CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

This chapter presents the relevant theories, the related literature and studies,

the conceptual framework, the hypothesis of the study and the definition of the

variables of the study.

Relevant Theories

The present study was conceptualized based on the following theories;

program evaluation theory by Rogers (2000) , the scaffolding by Jerome Bruner and

zone of proximal development (ZPD) by Lev Vygotsky guided the description and

interpretation of the determinants of the study which are the: effectiveness ,

efficiency, responsiveness, adequacy, equity and appropriateness of Continuous

Improvement Program (CIP).

The Law of Effect by Edward Thorndike explained the effect of the

dependent variable of the study on the independent variables.

Program Theory Evaluation. This theory is intended to demonstrate the

diversity of practice. It considers to have two essential components, one conceptual

and one empirical. This theory consists of an explicit theory or model of how the

program causes the intended or observed outcomes and an evaluation that is at least

partly guided by this model.

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Program evaluation theory might address the achievement of a chain of

objectives and argued for the benefit of doing this. A program theory evaluation

consists of a set of statements that describe a particular program, explain why, how,

and under what conditions the program effects occur, predict the outcomes of the

program, and specify the requirements necessary to bring about the desired program

effects (Sedani & Sechrest). According to this theory, once a program has been

established, the process of conducting a program evaluation can commence. One

purpose of conducting an evaluation is to test the model hypothesized to explain the

program and the mechanism utilized to reach the intended outcomes (Rogers, 2000).

A will attain objectives because it is able to influence process which affects

the occurrence of this objective. The evaluation of the program is necessary when

hoping to determine why a program is succeeding or failing and if and where

program improvement should be focused.

The theory is relevant in this study as the Continuous Improvement Program

(CIP) assumed to give proper support to the Grade II teachers and to the level of

pupils’ performance. It is important because it defines the resources, interventions,

and conditions necessary for the CIP to achieve its intended results. It could also

identify several possible interventions that could support the school and the learners.

The evaluation theory shows how the CIP developed and how it uses to guide the

learners to have diverse choices to meet diverse needs.

To summarize, the program theory evaluation will contribute to decisions

about program management. After evaluation, the program will measure

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achievement of the school and will definitely increase the academic learning

opportunities for pupils. These aspects will help children achieve good result upon

conducting the Continuous Improvement Program (CIP).

Bruner’s Scaffolding and Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development. The

term “scaffolding” was introduced by Bruner, Ross and wood in an attempt to

operationalize teaching in the zone of proximal development ( Vialle, Lysaght, &

Verenikina, citing Wells, 2005). It is a key feature of effective teaching and can

include modeling a skill, providing hints and cues, and adapting material or activity

( Copple & Bredekamp, 2009). As used by Bruner, scaffolding describes the process

of learning a new behavior by which a more competent person (a parent, a teacher,

or more skilled classmate) leads the child to a step by step procedure in learning a

new task. Any support given is considered as scaffold Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal

Development (ZPD) is an area where a child cannot solve a problem alone. But

maybe able to successfully solve it with appropriate assistance from an adult or

skilled peer. The concept of zone of proximal development (ZPD) eventually leads

to the concept of scaffolding, which is the support or guidance to the learner’s

current knowledge and experience for the academic content (Silver, 2011).

The scaffolding and zone of proximal development (ZPD) is directly related

to the dependent variable of the study which is the Continuous Improvement

Program (CIP) in that it is the support mechanism that helps a learner successfully

perform task. When the assistance is given the learner became able to achieve his

goal. This illustrates that scaffolding and the concept of zone of proximal
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development (ZPD) are effective when the support is matched to the needs of the

learner. This puts learner in the position to achieve success in an activity that they

would previously not have been able to do alone. This practical implication of

Vygotsky’s theory, the metaphor of scaffolding which is used to capture the nature

of support and guidance in learning can assist teachers’ understanding developing of

such techniques.

To summarize, Bruner’s idea of Scaffolding and Vygotsky’s idea of zone of

proximal development will help the learners to learn and explore new things in their

environment that the Continuous Improvement Program (CIP) provide.

Thorndike’s The Law of Exercise (1949). The law maintains the idea that

the connection between a stimulus and response is strengthened by being exercised

frequently, recently, and vigorously. The strength of stimulus-response association

can be increased by use while the connection can be weakened by disuse. The

connection between stimulus and response is called bond, which according to

Thorndike must be strengthened by exercise. This law helps in increasing efficiency

and durability of learning.

The Law of Exercise is used in this study to refer that if the connections of

stimulus and response are strengthened through practice or exercise, the child’s

learning will be developed. Exercise or practice involves retaining information by

being repeatedly practicing the process of trial and error.

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Thorndike also suggested the Laws of Readiness, Identical Elements and

Exercise. This states that learning is facilitated when easier tasks precede those that

are related but more difficult.

During the conduct of this study, the researcher observed the teacher who

facilitates the learning and each pupil while performing the task assigned to them.

The facilitator prepared different activities and explained the process of the said

activities and let the pupils repeat the process until it will done correctly.

