Play With Graphs QXD

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Play with Graphs QXD
Mathematics (Delhi Public School, Damanjodi)
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Play with
Graphs
With Sessionwise Theory & Exercises

lOMoARcPSD|33285710

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
Play with
Graphs
With Sessionwise Theory & Exercises
Amit M. Agarwal
ARIHANT PRAKASHAN (Series), MEERUT

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
ARIHANT PRAKASHAN (Series), MEERUT

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© AUTHOR
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PREFACE
It is a matter of great pleasure and pride for me to introduce to you this

book “Play with Graphs”. As a teacher, guiding the Engineering aspirants
for over a decade now, I have always been in the lookout for right
approach to understand various mathematical problems. I had always felt
the need of a book that can develop and sharpen the ideas of the
students within a very short span of time.
The book in your hands, aims to help you solve various mathematical
problems by the use of graphs. Ways to draw different types of graphs are
very easy and can be understood by even an average student. I feel glad
to mention that the use of graphs in solving various mathematical
problems has been well illustrated in this book.
I would like to take this opportunity to thank
M/s Arihant Prakashan for assigning this work to me.
It is their inspiration that has encouraged me to bring this book in this
present form.
I would also like to thank Arihant DTP Unit for the nice laser typesetting.
Valuable suggestions from the students and teachers are always
welcome, and these will find due places in the ensuing editions.
Amit M. Agarwal

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CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION TO GRAPHS 1-50

1.1 Algebraic functions
1. Polynomial function
2. Rational function
3. Irrational function
4. Piecewise functions
1.2 Transcendental functions
1. Trigonometric function
2. Exponential function
3. Logarithmic function
4. Geometrical curves
1.3 Trigonometric inequalities
1.4 Solving equations graphically
2. CURVATURE AND TRANSFORMATIONS 51-137

2.1 Curvature
2.2 Concavity, convexity and points of inflexion
2.3 Plotting of algebraic curves using concavity
2.4 Graphical transformations
2.5 Sketching h(x)= maximum {f(x), g(x)} and h(x)= minimum {f (x), g(x)}
2.6 When f(x), g(x) — f(x) + g(x) = h(x)
2.7 When f(x), g(x) — f(x). g(x) = h(x)
3. ASYMPTOTES, SINGULAR POINTS

AND CURVE TRACING 138-165
3.1 Asymptotes
3.2 Singular points
3.3 Remember for tracing cartesian equation
HINTS & SOLUTIONS 166-182

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er
Introduction of Graphs
t
ap
INTRODUCTION OF
1
C h
GRAPHS
➥ In this section, we shall revise some basic curves which are given as.
Polynomial
Rational
Algebraic Modulus
Irrational
Signum
Piecewise
Greatest integer function
Fractional part function
FUNCTIONS Least integer function
Trigonometric
Exponential
Logarithmic/Inverse of exponential
Transcendental
Geometrical curves
Inverse trigonometric curves
1.1 ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
1. Polynomial Function
A function of the form:
f ( x ) = a 0 + a1 x + a 2 x 2 + … + a n x n ;
where n ∈ N and a 0, a1 , a 2,…, a n ∈ R.
Then, f is called a polynomial function. “f ( x) is also called polynomial in x”.
1

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Some of basic polynomial functions are y

(i) Identity function/Graph of f (x) = x y=x
A function f defined by f ( x) = x for all x ∈ R, is called the

Play with Graphs
identity function. 45°

x
Here, y = x clearly represents a straight line passing through O
the origin and inclined at an angle of 45° with x-axis shown as:
The domain and range of identity functions are both
equal to R.
Fig. 1.1
(ii) Graph of f (x) = x 2 y
y=x2
A function given by f ( x) = x 2 is called the square function.
The domain of square function is R and its range is R + ∪ { 0}
or [0, ∞)
Clearly y = x 2 , is a parabola. Since y = x 2 is an even x
O
function, so its graph is symmetrical about y-axis, shown as:
(iii) Graph of f (x) = x 3 Fig. 1.2

A function given by f ( x) = x 3 is called the cube function. y y = x3
The domain and range of cube are both equal to R.
Since, y = x 3 is an odd function, so its graph is symmetrical
about opposite quadrant, i.e., “origin”, shown as:
x
O
(iv) Graph of f (x) = x 2 n ; n ∈ N

If n ∈ N, then function f given by f ( x) = x 2n is an even function.
So, its graph is always symmetrical about y-axis. Fig. 1.3
Also, x 2 > x 4 > x 6 > x 8 > … for all x ∈ ( −1, 1)
and x 2 < x 4 < x 6 < x 8 < … for all x ∈ ( −∞, − 1) ∪ (1, ∞ )
Graphs of y = x 2 , y = x 4 , y = x 6 ,…, etc. are shown as:
y=x4 y=x6 y y = x6
y = x2
y = –x y=x
x
–1 O 1
Fig. 1.4
(v) Graph of f (x) = x 2 n −1; n ∈ N

If n ∈ N, then the function f given by f ( x) = x 2n −1 is an odd function. So, its graph is
symmetrical about origin or opposite quadrants.
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Here, comparison of values of x, x 3 , x 5 ,… y=x 5 y=x 3
y
y=x
for
x ∈ (1, ∞ ) x < x3 < x5 < …
x ∈ ( 0, 1) x > x3 > x5 > … x
–1 O 1
x ∈ ( −1, 0) x< x < x <…
3 5
x ∈ ( −∞, − 1) x > x3 > x5 > …

Graphs of f ( x) = x, f ( x) = x 3 , f ( x) = x 5 ,… are shown as in
Fig. 1.5 Fig. 1.5
2. Rational Expression
A function obtained by dividing a polynomial by another polynomial is called a rational function.
P ( x)
⇒ f ( x) =
Q ( x)
Domain ∈ R − { x | Q( x) = 0}
i.e., domain ∈R except those points for which denominator = 0.
Graphs of some Simple Rational Functions
1
(i) Graph of f (x) = y
x
1
A function defined by f ( x) = is called the reciprocal (1,1)
x 1
function or rectangular hyperbola, with coordinate axis as x
1 –1 O 1
asymptotes. The domain and range of f ( x) = is R – { 0}. (–1,–1) –1
x
Since, f ( x) is odd function, so its graph is symmetrical
about opposite quadrants. Also, we observe
lim f ( x) = + ∞ and lim f ( x) = − ∞ . Fig. 1.6
x → 0+ x → 0–
and as x → ± ∞ ⇒ f ( x) → 0
1
Thus, f ( x) = could be shown as in Fig. 1.6.
x
1
(ii) Graph of f (x) = 2
x
1
Here, f ( x) = 2 is an even function, so its graph is symmetrical about y-axis.
x
Domain of f ( x) is R − { 0} and range is (0, ∞). y
Also, as y→∞ as lim f ( x) or lim f ( x) .

x → 0+ x → 0−
and y→0 as lim f ( x).

x→ ±∞ x
1 O
Thus, f ( x) = could be shown as in Fig. 1.7.
x2 Fig. 1.7
3

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1
(iii) Graph of f (x) = 2n − 1
; n∈N 1
x y=
x y =1
1 y x3
Here, f ( x) = is an odd function, so its graph is
x 2n – 1
Play with Graphs
symmetrical in opposite quadrants.

1 (1,1) A
Also, y → ∞ when lim f ( x) and
x→ 0+
x
O
y→−∞ when lim f ( x). –1
(–1,–1)
1
x → 0− –1
B
1 1
Thus, the graph for f ( x) = ; f ( x) = 5 , …, etc. will
x3 x
1
be similar to the graph of f ( x) = which has asymptotes
x
as coordinate axes, shown as in Fig. 1.8 Fig. 1.8
1
(iv) Graph of f (x) = 2 n ; n ∈ N
x
1 1
We observe that the function f ( x) = 2n is an even y y = x2
x y = 14
x
function, so its graph is symmetrical about y-axis.
Also, y → ∞ as lim f ( x) or lim f ( x)
x → 0+ x → 0− (–1,–1) (1,1)
B 1 A
and y → 0 as lim f ( x) or lim f ( x).
x → −∞ x→ + ∞ x
–1 O 1
The values of y decrease as the values of x increase.
1 1
Thus, the graph of f ( x) = 2 ; f ( x) = 4 , … , etc. will be Fig. 1.9
x x
1
similar as the graph of f ( x) = 2 , which has asymptotes as coordinate axis. Shown as in Fig. 1.9.
x
3. Irrational Function
The algebraic function containing terms having non-integral rational powers of x are called
irrational functions.
Graphs of Some Simple Irrational Functions
(i) Graph of f (x) = x1/ 2
y
Here; f ( x) = x is the portion of the parabola y 2 = x, which y=x
lies above x-axis.
y= x
Domain of f ( x) ∈ R + ∪ { 0} or [ 0, ∞ )
(1, 1)
1
and range of f ( x) ∈ R + ∪ { 0} or [ 0, ∞ ).
Thus, the graph of f ( x) = x1/2 is shown as; O 1
x
Note If f (x) = x n and g (x) = x1/n , then f (x) and g (x) are inverse of
Fig. 1.10
each other.
∴ f (x) = x n and g (x) = x1/n is the mirror image about y = x.
4

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(ii) Graph of f (x) = x1/ 3 y=x3
y y=x
As discussed above, if g( x) = x 3 . Then f ( x) = x1/3 y =x1/3

is image of g( x) about y = x. 1
where domain f ( x) ∈ R. x
–1 O 1
and range of f ( x) ∈ R.
–1
Thus, the graph of f ( x) = x1/ 3 is shown in Fig.
1.11;
Fig. 1.11
(iii) Graph of f (x) = x1/ 2 n ; n ∈ N y y=x4 y=x2
y=x
Here, f ( x) = x1/ 2n is defined for all x ∈ [ 0, ∞ ) and the values
taken by f ( x) are positive.
So, domain and range of f ( x) are [ 0, ∞ ). y = x1/2
1 y = x1/4
Here, the graph of f ( x) = x1/ 2n is the mirror image of the
graph of f ( x) = x 2n about the line y = x, when x ∈ [ 0, ∞ ).
Thus, f ( x) = x1/ 2 , f ( x) = x1/ 4 , … are shown as; O 1 x
Fig. 1.12
(iv) Graph of f (x) = x1/ 2 n −1 , when n ∈ N
Here, f ( x) = x1/ 2n −1 is defined for all x ∈ R. So, y y = x5 y=x3
y=x
domain of f ( x) ∈ R, and range of f ( x) ∈ R. Also the
graph of f ( x) = x1/ 2n −1 is the mirror image of the graph y =x1/3
y = x1/5
of f ( x) = x 2n −1 about the line y = x when x ∈ R. 1
Thus, f ( x) = x1/ 3 , f ( x) = x1/ 5 , …, are shown
as; O
x
–1 1
Note We have discussed some of the simple curves –1

for Polynomial, Rational and Irrational
functions. Graphs of the some more difficult
rational functions will be discussed in
chapter 3. Such as;
Fig. 1.13
x 1 x2 + x + 1
y= y= 2 , y= 2 ,… .
x+1 x −1 x −x+1
4. Piecewise Functions
As discussed piecewise functions are:
(a) Absolute value function (or modulus function), (b) Signum function.
(c) Greatest integer function. (d) Fractional part function.
(e) Least integer function.
(a) Absolute value function (or modulus function)
 x, x ≥ 0
y = |x|= 
− x , x < 0

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y = –x y y=x
“It is the numerical value of x”.
“It is symmetric about y-axis” where domain ∈R
and range ∈[0, ∞). 135°
45°
Play with Graphs
Properties of modulus functions x

O
(i) |x | ≤ a ⇒ − a ≤ x ≤ a ; ( a ≥ 0)
(ii) |x | ≥ a ⇒ x ≤ − a or x ≥ a ; ( a ≥ 0) Fig. 1.14
(iii) |x ± y| ≤ |x| + |y|
(iv) |x ± y| ≥ |x| − |y | .
(b) Signum function; y = Sgn(x) y-axis
It is defined by; 1
|x| x  +1, if x> 0
 or ; x≠0 
y = Sgn( x) =  x |x| =  −1, if x< 0 x-axis
O
 0 ; x = 0.  0, if x=0
–1
Here, Domain of f ( x) ∈ R.
and Range of f ( x) ∈ { −1, 0, 1}. Fig. 1.15
(c) Greatest integer function [x] = n
[x] indicates the integral part of x which is nearest and smaller
integer to x. It is also known as floor of x.
Thus, [ 2.3] = 2, [ 0.23] = 0, [ 2] = 2, [ −8.0725] = − 9, … . n n+1
In general; x
n ≤ x < n + 1 ( n ∈ Integer) ⇒ [ x] = n. Fig. 1.16
y-axis
Here, f ( x) = [ x] could be expressed graphically as;
3
x [x]
2
0≤ x< 1 0
1
1≤ x< 2 1
2≤ x< 3 2 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 x-axis
–1
Thus, f ( x) = [ x] could be shown as; –2
Properties of greatest integer function
–3
(i) [ x] = x holds, if x is integer.
Fig. 1.17
(ii) [ x + I] = [ x] + I, if I is integer.
(iii) [ x + y ] ≥ [ x] + [ y ].
(iv) If [ φ ( x)] ≥ I, then φ ( x) ≥ I.
(v) If [ φ ( x)] ≤ I, then φ ( x) < I + 1.
(vi) [ − x] = − [ x], if x ∈ integer.
(vii) [ − x] = − [ x] − 1, if x ∉integer.
“It is also known as stepwise function/floor of x.”
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(d) Fractional part of function
Here, {.} denotes the fractional part of x. Thus, in y = { x}.
x = [ x] + { x} = I + f ; where I = [ x] and f = { x}
∴ y = { x} = x − [ x] , where 0 ≤ { x} < 1; shown as:
y
x {x}
0≤ x< 1 x
1
1≤ x< 2 x−1
3
x+
x+
x+
x–
x–
x–
x
2≤ x< 3 x−2 x
–3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3
−1 ≤ x < 0 x+1
−2 ≤ x < − 1 x+2 Fig. 1.18
Properties of fractional part of x

(i) { x} = x ; if 0≤ x< 1
(ii) { x} = 0 ; if x ∈ integer.
(iii) { − x} = 1 − { x} ; if x ∈ integer.
(e) Least integer function
y = ( x) = x ,
( x) or x indicates the integral part of x which is nearest and greatest integer to x.
It is known as ceiling of x.
[x] = n (x) = x = n +1
Thus, 2.3023 = 3, ( 0.23) = 1, ( −8.0725) = − 8, ( −0.6) = 0
In general, n < x ≤ n + 1 ( n ∈ integer))
i. e., x or ( x) = n + 1 n x n+1
shown as;
Fig. 1.19
Here, f ( x) = ( x) = x, can be expressed graphically as:
y-axis
x x = ( x) 3
−1 < x ≤ 0 0 2
0< x≤ 1 1 1
x-axis
1< x≤ 2 2 –4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4
–1
−2 < x ≤ − 1 −1
–2
−3 < x ≤ − 2 −2
–3
Properties of least integer function Fig. 1.20

(i) ( x) = x = x, if x is integer.
(ii) ( x + I) = x + I = ( x) + I ; if I ∈ integer.
(iii) Greatest integer converts x = I + f to [ x] = I while x converts to ( I + 1).
Note We shall discuss the curves:

y = {sin x} , y = {x3 } , y = {sin−1 (sin x)} y = [sin x] , etc. in chapter 2. (Curvature and
Transformations).
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1.2 TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS
1. Trigonometric Function
Play with Graphs
(a) Sine function

