivalent Circuits (Models)
The simplified equivalent model will be employed most frequently in the analysis of electronic systems,
whereas the ideal diode is frequently applied in the analysis of power supply systems where larger voltages are
encountered.
2) Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (Answers in Key to Corrections)
a. Determine whether the following conditions fall under NO BIAS, REVERSE BIAS, or FORWARD BIAS.
____________ a.1 The condition that allows current through the pn junction.
____________ a.2 A reduction in positive and negative causes the depletion region to narrow.
____________ a.3 The free electrons are provided with enough energy from the bias-voltage source to
overcome the barrier potential and effectively “climb the energy hill” and cross the depletion region.
____________ a.4 The positive side of bias voltage is connected to the n region of the diode and the negative
side is connected to the p region.
____________ a.5 The depletion region is much wider than in equilibrium.


b. Identification: Provide the best term or phrase being described in each item.
__________________ b.1 The region in a diode of uncovered positive and negative ions depleted of free
carriers.
__________________ b.2 In this extrinsic material, the hole is the majority carrier and the electron is the
minority carrier.
__________________ b.3 This extrinsic material is created by introducing impurity elements that have five
valence electrons ( pentavalent).
__________________ b.4 It is a semiconductor material that has been subjected to the doping process.
__________________ b.5 The characteristics of a semiconductor material can be altered significantly by the
addition of specific impurity atoms to the relatively pure semiconductor material known as?
c. True or False: Write TRUE if the statement is correct. Otherwise, write FALSE.
__________________ c.1 Ideally, there is current through a diode only when it is forward-biased.
__________________ c.2 If the bias voltage equals or exceeds the breakdown voltage in a reverse-biased
diode, avalanche occurs.
__________________ c.3 Reverse breakdown should be avoided in all diodes.
__________________ c.4 Though negligible, there is a very small current in reverse bias due to the thermally
generated minority carriers.
__________________ c.5 The practical model represents the diode as a switch in series with the barrier
potential.

1. What happens when p- and n-
type materials are fused together?
2. What is a diode?
3. How can a diode control the flow

of current in a circuit?
4) Activity 5: Check for Understanding (5 mins)
For items (a), (b), and (c), show the complete solution. Box final answers.
a. Determine the dc resistance levels for the diode of figure 5a at (9 pts)
a.1 ID = 2 mA a.2 ID = 20 mA a.3 VD = 10 V at reverse bias
b. Determine the ac or dynamic resistance using figure 5b (3 pts)

b.1 at ID = 2 mA (Note: At ID = 4 mA, VD = 0.76 V, and at ID = 0 mA, ID = 0.65 V)
b.2 at ID = 25 mA (Note: At ID = 30 mA, ID = 0.8 V, and at ID = 20 mA, ID = 0.78 V)


Figure 5a Figure 5b Figure 5c
c. Calculate the resulting average AC resistance for the changes in ID and VD in Figure 5c. (3 pts)
d. Job-Interview Questions. Briefly answer the following questions in 2-3 sentences. (15 pts)
d.1 How is the electric field across the pn-junction created?
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
d.2 Because of its barrier potential, can a diode be used as a voltage source? Explain.
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
d.3 Compare the depletion regions in forward bias and reverse bias.
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
10


C. LESSON WRAP-UP
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

FAQs
1. What is the effect of the barrier potential in a forward-biased diode?

When forward bias is applied, the free electrons are provided with enough energy from the bias-voltage source
to overcome the barrier potential and effectively “climb the energy hill” and cross the depletion region. The energy
that the electrons require in order to pass through the depletion region is equal to the barrier potential. In other
words, the electrons give up an amount of energy equivalent to the barrier potential when they cross the depletion
region. This energy loss results in a voltage drop across the pn-junction equal to the barrier potential.
2. How do changes in temperature affect a forward- and reverse-biased diode?

For a forward-biased diode, as temperature is increased, the forward current increases for a given value of
forward voltage. Also, for a given value of forward current, the forward voltage decreases. The barrier potential
decreases by 2 mV for each degree increase in temperature. For a reverse-biased diode, as temperature is
increased, the reverse current increases. Keep in mind that the reverse current below breakdown remains
extremely small and can usually be neglected.
KEY TO CORRECTIONS
*Activity 3
a.1 forward bias a.2 forward bias a.3 forward bias a.4 reverse bias a.5 reverse bias
b.1 depletion region b.2 p-type b.3 n-type b.4 extrinsic material b.5 doping
c.1 FALSE c.2 TRUE c.3 FALSE c.4 TRUE c.5 TRUE
**Activity 5
For this summative assessment, answers will be provided by your teacher.
11

Student Activity Sheet Module #3


Diode Applications Pencil, paper, and calculator
Load–line Analysis References:

Series, Parallel, and Series-Parallel Diodes 1. Electronic Devices and Circuit
Half-wave Rectifier Theory, 11th Edition by R.
Boylestad & L. Nashelsky (2013),
Lesson Objectives: Pearson;
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: 2. Electronic Devices:
Conventional Current Version, 9th
● describe the concept of load-line analysis and how it is applied in Edition by Thomas Floyd (2012),
diode networks; Prentice Hall;
● analyze series, parallel, and series-parallel diode networks by
using equivalent diode circuits; 3. Electronic Principles, 8th Edition
● describe the process of rectification to establish a dc level from a by Albert Malvino and David J.
sinusoidal ac input. Bates (2016);
1. 4. Grob’s Basic Electronics, 12th

Edition by Mitchel E. Schultz,
(2016).
Productivity Tip: All great minds were students once. Begin your journey with the end in mind.
1) Introduction
In the previous module, you have learned that semiconductor is a material that is neither a good conductor nor
a good insulator. In their purest form, semiconductors have few applications in electronics. However, when the
characteristics of a pure semiconductor are altered through a process known as doping, many useful electronic
devices can be developed. The most basic semiconductor device is the diode, a device that allows current to
pass through it in only one direction. This characteristic of a diode has many useful applications in electronics.
One of the most useful applications is converting an AC voltage into a DC voltage. When used for this purpose,
diodes are typically referred to as rectifier diodes.
In this lesson, you will apply the concept on how a diode can be turned on or off by applying the proper polarity
of voltage across the diode terminals. You will also be introduced to half-wave and full-wave rectifiers which
use diodes to convert an alternating-current (AC) voltage into a direct-current (DC) voltage. At the end of this
module, the fundamental behavior pattern of diodes in dc and ac networks should be clearly understood. The
discussion demonstrates an interesting and very useful aspect of the study of a field such as electronic devices
and systems: Once the basic behavior of a device is understood, its function and response in an infinite
variety of configurations can be examined.
1


In other words, now that we have a basic knowledge of the characteristics of a diode along with its response to
applied voltages and currents, we can use this knowledge to examine a wide variety of networks. There is no
need to reexamine the response of the device for each application. In general: The analysis of electronic
circuits can follow one of two paths: using the actual characteristics or applying an approximate model
for the device.

1. What is the most basic
function of diode in a circuit?
2. Which diode equivalent
circuit model is widely used in
the analysis of diode circuits?
3. How can an alternating-
current voltage (ACV) be
converted to a usable direct-
current voltage (DCV)?
B. MAIN LESSON
1) Activity 2: Content Notes (13 mins)
LOAD-LINE ANALYSIS
The circuit of Fig. 3.1 is the simplest of diode configurations. It will be used to describe the analysis of a diode
circuit using its actual characteristics. In Fig. 3.2, the diode characteristics are placed on the same set of axes
as a straight line defined by the parameters of the network. The straight line is called a load line because the
intersection on the vertical axis is defined by the applied load R. The analysis to follow is therefore called load-
line analysis. The intersection of the two curves will define the solution for the network and define the current
and voltage levels for the network.
Figure 3.1 Figure 3.2

Series diode configuration: Drawing the load line and
(a) circuit; (b) characteristics. finding the point of operation.