In preparing the materials and executing the activity, the facilitator was very

creative and resourceful. Materials such as human size shirt made in manila paper

written with syllable was used during the activity. The pupils were assigned to wear

the shirt and asked to stop in station 1, if the pupils read the word correctly they

would jump to the next station with the same objectives and procedure.

To summarize, it would be better if the children were exposed to practical

exercise and activities for them to be able to master the skills.

The evaluation and practice theory and the idea of scaffolding and zone of

proximal development (ZPD) are relevant in this study because it explains the how

the Continuous Improvement Program (CIP) supported the following determinants:

continuous improvement program (CIP) and level of pupils’ performance.

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Related Literature

To fully understand the Evaluation of Continuous Improvement Program

(CIP) in preparing learners for Grade III, the researcher has included its history to

provide comprehensive view of its background.

Continuous Improvement Program (CIP)

Continuous Improvement is philosophy that described simply as consisting

of “improvement initiatives that increase success and reduce failures” (Juergensen;

2000). Another definition of Continuous Improvement is a company0wide process

of focused and continuous incremental innovation (Bessant et al 2005). Yet others

view it as either as an offshoot of existing initiatives or as completely new approach

of enhancing creativity and achieving competitive excellence in education (Oakland,

and Caffyn 1999).

Improvement as conceptualized in this study is based on the analysis

developed by Morris and Heibert (2011) which requires effective means for

evidence use and analysis- not only for traditional formative evaluation designs, but

also for quick experimentation. It is usually involves multiple tests or small changes

that can cumulatively result in large change.

Continuous Improvement Program is ongoing effort of school management

to improve education transfer, services or system and process. Among the most

widely used tools for continuous improvement is a four-step-quality model- the

plan-do-check-act (PDCA) cycle. Smiley (2012) emphasized the involvement of

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employee and teamwork, measuring and systematizing processes and reducing

variation, defects and cycle times. Thus, schools, work environments, communities

and families have the potential to foster continual improvement.

In the same vein stated by Ninge (2012), school organizational performance

can improve from knowledge gained through experience. Lessons learned from

mistakes in administration mean those mistakes are less likely to be repeated.

While this learning process occurs in the school, it is particularly important

for accomplishing the long-term improvement associated with continuous

improvement program. In order for it to be successful, the organization must learned

from past experience.

Morris & Heibert (2011), believed that by the development of instructional

products, public shareable materials for teaching that can accumulate improvements

over time as researchers and teachers create them, try them out, and feed the

information from the trials back into the products and rationales for the changes that

constitute a growing base of knowledge for teaching.

Effectiveness of the Program.

Imai and Choi (2011) stated that the main purpose of such programs was

maintaining a sustained effort at improving the effectiveness of work-processes.

Efficiency of the Program.

Responsiveness of the Program.

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Adequacy of the Program.

Equity of the Program.

Appropriateness of the Program.

Physical Resources

These are the resources that you can feel, move, smell etc. these are

normally resources that are made by man and helps us do our daily activities much

quicker and easier. The physical, human and financial resources invested not only

the education provided to pupils but also aspects of teachers and their teaching that

are the focus of this report.

Facilities. It refers to the space available in school, also to all physical

properties of a school, consisting of the grounds, buildings, and the various facilities

within the school grounds and inside the school buildings. It is considered

indispensable to a school. The availability of safe, secured, and satisfactory

educational facilities will support the teaching and learning process and ultimately

improve the quality of basic education. Hence, Ogunsaju (1980) emphasized that

quality of education that pupils receive depends on the availability of an overall

school facilities in which teaching and learning takes place.

As Buckley, Schneider, and Shang (2004), school facilities enable the

teacher to accomplish his/her task and help the learner to learn and achieve

effectively. Additionally he emphasized that the availability and proper use of

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school facilities can affect the interest of the teacher to teach effectively in turn that

positively affects pupil’s achievement. Therefore the school facilities need attention

as they have a great value in the support to the Continuous Improvement Program

(CIP) to improve the quality education.

Hedges and Theoreson (2000), also argue that the adequacies of school

facilities are not a guarantee for pupil’s performance but the proper utilization has a

great value.

Functional and effective educational facilities are developed, operated, and

managed on the basis of comprehensive plan of action of the school, prepared by all

stakeholders in education in the community. The school should be accessible to

present and anticipated school population by means of public transportation over

satisfactory roads and walks.

Facilities are relevant in this study because it will provide the proper school

environment for the implementation of the Continuous Improvement Program (CIP)

that will be conducive to effective teaching and learning.

Instructional materials. These are the tools used in educational lessons,

which includes active learning and assessment. Basically any resource a teacher

uses to help him teach his pupils is an instructional materials.

Hsu (1999), states that teaching serves as an important vehicle foe achieving

instructional goals of enhancing pupil’s knowledge and learning and engaging them

in the learning community to prepare for future citizen. Therefore, educators always
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are looking for ways to make their educational initiatives more effective. The

learning experience in higher education has shifted paradigms from an instructor-

focused approach to learner-centered pedagogical methods ( Hsu & Wolfe, 2003).

For instance, Bakare (1986), posited in his study that instructional materials

are meant to improve the quality of education for effective pupil’s academic

performance in school.