Here, f ( x) = sin x can be discussed in two ways i.e., Graph diagram and Circle diagram where
Domain of sine function is “R” and range is [–1, 1].
Graph diagram
y
(On x-axis and y-axis)
3π π, 1
f ( x) = sin x, increases – ,1
2 1 2 y =1
strictly from –1 to 1 as x increases B D
π π
from − to , decreases strictly h1 h1
2 2 x
π 2π 3π π π OA π π 3π 2π C
from 1 to –1 as x increases from
2 2 2 2 2
3π y = –1
to and so on. We have graph π , –1 –1 3π, –1
2 2 2
as;
Here, the height is same after Fig. 1.21
every interval of 2π. (i.e., In above figure, AB = CD after every interval of 2π).
∴ sin x is called periodic function with period 2π.
Circle diagram π/2 π ,1 5π , 1 …
=
(On trigonometric plane or using 2 2
quadrants). Let a circle of radius ‘1’, y=1 γ
i.e., unit circle.
a β
Then, sin α = ,
1 b 1 1
a
b α
sin β = ,
1 …, 5π, 3π, π y = 0 3π O 0=y x = 0, 2π, 4π ,…
c c 2
sin γ = − , d
1
d 2π–δ
sin δ = − , … , shown as.
1 y = –1
∴ sin x generates a circle of
radius ‘1’. 3π/2, 7π/2, …
Fig. 1.22
(b) Cosine function
Here, f ( x) = cos x
The domain of cosine function is R and the range is [–1, 1].
Graph diagram (on x-axis and y-axis)
y
As discussed, cos x decreases strictly
(–2π, 1) (0, 1) (2π, 1)
from 1 to –1 as x increases from 0 to π,
increases strictly from –1 to 1 as x
increases from π to 2 π and so on. Also,
x
cos x is periodic with period 2 π. –2π –3π/2 –π –π/2 O π/2 π 3π/2 2π
(–π, –1) (π, –1)

8
Fig. 1.23

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Circle diagram
y=1
Let a circle of radius ‘1’, i.e., a unit circle.
a b
Then, cos α = , cos β = − , b 1 β1
1 1 a
δ α
c d y=0 y=0 x
cos γ = , cos δ = − O
1 1 d
1 γ c
1
∴ cos x generates a circle of radius ‘1’.
y = –1
(c) Tangent function

Fig. 1.24
f ( x) = tan x
y
The domain of the function y = tan x is;
 π 3π 5π 
R − ± , ± ,± ,…
 2 2 2 
 π  1
i. e., R − ( 2n + 1) 
 2
x
and Range ∈ R or ( −∞, ∞ ). –π π O π π
–
4 4
The function y = tan x increases strictly –1
from − ∞ to + ∞ as x increases from
π π π 3π 3π 5π
− to , to , to , … and so on.
2 2 2 2 2 2
x = –3π/2 x = –π/2 x = π/2 x = 3π/2
The graph is shown as :
Fig. 1.25
π 3π 5π
Note Here, the curve tends to meet at x = ± ,± ± , … but never meets or tends to
2 2 2
infinity.
π 3π 5π
∴ x=± , ± , ± … are asymptotes to y = tan x.
2 2 2
(d) Cosecant function

f ( x) = cosec x
y
y = cosec x y = cosec x y = cosec x
π ,1
2
1
y = sin x
x
–2π –3π/2 –π –π/2 O π/2 π 3π/2 2π
–1
–
π ,–1 3π ,–1
2 2
y = cosec x y = cosec x y = cosec x
Fig. 1.26 9

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Here, domain of y = cosec x is,

R − { 0, ± π, ± 2 π, ± 3 π, …}
i. e., R − { nπ| n ∈ z} and range ∈ R − ( − 1, 1).
Play with Graphs
as shown in Fig. 1.26.

The function y = cosec x is periodic with period 2 π.
(e) Secant function
f ( x) = sec x
 π 
Here, domain ∈ R − ( 2n + 1) n ∈ z
 2 
Range ∈ R − ( −1 , 1)
Shown as:
y
y = sec x y = sec x
(–2π, 1)
(0, 1 ) (2π, 1 )
1
x
–2π – 3π –π π O π π 3π 2π
–
2 2 2 2 y = cos x
–1
(–π, –1 ) (π, –1 )
Fig. 1.27
The function y = sec x is periodic with period 2 π .

Note (i) The curve y = cosec x tends to meet at x = 0 , ± π , ± 2 π , … at infinity.
∴ x = 0, ± π , ± 2π , …
or x = nπ , n ∈ integer are asymptote to y = cosec x.
π 3π
(ii) The curve y = sec x tends to meet at x = ± ± , … at infinity.
2 2
π 3π 5π π
∴x = ± , ± , ± , … or x = (2 n + 1) , n ∈ integer are asymptote to y = cosec x.
2 2 2 2
Here, we have used the notation of asymptotes of a curve in the context of special curves,
but we would have a detailed discussion in chapter 3.
(f) Cotangent function

f ( x) = cot x
Here, domain ∈R − { nπ| n ∈ z} Range ∈ R.
which is periodic with period π, and has x = nπ, n ∈ z as asymptotes. As shown in Fig. 1.28;
10

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y y = cot x
x
–2π 3π –π π O π π 3π 2π
– –
2 2 2 2
asymptotes
Fig. 1.28
2. Exponential Function
Here, f ( x) = a x, a > 0, a ≠ 1, and x ∈ R, where domain ∈R,
Range ∈ ( 0, ∞ ).
Case I. a > 1
Here, f ( x) = y = a x increase with the increase in x, i.e., f ( x) is increasing function on R.
y
y = a x, a > 1
(0,1)
x
O
Fig. 1.29 4x
y-axis
3x
For example;
2x
y = 2 x , y = 3 x , y = 4 x ,… have;
2x < 3x < 4x < … for x > 1 (0,1)
and 2 > 3 > 4 > … for 0 < x < 1.
x x x
O
x-axis
and they can be shown as;

Fig. 1.30
y=ax y-axis
Case II. 0 < a < 1
Here, f ( x) = a x decrease with the increase in x, i.e., f ( x) is 0<a<1
decreasing function on R. (0,1)
“In general, exponential function increases or
x-axis
decreases as ( a > 1) or ( 0 < a < 1) respectively”. O
3. Logarithmic Function
Fig. 1.31
(Inverse of Exponential)
The function f ( x) = log a x; ( x , a > 0) and a ≠ 1 is a logarithmic function.
Thus, the domain of logarithmic function is all real positive numbers and their range is the set R
of all real numbers.
We have seen that y = a x is strictly increasing when a > 1 and strictly decreasing when 0 < a < 1.
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Thus, the function is invertible. The If 0 < a < 1 If a > 1

y-axis y-axis
inverse of this function is denoted by log a x,
we write
y = a x ⇒ x = log a y ;
Play with Graphs
where x ∈ R and y ∈( 0, ∞ ) (1,0)

x-axis x-axis
O O (1,0)
writing y = log a x in place of x = log a y ,
we have the graph of y = log a x .
Thus, logarithmic function is also
known as inverse of exponential function. Fig. 1.32
Properties of logarithmic function
1. log e ( ab) = log e a + log e b { a, b > 0}
 a
2. log e   = log e a − log e b { a, b > 0}
 b
3. log e a m = m log e a {a > 0 and m ∈ R}
4. log a a = 1 {a > 0 and a ≠ 1}
1
5. log
bm
a= log b a { a, b > 0, b ≠ 1 and m ∈ R}
m
1
6. log b a = { a, b > 0 and a, b ≠ 1}
log a b
log m a
7. log b a = { a, b > 0 ≠ {1} and m > 0}
log m b
8. a log a m
=m { a, m > 0 and a ≠ 1}
9. a logc b = b logc a { a, b, c > 0 and c ≠ 1}
 x > y , if m>1 { m, x, y , > 0 and m ≠ 1}
10. If log m x > log m y ⇒
 x < y , if 0< m < 1
which could be graphically shown as;
If m > 1 (Graph of log m a) Again if 0 < m < 1. (Graph of log m a)
logm x logm a
logm x
logm y
logm y
O 1 y x O x y1
Fig. 1.33 Fig. 1.34
⇒ log m x > log m y when x > y and m > 1. ⇒ log m x > log m y ; when x < y and 0 < m < 1.
11. log m a = b ⇒ a=m b
{ a, m > 0 ; m ≠ 1 ; b ∈ R}
 a > m ; if m > 1
b
12. log m a > b ⇒ 
 a < m ; if 0 < m < 1
b
 a < m b ; if m > 1
13. log m a < b ⇒  .
 a > m ; if 0 < m < 1
b
12

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
4. Geometrical Curves y
(a) Straight line
ax + by + c = 0 (represents general equation of straight line). We
0, – c
know, b
c c
y =– when x = 0 – ,0
a
b x
c O
and x=− when y = 0
a
joining above points we get required straight line. Fig. 1.35
(b) Circle
We know,
(i) x 2 + y 2 = a 2 is circle with centre ( 0, 0) (ii) ( x − a) 2 + ( y − b) 2 = r 2 , circle with
and radius r. centre (a, b) and radius r.
y y
(a, b)
x C r
C (0, 0) (r, 0)
Fig. 1.36 Fig. 1.37
(iii) x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ; (iv) ( x − x1 ) ( x − x 2 ) + ( y − y 1 ) ( y − y 2 ) = 0;

centre ( −g, − f ); radius g 2 + f 2 − c .
End points of diameter are ( x1 , y 1) and
y ( x 2 , y 2).
O
r A B
C (x1, y1) (x2, y2)
(–g, –f )
x
O
Fig. 1.39
Fig. 1.38
(c) Parabola
(i) y 2 = 4 ax (ii) y 2 = – 4 ax
Vertex : (0, 0) Vertex : (0, 0)
Focus : (a, 0) Focus : (– a, 0)
Axis : x-axis or y = 0 Axis : x-axis or y = 0
Directrix : x=−a Directrix : x=a
13

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
y y
y 2= – 4ax
F
Play with Graphs
x x
V (a, 0) Focus V (0, 0)
Directrix
(–a, 0)
Vertex
y 2 = 4ax
x=a
x = –a
Fig. 1.40 Fig. 1.41
(iii) x 2 = 4 ay (iv) x 2 = − 4 ay
Vextex : ( 0, 0) Vertex : ( 0, 0)
Focus : ( 0, a) Focus : ( 0, − a)
Axis : y-axis or x = 0 Axis : y-axis or x = 0
Directrix : y =−a Directrix : y =a
y x 2 = 4ay y
y=a
F (0, a)
V (0, 0)
x
x
V (0, 0)
y = –a F (0, –a)
Directrix
x 2 = –4ay
Fig. 1.42 Fig. 1.43
(v) (y − k) 2 = 4a (x − h)
Vertex : ( h, k ) y=k
Focus : ( h + a, k ) V (h, k) F (h + a, k)
Axis : x=h
Directrix : x=h−a
x = h–a x = h
directrix
(d) Ellipse Fig. 1.44

x2 y2
(i) 2 + 2 = 1 (a 2 > b 2 )
a b a 2> b 2
Centre : (0, 0)
b
Focus : ( ±ae, 0)
Vertex : ( ±a, 0) –a O a
b2
Eccentricity : e = 1 − –b
a2
a x = –a/e x = a/e
Directrix : x=±
e Fig. 1.45
14

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
x2 y2 (x − h) 2 (y − k) 2
(ii) + 2 =1 (a 2 < b 2 ) (iii) + = 1 (a 2 > b 2 )
a2 b a2 b2
y y
b2> a2
y = b/e
(0, b) (h, k +b)
y=k A′ (a+h, k)
(a–h, k) (h,k) A
x
(–a, 0) O (a, 0) (h, k–b)
O x
(0,–b)
x=h
y = –b/e
directrix
Fig. 1.46 Fig. 1.47
(e) Hyperbola y
x2 y2 b
(i) 2 − 2 = 1 y =– x
a
te
b
y= x
a
a b pto
ym
Centre : (0, 0) as
Focus : ( ±ae, 0)
Vertices : ( ±a, 0) x
(–ae,0) (–a, 0) O (a, 0) (ae, 0)
2
b
Eccentricity : e = 1 +
a2 as
ym
a pto
Directrix : x= ± x = –a/e x = a/e
te
e
b Fig. 1.48
In above figure asymptotes are y = ± x.
a
x2 y2 (x − h) 2 (y − k) 2
(ii) − + 2 =1 (iii) − =1
a2 b a2 b2
y y
e
ot
pt
ym
(0, b) as
y=k
(h, k)
O x
x
as
(0, –b)
ym
pt
ot
e
x=h
Fig. 1.49 Fig. 1.50
15

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
(iv) x 2 − y 2 = a 2 (Rectangular hyperbola) (v) xy = c 2

As asymptotes are perpendicular. Therefore, Here, the asymptotes are x-axis and y-axis.
called rectangular hyperbola.
Play with Graphs
asymptote
y=x
to te
ymp
as (c, c)
x
O O asymptote
as (–c, –c)
ym
pto
te
y = –x
Fig. 1.51
Fig. 1.52
Note In above curves we have used the name asymptotes for its complete definition see
chapter 3.
Inverse Trigonometric Curves

As we know trigonometric functions are many one in their domain, hence, they are not
invertible.
But their inverse can be obtained by restricting the domain so as to make invertible.
Note Every inverse trigonometric is been converted to a function by shortening the domain.
For example: Let f ( x) = sin x

We know, sin x is not invertible for x ∈ R.
In order to get the inverse we have to define domain as:
 π π
x ∈ − , 
 2 2
 π π
∴ If f : − ,  → [ −1, 1] defined by f ( x) = sin x is invertible and inverse can be represented
 2 2
by:
 π −1 π
y = sin −1 x.  − ≤ sin x ≤ 
 2 2
Similarly,
y = cos x becomes invertible when f : [ 0, π] → [ −1, 1]
 π π
y = tan x ; becomes invertible when f :  − ,  → ( − ∞, ∞ )
 2 2
y = cot x ; becomes invertible when f : ( 0, π ) → ( − ∞, ∞ )

 π
y = sec x; becomes invertible when f : [ 0, π] –   → R − ( −1, 1)
 2
 π π
y = cosec x; becomes invertible when f : – ,  – { 0} → R – (–1, 1)
 2 2
16

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
y
(i) Graph of y = sin −1 x ;
y = sin–1x y=x
where, π/2
1 f (x) = sin x
x ∈ [ −1, 1]
 π π x
and y ∈ − ,  (–π, 0) (–π/2,0) (–1,0) O (1,0) (π/2,0) (π, 0)
 2 2
–1
As the graph of f −1 ( x) is mirror image of
f ( x) about y = x. –π/2
Fig. 1.53
y
(ii) Graph of y = cos −1 x ; y = cos–1x
π y=x
Here,
π/2
domain ∈ [ −1, 1] 1
π/2
Range ∈ [ 0, π] –1 O 1 π
x
f (x) = cos x
(iii) Graph of y = tan −1 x ;
Fig. 1.54
 π π
Here, domain ∈R, Range ∈  − ,  .
 2 2
y y = tan x y
y = π/2
y= tan–1x
x x
O O
y = –π/2
x = –π/2 x = π/2
Fig. 1.55
As we have discussed earlier, “graph of inverse function is image of f ( x) about y = x” or “by

interchanging the coordinate axes”.
(iv) Graph of y = cot −1 x ;
We know that the function f : ( 0, π ) → R, given by f(θ) = cot θ is invertible.
∴ Thus, domain of cot –1 x ∈ R and Range ∈ ( 0, π ).
y
y = cot x y
(0, π) y=π
π/2
O (π,0) x y = cot –1x
(π/2,0)
x
O
x=π
Fig. 1.56 17

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
(v) Graph for y = sec −1 x;

 π
The function f : [ 0, π] −   → ( −∞, − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ ) given by f(θ) = sec θ is invertible.
 2
−1  π
Play with Graphs
∴ y = sec x, has domain ∈ R − ( −1, 1) and range ∈[ 0, π] −   : shown as

 2
y y
y=π
1 –1
y = sec x
(0, 1)
x-axis y = π/2
O π/2 π
–1 (π,–1)
x
–1 O 1
x = π/2 x = π
y = sec x y = sec–1 x
Fig. 1.57
(vi) Graph for y = cosec −1x;

 π π
As we know, f : − ,  − { 0} → R − ( −1, 1) is invertible given by f(θ) = cos θ.
 2 2
∴ y = cosec −1 x ; domain ∈ R − ( −1, 1)
 π π
Range ∈ − ,  − { 0}.
 2 2
y y
y = π/2
x –1 O 1 x
–1
y = – π/2
x = – π/2 x = π/2 x = –1 x=1
y = cosec x y = cosec –1x
Fig. 1.58
Note If no branch of an inverse trigonometric function is mentioned, then it means the principal
value branch of that function.
In case no branch of an inverse trigonometric function is mentioned, it will mean the
principal value branch of that function. (i.e.,)
18

