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Using the definition of division, the commutative and associative properties of multiplication, and finally
the distributive property, we obtain
α γ
+ = αβ −1 + γδ −1 = (α · 1)β −1 + (γ · 1)δ −1
β δ
= (α(δδ −1 ))β −1 + (γ(ββ −1 ))δ −1 = ((αδ)δ −1 )β −1 + ((γβ)β −1 )δ −1
= (αδ)(δ −1 β −1 ) + (γβ)(β −1 δ −1 ) = (αδ)(δβ)−1 ) + (γβ)(βδ)−1
= (αδ)(βδ)−1 ) + (γβ)(βδ)−1 = ((αδ) + (γβ))(βδ)−1
αδ + βγ
= .
βδ
Similarly,
α γ 1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1
· = (αβ − )(γδ ) = ((αβ )γ)δ = (α(β γ))δ = (α(γβ ))δ
β δ
αγ
= ((αγ)β −1 )δ −1 = (αγ)(β −1 δ −1 ) = (αγ)(βδ)−1 = .
βδ
α/β
= (αβ −1 )(γδ −1 )−1 = (αβ −1 )(γ −1 δ) = ((αβ −1 )γ −1 )δ
γ/δ
= (α(β −1 γ −1 ))δ = (α(βγ)−1 )δ = α((βγ)−1 δ)
αδ
= α(δ(βγ)−1 ) = (αδ)(βγ)−1 = .
βγ
10. Let F be a field, and let α ∈ F be given. We wish to prove that, for any β1 , . . . , βn ∈ F , α(β1 +· · ·+βn ) =
αβ1 + · · · + αβn . We argue by induction on n. For n = 1, the result is simply αβ1 = αβ1 . Suppose that for
some n ≥ 2, α(β1 + · · · + βn−1 ) = αβ1 + · · · + αβn−1 for any β1 , . . . , βn−1 ∈ F . Let β1 , . . . , βn−1 , βn ∈ F .
Then
(In the last step, we applied the induction hypothesis, and in the step preceding that, the distributive
property of addition of multiplication.) This shows that α(β1 + · · · + βn ) = αβ1 + · · · + αβn , and the
general result now follows by induction.
11. (a) The space Z is not a field because multiplicative inverses do not exist in general. For example, 2 = 0,
yet there exists no n ∈ Z such that 2n = 1.
(b) The space Q of rational number is a field. Assuming the usual definitions for addition and multipli-
cation, all of the defining properties of a field are straightforward to verify.
(c) The space of positive real numbers is not a field because there is no additive identity. For any
z ∈ (0, ∞), x + z > x for all x ∈ (0, ∞).
12. Let F = {(α, β) : α, β ∈ R}, and define addition and multiplication on F by (α, β)+(γ, δ) = (α+γ, β+δ),
(α, β) · (γ, δ) = (αγ, βδ). With these definitions, F is not a field because multiplicative inverses do not
exists. It is straightforward to verify that (0, 0) is an additive inverse and (1, 1) is a multiplicative inverse.
Then (1, 0) = (0, 0), yet (1, 0) · (α, β) = (α, 0) = (1, 1) for all (α, β) ∈ F . Since F contains a nonzero
element with no multiplicative inverse, F is not a field.
13. Let F = (0, ∞), and define addition and multiplication on F by x ⊕ y = xy, x y = xln y . We wish
to show that F is a field. Commutativity and associativity of addition follow immediately from these
properties for ordinary multiplication of real numbers. Obviously 1 is an additive inverse, and the additive
inverse of x ∈ F is its reciprocal 1/x. The properties of multiplication are less obvious, but note that x
y = eln (y x) = eln (y) ln (x) , and this formula makes both commutativity and associativity easy to verify.
We also see that e is a multiplicative identity: x e = xln (e) = x1 = x for all x ∈ F . For any x ∈ F , x
= 1, y = e1/ ln (x) is a multiplicative inverse. Finally, for any x, y, z ∈ F , x (y ⊕z) = x (yz) = xln (yz) =
xln (y)+ln (z) = xln (y) xln (z) = (x y)(x z) = (x y) ⊕ (x z). Thus the distributive property holds.
14. Suppose F is a set on which are defined two operations, addition and multiplication, such that all the
properties of a field are satisfied except that addition is not assumed to be commutative. We wish to
show that, in fact, addition must be commutative, and therefore F must be a field. We first note that
it is possible to prove that 0 · γ = 0, −1 · γ = −γ, and−(−γ) = γ for all γ ∈ F without invoking
commutativity of addition. Moreover, for all α, β ∈ F , −β + (−α) = −(α + β) since (α + β) + (−β +
(−α)) = ((α + β) + (−β)) + (−α) = (α + (β + (−β))) + (−α) = (α + 0) + (−α) = α + (−α) = 0. We
therefore conclude that −1 · (α + β) = −β + (−α) for all α, β ∈ F . But, by the distributive property,
−1 · (α + β) = −1 · α + (−1) · β = −α + (−β), and therefore −α + (−β) = −β + (−α) for all α, β ∈ F .
Applying this property to −α, −β in place of α, β, respectively, yields α + β = β + α for all α, β ∈ F ,
which is what we wanted to prove.
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