The point of operation is usually called the quiescent point (abbreviated “Q- point”) to reflect its “still,
unmoving” qualities as defined by a dc network.
The intersections of the load line on the characteristics of Fig. 3.2 can be determined by first applying Kirchhoff’s
voltage law in the clockwise direction, which results in
+E – VD – VR = 0
E = VD + VR
E = VD + IDR Eq. 3.1 Value of E in the load-line
The intersections of the load line on the characteristics can easily be determined if one simply employs the fact
that anywhere on the horizontal axis ID = 0 A and anywhere on the vertical axis VD = 0 V.
E = VD + IDR
E = 0 + IDR
E = IDR
ID = E / R (when VD = 0 V) Eq. 3.2 Value of ID in the load-line
E = VD + IDR
= VD + (0)R
VD = E (when ID = 0 A) Eq. 3.3 Value of VD in the load-line
A straight line drawn between the two points (ID and VD) will define the load line as depicted in Fig. 3.2. Change
the level of R (the load) and the intersection on the vertical axis will change. The result will be a change in the
slope of the load line and a different point of intersection between the load line and the device characteristics.
We now have a load line defined by the network and a characteristic curve defined by the device. The point of
intersection between the two is the point of operation for this circuit. By simply drawing a line down to the
horizontal axis, we can determine the diode voltage VDQ, whereas a horizontal line from the point of intersection
to the vertical axis will provide the level of IDQ. Remember: the load line is determined solely by the applied
network, whereas the characteristics are defined by the chosen device.
SERIES DIODE CONFIGURATIONS

For all the analysis to follow in this module it is assumed that: The forward resistance of the diode is usually so
small compared to the other series elements of the network that it can be ignored. This is a valid approximation
for the vast majority of applications that employ diodes. Using this fact will result in the approximate equivalents
for a silicon diode and an ideal diode that appear in Figure 3.3.
Figure 3.3 Approximate and Ideal Semiconductor Diode Models

3


Remember: In general, a diode is in the “on” state if the current established by the applied sources is such that
its direction matches that of the arrow in the diode symbol, and VD = 0.7 V for silicon, VD = 0.3 V for germanium,
and VD = 1.2 V for gallium arsenide.
Figure 3.4 Series diode configuration (forward-biased) and its approximate model.
The state of the diode in Fig. 3.4 is first determined by mentally replacing the diode with a resistive element as
shown. The resulting direction of I is a match with the arrow in the diode symbol, and since E > VK (diode’s knee
voltage, VK = VD), the diode is in the “on” state. The network is then redrawn with the appropriate equivalent
model for the forward-biased silicon diode. Applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL),
VR = E - VK
IR = E - Vk (where I = ID = IR)
ID = IR = VR/R
Figure 3.5 Series diode configuration (reverse-biased) and its approximate model.
The diode in Fig. 3.5 is in the “off” state, resulting in the equivalent open circuit, where the diode current is 0 A
and the voltage across the resistor R is the following: VR = IRR = IDR = (0A)R = 0 V.
In particular, the high voltage across the diode even though it is an “off” state. The current is zero, but the voltage
is significant. For review purposes, keep the following in mind for the analysis to follow:
An open circuit can have any voltage across its terminals, but the current is always 0 A. A short circuit
has a 0-V drop across its terminals, but the current is limited only by the surrounding network.


The notation of Fig. 3.6 will be employed for the

applied voltage. It is a common industry notation and
one with which you should become very familiar.
Figure 3.6 Source Notation
PARALLEL AND SERIES-PARALLEL CONFIGURATIONS

The methods applied in series diode configuration can be extended to the analysis of parallel and series– parallel
configurations. For each area of application, simply match the sequential series of steps applied to series diode
configurations. The steps are summarized as follows:
Step 1: Mentally replace the diodes with resistive elements and note the resulting current direction as established
by the applied voltages (“pressure”). If the resulting direction is a “match” with the arrow in the diode symbol,
conduction through the diode will occur and the device is in the “on” state. Otherwise, the diode is in the “off”
state or open.
Step 2: The network is then redrawn with the appropriate equivalent model for the forward- or reversed-biased
diode. Note that the polarity of VD or VK is the same as would result if in fact the diode were a resistive element.
Step 3: Write the equation for the network involving ID and VK using KVL. Always keep in mind that under any
circumstances - dc, ac instantaneous values, pulses, and so on - Kirchhoff’s voltage law must be satisfied!
HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION
Your diode analysis will now be expanded to include
time-varying functions such as the sinusoidal waveform
and the square wave. There is no question that the
degree of difficulty will increase, but once a few
fundamental maneuvers are understood, the analysis
will be fairly direct and follow a common thread. So let’s
get started.
Figure 3.7 Half-wave Rectifier
Over one full cycle, defined by the period T of Fig. 3.7, the average value (the algebraic sum of the areas above
and below the axis) is zero. The circuit of Fig. 3.7, called a half-wave rectifier, will generate a waveform vo that
will have an average value of particular use in the ac-to-dc conversion process. When employed in the
rectification process, a diode is typically referred to as a rectifier (its power and current ratings are typically much
higher than those of diodes employed in other applications).
Figure 3.8a Conduction Region


Figure 3.8b Non-Conduction Region
Figures 3.8a and 3.8b depicts how conduction and non-conduction of the diode changes the input waveform as
it passes through it resulting in a rectified output voltage waveform shown in Figure 3.9.
The process of removing one-half the input signal to establish a

dc level is called half-wave rectification.
The output signal vo now has a net positive area above the axis
over a full period and an average value determined by
Vdc = Vm/p = 0.318 Vm Eq. 3.4 DC value of

half-wave rectified voltage
Note: Maximum voltage, Vm is being used interchangeably with

peak voltage, Vp.
What if you consider the effect of using a silicon diode with VK =

0.7 V for the forward-bias region? If that is the case, the applied
signal must now be at least 0.7 V before the diode can turn “on.”
For levels of vi less than 0.7 V, the diode is still in an open-circuit
state and vo = 0 V. Consider Figure 3.10 below.
Figure 3.9 Half-wave Rectified Signal
Figure 3.10 Effect of VK on half-wave rectified signal
When conducting, the difference between vo and vi is a fixed level of VK = 0.7 V and vo = vi - VK, as shown in the
figure above. The net effect is a reduction in area above the axis, which reduces the resulting dc voltage level.
For situations where Vm >> VK, Eq. 3.5 can be applied to determine the average value with a relatively high level
of accuracy.
Vdc = (Vm - VK)/ p = 0.318 (Vm - VK) Eq. 3.5 DC value of half-wave rectified voltage with VK
6


2) Activity 3: Skill-building Activities
Load-line Analysis
a.1 For the series diode configuration employing the diode characteristics given, determine: VD, ID, VDQ, IDQ, VR.
Draw the load-line and plot the Q-point. Using the Q-point values, calculate the dc resistance RD.
a.2 Repeat a.1 using the approximate model of a silicon diode. Note: You will use the characteristic curve of
the approximate model of a diode and plot the same load-line.
Diode Configuration
b.1 For the series diode configuration, determine: VD, ID, and VR.
Use the approximate model of the silicon diode.
b.2 Determine Vo, ID, and IR. Draw the equivalent circuit using
approximate models of the diodes.
Note: A diode which emits

light when forward-biased is
known as light-emitting
diodes (LED). LEDs have
different colors and each
color has equivalent knee
voltage.
Table 3.1Typical Light-Emitting Diodes, Construction and Forward Voltage

7


b.3 Determine I, V1, V2, and Vo b.4 Determine the currents I1, I2, and ID2
for the series dc configuration of the network.
Rectifier
c.1 Sketch the output waveform, vo. Also,
determine the dc level of the output for the
network if the diode is ideal.
c.2 Replace the ideal diode in c.1 with Silicon.

Sketch and calculate the dc level of the output.
1. What is the most basic

function of diode in a circuit?
2. Which diode equivalent

circuit model is widely used in
the analysis of diode circuits?
3. How can an alternating-

current voltage (ACV) be
converted to a usable direct-
current voltage (DCV)?


4) Activity 5: Check for Understanding
This is a self-assessment. Key answers will be provided by your

teacher.
a.1 Determine the value of IR1, IR2 and the combined voltage VC
of the Silicon diode and the blue LED.
a.2 Calculate the current, I, through the resistors and the output voltage VO.
a.3 Determine the labeled output voltages VO, VO1, and VO2 in the circuits provided. Also, find the current
passing through the 4.7-kW resistors in each.
a.4 Determine the labeled output voltages

VO, VO1, and VO2 in the circuits provided.