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
Function Domain Range Principal value branch
1. sin −1 x [ −1, 1]  π π π π
− ≤ y ≤ , where y = sin −1 x
− 2 , 2 2 2
2. cos −1 x [ −1, – 1] [ 0, π] 0 ≤ y ≤ π, where y = cos −1 x
3. tan −1 x R  π π π π
− ,  − < y < , where y = tan −1 x
 2 2 2 2
4. cosec –1 x ( −∞, − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ ) − π , π  – {0} π π
− ≤ y ≤ ; y ≠ 0, where y = cosec −1 x
 2 2 2 2
5. sec –1 x ( −∞, − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ ) [ 0, π] −  π   π
0 ≤ y ≤ π ; y ≠   , where y = sec −1 x
 
 2  2
6. cot −1 x R ( 0, π ) 0 < y < π ; where y = cot −1 x.
1.3 TRIGONOMETRIC INEQUALITIES
To solve trigonometric inequalities including trigonometric functions, it is good to practice

periodicity and monotonicity of functions.
Thus, first solve the inequality for the periodicity and then get the set of all solutions by adding
numbers of the form 2nπ ; n ∈ z, to each of the solutions obtained on that interval.
1
EXAMPLE 1 Solve the inequality; sin x > − .
2
SOLUTION As the function sin x has least positive period 2 π. {That is why it is sufficient to solve
inequality of the form sin x > a, sin x ≥ a, sin x < a, sin x ≤ a first on the interval of length 2 π,
and then get the solution set by adding numbers of the form 2 πn, n ∈ z, to each of the solutions
 π 3π 
obtained on that interval}. Thus, let us solve this inequality on the interval − , , where
 2 2 
1
graph of y = sin x and y = − are taken two curves on x-y plane.
2
y
sin x > 1
1 2
π π π x
O π 7π 3π
2 6 2 6 2
–1/2 1
y=–
–1 2
y = sin x
2π
Fig. 1.59
1
y = sin x and y =−
2
19

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
1 π 7π
From above figure, sin x > − when − < x < .
2 6 6
Thus, on generalising above solution;
π 7π
2nπ − < x < 2nπ + ; n ∈ z.
Play with Graphs
6 6
which implies that those and only those values of x each of which satisfies these two inequalities
for a certain n ∈z can serve as solutions to the original inequality.
1
EXAMPLE 2 Solve the inequality:cos x ≤ − .
2
SOLUTION As discussed in previous y
example, cos x is periodic with period 2 π .
1
So, to check the solution in [ 0 , 2 π].
1
It is clear from figure, cos x ≤ − when; 1/2
2
2π 4π π O π 2π π 4π 3π
≤ x≤ . 2 2 3 3 2
2π x
3 3 –1/2 y = –1/2
On generalising above solution;
–1 1
2π 4π cos x –
2nπ + ≤ x ≤ 2nπ + ; n ∈z 2
3 3
Fig. 1.60
1
∴ Solution of cos x ≤ −
2
 2π 4 π
⇒ x ∈ 2nπ + , 2nπ + ; n ∈ z.
 3 3 
EXAMPLE 3 Solve the inequality:tan x < 2 .

SOLUTION We know tan x is periodic with period π . y
 π π
So, to check the solution on the interval  − ,  .
 2 2 y=2
π (t an–1 2, 2)
It is clear from figure, tan x < 2 when; 1,
4
1
π π
− < x < tan −1 2 or − < x < arc tan 2 x
2 2 –π/2 –π/4 O π/4 π/2
⇒ General solution –1
π
2nπ − < x < 2nπ + tan −1 2 tan x < 2
2
 π 
⇒ n ∈  2nπ − , 2nπ + arc tan 2 x = –π/2 x = π/2
 2 
x = tan–12 = arc tan 2
Fig. 1.61
 3x π 1
EXAMPLE 4 sin 
Solve the inequality: + < .
 2 12 2
 3x π 1 3x π
SOLUTION Here, sin  + < ; put + =t
 2 12 2 2 12
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1 y
∴ sin t < , now sin t is periodic
2 y = sin t
with period 2π, thus to check on 1
1 y= 1
 π 5π   π 3π 
 2 , 2  or − , 2 2
 2 2  O π 3π 3π 2π 9π 5π t
π =t
2 4 2 4 2
From figure,
–1
1 3π 9π sin t <
1
sin t < , when < t< . 2
2 4 4
t = 3π/4 t = 9π/4
∴ generalsolution
3π 9π Fig. 1.62
2nπ + < t < 2nπ + ; n ∈z
4 4
3x π
Substituting t = +
2 12
3π 3x π 9π
2nπ + < + < 2nπ +
4 2 12 4
4 4 13 4
⇒ π + πn < x < π + nπ ; n ∈ z.
9 3 9 3
EXAMPLE 5 Solve the inequality : cos 2x − sin 2x ≥ 0.
SOLUTION Here, cos 2x − sin 2x can be reduced to,

 1 1   π π 
2 cos 2x − sin 2x ⇒ 2  cos cos 2x − sin sin 2x
 2 2   4 4 
π 
⇒ 2 cos  + 2x
4 
π  π
∴ cos 2x − sin 2x ≥ 0 or cos  + 2x ≥0 ; put 2x + =t
4  4
∴ cos ( t ) ≥ 0, solving graphically, y
π π
Clearly; − ≤ t≤
2 2 1 cos t ≥0
π π
or 2nπ − < t < 2nπ +
2 2
π π π
y =0
where t = 2n + –π t= O =t π=t 3π
=t 2π= t
4 2 2 2
π π π
∴ 2nπ − ≤ 2n + ≤ 2nπ + –1
2 4 2 y = cos t
3π π
nπ – ≤ n ≤ nπ + ; n ∈ z. Fig. 1.63
8 8
3
EXAMPLE 6 If A + B + C = π , then prove that; cos A + cos B + cos C < ; where A , B, C
2
are distinct.
SOLUTION Here, we have the three trigonometric functions as cos A , cos B and cos C.
∴ let f ( x) = cos x ; which can be plotted as;
21

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
1
cos x
Play with Graphs
x
–π –π/2 O π/2 π
–1
Fig. 1.64
Now, let us suppose any three points x = A , x = B, x = C on f ( x) = cos x. So that A + B + C = π or

on the interval of length π. y
where G, be centroid of ∆ given by A + B + C, cos A + B + C
 A + B + C cos A + cos B + cos C  1
3 3
 ,  P
 3 3  (B ,cos B )
Thus, from figure points Q, G, P are G
collinear, (A,cos A)
(C,cos C)
where; ordinate of GQ < ordinate of PQ. x
x =A O Q x= B x= C π/2 π
–π –π/2
cos A + cos B + cos C  A + B + C
< cos  
3  3 
x =A+B+C
3
 π
⇒ cos A + cos B + cos C < 3 cos   f (x) = cos x
 3
Fig. 1.65
3
⇒ cos A + cos B + cos C <
2
Note Here, a particular case arises when A = B = C (i.e., when A, B, C are non-distinct)
cos A = cos B = cos C and A + B + C = π
⇒ A+ A+ A= π or A = π /3.
1
∴ cos A = cos B = cos C =
2
3
∴ cos A + cos B + cos C = (only when A = B = C)
2
1
EXAMPLE 7 Solve the inequality: sin x cos x + tan x ≥ 1.
2
π
SOLUTION Here; left hand side is defined for all x, except x = nπ + , where n ∈ z.
2
∴ 2 sin x cos x + tan x ≥ 2
2 tan x
⇒ + tan x ≥ 2 [Let, tan x = y ]
1 + tan 2 x
2y
⇒ +y ≥2
1 + y2
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lOMoARcPSD|33285710
2y + y (1 + y 2 ) − 2 (1 + y 2 )
⇒ ≥0 {Q 1 + y 2 ≥ 0}
(1 + y 2 )
∴ 2y + y (1 + y 2 ) − 2 (1 + y 2 ) ≥ 0
⇒ y 3 − 2y 2 + 3y − 2 ≥ 0
⇒ y 2 ( y − 1) − y ( y − 1) + 2 ( y − 1) ≥ 0
or ( y − 1) ( y 2 − y + 2) ≥ 0
⇒ y − 1≥ 0 y tan x ≥ 1
2
 1 7
{Q y 2 − y + 2 =  y −  + > 0, for all y}
 2 4
∴ tan x ≥ 1, shown as: y=1
from given figure; O π/4

x
π π
≤ x<
4 2
π π
or nπ + ≤ x < nπ + ; n ∈z
4 2 x = –π/2 x = π/2
 π π 
∴ x ∈ nπ + , n π +  ; n ∈ z
Fig. 1.66
 4 2
EXAMPLE 8 If A + B + C = π, then prove that

A B C
tan 2 + tan 2 + tan 2 > 1.
2 2 2
A B C
SOLUTION Here, tan 2 , tan 2 and tan 2 are three same function. So consider
2 2 2
x y
f ( x) = tan 2 , whose period is 2 π.
2
x
∴ plotting tan 2 for x ∈ ( − π, π ). R T
2
In given curve let us consider any three points G
1
A , B, C such that
A + B + C = π. S M
x
Now, centroid of ∆RST; x=A x=B O x=C
 2 A B C
 A + B + C tan + tan 2 + tan 2 
G , 2 2 2 x= –π x= π
 3 3  Fig. 1.67
 
A + B + C  A + B + C 
also, M , tan 2   where; GN > MN.
 3  2( 3)  
A B C
tan 2 + tan 2 + tan 2
⇒ 2 2 2 > tan 2  A + B + C  A B C
⇒ tan 2 + tan 2 + tan 2 > 1.
 
3  6  2 2 2
23

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
1.4 SOLVING EQUATIONS GRAPHICALLY
Here, we sketch both left hand and right hand side of equality and the numbers of intersections
Play with Graphs
are required solutions.

x
EXAMPLE 9 Find the number of solutions of; sin x = .
10
x
SOLUTION Here, let f ( x) = sin x and g( x) =
10
also we know; –1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1
x
∴ ≤1 −1 ≤ ⇒ − 10 ≤ x ≤ 10
10
Thus, to sketch both curves when x ∈ [ −10, 10]
y
3π
2π
(3π, 10 ) (10,1) x
1 (2π, 10 ) g (x ) =
π 10
(π, 10)
O
–10 –3π –2π –π (0,0) π/2 π 2π 3π 10 3π/2
x –1
g(x) = f (x) = sin x
10
Fig. 1.68
x
From above figure f ( x) = sin x and g( x) = intersect at 7 points. So, numbers of solutions
10
are 7.
EXAMPLE 10 Find the least positive value of x, satisfying tan x = x + 1 lies in the interval.
SOLUTION Let; f ( x) = tan x and g( x) = x + 1; which could be shown as:
y g(x) =x +1
Least +ve(x)
1
π x
3π –1 O π π 3π
2 2 4 2 2
Fig. 1.69
From the above figure tan x = x + 1 has infinitly many solutions but the least positive value of
 π π
x ∈ ,  .
 4 2
24

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
EXAMPLE 11 Find the number of solutions of the equation,
sin x = x 2 + x + 1.
2
 1 3
SOLUTION Let; f ( x) = sin x and g( x) = x 2 + x + 1 =  x +  +
 2 4
which could be shown as;
y
g (x) = x 2+ x + 1
1
f (x) = sin x
1 3
– ,
2 4
x
–1/2 O π
Fig. 1.70
which do not intersect at any point, therefore no solution.
EXAMPLE 12 Find the number of solutions of: e x = x 4 .

SOLUTION Let; f ( x) = e x and g( x) = x 4 , which could be shown as;
y x4 ex
Fig. 1.71
From the figure, it is clear they intersect at two points, therefore two solutions.
EXAMPLE 13 Find the number of solutions of; log 10 x = x.
SOLUTION Let; f ( x) = log 10 x and g( x) = x; which could be shown as;

y
f (x) = log10x
1
x
O 1 10
–1
g (x) = x
Fig. 1.72
From above figure, it is clear they intersect at one points, therefore 1 solution.
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lOMoARcPSD|33285710
Play with Graphs
EXAMPLE 1 Sketch the graph for y = sin −1 ( sin x).

SOLUTION As, y = sin −1 (sin x) is periodic with period 2 π.
∴ to draw this graph we should draw the graph for one interval of length 2 π and repeat for entire
values of x.
 π π
x ; − ≤ x≤
As we know; −1
sin (sin x) =  2 2
π π  π 3π 
( π − x) ; − ≤ π − x <  i. e., ≤ x ≤ 
 2 2  2 2
 π π
x , − ≤ x≤
−1 2 2
or sin (sin x) = 
π 3π
π − x , ≤ x≤ ,
 2 2
which is defined for the interval of length 2 π, plotted as;
y
Repeated Curve Main Curve Repeated Curve

π/2 y = π/2
y=
2π
2π
x–
y=
x+
y=
π–
y=
x or y = 0
π π π 3π
y=
y=
–π
O
x
3π
–x
2
–
2 2
x
y = –π/2
–π/2
Fig. 1.73
Thus, the graph for y = sin −1 (sin x), is a straight line up and a straight line down with slopes 1
 π π
and –1 respectively lying between − ,  .
 2 2
Note : Students are adviced to learn the definition of sin –1 (sin x) as,
 5π 3π
 x + 2π ; –
2
≤ x≤ –
2
 3π π
– π – x ; – ≤ x≤ –
 2 2
 π π
y = sin –1 (sin x) =  x ; – ≤ x≤
 2 2
π–x π 3π
; ≤ x≤
 2 2
 x – 2π 3π 5π
; ≤ x≤ ... and so on
 2 2
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Sketch the graph for y = cos −1 ( cos x).
EXAMPLE 2
SOLUTION As, y = cos −1 (cos x) is periodic with period 2 π.
values of x of length 2 π.
As we know;
 x; 0≤ x≤ π
cos −1 (cos x) = 
 2 π − x; 0 ≤ 2 π − x ≤ π,
x ; 0≤ x≤ π
or cos −1 (cos x) = 
 2 π − x ; π ≤ x ≤ 2 π.
Thus, it has been defined for 0 < x < 2 π that has length 2 π. So, its graph could be plotted as;
y
(π, π)
y=π
2π
–2
2π
2π
4π
4π
–
π
–x x
x–
–
x
x+
–
x+
x
x
x or y = 0
O π 2π 3π 4π
Fig. 1.74
Thus, the curve y = cos –1 (cos x).
EXAMPLE 3 Sketch the graph for y = tan −1 ( tan x).
SOLUTION As y = tan −1 (tan x) is periodic with period π.

∴ to draw this graph we should draw the graph for one interval of length π and repeat for entire
values of x.
 π π
As we know; tan −1 (tan x) =  x ; − < x < 
 2 2
π π
Thus, it has been defined for − < x < that has length π. So, its graph could be plotted as;
2 2
y
y = π/2
x
x
–3π/2 –π –π/2 O π/2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2
y = –π/2
Fig. 1.75
π
Thus, the curve for y = tan −1 (tan x), where y is not defined for x ∈ ( 2n + 1) .
2
27

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EXAMPLE 4 Sketch the graph for y = cosec −1 ( cosec x) .
SOLUTION As y = cosec −1 ( cosec x) is periodic with period 2 π.

Play with Graphs
values of x.
As we know;
 π π
 x ; − ≤ x< 0 or 0 < x ≤
cosec −1 ( cosec x) =  2 2
π π
 π − x ; − ≤ π – x < 0 or 0 < π − x ≤
 2 2
  π   π
 x ; x ∈ − , 0 ∪  0, 
−1  2   2
or cosec ( cosec x) = 
 π − x ; x ∈  π , π ∪  π, 3π 
  2   2 
 π 3π 
Thus, it has been defined for − , − { 0, π} that has length 2 π. So, its graph could be
 2 2 
plotted as
y
y = π/2
x π–x y = cosec–1(cosec x)
x
–2π 3π –π –π/2 O π 3π 2π
2 2
y = –π/2
Fig. 1.76
EXAMPLE 5 Sketch the graph for y = sec −1 ( sec x).