Instructional materials are relevant in this study since the influence of

instructional materials in promoting pupil’s academic performance and teaching and

learning educational development is indisputable. In teaching kindergarten pupils,

they need to be properly handled. Continuous Improvement Program (CIP)

contributes to the development of school and can provide proper guidelines in

teaching and learning but it cannot be implemented without the use of appropriate

instructional materials (Ajayi, 1988).

In this study, instructional materials are important because it will serve as a

resource for achieving the purpose and objectives of the CIP.

Level of pupil’s performance

Ferguson (1990) defined the pupil’s performance as the ability of pupils to do

something and to the quality and quantity of knowledge, skills, techniques and

positive attitudes, behavior and philosophy that learners acquire.

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Skinner (1945) advised that for proper learning to take place, learning

experiences should be guided and appropriately controlled. This means, the

environment or the circumstances under which learning occur should be supportive

and conducive for effective learning and achievement.

Pre-test. It is administer to determine a pupil’s baseline knowledge or

preparedness for an educational experience. It is a test taken for practice. Pre-test is

conducted to measure a starting point or the amount of pre-existing knowledge of

the learners and to inform the teacher about what is needed to cover based on the

pupil’s previous knowledge.

According to Karpicke & Roediger, (2006), pre-testing is being used as

learning and retention tool as opposed to purely assessing knowledge. In other

words using pre-test to improve retention rather than just an assessment.

Pre-test will be conducted in the study to determine the weaknesses and

developmental levels of the learners. From the result of pre-test, the teacher can set

goals that will support each child in attaining those goals.

Post-test. It is a test given to pupils after completion of an instructional

program or segment and often used in conjunction with pretest to measure their

achievement and the effectiveness of the program. It is conducted to analyze the

appropriateness of the goals and objectives of the CIP, also to recognize pupils who

need additional help and to target any instructional needs to improve the program.
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These two variables are relevant to this study to measure the level of pupil’s

performance before and after conducting the Continuous Improvement Program

(CIP). In this way, the teacher will see the improvement of the child and he/she

determine the effectiveness of the Continuous Improvement Program (CIP) as well.

The result of post- test indicated that Continuous Improvement Program (CIP) helps

to improve the learner’s learning and developmental levels in certain area.

Related Studies

The review of related studies presents some of the works locally gathered

from the internet, articles, and different books.

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Continuous Improvement Program. In the study conducted by John Day

(2011), he stated that the Department of Education shall require school districts and

schools to conduct self-evaluation and their district continuous improvement

programs. The process shall involve the public schools in the setting of local goals.

The district shall ensure that the representatives of their schools are invited in the

development of local district continuous improvement program. Every school needs

an improvement plan for targeting increased pupil’s achievement. It is important to

review progress at regular intervals. Continuous monitoring of the implementation

of the program focused conversation among teachers, administrators, and district

leaders.

Another research study by Bryk (2009) continuous improvement program

cannot be a separate intervention, implemented in parallel with others. Its focus on

process necessities that individuals do not simply the same work differently but

rather that individuals conduct different work.

Conceptual Framework

Based on the literature and studies, the researcher assumed that the extent of

application of Continuous Improvement Program (CIP) in reading has a great impact

in the performance of Grade II pupils for the school year 2016-2017.

The researcher was conceptualized in terms of three dimensions namely:

input, process and output.

The conceptual framework of the study was presented in Figure 1.

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Input Process Output

CIP Evaluation: 1.Improve

Remedial Reading 1.pre test Instruction

Program
2. Enhance
Reading
1.ECARP 2.post test Ability of
Grade II
2. PHIL.IRI pupils.

3.EGRA

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework of the study

The figure 1 above shows the Input-Process-Output style of paradigm. The

first framework contains the input which shows the remedial for reading: ECARP,

PHIL.IRI and EGRA. The target respondents of the study were the Grade II pupils

who were enrolled for school year 2016-2017.

The second frame explained the Process on how the teachers will going to

conduct a CIP for Grade II pupils. The school conducted a pre test about reading to

find out the number of Grade II pupils who had difficulties in reading.

The third frame presented the Output which was to improve instruction and

enhance the reading ability of grade II pupils.

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Hypothesis of the Study

In this study, the researcher will test the following hypothesis:

The Evaluation of Continuous Improvement Program (CIP) does not affect the

performance of Grade II pupils.

Definition of Variables

Continuous Improvement Program (CIP). It is a program that revolve

around the continuous improvement of an identified school, process with the end

view of improving the learning outcomes.

Instructional materials. These are the tools used in educational lessons,

which includes active learning and assessment. Basically any resource a teacher

uses to help him teach his pupils is an instructional materials.

Level of pupil’s performance. It is the ability of pupils to do something and

to the quality and quantity of knowledge, skills, techniques and positive attitudes,

behavior and philosophy that learners acquire.

Pre-test. It is administer to determine a pupil’s baseline knowledge or

preparedness for an educational experience. It is a test taken for practice.

Post-test. It is attest given to pupils after completion of an instructional

program or segment and often used in conjunction with pretest to measure their

achievement and the effectiveness of the program.