C. LESSON WRAP-UP
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
What motivated you to finish the lessons today?

Did you progress in the content smoothly?
FAQs
1. When is the practical model of a diode useful in diode circuit analysis? The complete model?
The practical model is useful when you are troubleshooting in lower-voltage circuits. In these cases, the 0.7 V
drop across the diode may be significant and should be taken into account. The practical model is also useful
when you are designing basic diode circuits.
For troubleshooting work, it is unnecessary to use the complete model, as it involves complicated calculations.
This model is generally suited to design problems using a computer for simulation.
10


2. Generally, what are some ways to determine if diode is still ‘good’ (still useful) or already ‘bad’
(should be replaced)?
The condition of a semiconductor diode can be determined quickly using (1) a

digital display meter (DDM), or digital multimeter (DMM), with a diode
checking function, (2) the ohmmeter section of a multimeter.
Diode Checking Function

A digital display meter with a diode checking capability appears in figure on the
left. Note the small diode symbol at the top right of the rotating dial. When set
in this position and hooked up as shown, the diode should be in the “on” state
and the display will provide an indication of the forward-bias voltage such as
0.67 V (for Si). The meter has an internal constant-current source (about 2 mA)
that will define the voltage level as indicated below.
An OL indication with the hookup reveals an open (defective) diode. If the leads are reversed, an OL indication
should result due to the expected open-circuit equivalence for the diode. In general, therefore, an OL indication
in both directions is an indication of an open or defective diode.
Ohmmeter Testing
You already found that the forward-bias resistance of a semiconductor
diode is quite low compared to the reverse-bias level. Therefore, if we
measure the resistance of a diode using the connections indicated in the
right figure, you can expect a relatively low level. The resulting ohmmeter
indication will be a function of the current established through the diode
by the internal battery (often 1.5 V) of the ohmmeter circuit. The higher
the current, the lower is the resistance level. For the reverse-bias situation
the reading should be quite high, requiring a high resistance scale on the
meter.
A high resistance reading in both directions indicates an open

(defective-device) condition, whereas a very low resistance reading
in both directions will probably indicate a shorted device.
11


3. When diodes are being used as rectifiers, what is the most important consideration in the design?
The peak inverse voltage (PIV) [or PRV (peak reverse voltage)]
rating of the diode is of primary importance in the design of
rectification systems. The peak inverse voltage (PIV) equals the peak
or maximum value of the input voltage, and the diode must be capable
of withstanding this amount of repetitive reverse voltage. For a simple
rectifier diode, the maximum value of reverse voltage, designated as
PIV, occurs at the peak of each negative alternation of the input
voltage when the diode is reverse-biased.
A diode should be rated at least 20% higher than the PIV.
KEY TO CORRECTIONS
Activity 3
a.1 ID = 20 mA; VD = 10 V
VDQ = 0.78 V ; IDQ = 18.5 mA ; VR = 9.22 V;
RD = 42.16 W
a.2 ID = 20 mA; VD = 10 V
VDQ = 0.7 V ; IDQ = 18.5 mA ; VR = 9.3 V;
RD = 37.84 W
12


b.1 VD = 0.7 V; VR = 7.3 V; ID = IR = 3.32 mA

b.2 Vo = 9.5 V; ID = IR = 13.97 mA b.3 I = 2.07 mA, V1 = 9.73 V, V2 = 4.55 V
Vo = - 0.45 V (opposite polarity)
b.4 I1, = 212 uA, I2 = 3.32 mA, and ID2 = 3.11 mA
c.1 Vdc = - 0.318Vm = - 0.318(20 V) = - 6.36 V c.2 Vdc = -0.318(Vm - VK)

= -0.318(20 V – 0.7 V)
= - 6.14 V
Activity 5
Answers are available from you teacher.
13



Diode Applications – Part 2 Pencil, paper, calculator
References:
Full-wave Rectifiers 1. Electronic Devices and Circuit
Bridge-type Theory, 11th Edition by R.
Center-tapped Boylestad & L. Nashelsky (2013),
Pearson;
Wave-Shaping Circuits
Clippers or Diode Limiters 2. Electronic Devices:
Clampers Conventional Current Version, 9th
Edition by Thomas Floyd (2012),
Prentice Hall;
Lesson Objectives:
3. Electronic Principles, 8th Edition
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: by Albert Malvino and David J.
● explain and analyze the operation of full-wave rectifiers, namely Bates (2016);
bridge-type and center-tapped;
● explain and analyze the operation of clippers and clampers as 4. Grob’s Basic Electronics, 12th
wave-shaping circuits. Edition by Mitchel E. Schultz,
(2016).
1.
Productivity Tip: Your brain is a muscle. It needs exercise so you can stay sharp.
And don’t forget to take regular breaks. Rest if you must.
1) Introduction
Welcome back!
In the previous modules, you were introduce with some basic functions and applications of a diode – as
switch that either closed or open depending on the applied bias, and a rectifier that converts ac into pulsating
dc. Although half-wave rectifiers have some applications, the full-wave rectifier is the most commonly used
type in dc power supplies. In this module, you will use what you learned about half-wave rectification and
expand it to full-wave rectifiers. You will learn about two types of full-wave rectifiers: center-tapped and bridge.
The previous module on rectification gives clear evidence that diodes can be used to change the appearance
of an applied waveform. In addition, the lesson of this module on clippers and clampers will expand on the wave-
shaping abilities of diodes.
Let’s get started!



1. How should two diodes be
connected in the input terminals in
order to expand half-wave into full-
wave rectification?
2. What is a clipper?
3. What is a clamper?
B. MAIN LESSON
FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION
A full-wave rectifier allows unidirectional (one-way) current through the load during the entire 360° of the input
cycle, whereas a half-wave rectifier allows current through the load only during one-half of the cycle. The result
of full-wave rectification is an output voltage with a frequency twice the input frequency and that pulsates every
half-cycle of the input, as shown in Fig. 4.1.
Figure 4.1 Full-wave rectification

The number of positive alternations that make up the full-wave rectified voltage is twice that of the half-wave
voltage for the same time interval. The average or dc value, which is the value measured on a dc voltmeter, for
a full-wave rectified sinusoidal voltage is twice that of the half-wave, as shown in the following formula:
Vdc = 2Vm/p = 0.637 Vm Eq. 4.1 Ideal DC or average value of a full-wave rectified voltage.
Bridge-type Rectifier. The most familiar network for performing full-rectification appears in Fig. 4.2 with its
four diodes in a bridge configuration.
Figure 4.2 Operation of a bridge rectifier

2


When the input cycle is positive as in Figure 4.2a, diodes D1 and D2 are forward-biased and conduct current in
the direction shown. A voltage is developed across RL that looks like the positive half of the input cycle. During
this time, diodes D3 and D4 are reverse-biased. When the input cycle is negative as in Figure 4.2b, diodes D3
and D4 are forward- biased and conduct current in the same direction through RL as during the positive half-
cycle. During the negative half-cycle, D1 and
D2 are reverse-biased. A full-wave rectified
output voltage appears across RL as a result
of this action.
Bridge Output Voltage. If silicon rather than

ideal diodes are employed as shown in Fig.
4.3, the application of Kirchhoff’s voltage law
around the conduction path results in
vi - VK - vo - VK = 0
vo = vi - 2VK Figure 4.3 Maximum Output Voltage for Bridge-type Rectifier
Therefore, for the maximum output voltage and its dc value of a bridge network using practical diodes is given
by the following equations:
Vp(out) = Vm(out) = Vm – 2VK Eq. 4.2 Peak value of a full-wave rectified

voltage using practical diode
Vdc(out) = 2 (Vm – 2VK)/p = 0.637(Vm – 2VK) Eq. 4.3 DC value of a full-wave rectified
Vdc(out) = 2 Vp(out)/p = 0.637 Vp(out) voltage using practical diode
PIV of Bridge Configuration. The required PIV of each diode can be

determined from Fig. 4.4 obtained at the peak of the positive region of
the input signal. For the indicated loop the maximum voltage across R
is Vm and the PIV rating is defined by
PIV > Vm Eq. 4.4a PIV of each ideal diode in the

bridge configuration
PIV > Vm + VK Eq. 4.4b PIV of each practical diode in the

bridge configuration
Figure 4.4 PIV for Bridge Configuration
Center-tapped Rectifier. A second popular full-wave rectifier appears in Fig. 4.5 with only two diodes but
requiring a center-tapped (CT) transformer to establish the input signal across each section of the secondary of
the transformer. For a positive half-cycle of the input voltage, the polarities of the secondary voltages are as
shown in Figure 4.5a. This condition forward-biases diode D1 and reverse-biases diode D2. The current path is
through D1 and the load resistor RL, as indicated. For a negative half-cycle of the input voltage, the voltage
polarities on the secondary are as shown in Figure 4.5b. This condition reverse-biases D1 and forward-biases