SOLUTION As y = sec −1 ( sec x) is periodic with period 2π .
∴to draw this graph we should draw the graph for one interval of length 2 π and repeat for entire
values of x.
As we know;
  π π 
 x ; x ∈ 0,  ∪  , π
−1  2  2 
sec ( sec x) = 
 π  π 
 2 π − x ; 2 π − x ∈ 0,  ∪  , π
  2  2 
 π π
x ; 0≤ x< or < x≤ π
−1 2 2
or sec ( sec x) =  .
3π 3π
 2π − x ; π ≤ x < or < x ≤ 2π
 2 2
 π 3π 
Thus, it has been defined for[ 0, 2 π] −  ,  that has length 2 π. So, its graph could be plotted
2 2 
as;
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lOMoARcPSD|33285710
(–π,π/2) (π, π/2)
y = π/2
y = –x (2π–x)
x
x
–5π/2 –2π –3π/2 –π –π/2 O π/2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2
Fig. 1.77
Thus, the curve for y = sec −1 ( sec x).
EXAMPLE 6 Sketch the graph for y = cot −1 ( cot x).

SOLUTION As, y = cot −1 (cot x) is periodic with period π.
∴ to draw this graph we should draw the graph for one interval of length π and repeat for entire
values of x.
As we know
cot –1 (cot x) = { x ; 0 < x < π}
which is defined for length π, i.e., x ∈ ( 0, π ) and x ∉{ nπ, n ∈ z}.
So, its graph could be plotted as;
y
y=π
π x π
+π
–
x +2 x y= =x y= π
π, π y
y= y= π/2 2
2 2
x
–2π –3π/2 –π –π/2 O π/2 π 3π/2 2π
Fig. 1.78
Thus, the curve for y = cot −1(cot x ).
EXAMPLE 7 Sketch the graph for:

(i) sin ( sin −1 x) (ii) cos ( cos −1 x) (iii) tan ( tan −1 x)
(iv) cosec ( cosec −1 x) (v) sec ( sec −1 x) (vi) cot ( cot −1 x)
SOLUTION As we know, all the above mentioned six curves are non-periodic, but have
restricted domain and range.
So, we shall first define each curve for its domain and range and then sketch these curves.
(i) Sketch for y = sin (sin −1 x )
We know; domain, x ∈ [ −1, 1] (i.e., −1 ≤ x ≤ 1)
and range y = x ⇒ y ∈ [ −1, 1]
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lOMoARcPSD|33285710
Hence, we should sketch y = sin (sin −1 x) only when x ∈ [ −1, 1] and y = x. So, its graph could
be plotted as shown in figure.
y
Play with Graphs
y=1
1 –1 x)
n
(si
sin
y= x
–1 O 1
y = –1
–1
x = –1 x=1
Fig. 1.79
Thus, the graph for y = sin (sin −1 x).
(ii) Sketch for the curve y = cos (cos −1 x ).

We know, domain, x ∈ [ −1, 1] (i.e., −1 ≤ x ≤ 1)
and range y = x ⇒ y ∈ [ −1, 1]
Hence, we should sketch y = cos (cos −1 x) = x only when x ∈ [ −1, 1]. So, its graph could be
plotted as shown in Fig. 1.80.
y
–1 x
) y=1
1 s
o
s(c
co
y= x
–1 O 1
y = –1
–1
x = –1 x=1
Fig. 1.80
Thus, the graph for y = cos(cos −1 x).
(iii) Sketch for the curve y = tan (tan −1 x )

We know, y
–1 x)
domain, x ∈ R (i.e., −∞ < x < ∞) and (ta
n
n
1 ta
=
Range y = x ⇒ y ∈ R. y
Hence, we should sketch

–1 (0, 0) 1 x
y = tan (tan −1 x) = x, ∀ x ∈ R.
–1
So, its graph could be plotted as shown;
Thus, the graph for y = tan (tan −1 x).
Fig. 1.81
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lOMoARcPSD|33285710
(iv) Sketch for y = cosec (cosec −1x )
y =x
–1 x)
We know; ec
domain ∈ R − ( −1, 1) os
c(c
se
co
(i.e., – ∞ < x ≤ − 1 or 1 ≤ x < ∞) y= y=1
1
and range y = x ⇒ y ∈ R − ( −1, 1).
x
Hence, we should sketch –1 O 1
y = cosec ( cosec −1 x) = x only when y = –1

x ∈ ( −∞, − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ ). 1 x)
= x –1
–
e c
So, its graph could be plotted as os
(c
shown in Fig. 1.82; s ec
co
Thus, the graph for y= x = –1 x=1
y = cosec ( cosec −1 x). Fig 1.82
(v) Sketch for y = sec ( sec −1 x) x

y =
–1 x)
We know, domain ∈ R − ( −1, 1) ec
c (s
(i.e., −∞ < x ≤ − 1 or 1 ≤ x < ∞) se
y= y=1
and range y = x ⇒ y ∈ R − ( −1, 1). (1, 1)
Hence, we should sketch x

O
y = sec ( sec −1 x) = x,
only when x ∈ ( − ∞, – 1] ∪ [1, ∞ ) y = –1
=x (–1, –1)
So, its graph could be plotted as shown –1 x)
ec
in Fig. 1.83. c (s
se x = –1 x=1
Thus, the graph for y=
y = sec ( sec −1 x) = x Fig. 1.83

(vi) Sketch for y = cot (cot −1x ) t–1 x)
y
t(co
We know; Domain ∈ R (i. e., – ∞ < x < ∞) co or y = x
y=
and Range y = x ⇒ y = R. 1
Hence, we should sketch
x
O
y = cot (cot –1 x) = x, ∀ x ∈ R. –1 1
–1
Shown as in Fig. 1.84.
Thus, the graph for y = cot (cot −1 x ).
Fig. 1.84
Note From previous discussions, we learn that if:

(i) The function is periodic then find period and trace the curve.
(ii) If non-periodic, then define for their domain and find range to trace the curve.
Now, before going ahead you must revise previous curves of inverse trigonometry as;
y = sin−1 x, y = cos−1 x, y = tan−1 x, y = cot −1 x, y = cosec−1x, y = sec−1x
with their domain and range.
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 2x  1 − x 2   2x 
(i) sin −1   (ii) cos −1   (iii) tan −1  
1 + x 2
1 + x 2  1 − x 2 
 3x − x 3 
Play with Graphs
(iv) tan −1   (v) sin −1 ( 3x − 4x 3 ) (vi) cos −1 ( 4x 3 − 3x).

 1 − 3x 2 
SOLUTION As we know, all the above mentioned six curves are non-periodic, but have
Restricted domain and Range.
So, we shall first define each curve for its domain and range and then sketch these curves.
 2x 
(i) Sketch for y = sin −1  .
1 + x 2 
2x
Here, for domain ≤1
1 + x2
⇒ 2 |x| ≤ 1 + x 2 {Q 1 + x 2 > 0 for all x}
⇒ |x|2 − 2 |x| + 1 ≥ 0 {Q x 2 = |x|2 }
⇒ (|x|2 − 1) 2 ≥ 0
⇒ x ∈ R.
 2x 
For range: y = sin −1  
1 + x 2 
 π π  −1  π π 
⇒ y ∈ − ,   as ; y = sin θ ⇒ y ∈ − , 
 2 2   2 2
Defining the curve: Let, x = tan θ
 π
π − 2θ ; 2θ >
2
 π π
⇒ y = sin −1 (sin 2 θ) =  2 θ ; −
≤ 2θ ≤ {See Ex. 1}
 2 2
− π π
− 2θ ; 2θ < −
 2
 −1 π
 π − 2 tan x ; tan −1 x >
4
 π π
or y =  2 tan −1 x ; − ≤ tan x ≤−1
{Q tan θ = x ⇒ θ = tan −1 x}
 4 4
 − π − 2 tan −1 x ; π
tan −1 x < −
 4
 π − 2 tan −1 x ; x>1

or y =  2 tan −1 x ; −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 …(i)
 − π − 2 tan −1 x ; x< −1

 2x   π π
Thus, y = sin −1   is defined for x ∈ R, where y ∈ − ,  , so the graph for Eq. (i)
1 + x 
2
 2 2
could be shown as in Fig. 1.85.
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lOMoARcPSD|33285710
π/2 (1, π/2)
y = π/2
x
–1
y=π
n
–2ta
ta
n –1x
2
y=
x
–1 O 1
y = –π–2tan–1x
π
y = –π/2
(–1, ) –π/2
2
x = –1 x=1
Fig. 1.85
 2x 
Thus, the graph for y = sin −1  .
1 + x 2 
Note As in later section (i.e., chapter 2) we shall discuss that functions having sharp edges and
gaps are not differentiable at that point.
 2x 
So, in previous curve y = sin−1   , we know it has sharp edge at x = − 1 and x = 1.
2
1 + x 
So, not differentiable.
1 – x 2 
(ii) Sketch for y = cos –1  
1 + x 2 
1 – x2
Here, for domain ≤1
1 + x2
⇒ |1 – x 2| ≤ 1 + x 2 {Q 1 + x 2 > 0, ∀ x ∈ R}
which is true for all x; as 1 + x 2 > 1 – x 2
∴ x ∈R
1 – x  2
For range: y = cos –1   ⇒ y ∈ ( 0, π )
1 + x 2 
Define the curve : Let, x = tan θ

 1 – tan 2 θ
∴ y = cos –1   = cos –1 (cos 2 θ)
 1 + tan θ
2
 2θ; 2θ ≥ 0
= . {See Example 2}
 – 2θ; 2θ < 0
 2 tan –1 x; tan –1 x ≥ 0
⇒ y = {Q tan θ = x ⇒ θ = tan –1 x}
 – 2 tan –1 x; tan –1
x< 0
33

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
 1 – x 2   2 tan –1 x; x≥ 0
So, the graph of y = cos –1   = is shown as:
 1 + x 2   – 2 tan –1 x; x < 0,
y
Play with Graphs
y=
–2 y=π
tan –1 –1 x, x > 0
x, x
<0 y = 2 tan
(–1,π/2) (1,π/2)
x
–1 O 1
Fig. 1.86
 1 – x 2   2 tan –1 x, x ≥ 0
Thus, the graph for y = cos –1   = .
 1 + x 2   – 2 tan –1 x, x < 0
1 – x 2 
From above figure it is clear y = cos –1   is not differentiable at x = 0.
1 + x 2 
 2x 
(iii) Sketch for y = tan –1  
1 – x 2 
2x
Here, for domain ∈ R except; 1 – x 2 = 0
1 – x2
i.e., x ≠ ±1 or x ∈ R – {1, – 1}
 2x 
For range y = tan –1  
1 – x 2 
 π π   π π
⇒ y ∈ – ,   as y = tan θ ⇒ y ∈  – ,  
–1
 2 2  2 2 
Defining the curve
Let x = tan θ
 π
 π + 2θ; 2θ < –
2

–1  2 tan θ   π π
⇒ y = tan   = tan (tan 2 θ) =  2θ;
–1
– < 2θ < {See Example 3}
 1 – tan 2 θ  2 2
 – π + 2θ; π
2θ >
 2
 π
 π + 2 tan x; tan –1 x < –
–1
4

 π π
=  2 tan x;–1
– < tan x <–1
{as tan θ = x ⇒ θ = tan –1 x}
 4 4
 – π + 2 tan –1 x; π
tan x >
–1
 4
34

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 π + 2 tan –1 x; x< −1

=  2 tan x;
–1
– 1< x< 1

 – π + 2 tan x; x>1
–1
So, the graph of;

 π + 2 tan –1 x; x< – 1
 2x  
y = tan 
–1
 =  2 tan x;
–1
– 1 < x < 1 is shown as;
1 – x 2  
 – π + 2 tan x; x>1
–1
y = π/2
x
1
–1 x
an –
n
2 ta
2t
π+
y=
x
–1 O 1
–1 x
tan
π+2
y=–
y = –π/2
Fig. 1.87
 π + 2 tan –1 x, x < – 1
 2x  
Thus, the graph for y = tan –1   =  2 tan –1 x; – 1 < x < 1
1 – x 2  
 – π + 2 tan x, x>1
–1
which is neither continuous nor differentiable at x = {– 1, 1}.

 3x – x 3 
(v) Sketch for the curve y = tan –1  .
 1 – 3x 2 
 3x – x 3 
Here, for domain y = tan –1  
 1 – 3x 2 
1
⇒ x ∈ R except 1 – 3x 2 = 0 ⇒ x≠±
3
 1 
∴ x ∈ R – ± 
 3
 3x – x 3 
For range y = tan –1  
 1 – 3x 2 
 π π   π π
⇒ y ∈ – ,   as y = tan θ ⇒ y ∈  – ,  
–1
 2 2  2 2 
Defining the curve: Let; x = tan θ

35

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
 π  π
 π + 3θ; 3θ < – 2  π + 3 tan x; tan x < – 6
–1 –1
 
 π π  π π
⇒ y = tan –1 (tan 3θ) =  3θ; – < 3θ < =  3 tan x; – < tan x <
–1 –1
 2 2  6 6
Play with Graphs
 – π + 3θ; 3θ > π  – π + 3 tan –1 x; tan –1 x > π

 2  6
 1
 π + 3 tan x; x< –
–1
3

 1 1
=  3 tan –1 x; – < x<
 3 3
 1
 – π + 3 tan x; x>
–1
 3
 1
 π + 3 tan x; x< –
–1
3

 3x – x 3   1 1
So, the graph of; y = tan –1   = –1
 3 tan x; – < x<
 1 – 3x  
2
3 3
 1
 – π + 3 tan x; x>
–1
 3
y
y = π/2
–1 x –1 x
x
1
n
an –
an 3 ta
3t –π
+
3t
π+ y=
y=
y= x
1 O 1 √3
√3
√3 √3
y = –π/2
x = –1/√3 x = 1/√3
Fig. 1.88
 1
 π + 3 tan x, x < –
–1
 3
–1  3x – x 
3
 1 1
Thus, the curve for y = tan   =  3 tan –1 x, – < x<
 1 – 3x 2   3 3
 1
 – π + 3 tan x; x>
–1
 3
 1 
which is neither continuous nor differentiable for x =  ± .
 3
(v) Sketch the curve y = sin –1 ( 3x – 4x 3 )
Defining the curve: Let x = sin θ,
36

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
 π 3π  π π
 π – 3 θ; ≤ 3θ ≤  π – 3 sin x; ≤ sin –1 x ≤
–1
2 2 6 2
 
 π π  π π
⇒ y = sin (sin 3 θ) =  3 θ;
–1
– ≤ 3θ ≤ = –1
 3 sin x; – ≤ sin x ≤–1
 2 2  6 6
 – π – 3 θ; – 3π ≤ 3 θ ≤ – π  – π – 3 sin –1 x; – π ≤ sin –1 x ≤ – π
 2 2  2 6
 1
 π – 3 sin x; ≤ x≤1
–1
2

 1 1
∴ y = sin –1 ( 3x – 4x 3 ) =  3 sin –1 x; – ≤ x≤
 2 2
 – π – 3 sin –1 x; – 1 ≤ x ≤ – 1
 2
For domain y = sin –1 ( 3x – 4x 3 ) ⇒ x ∈[– 1, 1]
 π π
For range y = sin –1 ( 3x – 4x 3 ) ⇒ y ∈ – , 
 2 2
 1
 π – 3 sin x; ≤ x≤1
–1
2

 1 1
So, the graph of; y = sin –1 ( 3x – 4x 3 ) =  3 sin –1 x; – ≤ x≤
 2 2
 – π – 3 sin –1 x; – 1≤ x≤ –
1
 2
is shown as:
y
y = π/2
y=
x
1
in –
π–
y=–
3s
3si
y=
π–3
n
–1 x
x
–1 3 O 1 3 1
sin
2 2 2
–1 x
y = –π/2
x = –1 x = –1/2 x = 1/2 x=1