D2. The current path is through D2 and RL, as indicated. Because the output current during both the positive and
negative portions of the input cycle is in the same direction through the load, the output voltage developed across
the load resistor is a full-wave rectified dc voltage, as shown.
Figure 4.5 Operation of a center-tapped rectifier
Center-tapped Output Voltage.
Using an ideal diode, the output voltage for center-

tapped configuration is given by:
Vo = Vp(sec) / 2
no matter what the transformer’s turns ratio (n). And

since n = Vsec / Vpri = Vp(sec) / Vp(pri) then,
Vo = n Vp(pri) / 2
Figure 4.6 Center-tapped Configuration Output voltage
Vo = Vp(pri) / 2
Vo = Vi / 2 = Vm / 2 Eq. 4.5a Peak value of a full-wave rectified voltage
using ideal diode with n = 1
Vo = Vp(pri)
Vo = Vi = Vm Eq. 4.5b Peak value of a full-wave rectified voltage
using ideal diode with n = 2
Note: For center-tapped configuration, an output voltage with a peak equal to the input peak (less the diode
drop) is obtained using a step-up transformer with a turns ratio of n = 2.
Vp(out) = Vm(out) = Vm – VK Eq. 4.6 Peak value of a full-wave rectified

voltage using practical diode
Vdc(out) = 2 (Vm – 2VK)/p = 0.637(Vm – 2VK) Eq. 4.7 DC value of a full-wave rectified
Vdc(out) = 2 Vp(out)/p = 0.637 Vp(out) voltage using practical diode


PIV of Center-tapped. The network of Fig. 4.7 will help us determine the net
PIV for each diode for this full-wave rectifier. Inserting the maximum voltage
for the secondary voltage and Vm as established by the adjoining loop results
in
PIV = Vp(sec) + VR = Vm + Vm
PIV = 2Vm Eq. 4.8a PIV of each ideal diode in the
center-tapped configuration
PIV > 2Vm + VK Eq. 4.8b PIV of each practical diode in the
center-tapped configuration
Figure 4.7 PIV for Center-tapped
WAVE-SHAPING CIRCUITS
Diode circuits, called limiters or clippers, are sometimes used to clip off portions of signal voltages above or
below certain levels. Another type of diode circuit, called a clamper, is used to add or restore a dc level to an
electrical signal.
Clippers or Diode Limiters. Clippers are networks that employ diodes to “clip” away a portion of an input signal
without distorting the remaining part of the applied waveform. The half-wave rectifier is an example of the
simplest form of diode clipper— one resistor and a diode. Depending on the orientation of the diode, the positive
or negative region of the applied signal is “clipped” off. There are two general categories of clippers: series and
parallel.
Series Clipper. The series configuration is defined as one where the diode is in series with the load. Consider
the following figures.
Figure 4.8 Unbiased Series Clipper

with Given Inputs and Ideal Output Waveforms
Note: The analysis of diode clippers may involve either

an ideal or practical diode. When practical diodes are
considered, output waveforms must reflect the
corresponding diode drop, VK.


Parallel Clipper. The parallel configuration is defined as one where the diode is in parallel with the load.
Figure 4.9 Unbiased Parallel Clipper

with Given Inputs and Ideal Output Waveforms
Consider Figures 4.10 and 4.11 for various simple

clipping circuits, both series and parallel, some with
bias voltages.
Figure 4.10 Clipping Circuits (Series)

6


Figure 4.11 Clipping Circuits (Parallel)
Clampers or DC Restorers. A clamper is a network constructed of a diode, a resistor, and a capacitor that shifts
a waveform to a different dc level without changing the appearance of the applied signal. Clamping networks
have a capacitor connected directly from input to output with a resistive element in parallel with the output signal.
The diode is also in parallel with the output signal, as shown in Fig. 4.12, but may or may not have a series dc
supply as an added element.
The chosen resistor and capacitor of the network must be chosen such that the
time constant (t = RC) is sufficiently large to ensure that the voltage across the
capacitor does not discharge significantly during the interval the diode is
nonconducting. Throughout the analysis we assume that for all practical
purposes the capacitor fully charges or discharges in five time constants (5t).
Consider Fig. 4.13 for a variety of clamping circuits.
Figure 4.12 Simple Clamper
7


Figure 4.13 Clamping Circuits with Ideal Diodes
2) Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)
a. Full-wave Bridge-type Rectifier.

Consider the following circuit on the right.
a.1 Determine the peak and dc output voltage for

the bridge rectifier.
a.2 Assuming the practical model, what PIV rating
is required for the diodes? The transformer is
specified to have a 12 V rms secondary voltage for
the standard 120 V across the primary.


b. Full-wave Center-tapped Rectifier.

Consider the following circuit on the right.
b.1 Show the voltage waveforms across each half

of the secondary winding and across RL when a
100 V peak sine wave is applied to the primary
winding;
b.2 What minimum PIV rating must the diodes
have?
c. Clipper.
Show the output waveform of the clipping circuit with
input given using ideal diode.
d. Clamper. Show the output

waveform of the clamping circuit with
input given using ideal diode.

1. How should two diodes be
connected in the input terminals in
order to expand half-wave into full-
wave rectification?
2. What is a clipper?
3. What is a clamper?

This is a summative assessment. Answers will be provided by your teacher.
Show complete solution to get the maximum points possible for each problem.
a. Using KVL, complete the working equations for the clipping circuits shown in Fig. 4.11 for both positive and
negative half-cycles of the input.
9


C. LESSON WRAP-UP
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
What part of your learning experience did you find satisfactory today?
What strategy worked for you to achieve the satisfaction?
FAQs
1. What is a transformer and what are the advantages of using it in a basic power supply?
A transformer is often used to couple the ac input voltage from the source to the rectifier. Transformer coupling
provides two advantages. First, it allows the source voltage to be stepped down as needed. Second, the ac
source is electrically isolated from the rectifier, thus preventing a shock hazard in the secondary circuit. The
amount that the voltage is stepped down is determined by the
turns ratio, or “the number of turns in the secondary (Nsec)
divided by the number of turns in the primary (Npri)”, of the
transformer. Thus, a transformer with a turns ratio less than 1 is
a step-down type and one with a turns ratio greater than 1 is a
step- up type. To show the turns ratio on a schematic, it is
common practice to show the numerical ratio directly above the
windings. However, transformer datasheets rarely show the turns
ratio. A transformer is generally specified based on the secondary
voltage rather than the turns ratio.
2. Since a clipper limits the level of maximum voltage in its output, how could it be used in networks
other than being a rectifier?
Many circuits have certain restrictions on the input level to avoid damaging the circuit. For example, almost all
digital circuits should not have an input level that exceeds the power supply voltage. An input of a few volts more
than this could dam- age the circuit. To prevent the input from exceeding a specific level, you may see a diode
limiter across the input signal path in many digital circuits. Consider the clippers below that uses a voltage-divider
network in order to function as protection circuits.
10


KEY TO CORRECTIONS
Activity 3
a.1 The peak output voltage (taking into account the two diode drops) is
Vp(sec) = 1.414Vrms = 1.414(12 V) = 17 V

Vp(out) = Vp(sec) – 2VK = 17 V - 1.4 V = 15.6 V
Vdc(out) = 2 Vp(out)/p = 0.637 Vp(out) = 0.637(15.6 V) = 9.94 V
a.2 The PIV rating for each diode is

PIV = Vp(out) + 0.7V = 15.6V + 0.7V = 16.3V
b.1 The transformer turns ratio n = 0.5.