Fig. 1.89
Thus, the curve for y = sin –1 ( 3x – 4x 3)

 1
which is not differentiable at x = ± .
 2
(vi) Sketch the curve y = cos –1 ( 4x 3 – 3x )
Here, domain ∈[– 1, 1] range ∈[ 0, π]
Now, defining the curve
Let x = cos θ
37

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
 π 2π
 2 π – 3 cos x; 3 ≤ cos x ≤ 3
–1 –1
 2 π – 3 θ; π ≤ 3θ ≤ 2 π 
  π
⇒ y = cos –1 (cos 3 θ) =  3 θ; 0 ≤ 3 θ ≤ π =  3 cos –1 x; 0 ≤ cos –1 x ≤
 –2 π + 3 θ; – π ≤ 3 θ ≤ 0  3
Play with Graphs
  – 2 π + 3 cos –1 x; – π ≤ cos –1 x ≤ 0
 3
 1 1
 2 π – 3 cos x; – ≤ x≤
–1
2 2

 1
=  3 cos –1 x; ≤ x≤1
 2
 –2 π + 3 cos –1 x; – 1 ≤ x ≤ – 1
 2
π π 1
{Q If 0 ≤ θ ≤ ⇒ cos ≤ cos θ ≤ cos 0 or ≤ cosθ ≤ 1. Here, the interval changed
3 3 2
since, cos x is decreasing in [ 0, π]}
 1 1
 2 π – 3 cos x; – ≤ x≤
–1
2 2

 1
So, the graph of; y = cos ( 4x – 3x) =  3 cos x;
–1 3 –1
≤ x≤1
 2
 –2 π + 3 cos –1 x; –1≤ x≤ – ,
1
 2
is shown as;
y
(1/2, π)
y=π
y=
x
y=
–1
s
3c
co
–2π
–3
os
π
2 y = π/2
–1 x
+ 3c
y = (0, π/2)
os
–1 x
x
3 (– 1 ,0) 3
2 2 2
x = –1 x = –1/2 x = 1/2 x=1
Fig. 1.90
Thus, the curve for y = cos –1 ( 4x 3 – 3x),

 1
which is not differentiable at x = ± .
 2

(i) sin x. cosec x (ii) cos x ⋅ sec x (iii) tan x ⋅ cot x
SOLUTION As we know for the above curves each is equal to 1, but for different domain as;
(i) y = sin x ⋅ cosec x = 1; ∀ x ∈ R – { nπ; n ∈ z}
38

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
 π 
(ii) y = cos x ⋅ sec x = 1; x ∈ R – ( 2n + 1) ; n ∈ z
 2 
 π 
(iii) y = tan x ⋅ cot x = 1; x ∈ R –  nπ, nπ + ; n ∈ z .
 2 
Thus, they could be plotted as:
y y
1 y=1 1 y=1
x x
–π O π 2π 3π π O π 3π
2 2 2 2
y = sin x.cosec x y = cos x.sec x
1
y=1
π O π x
3π –π π 3π
2 2 2 2
y = tan x.cot x
Fig. 1.91
Note From above example it becomes clear that y = sin x ⋅ cosec x = 1, y = cos x ⋅ sec x = 1,
y = tan x ⋅ cot x = 1 but they are not equal, as their domains are different.
∴ Equal functions : Those functions which have same domain and range are equal
functions.

|sin x| |cos x| 1 + x 2 
(i) (ii) (iii) sin –1  
sin x cos x  2x 
 1 1
(iv) log 1/ 4  x –  + log 4 (16x 2 – 8x + 1)
 4 2
(v) 1 + 3 ( log|sin x| + log |cosec x|) (vi) 1 + 3 ( log sin x + log cosec x)
SOLUTION As we know, to plot above curves we must check periodicity domain and range;
| sin x |
(i) y =
sin x
1; sin x > 0
Here, y =
 – 1; sin x < 0
39

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
1; 2nπ < x < ( 2n + 1) π; n ∈z

y =
 –1; ( 2n + 1)π < x < ( 2n + 2) π; n ∈ z
y
So, from above,
Play with Graphs
1
domain ∈ R – { n π; n ∈ z}
 1; 2nπ < x < ( 2n + 1) π –3π –2π –π O π 2π 3π
x
Range ∈  4π
 – 1; ( 2n + 1) π < x < ( 2n + 2) π
–1
∴ it could be plotted as shown in
Fig. 1.92. y = Isin xI
sin x
Fig. 1.92
| cos x |
(ii) Sketch for y =
cos x
 π π
 1; 2nπ – < x < 2nπ +
 1; cos x > 0 2 2
Here, y = ⇒ y =
 –1; cos x < 0  –1; π
2nπ + < x < 2nπ +
3π
 2 2
So, it could be plotted as:
y
–5π/2 –3π/2 –π/2 O π/2 3π/2 5π/2 x
–1
I cos x I
y=
cos x
Fig. 1.93
1 + x 2 
(iii) Sketch for y = sin –1  
 2x 
1 + x 2 
Here y = sin –1   is defined;
 2x 
1 + x2
when; ≤1 {as; sin –1 x is defined when |x| ≤ 1}
2x
⇒ 1 + x 2 ≤ 2 |x| {as; 1 + x 2 > 0}
⇒ x 2 – 2 |x| + 1 ≤ 0 {as; x 2 = |x|2 }
⇒ |x|2 – 2 |x| + 1 ≤ 0
⇒ (|x| – 1) 2 ≤ 0
⇒ (|x| – 1) 2 = 0 {as; (|x| – 1) 2 < 0 is not possible}
40

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
⇒ x=±1
∴ Domain ∈ { ± 1}
1 + x 2 
∴ For range y = sin –1   , where x = + 1, – 1
 2x 
∴ y = sin –1 (1) and y = sin –1 (–1)
π
⇒ y =±
2 y
 π
∴ Range ∈  ±  A (1, π/2)
 2
1 + x 2  x
Hence, the graph for y = sin –1   is only two O
 2x 
points. Shown as: B
(–1,–π/2)
1 + x 2  2
Thus, the sketch for y = sin –1   is only two Graph for sin–1 1 + x
2x
 2x 
Fig. 1.94
points A and B.
 1 1
(iv) Sketch for y = log 1/ 4 x –  + log 4 (16x 2 – 8x + 1)
 4 2
 1 1
Here, y = log 1/ 4  x –  + log 4 ( 4x – 1) 2
 4 2
2
 1 1 1  1
⇒ y = log 1/ 4  x –  + log 4 16 + log 4  x – 
 4 2 2  4
 1 1 2  1  m 
or y = – log 4  x –  + log 4 4 2 + log 4  x –   as; log b n a =
m
log b a
 4 2 2  4  n 
 1  1 2
⇒ y = – log 4  x –  + log 4  x –  + log 4 4
 4  4 2
 1
⇒ y = 1, whenever;  x –  > 0 {as; log a x exists only when a, x > 0 and a ≠ 1}
 4
y
 1 1
Thus, y = log 1/ 4  x –  + log 4 ( 4x – 1) 2
 4 2
1
1 
⇒ Domain ∈  , ∞
4 
Range ∈{1}
O 1 x
Thus, the graph is shown as: 4
Thus, the graph for

Fig. 1.95
 1 1
y = log 1/ 4  x –  + log 4 ( 4x – 1) 2 .
 4 2
(v) Sketch for y = 1 + 3 (log | sin x | + log | cosec x | )
Here y = 1 + 3 [log(|sin x|⋅|cosec x|)]
41

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
whenever |sin x| ≠ 0 and |cosec x| ≠ 0

i.e., y = 1 + 3 (log 1); whenever x ∉ nπ; n ∈ z.
⇒ y =1 {as; log 1 = 0}
Play with Graphs
∴ Domain ∈ R – { nπ; n ∈ z}
Range ∈{1}
∴ it could be plotted as:
y
x
–4π –3π –2π –π O π 2π 3π 4π
Fig. 1.96
Thus, the curve for y = 1 + 3 (log|sin x| + log|cosec x|).

(vi) Sketch for y = 1 + 3 (log sin x + log cosec x )
Here y = 1 + 3 (log sin x ⋅ cosec x) whenever sin x > 0 and cosec x > 0
⇒ y = 1 + 3 log 1; x ∈ ( 2nπ, ( 2n + 1) π )
or y = 1; whenever x ∈ ( 2nπ, ( 2n + 1)π )
∴ y = 1 + 3 (log sin x + log cosec x) = {1; 2nπ < x < ( 2n + 1) π is shown as;
y
x
–4π –3π –2π –π O π 2π 3π
Fig. 1.97
Thus, the curve for y = 1 + 3 (log sin x + log cosec x)
E X A M P L E 11 Sketch the curve for cos y = cos x.
SOLUTION Here, cos y = cos x ⇒ y = 2nπ ± x; n ∈ z

∴ cos y = cos x, represents two straight lines;
 x + 2nπ; n ∈z
y =
 – x + 2nπ; n ∈z
42

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
i.e., two infinite set of perpendicular straight lines which could be shown as:
y = x + 4π ; n = –2
y
y = x + 2π ; n = –1
4π y = x ;n = 0
y = x – 2π ; n = 1
2π y = x – 4π ; n = 2
O x
–4π –2π 2π
–2π
y = –x + 4π ; n = 2
y = –x + 2π ; n =1
y = –x ; n = 0
y = –x – 2π ; n = –1
y = –x – 4π ; n = –2
Fig. 1.98
Thus, graph for cos y = cos x; represents two infinite set of perpendicular straight lines which have
infinite number of points of intersections; (So, if asked number of solutions then they are infinite).
EXAMPLE 12 Sketch the curve for sin y = sin x.

SOLUTION Here sin y = sin x ⇒ y = nπ + (– 1) n x; n ∈ z
∴ sin y = sin x; represent two straight lines;
 nπ + x; n even integer
y =
 nπ – x; n odd integer
y y = x + 4π ; n = 4
5π y = x + 2π ; n = 2
4π y = x ;n = 0
3π y = x – 2π ; n = –2
2π y = x – 4π ; n = –4
–5π –4π –3π –2π –π 0 π 2π 3π 4π 5π 6π x

–π
y = 5π – x ; n = 5
–2π
–3π y = 3π – x ; n = 3
–4π y = π– x ;n = 1
–5π y = –π – x ; n = –1
y = –3π – x ; n = –3
Fig. 1.99 43

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
i.e., two infinite set of perpendicular straight lines as shown in Fig. 1.99:
Thus, the graph for sin y = sin x.
πx 99x
EXAMPLE 13 Find the number of solutions for; sin = .
Play with Graphs
2 500
πx 99x
SOLUTION Let f ( x) = sin
and g( x) = ,
2 500
to find number of solutions; we shall plot both the curves as;
y
g(x) = 99x
500
1
πx = f (x)
sin
2
0 x
–8 –6 –4 –2 1 2 4 6
–1
Fig. 1.100
Clearly, from the above figure, the number of solutions are 7.
EXAMPLE 14 Find the number of solutions for; cos x = x

SOLUTION As, cos x = x y
∴ to plot the curve for y=x
y = cos x; y = x and find the π/2
point of intersection as to 1 y = cos x
obtain number of solutions. A
Here, the two curves intersect x
at a point A. –2π –3π/2 –π –π/2 O π/2 π 3π/2 2π
So, cos x = x has only one –1
solution. –π/2
Fig. 1.101
EXAMPLE 15 Find the number of solutions for; [ x] = { x}. where [ • ], { • } represents

greatest integer and fractional part of x.
y
SOLUTION As, [ x] = { x} {x}
2
∴ to plot y = [ x]; y = { x}
1
and find point of intersection. {x} {x}
A
Here, the only point of intersection is x = 0 , –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
–1
∴ only one solutions.
–2
44 Fig. 1.102

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
EXAMPLE 16 Find the number of solutions of
4 { x} = x + [ x]
where { ⋅ }, [ ⋅ ] represents fractional part and greatest integer function.
SOLUTION As we know, to find y
number of solutions of two curves we
should find the point of intersection of y = [x]
2 y =3x
two curves. 5
∴ 4 { x} = x + [ x]
⇒ 4( x – [ x]) = x + [ x] 1
{Q x = [ x] + { x}}
⇒ 4x – x = 4 [ x] + [ x] –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
⇒ 3x = 5 [ x] –3/5
3 –1
⇒ [ x] = x …(i)
5
∴ To plot the graph of both –2
3
y = [ x] and y = x. Fig. 1.103
5
Clearly, the two graphs intersects when
[ x] = 0 and [ x] = 1 …(ii)
5
∴ x = [ x] [from Eqs. (i) and (ii)]
3
5 5
x= ⋅0 and x= (1)
3 3
5
∴ x = 0 and x= are the only two solutions.
3
EXAMPLE 17 Find the value of x graphically satisfying;[ x] – 1 + x 2 ≥ 0 ; where [ ⋅ ] denotes

the greatest integer function.
SOLUTION As, [ x] – 1 + x 2 ≥ 0 ⇒ x 2 – 1 ≥ – [ x]
Thus, to find the points for which f ( x) = x – 1 is greater than or equals to
2
g( x) = – [ x].
y
x –
where two functions f ( x) and g( x) could be

2 1
5
plotted as shown in Fig. 1.104;
>
4
– [x
From the adjoining figure; the solution set lies

]
– [x
3
]
when
1>
2
x≤ A or x ≥ B.
x 2–
A
1
Thus, to find A and B.
x
It is clear that f ( x) and g( x) intersects when; –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1B 2 3 4
– [ x] = 2 . –1
x 2 –1< – [x]
∴ x2 – 1 = 2
x=± 3 ⇒ x=– 3 Fig. 1.104
(neglecting x = + 3 as A lies for x < 0 )
45

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
Thus, for A : x = – 3 and for B : x = 1.