The total peak secondary voltage is
Vp(sec) = nVp(pri) = 0.5(100 V) = 50 V
b.2 There is a 25 V peak across each half

of the secondary with respect to ground.
The output load voltage has a peak
value of 25 V, less the 0.7 V drop across
the diode. The waveforms are shown on
the right.
b.2 Each diode must have a minimum PIV rating of PIV = 2Vp(out) + 0.7V = 2(24.3V) + 0.7V = 49.3V
c. with ideal diode,
+ 20V + 5V – Vo = 0 Vo = 0 V Output Waveform

Vo = 25 V (at positive input) (at negative input)
11


d. using ideal diode
When capacitor is charging: When capacitor is discharging:

-20V + VC - 5V = 0 +10 V + 25 V - Vo = 0
VC = 25 V Vo = 35 V
+5 V - Vo = 0
Vo = 5 V
Output Waveform:
12



Diode Applications – Part 3 Pencil and paper
References:
Voltage Multipliers 1. Electronic Devices and Circuit
Zener Diodes as Voltage Regulators Theory, 11th Edition by R.
Boylestad & L. Nashelsky (2013),
Pearson;
Lesson Objectives: 2. Electronic Devices:

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: Edition by Thomas Floyd (2012),
● explain and analyze the operation of voltage multipliers; Prentice Hall;
● define the characteristics of a Zener diode and analyze its operation
by Albert Malvino and David J.
1. Bates (2016);
4. Grob’s Basic Electronics, 12th

Edition by Mitchel E. Schultz,
(2016).
Productivity Tip: Mastery requires constant practice.

Just do it!
1) Introduction
You are now on the third part of diode application! The range of practical applications for diodes is so broad
that it would be virtually impossible to consider all the options in one section. However, to develop some sense
for the use of the device in everyday networks, a number of common areas of application were already introduced
– rectification and wave-shaping. In this module, you will learn about voltage multiplication and regulation
Voltage multipliers use clamping action to increase peak rectified voltages without the necessity of increasing
the transformer’s voltage rating. Multiplication factors of two, three, and four are common. Voltage multipliers are
used in high-voltage, low-current applications such as cathode-ray tubes (CRTs) and particle accelerators.
The use of the Zener diode as a regulator is so common that three conditions surrounding the analysis of the
basic Zener regulator are considered. The analysis provides an excellent opportunity to become better
acquainted with the response of the Zener diode to different operating conditions. The analysis is first for fixed
quantities, followed by a fixed supply voltage and a variable load, and finally a fixed load and a variable supply.



1. How are diodes and capacitors
critical in the operation of voltage
multipliers?
2. What is voltage regulation and
its importance in power supplies?
B. MAIN LESSON
VOLTAGE MULTIPLIERS
Half-wave Voltage Doubler. A voltage doubler is a voltage multiplier with a multiplication factor of two. A half-
wave voltage doubler is shown in Fig. 5.1.
Figure 5.1 Half-wave voltage doubler operation.
During the positive half-cycle of the secondary voltage, diode D1 is forward-biased and D2 is reverse-biased.
Capacitor C1 is charged to the peak of the secondary voltage (Vp) less the diode drop with the polarity shown
in part (a). During the negative half-cycle, diode D2 is forward-biased and D1 is reverse-biased, as shown in part
(b). Since C1 can’t discharge, the peak voltage on C1 adds to the secondary voltage to charge C2 to
approximately 2Vp. Applying Kirchhoff’s law around the loop as shown in part (b), the voltage across C2 is
VC1 -VC2 +Vp =0

VC2 =Vp +VC1
Neglecting the diode drop of D2, VC1 = Vp. Therefore, VC2 = Vp +Vp = 2Vp
Under a no-load condition, C2 remains charged to approximately 2Vp. If a load resistance is connected across
the output, C2 discharges slightly through the load on the next positive half-cycle and is again recharged to 2Vp
on the following negative half-cycle. The resulting output is a half-wave, capacitor-filtered voltage. The peak
inverse voltage across each diode is 2Vp. If the diode were reversed, the output voltage across C2 would have
the opposite polarity.


Full-Wave Voltage Doubler. A full-wave doubler is shown in Fig. 5.2. When the secondary voltage is positive,
D1 is forward-biased and C1 charges to approximately Vp, as shown in part (a). During the negative half-cycle,
D2 is forward-biased and C2 charges to approximately Vp, as shown in part (b). The output voltage, 2Vp, is
taken across the two capacitors in series.
Figure 5.2 Full-wave voltage doubler operation.
Voltage Tripler. The addition of another diode-

capacitor section to the half-wave voltage doubler
creates a voltage tripler, as shown in Fig. 5.3. The
operation is as follows: On the positive half-cycle of
the secondary voltage, C1 charges to Vp through
D1. During the negative half-cycle, C2 charges to
2Vp through D2, as described for the doubler.
During the next positive half-cycle, C3 charges to
2Vp through D3. The tripler output is taken across
C1 and C3, as shown in the figure on the right.
Figure 5.3 Voltage tripler.
Voltage Quadrupler. The addition of still

another diode-capacitor section, as shown
in Figure 5.4, produces an output four times
the peak secondary voltage. C4 charges to
2Vp through D4 on a negative half-cycle.
The 4Vp output is taken across C2 and C4,
as shown.
Figure 5.4 Voltage quadrupler
Note: In both the tripler and quadrupler circuits, the PIV of each diode is 2Vp.
3


ZENER DIODE
A zener diode (see symbol in the figure) is a silicon pn junction device that is designed
for operation in the reverse-breakdown region. The breakdown voltage of a zener diode
is set by carefully controlling the doping level during manufacture. Recall, from the
discussion of the diode characteristic curve in the previous modules, that when a diode
reaches reverse breakdown (Figure 5.6), its voltage remains almost constant even
though the current changes drastically, and this is the key to zener diode operation. The
analysis of networks employing Zener diodes is quite similar to the analysis of
semiconductor diodes in previous sections. First the state of the diode must be
determined, followed by a substitution of the appropriate model and a determination of
the other unknown quantities of the network.
Figure 5.5 Zener Diode
Figure 5.6 General Zener diode Figure 5.7 Approximate equivalent circuits for the
V-I characteristic Zener diode in regions of application.
Figure 5.8 reviews the approximate equivalent circuits for each region of a Zener diode assuming the straight-
line approximations at each break point. Note that the forward-bias region is included because occasionally an
application will skip into this region also.
Zener Breakdown. Zener diodes are designed to operate in reverse breakdown. Two types of reverse
breakdown in a zener diode are avalanche and zener. Zener breakdown occurs in a zener diode at low reverse
voltages. A zener diode is heavily doped to reduce the breakdown voltage. This causes a very thin depletion
region. As a result, an intense electric field exists within the depletion region. Near the zener breakdown voltage
(VZ), the field is intense enough to pull electrons from their valence bands and create current. Zener diodes
with breakdown voltages of less than approximately 5 V operate predominately in zener breakdown. Those with
breakdown voltages greater than approximately 5 V operate predominately in avalanche breakdown. Both types,
however, are called zener diodes. Zeners are commercially available with breakdown voltages from less than 1
V to more than 250 V with specified tolerances from 1% to 20%.


Figure 5.9 Example of Zener Diodes for Reference Voltage Setting (left)
Zener Diodes for Reference Voltage. Consider Figure 5.9. Note that the silicon diode
was used to create a reference voltage of 4 V because
Vo1 = VZ2 + VK = 3.3 V + 0.7 V = 4.0 V
Combining the voltage of the 6-V Zener diode with the 4 V results in
Vo2 = Vo1 + VZ1 = 4 V + 6 V = 10.0 V
Calculating for the resistor current,
VS - VR - VLED(white) - Vo2 = 0
VS - IRR - VLED(white) - Vo2 = 0
IR = [VS - VLED(white) - Vo2 ] / R = [40 V – 4.0 V – 10.0 V] / 1.3 kW
IR = 20 mA
Similarly, the current for the LED is ILED = 20 mA due to series connection.
Zener Regulation. The ability to keep the reverse voltage across its terminals essentially constant is the key
feature of the zener diode. A zener diode operating in breakdown acts as a voltage regulator because it maintains
a nearly constant voltage across its terminals over a specified range of reverse-current values.
Figure 6.0 Basic Zener Regulator (left)
A. Vi and R Fixed. The simplest of Zener diode regulator networks

appears in Fig. 5.10. The applied dc voltage is fixed, as is the load
resistor. The analysis can fundamentally be broken down into two
steps.
1. Determine the state of the Zener diode by removing it from the

network and calculating the voltage across the resulting open circuit.
Eq. 5.1 Determining the state of

Zener Diode
If V ³ VZ, the Zener diode is on, and the appropriate equivalent model
can be substituted. If V < VZ, the diode is off, and the open-circuit
equivalence is substituted.
Note: VZ is the Zener breakdown voltage defined in its datasheet.