∴ Solution set for which x – 1 ≥ – [ x] holds.
2
⇒ x ∈ (– ∞, – 3] ∪ [1, ∞ ).
Play with Graphs
Note The method discussed in previous example is very important as it reduces your
calculations, so students should practice these forms.
E X A M P L E 18 Find the values of x graphically which satisfy; – 1 ≤ [ x] – x 2 + 4 ≤ 2 ; where

[ ⋅ ] denotes the greatest integer function.
SOLUTION As, – 1 ≤ [ x] – x 2 + 4 ≤ 2 ⇒ x 2 – 5 ≤ [ x] ≤ x 2 – 2
Thus, to find the points for which f ( x ) = x – 5 is less than or equal to g( x ) = [ x] and g( x) = [ x] is
2
less than or equal to h( x) = x 2 – 2 , where the three functions f ( x), g( x)and h( x)could be plotted
as;
y h (x) = x 2– 2
5 f ( x) = x 2 – 5
4
3
g(x)
2 h (x) < g (x) < f (x)
C
1
g (x)
–4 –3 – 3 –1 0 1 2 2 5 3 4 5 x
–1
A B
–2
g(x)
–3
–4
–5
Fig. 1.105
Thus, from the above graph;

x 2 – 5 ≤ [ x] ≤ x 2 – 2 when x ∈[ A , B] ∪ [C, D]
where A and D is the point of intersection if;
x2 – 5 = ± 2 ⇒ x=– 3, 7
and C is point of intersection of
x2 – 2 = 1 ⇒ x = 3.
∴ A =– 3, B = – 1, C= 3 and D = 7.
∴ – 1 ≤ [ x] – x 2 + 4 ≤ 2 is satisfied;
when x ∈[– 3, – 1] ∪ [ 3, 7 ].
E X A M P L E 19 If 0 ≤ a ≤ 3, 0 ≤ b ≤ 3 and the equation; x 2 + 4 + 3 cos ( ax + b) = 2x has

atleast one solution then find the value of ( a + b).
SOLUTION Here, x 2 + 4 + 3 cos( ax + b) = 2x or x 2 – 2x + 4 = – 3 cos( ax + b)
⇒ ( x – 1) + 3 = – 3 cos( ax + b)
2
46

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
for above equation to have atleast one y
f (x) = (x – 1)2 + 3
solution; plot f ( x) = ( x – 1) 2 + 3 and
g( x) = – 3 cos( ax + b) in such a way that
they touch each other. 4
3 (1, – 3 cos(a + b))
From figure the two curves could atmost g (x) = – 3 cos (ax + b)
touch at one point only when
– 3 cos( a + b) = 3 O 1 2
x
⇒ cos ( a + b) = – 1
–3
⇒ a + b = π, 3 π, 5 π, …
Fig. 1.106
But 3π > 6
⇒ a + b = π as 0 ≤ a, b ≤ 3.
EXAMPLE 20 If A + B + C = π and A, B, C are angles of ∆; then show

3 3
sin A + sin B + sin C < .
2
SOLUTION Here; we have three y
(B, sin B)
trigonometric ratios sin A , sin B, sin C.
∴ Let y = sin x, on which there are three 1
H
points x = A , x = B and x = C shown as; Q
As from the figure; In ∆PQR, G
R (C, sinC)
(A, sin A)
Centroid of ∆ formed by P( A , sin A ) P
Q( B, sin B) R(C, sin C ) is; x
O A B I π C π 2π
2
 A + B + C sin A + sin B + sin C 
G= , 
 3 3 
where; G, H and I are collinear Fig. 1.107
A + B + C   A + B + C sin A + sin B + sin C 

I , 0 ; G  , 
 3   3 3 
A + B + C  A + B + C 
and H , sin  
 3  3 
From figure; HI > GI

i.e., ordinate of H > ordinate of G
 A + B + C  sin A + sin B + sin C
⇒ sin  >
 3  3
3 3
⇒ > sin A + sin B + sin C.
2
47

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
π π
EXAMPLE 21 If 0 < A <
, then show A ( cosec A ) < .
6 3
SOLUTION Here, graph for y = sin x is shown as;
y
π π
Play with Graphs
where P( A , sin A ) and Q  , sin 

6 6 y = sin x
π Q
sin
From adjoining figure; 6 P
slope of OP > slope of OQ sin A
π
sin – 0
sin A – 0 6
⇒ >
A–0 π x
–0 O A π/6 π/2
6
sin A 3 A π
⇒ > or < Fig. 1.108
A π sin A 3
π
or A (cosec A ) < .
3
π 3π
EXAMPLE 22 If 0 < A , B, C <, then show that: A cosec A + B cosec B + C cosec C < .
2 2
SOLUTION Here, graph for y = sin x is shown as;
y
π π
where P( B, sin B); Q(C, sin C ); R( A , sin A ); S  , sin  .
2 2
R S
From figure; Q
slope of OP > slope of OS: P
π
sin – 0
sin B – 0 2
⇒ >
B– 0 π O B C A π/2 x
2
sin B 2 B π Fig. 1.109
⇒ > or <
B π sin B 2
π
or B cosec B < …(i)
2
Similarly, slope of OQ < slope of OS and slope of OR < slope of OS.
⇒ C cosec C < π/2 …(ii)
A cosec A < π/2 …(iii)
Adding Eqs. (i), (ii) and (iii), we get
3π
A cosec A + B cosec B + C cosec C < .
2
Note Students must practice above method in different questions of trigonometric

inequality as it saves time.
48

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
1. Construct the graph for; 4. If f is defined by y = f (x ) ; where x = 2 t – | t |,
x – 1; x < 0 y = t 2 + t | t |, t ∈ R. Then construct the graph
 1 for f (x ).
(i) f (x ) =  ; x =0
4 5. Construct the graph for f (x ) = [[x ] – x ]; where
x ; x > 0 [ ⋅ ] denotes greatest integer function.
2
2x + 3 ; – 3 ≤ x < – 2 tan–1 α π

 6. If 0 < α < 1 ; then show; > .
(ii) f (x ) = x + 1; – 2 ≤ x < 0 α 4
x + 2 ; 0 ≤x ≤1 7. Find the number of solutions for;

cos–1(cos x ) = [x ] where [ ⋅ ] denotes the
2. Construct the graph of the function:
greatest integer function.
(i) f (x ) = | x – 1| + | x + 1|
8. Find the number of solutions for;
3 x ; – 1≤ x ≤ 1 [[x ] – x ] = sin x ; where [ ⋅ ] denotes the greatest
(ii) f (x ) = 
 4 – x ; 1≤ x < 4 integer function.
(iii) f (x ) = [x ] + | x – 1| ; – 1 ≤ x ≤ 3 9. Find the values of x graphically which satisfy
x2
(where [ ⋅ ] denotes greatest integer function) ≤ 1.
x –1
x 4 ; x 2 < 1
(iv) f (x ) =  10. Find the value of x for which x 3 – [x ] = 3, where
x ; x ≥ 1
2
[ ⋅ ] denotes the greatest integer function.
3. Is f (x ) = x 2 + x + 1 invertible? If not in which
region it is invertible.
ANSWERS
1  – 1– 5 – 1 + 5 
3. x ≥ – 7. 5 solutions. 8. infinite 9. x ∈  ,  10. x = 22 / 3 .
2  2 2 
49

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
Myths About Jangent Lins

Play with Graphs
Remark 1
y
C
P
x
O L meets C only at P but is not
tangent to C.
Fig. 1
Remark 2
L
P
x
O L is tangent to C at P but meets C at
several points
Fig. 2
Remark 3
L C
x
O L is tangent to C at P but lies on two
sides of C, crossing C at P.
Fig. 3
50

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
er
Curvature and Transformations

t
ap
CURVATURE AND
2
C h
TRANSFORMATIONS
In this chapter we shall study:

➥ The bending of curves at different points.
➥ Transformations of curves.
2.1 CURVATURE
“The study of bending of curves at different points is known as curvature.” or “Rate at

which the curve curves”.
Consider a curve and a point P on it and let Q be a point y-axis
near P. Let A be a point on the curve.
arc AP = s, arc AQ = s + δs
∴ arc PQ = δs
A
Let ψ and ψ + δψ be angles which the tangents at P and
Q makes with x-axis. Q
P
∴ δψ is called the total curvature of the arc PQ. ψ ψ + δψ
x
δψ O
is called the average curvature of the arc PQ.
δs Fig. 2.1
δψ dψ
lim = = curvature of the curve at P.
δs→ 0 δs ds
dψ d2 y
Note To study curvature we shall define or .
ds dx2
2.2 CONCAVITY, CONVEXITY AND POINTS OF INFLEXION
(a) Concave upwards

If in the neighbourhood of a point P on a curve is above the tangent at P, it is said to be concave
upwards.
Mathematically
dy d 2y
increases as x increases. ⇒ >0
dx dx 2
51

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Geometrically
y y
Tangent
Tangent
Play with Graphs
P P
x x
O O
Fig. 2.2
(b) Convex upwards or Concave downwards
If the curve is below the tangent at P, it is said to be convex upward or concave downward.
Mathematically
dy d 2y
decreases as x decreases. ⇒ <0
dx dx 2
Geometrically
y y
Tangent Tangent
P P
x x
O O
Fig. 2.3
(c) Point of Inflexion

If at a point P, a curve changes its concavity from upwards to downwards or vice versa. Then P is
called point of inflexion.
Geometrically
y y
P P
x x
O O
Fig. 2.4
Mathematically
d 2y
(i) = 0 at the point.
dx 2
d 2y d 2y d 3y
(ii) changes its sign as x increases through the value at which = 0; i.e., ≠ 0.
dx 2 dx 2 dx 3
52

lOMoARcPSD|33285710

Note In general we can represent concavity as;.
Tangent
y y
Concave down
Concave down P
0
dy P
<
dx 2 y
; d 2
dx < 0
; d 2y
0
Tangent
>
; d 2
dx 2 y
dy
0
dx 2 < 0 Tangent
dx >
dy
dx <
0; d
0
2
y
>
dy
Concave dx 2 > P
dx
0
up P
Tangent Concave up
x x
O O
dy dy
Here; < 0 for both curves. Here; > 0 for both curves.
dx dx
Fig. 2.5
2.3 PLOTTING OF ALGEBRAIC CURVES USING CONCAVITY
Here; if y = f ( x) = ( x – α )( x – β ). 0 < α < β. y

Then we know it has roots α and β and would be y = f (x) = (x – α)(x – β)
plotted as shown in Fig. 2.6.
From above discussion it becomes clear that to
plot curves we require; x
(i) Point of intersection on x-axis. (i.e., y = 0) O α β
min
(ii) Point of maximum and minimum value.
(iii) Interval for which function increases or Concave up Concave up
decreases. when x < x0 x = x 0 when x > x0
(iv) Point at which concave up, concave down Fig. 2.6
and point of inflexion.
EXAMPLE 1 Sketch y = ( x – 1)( x – 2).

SOLUTION Here; y = ( x – 1)( x – 2)
(i) Put y =0 ⇒ x = 1, 2 . (for point of intersection on x-axis.)
(ii) y = x – 3x + 2
2
y
d 2y
Co
dy
3/2
3/2
De
⇒ = 2x – 3 and =2
nca
x>
cre
nca g x >
dx dx 2
ve
asi
up
 
sin
d 2y
up
3
ng
ve
∴ minimum at x =  as > 0
rea
x<
x<
2  dx 2

Inc
3/2
Co
3/2
x
3 O 1 3/2 2
(iii) Increases when x > and decreases when minimum x = 3/2
2 –1/4
3
x< .
2 Fig. 2.7
53

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
3 3
(iv) Concave upwards for x > or x < .
2 2
∴ Graph is sketched as shown in Fig. 2.7.
Play with Graphs
EXAMPLE 2 Sketch the curve y = ( x – 1)( x – 2)( x – 3).

SOLUTION Here; y = ( x – 1)( x – 2)( x – 3)
(i) Put y = 0 ⇒ x = 1, 2 , 3.
(ii) y = x 3 – 6x 2 + 11x – 6
dy d 2y
⇒ = 3x 2 – 12x + 11 and = 6x – 12
dx dx 2
dy 6± 3
when =0 ⇒ x=
dx 3
6– 3 d 2y
∴ maximum when; x= as =–2 3
3 dx 2
6+ 3 d 2y
minimum when; x= as =2 3
3 dx 2
dy y
(iii) Here; = 3x 2 – 12x + 11
dx
ing
 6 – 3  6 + 3
= 3 x –  x –  de
cre
maximum
eas
 3   3  as
ing
Incr
ing
eas
x
6– 3 O 1 6 – √3 2 6 + √3 3
Incr
⇒ Increases when; x< 2 2

3 minimum
6+ 3
or x> Concave Concave
3 down for up for
6– 3 6+ 3 x<2 x>2
decreases when; < x<
3 3
–6
(iv) Concave upwards when x > 2 and
concave down when x < 2 . Fig. 2.8
EXAMPLE 3 Sketch the curve y = ( x – 1) 2 ( x – 2).

SOLUTION Here; y = ( x – 1) 2 ( x – 2)
(i) Put y = 0 ⇒ x = 1, 1, 2
(ii) y = x – 4x + 5x – 2
3 2
dy d 2y
⇒ = 3x 2 – 8x + 5 and = 6x – 8
dx dx 2
dy 5
when =0 ⇒ x = 1,
dx 3
d 2y
∴ maximum when; x = 1 as = – 2.
dx 2
54

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
d 2y

5
minimum when; x= as = 2.
3 dx 2
g
sin
dy  5
= 3x 2 – 8x + 5 = 3( x – 1)  x – 
rea
(iii) Here;
dx  3 maximum
Inc
4 5
at x = 1 3 3
5
⇒ Increases when; x < 1 or x > . O 1de 2
g
si n
3 cr minimum at
ea
a
sin
re
5 x = 5/3
c
1< x< . g
In
Decreases when;
3
4
(iv) Concave up when x > and
3 Concave down Concave up
4 when x < 4/3 when x > 4/3
concave down when x < .
3
Fig. 2.9
EXAMPLE 4 Sketch the curve y = 3x 2 – 2x 3 .

SOLUTION Here; y = 3x 2 – 2x 3
3 y
⇒ x = 0, when y = 0 …(i)
De
2
dy
= 6x – 6x 2 = 6x(1 – x) cre
also asi
dx ng maximum
ing
d 2y reas when x = 1
and = 6 – 12x = 6 (1 – 2x) Inc
x
dx 2 minimum O 1/2 1 3/2
d 2y
De
when x = 0
⇒ maximum when; x = 1 as = – 6
cr
ea
dx 2 
sin
 …(ii)
g
2
d y 
and minimum when; x = 0 as 2
= 6 
Concave up Concave down
dx x = 1/2
y increases when; 0 < x < 1.  Fig. 2.10
 …(iii)
y decreases when; x < 0 and x > 1 
1 
Concave up when; x<
2 
 …(iv)
1 
Concave down when; x> 
2
EXAMPLE 5 Sketch the graph for the function: f ( x) = |x + 3|( x + 1).

( x + 3)( x + 1); x ≥ – 3
SOLUTION Here; y = |x + 3|( x + 1) = 
 – ( x + 3)( x + 1); x < – 3
⇒ x = – 1, – 3 when y =0 …(i)
dy  + 2x + 4; x ≥ – 3 2
d y  2; x≥ – 3
also; = and =
dx  – 2x – 4; x < – 3 dx 2
– 2 ; x< – 3
55

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
g
sin
Play with Graphs
rea
Inc
maximum at x = –3
x
–2 –1 O 1 2
–3
g
asin
e minimum at x = –3
Incr
Concave down Concave up

x = –3
Fig. 2.11
Increasing when x < – 3 or x > – 2
⇒  …(ii)
decreasing when – 3 < x < – 2 
maximum at x = – 3
 …(iii)
minimum at x = – 2 
concave up when x < – 3 
 …(iv)
concave down when x > – 3
Note Above example could also be solved by using transformations discussed in later part of
chapter.
x+1
EXAMPLE 6 Sketch the graph for: f ( x) =
x2 + 3
x = – 1 when y = 0
x+1 
SOLUTION Here; y = ⇒ 1  …(i)
x2 + 3 y = when x = 0
3 
dy – x 2 – 2x + 3 – ( x + 3)( x – 1) Increasing when; – 3 < x < 1 
= = ⇒  …(ii)
dx ( x + 3)
2 2
( x + 3)
2 2 Decreasing when; x < – 3 or x > 1
y
maximum
1/2
(1, 1/2)
1/3
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 5
–1/6
(–3, –1/6) minimum
Fig. 2.12
56

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
 

dy – + –
 Using number line rule for , decn –3 Incn  1 decn
 dx 
d 2y 2( x + 3x – 9x – 3)
3 2
also; =
dx 2 ( x 2 + 3) 3
d 2y 1
minimum at x=– 3 as; 2
=+ > 0
dx 36 
d 2y 1  …(iii)
maximum at x=1 as; = – < 0 
dx 2 4 
Note In above curve x-axis works as asymptote, i.e., the curve would never meet x-axis. For
detail refer chapter 3.
2.4 GRAPHICAL TRANSFORMATIONS
Here, we shall discuss the transformations as;

(i) f ( x) transforms to f ( x) ± a
(ii) f ( x) transforms to f ( x ± a).
(iii) f ( x) transforms to ( a f ( x))
(iv) f ( x) transforms to f ( ax).
(v) f ( x) transforms to f (– x).
(vi) f ( x) transforms to – f ( x).
(vii) f ( x) transforms to – f (– x)
(viii) f ( x) transforms to|f ( x)|. 
(ix) f ( x) transforms to f (|x |). 
(x) f ( x) transforms to|f (|x|)|. 
(xi) y = f ( x) transforms to|y| = f ( x).  Where| • | means modulus or absolute value function.

(xii) y = f ( x) transforms to|y| = |f ( x)|. 
(xiii) y = f ( x) transforms to|y| = |f (|x|)|. 
(xiv) y = f ( x) transforms to y = [ f ( x)]. 
(xv) y = f ( x) transforms to y = f ([ x]). 
= f ( x) transforms to y = [ f ([ x])]. 
(xvi) y  Where [ • ] denotes greatest integer less than or equal
(xvii) y = f ( x) transforms to [ y ] = f ( x).  to x.
(xviii) y = f ( x) transforms to [ y ] = [ f ( x)]. 
(xix) y = f ( x) transforms to y = f ({ x}). 