2. Substitute the appropriate equivalent circuit and solve for the desired unknowns.
For the “on” state,

VL = VZ Eq. 5.2 Load Voltage
and,
Figure 6.1 Zener equivalent for the “on” situation PZ = VZIZ Eq. 5.3 Zener Power
Note: Before continuing, it is particularly important to realize that the first step was employed only to determine
the state of the Zener diode. If the Zener diode is in the “on” state, the voltage across the diode is not V volts.
When the system is turned on, the Zener diode will turn on as soon as the voltage across the Zener diode
is VZ volts. It will then “lock in” at this level and never reach the higher level of V volts.
B. Fixed Vi and Variable RL. Due to the offset voltage VZ, there is a specific range
of resistor values (and therefore load current) that will ensure that the Zener is in the
“on” state. Too small a load resistance RL will result in a voltage VL across the load
resistor less than VZ, and the Zener device will be in the “off” state. To determine the
minimum load resistance of Fig. 6.0 that will turn the Zener diode on, simply calculate
the value of RL that will result in a load voltage VL = VZ.
Eq. 5.4 Minimum Load
The condition defined by Eq. 5.4 establishes the minimum RL,

but in turn specifies the maximum IL as
Once the diode is in the “on” state, the voltage across R remains fixed at
VR = Vi - VZ
and IR remains fixed at IR = VR / R
The Zener current: IZ = IR - IL
resulting in a minimum IZ when IL is a maximum and a maximum IZ when IL is a minimum value, since IR is
constant. Since IZ is limited to IZM as provided on the data sheet, it does affect the range of RL and therefore
IL. Substituting IZM for IZ establishes the minimum IL as
ILmin = IR - IL
and the maximum load resistance as

6


C. Fixed RL and Variable Vi. For fixed values of RL in Fig. 6.0, the voltage Vi must be sufficiently large to turn
the Zener diode on. The minimum turn-on voltage Vi = Vimin is determined by
The maximum value of Vi is limited by the

maximum Zener current IZM.
Since IZM = IR - IL,
Since IL is fixed at VZ / RL and IZM is the

maximum value of IZ, the maximum Vi is
2) Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)
a.1 For the Zener diode network shown in the figure to the right,
determine VL, VR, IZ, and PZ.
a.2. Repeat part (a.1) with RL = 3 kW.
b.1 For the network shown in the figure to the right,

determine the range of RL and IL that will result in VRL
being maintained at 10 V.
b.2 Determine the maximum wattage rating of the diode.
c.1 Determine the range of values of Vi that will maintain the

Zener diode in the “on” state. Refer to the figure in the right.



1. How are diodes and capacitors critical
in the operation of voltage multipliers?
2. What is voltage regulation and its
importance in power supplies?

This is a self-assessment. Answers will be provided by your teacher.
a.1 Determine the voltage available from the voltage doubler

of figure shown on the right if the secondary voltage of the
transformer is 120 V(rms).
a.2 Determine the required PIV ratings of the diodes of figure

shown on the right in terms of the peak secondary voltage
Vm.
b.1 Determine VL, IL, IZ, and IR for the network of network
shown on the right if RL = 180 W.
b.2 Repeat part (b.1) if RL = 470 W.
C. LESSON WRAP-UP
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26



KEY TO CORRECTIONS
Activity 3
a.1 Zener diode is in the “off” condition due to small load resistance. Such that
VL = V = 8.73 V; VR = Vi -VL = 7.27V; IZ = 0 A; PZ = VZIZ = 0W
a.2 Zener diode is in the “on” condition due to small load resistance. Such that
VL = VZ = 10 V; VR = Vi - VL = 6V; IL = 3.33mA; IR = 6mA; IZ = 2.67 mA;
PZ = VZIZ = 26.7 mW (which is less than the specified PZM = 30 mW)
b.1 RLmin = 250 W; VR = 40V; IR = 40 mA; ILmin = 8 mA; RLmax = 1.25 kW;
b.2 PZmax = VZ IZM = 320 mW
c.1 Vimin = 23.67 V; IR = 16.67 mA; IRmax = 76.67 mA; Vimax = 36.87 V



DC Power Supply and Voltage Regulators Pencil, paper, and calculator
References:
1. Electronic Devices and Circuit
Capacitor Filters Theory, 11th Edition by R.
Integrated Circuit (IC) Regulators Boylestad & L. Nashelsky (2013);
Troubleshooting a Power Supply
2. Electronic Devices:
Edition by Thomas Floyd (2012);
Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: by Albert Malvino and David J.
● explain and analyze power supply circuits and regulators; Bates (2016);
● calculate the output voltage of filtered and regulated full-wave
power supply; 4. Grob’s Basic Electronics, 12th
● differentiate line regulation and load regulation. Edition by Mitchel E. Schultz,
(2016).
1.
Productivity Tip: Every day is an opportunity to be better! Seek meaning and be in better path, each day.
1) Introduction
This module introduces the operation of power supply circuits built using filters, rectifiers, and then voltage
regulators. The previous modules has an the initial description of diode rectifier circuits. A power supply filter
ideally eliminates the fluctuations in the output voltage of a half-wave or full-wave rectifier and produces a
constant-level dc voltage. The regulation is usually obtained from an integrated circuit (IC) voltage regulator unit,
which takes a dc voltage and provides a somewhat lower dc voltage, which remains the same even if the input
dc voltage varies or the output load connected to the dc voltage changes.
Starting with an ac voltage, we obtain a steady dc voltage by rectifying the ac voltage, then filtering to a dc
level, and, finally, regulating to obtain a desired fixed dc voltage. Filtering is necessary because electronic circuits
require a constant source of dc voltage and current to provide power and biasing for proper operation. You will
see in this module that filters are implemented with capacitors and voltage regulation in power supplies is usually
done with integrated circuit voltage regulators. At the end of this module, you will also be guided with the basic
working concept and systematic approach of troubleshooting: analysis, planning, and measuring.
Let’s get on with it.



1. What are the basic functional blocks
of a power supply?
2. What are the important
considerations in building a power
supply?
3. How do you troubleshoot a power
supply?
B. MAIN LESSON
DC POWER SUPPLY. A block diagram containing the parts of a typical power supply and the voltage at
various points in the unit is shown in Fig. 6.1.
Figure 6.1 Block diagram showing parts of a power supply.
The ac voltage, typically 120 V rms (abroad) or 220 V rms (Philippines), is connected to a transformer,
which steps that ac voltage down to the level for the desired dc output. A diode rectifier then provides a full-
wave rectified voltage, which is initially filtered by a basic capacitor filter to produce a dc voltage. This resulting
dc voltage usually has some ripple or ac voltage variation. A regulator circuit can use this dc input to provide a
dc voltage that not only has much less ripple voltage, but also remains at the same dc value even if the input dc
voltage varies somewhat or the load connected to the output dc voltage changes. This voltage regulation is
usually obtained using one of a number of popular voltage regulator IC units.
GENERAL FILTER CONSIDERATIONS

A rectifier circuit is necessary to convert a
signal having zero average value into one that
has a nonzero average. The output resulting
from a rectifier is a pulsating dc voltage and not
yet suitable as a battery replacement. Such a
voltage could be used in, say, a battery
charger, where the average dc voltage is large
enough to provide a charging current for the
battery.
Figure 6.2 Power Supply Filtering (right)


For dc supply voltages, such as those used in a radio, stereo system, computer, and so on, the pulsating dc
voltage from a rectifier is not good enough. A filter circuit is necessary to provide a steadier dc voltage. Figure
6.2 illustrates the filtering concept showing a nearly smooth dc output voltage from the filter. The small amount
of fluctuation in the filter output voltage is called ripple.
Filter Voltage Regulation and Ripple Voltage.

The filtered output of Fig. 6.3 has a dc value and
some ac variation (ripple). Although a battery has
essentially a constant or dc output voltage, the dc
voltage derived from an ac source signal by
rectifying and filtering will have some ac variation
(ripple). The smaller the ac variation with respect to
the dc level, the better is the filter circuit’s
operation.
Figure 6.3 Filter voltage waveform

showing dc and ripple voltages (right)
Consider measuring the output voltage of a filter circuit using a dc voltmeter and an ac (rms) voltmeter. The dc
voltmeter will read only the average or dc level of the output voltage. The ac (rms) meter will read only the rms
value of the ac component of the output voltage (assuming the ac signal is coupled through a capacitor to block
out the dc level). Ripple is defined as:
Eq. 6.0 Ripple
Voltage Regulation. Another factor of importance in a power supply is the amount the dc output voltage changes
over a range of circuit operation. The voltage provided at the output under no-load condition (no current drawn
from the supply) is reduced when load current is drawn from the supply (under load). The amount the dc voltage
changes between the no-load and load conditions is described by a factor called voltage regulation.
If the value of full-load voltage is the same as the

no-load voltage, the voltage regulation calculated
is 0%, which is the best expected. This means
that the supply is a perfect voltage source for
which the output voltage is independent of the
current drawn from the supply. The smaller the
voltage regulation, the better is the operation of
the voltage supply circuit.
Eq. 6.1 Voltage Regulation
Ripple Factor of Rectified Signal. Although the rectified voltage is not a filtered voltage, it nevertheless contains
a dc component and a ripple component. We will see that the full- wave rectified signal has a larger dc component
and less ripple than the half-wave rectified voltage.
Half-wave: For a half-wave rectified signal, the output dc voltage is Vdc = 0.318 Vm
The rms value of the ac component of the output signal can be calculated to be Vr(rms) = 0.385 Vm
3


Full-wave: For a full-wave rectified voltage the dc value is Vdc = 0.636 Vm

The rms value of the ac component of the output signal can be calculated to be Vr(rms) = 0.308 Vm
So, what’s the percentage ripple for both half- and full-wave rectified signal based on dc and rms values?
In summary, a full-wave rectified signal has less ripple than a half-wave rectified signal and is thus
better to apply to a filter.
CAPACITOR FILTER. A very popular

filter circuit is the capacitor-filter circuit
shown in Fig. 6.4. A capacitor is
connected at the rectifier output, and a
dc voltage is obtained across the
capacitor.
Figure 6.4 Basic capacitor filter

Figure 6.5a shows the output voltage of a full-wave rectifier before the signal is filtered, whereas Fig. 6.5b shows
the resulting waveform after the filter capacitor is connected at the rectifier output. Notice that the filtered
waveform is essentially a dc voltage with some ripple (or ac variation).
Figure 6.5 Capacitor filter operation: (a) full-wave rectifier voltage; (b) filtered output voltage.
Ripple Voltage, Vr(rms). The filtered voltage, as shown in Fig. 6.6,

shows the output waveform to have a dc level Vdc and a ripple
voltage Vr(rms) as the capacitor charges and discharges. The ripple
voltage can be calculated from:
Eq. 6.2 Ripple

Voltage for a
Capacitor Filter
where
Idc is in mA
C is in uF, and RL is in kW. Figure 6.6 Output of capacitor filter circuit
4


DC Voltage, Vdc. We can express the dc value of the waveform across the filter capacitor as,
Eq. 6.3 DC Voltage across

a filter capacitor
where Vm is the peak rectifier voltage, Idc is the load current (mA), and C is the filter capacitor (uF).
Filter Capacitor Ripple. Using the definition of ripple (Eq. 6.0), with Vdc approximately equal to Vm, we can
obtain the expression for the output waveform ripple of a full-wave rectifier and filter- capacitor circuit:
Eq. 6.4 Filter Capacitor Ripple
where Idc is in mA, C is in uF, Vdc is in

V, and RL is in kW.
Other Formula. For a full-wave rectifier with a capacitor-input filter,

approximations for the peak-to-peak ripple voltage, Vr(pp), and the dc value of
the filter output voltage, VDC, are given in the following equations. The variable
Vp(rect) is the unfiltered peak rectified voltage. Notice that if RL or C increases,
the ripple voltage decreases and the dc voltage increases.
Eq. 6.5 Vr(pp) and VDC
Note: For a half-wave rectifier, the output frequency f is the same as the input frequency.
For a full-wave rectifier, the output frequency f is double the input frequency.
INTEGRATED CIRCUIT (IC) VOLTAGE REGULATORS
Most regulators are integrated circuits

and have three terminals—an input terminal, an
output terminal, and a reference (or adjust)
terminal. The input to the regulator is first filtered
with a capacitor to reduce the ripple to <10%.
The regulator reduces the ripple to a negligible
amount. In addition, most regulators have an
internal voltage reference, short-circuit
protection, and thermal shutdown circuitry. They
are available in a variety of voltages, including
positive and negative outputs, and can be
designed for variable outputs with a minimum of
external components.
Figure 6.7 Three-terminal voltage regulator
Three-terminal regulators designed for fixed output voltages require only external capacitors to complete
the regulation portion of the power supply. Filtering is accomplished by a large-value capacitor between the input


voltage and ground. An output capacitor (typically 0.1 mF to 1.0 mF) is connected from the output to ground to
improve the transient response.
Figure 6.8 A basic power

supply with +5.0 V IC
regulator (right)
Table 6.0 Positive-Voltage Regulators in the 7800 Series
Safety Note: When working with low-voltage power

supplies, be careful not to come in contact with the 220 V
ac line. Severe shock or worse could result. To verify input
voltage to a rectifier, it is always better to check at the
transformer secondary instead of trying to measure the line
voltage directly. If it becomes necessary to measure the
line voltage, use a multimeter and be careful.
TROUBLESHOOTING A POWER SUPPLY. A defective circuit or system is one with a known good input but
with no output or an incorrect output. For example, in Figure 6.9 (a), a properly functioning dc power supply is
represented by a single block with a known input voltage and a correct output voltage. A defective dc power
supply is represented in part (b) as a block with an input voltage and an incorrect output voltage.
Figure 6.9 Block representations of functioning and nonfunctioning power supplies.
The first thing you should do in analyzing the problem is to try to eliminate any obvious causes. In general, you
should start by making sure the power cord is plugged into an active outlet and that the fuse is not blown. In the


case of a battery-powered system, make sure the battery is good. Something as simple as this is sometimes the
cause of a problem. However, in this case, there must be power because there is an output voltage.
Beyond the power check, use your senses to detect obvious defects, such as a burned resistor, broken
wire, loose connection, or an open fuse. Since some failures are temperature dependent, you can sometimes
find an overheated component by touch. However, be very cautious in a live circuit to avoid possible burn or
shock. For intermittent failures, the circuit may work properly for a while and then fail due to heat buildup. As a
rule, you should always do a sensory check as part of the analysis phase before proceeding.
Planning. In this phase, you must consider how you will attack the problem. There are three possible approaches
to troubleshooting most circuits or systems.
1. Start at the input (the transformer secondary in the case of a dc power supply) where there is
a known input voltage and work toward the output until you get an incorrect measurement. When you
find no voltage or an incorrect voltage, you have narrowed the problem to the part of the circuit between the last
test point where the voltage was good and the present test point. In all troubleshooting approaches, you must
know what the voltage is supposed to be at each point in order to recognize an incorrect measurement when
you see it.
2. Start at the output of a circuit and work toward the input. Check for voltage at each test point until
you get a correct measurement. At this point, you have isolated the problem to the part of the circuit between
the last test point and the current test point where the voltage is correct.
3. Use the half-splitting method and start in the middle of the circuit. If this measurement shows a
correct voltage, you know that the circuit is working properly from the input to that test point. This means that the
fault is between the current test point and the output point, so begin tracing the voltage from that point toward
the output. If the measurement in the middle of the circuit shows no voltage or an incorrect voltage, you know
that the fault is between the input and that test point. Therefore, begin tracing the voltage from the test point
toward the input.
Figure 6.10 Example of the half-splitting approach. An open filter capacitor is indicated.
Measurement. The half-splitting method is illustrated in Figure 6.10 with the measurements indicating a
particular fault (open filter capacitor in this case). At test point 2 (TP2) you observe a full-wave rectified voltage
that indicates that the transformer and rectifier are working properly. This measurement also indicates that the
filter capacitor is open, which is verified by the full-wave voltage at TP3. If the filter were working properly, you
would measure a dc voltage at both TP2 and TP3. If the filter capacitor were shorted, you would observe no
voltage at all of the test points because the fuse would most likely be blown. A short anywhere in the system is
7