(xx) y = f ( x) transforms to y = { f ( x)}. 

(xxi) y = f ( x) transforms to y = { f ({ x})}.  Where { • } denotes fractional part of x.
(xxii) y = f ( x) transforms to { y } = f ( x). 
(xxiii) y = f ( x) transforms to { y } = { f ( x)}. 
(xxiv) y = f ( x) transforms to y = f –1 ( x), f –1 ( x) represents inverse of f ( x).
57

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
Now, we shall study the following cases as;

(i) When f (x), transforms to f (x) ± a. (where a is + ve)
i.e., f ( x) → f ( x) + a
Play with Graphs
shift the given graph of f ( x) upward through ‘a’ units

again, f ( x) → f ( x) – a
shift the given graph of f ( x) downward through ‘a’ units.
Graphically it could be stated as:
y
y = f (x) + a
a a
a
a y = f (x)
a aa
a
a x where a > 0
O a
y = f (x) – a
Fig. 2.13
EXAMPLE 1 Plot y = e x + 1; y = e x – 1, with the help of y = e x .

SOLUTION We know; y = e x (exponential function) could be plotted as;
y
y = ex
(0, 1)
x
O
Fig. 2.14
⇒ y = e x + 1, is shifted upwards by 1 Also y = e x – 1, is shifted downwards by

unit, shown as 1 unit, shown as
y y
y = ex + 1
y = ex
y = ex
y = ex – 1
1
2 1
1 1
1 1
1 1 1 1 x
1 1 O
x
O
Fig. 2.15 Fig. 2.16
58

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
y = |x| + 2 and y = |x| – 2 , with the help of y = |x|.

EXAMPLE 2 Plot
SOLUTION We know; y = |x|(modulus function) could be plotted as;
y
y = |x | = x ; x > 0
y = |x | = –x ; x < 0
2
x
–2 –1 O 1 2
Fig. 2.17
⇒ y = |x| + 2 is shifted upwards by 2 units.
y
y = |x | + 2 = –x + 2 ; y = |x | + 2 = x + 2 ; x > 0
x<0
y = |x | = –x ; y = |x | = x ; x > 0
x<0 2 2
2 2 2
2
x
O
Fig. 2.18
also y = |x| – 2 is shifted downwards by 2 units.
y = |x | = – x ; y y = |x | = x ;
x<0 x>0
y = |x | – 2 = – x – 2 ; y = |x | – 2 = x – 2;
x<0 2 2 x>0
2 2
x
O
2
–2
Fig. 2.19
EXAMPLE 3 Plot y = sin –1 x; y = (sin –1 x) + 1 and y = (sin –1 x) – 1.

SOLUTION We know, y = sin –1 x (Inverse trigonometric) could be plotted as;
y
π/2
y = sin–1x ; where –1 ≤ x ≤ 1 and
–π/2 ≤ y ≤ π/2
x
–1 O 1
–π/2
Fig. 2.20
59

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
⇒ y = sin –1 x + 1, is shifted upwards by 1 unit.

and y = sin –1 x – 1, is shifted downwards by 1 unit.
y –1
(1, π/2 + 1) y = (sin x ) + 1
π/2 + 1
Play with Graphs
π/2 (1, π/2) y = sin–1x

1
–1
(1, π/2 – 1) y = (sin x ) – 1
x
(–1, –π/2 + 1) –1 O 1
–1
(–1, –π/2) –π/2
–π/2 – 1
(–π/2 – 1)
x = –1 x=1
Fig. 2.21
(ii) f (x) transforms to f (x – a)

i.e., f ( x) → f ( x – a); a is positive. Shift the graph of f ( x) through ‘a’ unit towards right f ( x )
transforms to f ( x + a ).
i.e., f ( x) → f ( x + a); a is positive. Shift the graph of f ( x) through ‘a’ units towards left.
Graphically it could be stated as
y
y = f (x + a)
y = f (x) y = f (x – a)
a a
O x
–a a a a
a a
Fig. 2.22
EXAMPLE 1 Plot y = |x|, y = |x – 2| and y = |x + 2 |.

SOLUTION As discussed f ( x) → f ( x – a); shift towards right.
⇒ y = |x – 2 | is shifted ‘2’ units towards right.
y
y = |x| = – x ; x < 0 y = |x – 2| = –x + 2; x < 2 y = |x | = x ; x > 0

y = |x – 2| = (x – 2); x > 2
2 2
2 2
x
O 2 2
60 Fig. 2.23

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
y = |x + 2 | is shifted ‘2’ units towards left.

also
y
y = |x + 2 | = –(x + 2); x < –2 y = |x| = –x ; x < 0 y = |x + 2 | = x + 2; x > –2

y = |x | = x ; x > 0
2 2
2 2
x
–2 2 O
Fig. 2.24
 π  π
EXAMPLE 2 Plot y = sin  x –  and y = sin  x +  .
 2  2
SOLUTION As we know; y = sin x could be plotted as;
y
π π π
2 2 2 y=1
π y = sin(x – π/2)
2 x
–2π 3π –π π O π π 3π 2π
y = sin(x + π/4) – –
2 2 2 2
y = sin x y = sin(x – π/4) π y = sin(x + π/4) y = sin x y = –1
2
Fig. 2.25
EXAMPLE 3 Plot y = sin –1 x; y = sin –1 ( x – 1) and y = sin –1 ( x + 1).

y
SOLUTION We know;
y = sin –1 x could be plotted as shown in Fig. 2.26. π/2 (1, π/2)
⇒ y = sin –1 ( x – 1) is shifted ‘1’ unit towards right.

x
and y = sin –1 ( x + 1) is shifted ‘1’ unit towards left. –1 O 1
Shown as in Fig. 2.27. (–1, π/2) –π/2

y
y = sin–1(x + 1)
y = sin–1x y = sin–1(x – 1) Fig. 2.26
π/2
1 1
1 1
x
–2 –1 O 1 2
1 1 –π/2
Fig. 2.27 61

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
(iii) f (x) transforms to a f (x)

y
i.e., f ( x) → af ( x); a > 1
y = f (x)
Stretch the graph of f ( x) ‘a’ times along y-axis.
Play with Graphs
y = a f (x) y = 1 f (x)
a
1
f ( x) → f ( x); a > 1. x
a
Shrink the graph of f ( x) ‘a’ times along y-axis.
Graphically it could be stated as shown in

Fig. 2.28. Fig. 2.28
1
EXAMPLE 1 Plot y = x; y = 2x and y = x.
2
y
y = 2x
SOLUTION As we know graph for y = 2x. (1, 2)
2
y=x
∴ y = 2x; is stretch of f ( x) ‘2’ times
y= 1x
1 1 (1, 1) 2
along y-axis and y = x; is shrink of f ( x) ‘2’
2 –1 (1, 1/2)
times along y-axis. x
O 1
Shown as in Fig. 2.29. (–1, –1/2) –1
–2
(–1,–2)
Fig. 2.29
EXAMPLE 2 Plot y = sin x and y = 2 sin x.

SOLUTION We know; y = sin x and f ( x) → a f ( x)
⇒ Stretch the graph of f ( x) ‘a’ times along y-axis.
∴ y = 2 sin x ⇒ stretch the graph of sin x ‘2’ times along y-axis.
y
y=2
2
y = 2sin x
y=1
1
y = sin x
x
–π –π/2 O π/2 π
y = –1
–1
y = –2
–2
Fig. 2.30
62
Above curve is plotted for the interval [– π, π] as periodic with period 2 π .

lOMoARcPSD|33285710

EXAMPLE 3 Plot y = sin x and y = sin x.
2
SOLUTION As we know; y
1
y = f ( x)
a 1 y = sin x
⇒ shrink the graph of f ( x)‘a’ 1/2

y= 1
sin x
2
times along y-axis. –π –π/2 O π/2 π x
1 –1/2
∴ y = sin x
2 –1
⇒ shrink the graph of f ( x)

‘2’ times along y-axis. Fig. 2.31
(iv) f (x) transforms to f (ax) y

i.e., f ( x) → f ( ax); a>1
y = f (ax) y = f (x) y = f ( 1 x)
a
Shrink (or contract) the graph of f ( x) ‘a’

times along x-axis.
1  1/a 1 a
again f ( x) → f  x ; a > 1 x
a  –a –1 –1/a O
Stretch (or expand) the graph of f ( x) ‘a’

times along x-axis.
Graphically it could be stated as shown in

Fig. 2.32.
Fig. 2.32
EXAMPLE 1 Plot y = sin x and y = sin 2x.

SOLUTION Here; y = sin 2x, is to shrink (or contract) the graph of sin x by ‘2’ units along
x-axis. Shown as in Fig. 2.33. y
y=1
π π x
–2π –π – O π 3π
2 2 2
y = –1
Fig. 2.33
From above figure sin x is periodic with period 2 π and sin 2 x with period π.
63

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
x
EXAMPLE 2 Plot y = sin x and y = sin .
2
 x
SOLUTION Here; y = sin   , is to stretch (or expand) the graph of sin x ‘2’ times along
 2
Play with Graphs
x-axis. Shown as in Fig. 2.34.

y
y = sin (x /2)
y = sin x
π π x
–2π 3π –π – O π 3π 2π
– 2 2
2 2
Fig. 2.34
 x
From above figure sin x is periodic with period 2 π and sin   is periodic with period 4 π.
 2
EXAMPLE 3 Plot y = sin –1 x and y = sin –1 ( 2x).

y
SOLUTION Here; y = sin –1 ( 2x), is to shrink
π
(or contract) the graph of sin –1 x ‘2’ times 2 y = sin–1(2x)
along x-axis.
y = sin–1(x)
x
–1 – 1 O 1 1
2 2
π
–
2
Fig. 2.35
x 
EXAMPLE 4 Plot y = sin –1  – 1 .
3 
x 
SOLUTION To plot y = sin –1  – 1 . We should follow as;
3 
(i) Plot y = sin –1 x

 x
(ii) Plot y = sin –1   , i.e., stretch graph ‘3’ units along x-axis.
 3
x 
(iii) Plot y = sin –1  – 1 , i.e., shift the graph (ii) by ‘3’ unit towards right.
3 
64

lOMoARcPSD|33285710

(i) Plotting y = sin –1 x :  x
(ii) Plot y = sin –1   :
 3
y y
π π
2 2
y = sin–1x
y = sin–1(x /3)
x x
–1 O 1 –3 O 3
π π
– –
2 2
Fig. 2.36 Fig. 2.37
x 
(iii) Plot y = sin –1  – 1 :
3 
y
π
2 3
x
–3 –2 O 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1
3 π
–
2
Fig. 2.38
(iv) f ( x ) transforms to f (– x )
i.e., f ( x) → f (– x)
To draw y = f (– x), take the image of the curve y = f ( x) in y-axis as plane mirror.
OR
“Turn the graph of f ( x ) by 180° about y-axis.”
Graphically it is stated as;
y y
y = f (–x) y = f (x)
OR y = f (x)
x x
O
O
y = f (–x)
Fig. 2.39 65

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
EXAMPLE 1 Plot y = e– x .
SOLUTION As y = e x is known; then y = e – x is the image in y-axis as plane mirror for y = e x ;
shown as;
Play with Graphs
y
y = e–x y = ex
x
O
Fig. 2.40
EXAMPLE 2 Plot the curve y = log e (– x).

SOLUTION Here; y = log e (– x); is to take mirror image of y = log e x about y-axis. Shown as;
y
y = loge (–x ) y = loge x
x
(–1, 0) O (1, 0)
Fig. 2.41
EXAMPLE 3 Plot the curve y = sin –1 (– x).

y
π
2
SOLUTION Here; y = sin (– x);–1
is the y = sin–1(–x ) y = sin–1x
mirror image of y = sin –1 ( x) about y-axis.
x
Shown as in Fig. 2.42. –1 1
π
–
2
Fig. 2.42
(vi) f (x) transforms to – f (x)

i.e., f ( x) → – f ( x);
To draw y = – f ( x) take image of y = f ( x) in the x-axis as plane mirror.
OR
“Turn the graph of f ( x ) by 180° about x-axis.”
66

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
y = – ex .

EXAMPLE 1 Plot the curve y
y = ex
SOLUTION As y = e x is known;
1
∴ y = – e x take image of y = e x in the x-axis as plane
mirror. x
O
–1
y = –e x
Fig. 2.43
EXAMPLE 2 Plot the curve y = – (log x).

y
y = log x
SOLUTION As y = log x is given then y = – log x is
the image of y = log x in the x-axis as plane
mirror. x
O
y = – log x
Fig. 2.44
EXAMPLE 3 Plot the curve y = – { x}; where { ⋅ } denotes the fractional part of x.
SOLUTION As y = { x} is known;
∴ y = – { x} is the image of y = { x} about x-axis as plane mirror.
y
y = {x }
x
–3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3
y = –{x }
–1
Fig. 2.45
(vii) f (x) transforms to – f (– x)

i.e., f ( x) → – f (– x);
to draw y = – f (– x)take image of f ( x)about y-axis to obtain f (– x)and then take image of f (– x)about
x-axis to obtain – f (– x).
∴ f ( x) → – f (– x)
67

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
⇒ (i) Image about y-axis. (ii) Image about x-axis.

Graphically it could be stated as;
y
y = –f (–x)
y
Play with Graphs
OR
y = f (x)
y = –f (–x)
O x
x
–b –a O
y = f (x) y = f (–x)
y = –f (x)
Fig. 2.46
EXAMPLE 1 Plot the curve y = – e– x .

y
y = e–x y = ex
SOLUTION As y = e x is known; 1
(i) Take image about y-axis; for y = e . –x
x
O
(ii) Take image of y = e – x about x-axis; for y = – e – x . –1
y = –e–x
Fig. 2.47
EXAMPLE 2 Plot the curve y = – log(– x).
SOLUTION As y = log x is known;

(i) Take image about y-axis, for y = log(– x).
(ii) Take image of y = log(– x) about x-axis, for y = – log(– x).

y
y = log (–x) y = log x
x
O
y = –log (–x)
Fig. 2.48
68

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
y = – {– x}. (where { ⋅ } denote fractional part).

EXAMPLE 3 Plot the curve
SOLUTION As we know the curve for y = { x}.
∴ To plot y = – {– x}
(i) Take image about x-axis.
(ii) Take image about y-axis.
y
y = {–x } y = {x }
x
O
y = –{–x }
–1
Fig. 2.49
EXAMPLE 4 Plot the curve for y = – [– x]. (where [ ⋅ ] denotes the greatest integer function.)
SOLUTION As we know the curve for y = [ x].
∴ to plot y = – [– x]
(i) Take image about x-axis.
y
3
y = [x]
2
1
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 5
–1
–2
–3 y = [–x]
–4
Fig. 2.50
69

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
(ii) Take image about y-axis.

y
y = –[–x]
3
Play with Graphs
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4
–1
–2
–3
–4
Fig. 2.51
(viii) f (x) transforms to|f (x)|; (where| • |represents modulus function)

i.e., f ( x) → |f ( x)|
Here; y = |f ( x)|is drawn in two steps.
(a) In the I step, leave the positive part of f ( x), {i.e., the part of f ( x) above x-axis) as it is.
(b) In the II step, take the mirror image of negative part of f ( x). {i.e., the part of f ( x) below
x-axis} in the x-axis as plane mirror.
OR
Take the mirror image (in x-axis) of the portion of the graph of f ( x) which lies below x-axis.
OR
Turn the portion of the graph of f ( x) lying below x-axis by 180° about x-axis.
Graphically it could be stated as
Graph of f ( x ) : Graph for| f ( x )| :
y y
y = |f (x)|
x x
–1 O 1 –1 O 1
y = f (x)
Fig. 2.52 Fig. 2.53
70

lOMoARcPSD|33285710

Note Above transformation of graph is very important as to discuss differentiability of f (x).
As from above example we could say y = f (x) is differentiable for all x ∈ R – {0 }.
But; y = | f (x)| is differentiable for all x ∈ R – {– 1, 0 , 1} as, “at sharp edges function is not
differentiable.”
EXAMPLE 1 Draw the graph for y = |log x|.