very difficult to isolate because, if the system is properly fused, the fuse will blow immediately when a short to
ground develops.
For the case illustrated in Fig. 6.10, the half-splitting method took two measurements to isolate the fault to
the open filter capacitor. If you had started from the transformer output, it would have taken three measurements;
and if you had started at the final output, it would have also taken three measurements, as illustrated in Fig. 6.11.
Figure 6.11 Two other approaches with more oscilloscope measurements than the half-splitting approach
Fault Analysis. In some cases, after isolating a fault to a particular circuit, it may be necessary to isolate the
problem to a single component in the circuit. In this event, you have to apply logical thinking and your
knowledge of the symptoms caused by certain component failures.
2) Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (Refer to the Keys to Correction for the answers)
a.1 Using a dc and ac voltmeter to measure the output signal from a filter circuit, we obtain readings of 25 V dc
and 1.5 V rms. Calculate the ripple of the filter output voltage.
a.2 A dc voltage supply provides 60 V when the output is unloaded. When connected to a load, the output drops


to 56 V. Calculate the value of voltage regulation.

b.1 Calculate the percentage ripple of a half-wave rectified signal.
b.2 Calculate the ripple voltage of a full-wave rectifier with a 100-mF filter capacitor connected to a load drawing
50 mA.
b.3 Calculate the filter dc voltage of a full-wave rectifier with a 100-mF filter capacitor connected to a load
drawing 50 mA if the peak rectified voltage for a simple filter circuit is 30 V.
c.1 Determine the ripple factor for the filtered

bridge rectifier with a load as indicated in the
figure below.

1. What are the basic functional
blocks of a power supply?
2. What are the important
considerations in building a
power supply?
3. How do you troubleshoot a
power supply?
4) Activity 5: Check for Understanding (Answers will be provided by your teacher.)
a. Determine the peak-to-peak ripple voltage if the filter capacitor in Activity 3 (c.1) is increased to 2200 uF and
the load resistance changes to 2.20 kW.
b. Calculate the percentage ripple of a full-wave rectified signal.
c. Calculate the ripple of a capacitor filter for a peak rectified voltage of 30 V, capacitor C = 50 mF, and a load
current of 50 mA.
d. Draw a voltage supply using a full-wave bridge rectifier, capacitor filter, and IC regulator to provide a IC-
regulated output with the following components:
Input: 120 Vrms
Rectifier Diodes: 1N4001
IC Regulator Output: +12 VDC
IC Regulator Input Capacitor: 250 uF
IC Regulator Output Capacitor: 0.01 uF


C. LESSON WRAP-UP
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
What motivated you to finish the lessons today?

Did you progress in the content smoothly?
FAQs
1. What is line regulation?

The line regulation specifies how much change occurs in the output
voltage for a given change in the input voltage. It is typically defined as
a ratio of a change in output voltage for a corresponding change in the
input voltage expressed as a percentage.
2. What are some typical component failures in a basic power supply and the symptoms?
Open Diode in a Half-Wave Rectifier. The resulting symptom is zero output voltage as indicated. This is obvious
because the open diode breaks the current path from the transformer secondary winding to the filter and load
resistor and there is no load current. Other faults that will cause the same symptom in this circuit are an open
transformer winding, an open fuse, or no input voltage.
Open Diode in a Full-Wave Rectifier. If either of the two diodes is open, the output voltage will have twice the
normal ripple voltage, say at 60 Hz, rather than at 120 Hz. Another fault that will cause the same symptom is an
open in the transformer secondary winding.
Faulty Filter Capacitor. There are three types of defects of a filter capacitor:
- Open. If the filter capacitor for a full-wave rectifier opens, the output is a full-wave rectified voltage.
- Shorted. If the filter capacitor shorts, the output is 0 V. A shorted capacitor should cause the fuse to blow open.
If not properly fused, a shorted capacitor may cause some or all of the diodes in the rectifier to burn open due to
excessive current. In any event, the output is 0 V.
- Leaky. A leaky filter capacitor is equivalent to a capacitor with a parallel leakage resistance. The effect of the
leakage resistance is to reduce the time constant and allow the capacitor to discharge more rapidly than normal.
This results in an increase in the ripple voltage on the output. This fault is rare.
Faulty Transformer. An open primary or secondary winding of a power supply transformer results in an output
of 0 V.
10


KEY TO CORRECTIONS
Activity 3
a.1 6.0% a.2 7.1%

b.1 121.0% b.2 1.20 V b.3 27.90 V
c.1 r = 3.90%
11

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ELE 093

PEN Code ELE 093

Electronic Devices: Circuits and Analysis is a review on semiconductor physics and an

At the end of the course, the students should be able to:

III. Course Topic, Coverage Date, Activity

ELE 093 - ELECTRONIC DEVICES: CIRCUITS AND ANALYSIS

Week Meeting Activity / Evaluation Tools Topic

The Final Grade is computed as follows:

Final Grade = 0.20*P1 + 0.20*P2 + 0.20*P3 + 0.40*FE

The Periodic Grades P1, P2, and P3 are computed as follows:

Pn = 0.60*Class standing + 0.40*Periodic Exam

V. Textbook and References

VI. Course Requirements

Attend the class regularly.

VII. Contact Information

Name: ___________________________________________________________ Class number: ________

Lesson Title: Materials:

Active Learning, 4-10 Approach, and Flexible Learning

We do learn best by doing.

Let’s dig in.

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION

Name: ___________________________________________________________ Class number: ________

2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1

What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)

Active learning is “involving students in doing things and

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION

Name: ___________________________________________________________ Class number: ________

4-10 APPROACH AND FLEXIBLE LEARNING

FLEXIBLE LEARNING MODULES AND DISTANCE LEARNING CLASSROOM

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION

Name: ___________________________________________________________ Class number: ________

COURSE SYLLABUS AND GRADING SYSTEM

2) Activity 3: Skill-Building Activities

Student Number: _________________________________

Mobile Number: _________________________________

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION

Name: ___________________________________________________________ Class number: ________

Name of Parent/Guardian: _________________________________

School E-mail Account: _________________________________

B. The 4-10 Approach and Flexible Learning Shift

As part of the COLLEGE,

For this SUBJECT,

C. Information on Distance Learning Classroom

Class Group Chat Name/Link: ________________________________

Class Private/Closed Group Name/Link: ________________________________

Distance Learning Platform: ________________________________

D. Course Syllabus and Grading System

Course Code and Descriptive Title: ________________________________

Course Description (brief contents):

Course Category (Board/Non-board?): ________________________________

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION

Name: ___________________________________________________________ Class number: ________

E. Student Activity Sheets I (SASs) for the Course

Number of Modules to be Submitted Per Period

F. School Directory Related Links

Schools Official Page Link:

Office of the Registrar:

College Community Page:

3) Activity 4: What I Know Chart, part 2

What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)

4) Activity 5: Check for Understanding (This is an assessment.)

Answer the following items briefly.

1. Define “active learning” in own words.

Final Grade = 0.20P1 + 0.20P2 + 0.20P3 + 0.40FE

Pn = 0.60Class standing + 0.40Periodic Exam

Name: ___________________________________________________ Class number:

Name: ___________________________________________________ Class number:

Name: ___________________________________________________ Class number:

Name: ___________________________________________________ Class number:

Name: ___________________________________________________ Class number:

Name: ___________________________________________________ Class number:

Name: ___________________________________________________ Class number:

Name: ___________________________________________________ Class number:

Name: ___________________________________________________ Class number:

Name: ___________________________________________________ Class number:

Name: ___________________________________________________ Class number:

Name: ___________________________________________________ Class number:

Name: ___________________________________________________ Class number:

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Name: ___________________________________________________ Class number:

Name: ___________________________________________________ Class number:

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