SOLUTION To draw graph for y = |log x|we have to follow two steps:
(i) Leave the ( + ve) part of y = log x, as it is
(ii) Take images of (– ve) part of y = log x, i.e., the part below x-axis in the x-axis as plane mirror.
Shown as:
Graph for y = log x : Graph for y =|log x|:
y
y
y = log x
y = | log x |
x
O 1
x
O 1
Fig. 2.54 Fig. 2.55

which is differentiable for all x ∈ ( 0, ∞ ) which is clearly differentiable for all
x ∈ ( 0, ∞ ) – {1}. “as at x = 1 their is a sharp
edge”.
EXAMPLE 2 Draw the graph for y = |x 2 – 2x – 3|.

SOLUTION As we know the graph for y = x 2 – 2x – 3 = ( x – 3)( x + 1) is a parabola; so to
sketch y = | x 2 – 2x – 3 | we have to follow two steps.
(i) Leave the positive part of y = x 2 – 2x – 3, as it is.
(ii) Take the image of negative part of y = x 2 – 2x – 3, i.e., the part below x-axis in the x-axis
as plane mirror shown as in Fig. 2.56.
Graph for y = x 2 – 2x – 3 = ( x – 3)( x + 1) :
y
3
x
–3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3
–1
–2
–3 b
minimum at x = –
2a
–4 D
and y = –
(1, –4) 4a
71
Fig. 2.56

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
Graph for y =| x 2 – 2x – 3| :
y
(1, 4)
Play with Graphs
x
–1 O 1 3
Fig. 2.57
Clearly above curve is differentiable for all x ∈ R – {– 1, 3}.
EXAMPLE 3 Sketch the graph for y = |sin x|.

SOLUTION Here; y = sin x is known.
∴ To draw y = |sin x |, we take the mirror image (in x-axis) of the portion of the graph of sin x
which lies below x-axis.
y
y = |sin x|
–π π x
–2π O 2π 3π
Image of portion below

x-axis
Fig. 2.58
From above figure it is clear;

y = |sin x|is differentiable for all x ∈ R – { nπ; n ∈ integer}.
(ix) f (x) transforms to f (|x|)

i.e., f ( x) → f (|x|).
If we know y = f ( x), then to plot y = f (|x|), we should follow two steps:
(i) Leave the graph lying right side of the y-axis as it is.
(ii) Take the image of f ( x) in the right of y-axis as the plane mirror and the graph of f ( x) lying
leftward of the y-axis (if it exists) is omitted.
OR
Neglect the curve for x < 0 and take the images of curve for x ≥ 0 about y-axis.
72

lOMoARcPSD|33285710

Graphically shown as;
y y
y = f (x ) y = f (|x |)
Neglected
x x
O O
Image of
f (x) about y-axis
when x > 0
Fig. 2.59
EXAMPLE 1 Sketch the curve y = log|x|.

SOLUTION As we know, the curve y = log x.
∴ y = log|x|could be drawn in two steps:
(i) Leave the graph lying right side of y-axis as it is.
(ii) Take the image of f ( x) in the y-axis as plane mirror.
y y
y = log x y = log |x |
x x
O 1 –1 O 1
Fig. 2.60
EXAMPLE 2 Plot the curve y = e| x| .

SOLUTION As we know the curve for y = e x .
y
y
y = e|x |
y = ex
Image
for y = f (x); x ≥ 0
(1, 0)
neglect (1, 0)
x x
O O
Fig. 2.61 Fig 2.62

∴ To plot y = e , neglect the curve for x < 0and take image about y-axis for x ≥ 0. Shown as in
| x|
Fig. 2.62.
73

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
EXAMPLE 3 Plot the curve y = sin|x|.

SOLUTION
y y
Play with Graphs
neglected y = sin x y = sin |x |
x x
O O
y = sin x y = sin |x |
Fig. 2.63
EXAMPLE 4 Plot the curve y = |x|2 – 2 |x| – 3 .

SOLUTION As we know, the curve for y = x 2 – 2x – 3 is plotted as shown in Fig. 2.64.
y y
neglec
y = x 2 – 2x – 3 ting y = |x |2 – 2|x | – 3
x x
–1 O 1 3 –3 –1 O 1 3
–4 (1, –4) (1, –4)
Fig. 2.64 Fig. 2.65
∴ y = f (|x |), i.e., y = |x| – 2 |x| – 3 is to be plotted as shown in Fig. 2.65.

2
which shows y = |x|2 – 2 |x| – 3 is differentiable for all x ∈ R – { 0}.
(x) f (x) transforms to|f (|x |)|

i.e., f ( x) → |f (|x |)|
Here, plot the curve in two steps; y
(i) f ( x) → |f ( x)| (ii) |f ( x)| → |f (|x|)|
y = f (x )
OR 1
(i) f ( x) → f (|x |)
x
(ii) f (|x|) → |f (|x |)|., i.e., (viii) and (ix) O 1/2 1
transformations.
–1
Graphically it could be stated as shown in Fig. 2.66.
Fig. 2.66
74

lOMoARcPSD|33285710

(i) y =| f ( x )|: (ii) y =| f (| x|)|:
y y
y = |f (x )| y = |f (|x |)|
1 1
x x
O 1/2 –1 –1/2 O 1/2 1
Fig. 2.67 Fig. 2.68
EXAMPLE 1 Sketch the curve for y = ||x |2 – 2 |x | – 3 |.
SOLUTION As we know the graph for y = x 2 – 2 x – 3, shown as;

y
y = x2 – 2x – 3
x
–1 O 1 3
Fig. 2.69
(i) y = x 2 – 2x – 3 → y = |x|2 – 2 |x| – 3. (ii) y =|x |2 –2 |x | – 3 → y = ||x|2 –2 |x |–3 |

y
y
(–1, 4) (1, 4)
3|
2|x | –
3
x | 2–
x
–3 –1 O 1 3
y = ||
x
–3 –1 O 1 3
–3
–3
(–1, –4) (1, –4)
Fig. 2.70 Fig. 2.71

Clearly, above figure is differentiable for all
x ∈ R – {– 3, 0, 3}.
75

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
1
EXAMPLE 2 Sketch the graph for y = e –|x| – .
2
SOLUTION As we know the graph for y = e – x .
Play with Graphs
y
y = ex
1
x
O
Fig. 2.72
1 1 1
(i) y = e – x → y = e – x – . (ii) y = e – x – → y = e –|x| – .
2 2 2
y y
1
1/2
1/2
–log 2
x
x O log 2 1
O log 2 y = e–|x | –
2
–1/2
–1/2
Fig. 2.73 Fig. 2.74
1
(iii) y = e –|x| –
2
y
1/2
1
y = e–|x | –
2
x
–log 2 O log 2
–1/2
Fig. 2.75
(xi) y = f (x) transforms to|y| = f (x)

Clearly|y| ≥ 0 ⇒ if f ( x) < 0; graph of|y| = f ( x) would not exist.
if f ( x) ≥ 0; |y| = f ( x) would be given as y = ± f ( x).
Hence, the graph of |y| = f ( x) exists only in the regions where f ( x) is non-negative and will be
reflected about x-axis only when f ( x) ≥ 0. “Region where f ( x) < 0 is neglected”.
76

lOMoARcPSD|33285710

OR
(i) Remove (or neglect) the portion of the graph which lies below x-axis.
(ii) Plot the remaining portion of the graph, and also its mirror image in the x-axis.
Graphically it could be stated as shown in Fig. 2.76.
Graph for y = f ( x ) :
y
(1, 1) y = f (x ) (1, 1) | y | = f (x )
1 1
x 1/2
x
O 1/2 1 O
–1
(1, –1) mirror image
about x-axis.
neglecting
–2 –2
Fig. 2.76
EXAMPLE 1 Sketch the curve |y| = ( x – 1)( x – 2).
SOLUTION
As we know the graph for ⇒ y = ( x – 1)( x – 2) → |y| = ( x – 1)( x – 2)

y = ( x – 1)( x – 2), is shown in Fig. 2.77. , as shown in Fig. 2.78.
y y
1 3/2 2 3 O 1 2
O x x
3
(3/2, –1/4) neglecting
Fig. 2.77 Image on x-axis,

when (x–1)(x–2) ≥ 0
Fig. 2.78
EXAMPLE 2 Plot the curve |y| = sin x.

SOLUTION Here, we know the curve for y = sin x.
77

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
1
Play with Graphs
–π π x
–2π O 2π 3π y = sin x
–1
Fig. 2.79
∴ y = sin x → |y| = sin x
y
–2π –π O π 2π 3π
x
π 2π
neglected Image neglected –1 Image neglected Image neglected
Fig. 2.80
EXAMPLE 3 Sketch the curve |x| + |y | = 1.

SOLUTION As the graph for y = 1 – x is;
y
x
–1 O 1 y=1–x
–1
Fig. 2.81
(i) y = 1 – x → y = 1 – |x |. (ii) y = 1 – |x| → |y | = 1 – |x |.
y y
ne
1
g
|y | = 1 – |x | or |x | + |y | = 1
le
ct
ed
1
–1 1
x
O
e
d
Im
x
ne
ag
te
ag
O
ec
gl
e
–1 1
Im
y = 1 – |x |
ag
ec
e
gl
–1
Im
ne
te
d
Image
–1
Fig. 2.83
Fig. 2.82
Clearly above figure represents a square.
78

lOMoARcPSD|33285710

EXAMPLE 4 Sketch the curve|x| – |y | = 1 .
SOLUTION As the graph for y = x – 1 is known;
y
y=x–1
x
O 1
–1
Fit. 2.84
(i) y = x – 1 → y = |x | – 1 (ii) y = |x | – 1 → |y | = |x | – 1
y y
Im
ag
y = |x | – 1
e
x x
–1 O 1 –1 O 1
e
Im
ne
ag
ag
gl
Im
ec
e
–1 –1
te
d
d
te
ec
gl
ne
Fig. 2.85 Fig. 2.86
(xii) y = f (x) transforms to|y| = |f (x)|

i.e., y = f ( x) → |y| = |f ( x)|; is plotted in two steps.
(i) y = f ( x) → y = |f ( x)|
(ii) y =|f ( x)| → |y| = |f ( x)|
y y y
y = f (x) y = |f (x)| |y | = |f (x)|
x x x
O O O
y = f (x) → y = |f (x)| y = |f (x)| → |y | = |f (x)|

(i) (ii) (iii)
Fig. 2.87
79

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
EXAMPLE 1 Plot the curve for|y| = |e – x|.

SOLUTION Here; curve for y = e – x is shown as;
y
Play with Graphs
y = e–x
x
O
Fig. 2.88
(i) y = e – x → y = |e – x| (ii) y = |e – x| → |y| = |e – x|.

y y
–x
y= e
1
1
remains same x
O
x
O
–1
Fig. 2.89 |y | = e–x
Fig. 2.90
EXAMPLE 2 Plot the curve |y| = |e x – 1| .

SOLUTION As we know the curve for y = e x is shown as;
Fig. 2.91
(i) y = e → y = e – 1.
x x
(ii) y = e x – 1 → y = |e x – 1 |.
y y
y = |e x – 1|
1
1
x x
O neglected O
–1 –1
80
Fig. 2.92 Fig. 2.93

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
(iii) y = |e x – 1 | → |y | = |e x – 1 |.

y
|y | = |e x – 1|
1
x
O
–1
Fig. 2.94
1
EXAMPLE 3 Plot the curve |y| = sin x + .
2
SOLUTION Here; we know the graph for y = sin x, is shown as
y
x
–2π –π O π 2π
–1
Fig. 2.95
1
(i) y = sin x → y = sin x + .
2
y
3/2
y = 3/2
1/2 y = 1/2
–π π x
–2π O 2π
y = –1/2
–1/2
Fig. 2.96
1 1
(ii) y = sin x + → y = sin x +
2 2
81

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
3/2 y = 3/2
y = 1/2
Play with Graphs
1/2
–π π x
–2π O 2π
y = –1/2
y = –3/2
Fig. 2.97
1 1
(iii) y = sin x + → |y | = sin x +
2 2
y
|y | = sin x + 1
2
y = 3/2
y = 1/2
x
O
y = –1/2
y = –3/2
Fig. 2.98
(xiii) y = f (x) transforms to|y| = |f (|x |)|

i.e., y = f ( x) → |y| = |f ( x)|.
The steps followed are:
(i) y = f ( x) → y = |f ( x)|.
(ii) y = |f ( x)| → y = |f (|x |)|
(iii) y = |f (|x |)| → |y | = |f (|x |)|.
Graphically it could be stated as:
y
x
O
Fig. 2.99
82

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
(i) y = f ( x) → y = |f ( x)| (ii) y = |f ( x)| → y = |f (|x |)|

y
y
1
1
x x
O
d
O
cte
gle
ne
Fig. 2.100 Fig. 2.101
(iii) y = |f (|x |)| → |y | = |f (|x |)|.

y
x
O
–1
Fig. 2.102
1
EXAMPLE 1 Plot the|y| = e –|x| – .
2
SOLUTION Here; we know the graph for y = e – x .
y
x
O
Fig. 2.103
1 1 1
(i) y = e – x → y = e – x – (ii) y = e – x – → y = e –|x| – .
2 2 2
y y
1/2
–log 2 log 2
1/2 x
O
x
O log 2 –1/2
–1/2 y = –1/2
Fig. 2.105 83
Fig. 2.104

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
1 1 1 1
(iii) y = e –|x| – → y = e –|x| – . (iv) y = e –|x| – → |y | = e –|x| – .
2 2 2 2
y y
Play with Graphs
1
1/2 |y | = e–|x |–
1/2 2
x
–log 2 O log 2 x
O
–1/2
–1/2
Fig. 2.106 Fig. 2.107
EXAMPLE 2 Plot |y| = |log|x ||.

SOLUTION Here; y = log x is plotted as;
y
y = logex
x
O 1
Fig. 2.108
(i) y = log x → y = log|x| (ii) y = log|x | → y = |log|x ||

y y
y = | log|x| |
x x
–1 O 1 –1 O 1
neglected neglected
Fig. 2.109 Fig. 2.110

(iii) y = |log|x || → |y | = |log|x ||
y
|y | = | log |x | |
x
–1 O 1
Fig. 2.111
84

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
Sketch the curve |y | = ||x |2 – 3 |x | – 2| .

EXAMPLE 3
SOLUTION As we know the graph for y = x 2 – 3x – 2 .
y
x
–1 O 1 3
–3
Fig. 2.112
(i) y = x 2 – 3x – 2 → y = |x |2 – 3 |x | – 2 (ii)
y y
x
–1 O 1 3
x
–3 –1 O 1 3
–3
Fig. 2.113 Fig. 2.114
y = |x |2 – 3 |x | – 2 → y = ||x |2 – 3 |x | – 2 |.
(iii) |y | = ||x|2 – 3|x| – 2| y
3
|y | = ||x |2 – 3|x | – 2|
x
–3 –1 O 1 3
–3
Fig. 2.115
85

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
(xiv) y = f (x) transforms to y = [f (x)] ; (where [ • ] denotes the greatest integer function)
i.e., f ( x) → [ f ( x)]
Here; in order to draw y = [ f ( x)] mark the integer on y-axis. Draw the horizontal lines through
Play with Graphs
integers till they intersect the graph. Draw vertical dotted lines from these intersection points; finally
draw horizontal lines parallel to x-axis from any intersection point to the nearest vertical dotted line
with blank dot at right end in case f ( x) increase.
OR
Step 1. Plot f ( x).
Step 2. Mark the intervals of unit length with integers as end points on y-axis.
Step 3. Mark the corresponding intervals {with the help of graph of f ( x)} on x-axis.
Step 4. Plot the value of [ f ( x)] for each of the marked intervals.
Graphically it could be shown as:
2
y = f (x)
1
–1
–2
x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 x8
–1 y = [f (x)]
–2
x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 x8
Fig. 2.116
EXAMPLE 1 Sketch the curve y = [sin x].

SOLUTION Here, sketch for y = sin x is shown as in Fig. 2.117.
86

lOMoARcPSD|33285710

1
π x
–3π –2π –π O 2π 3π
y = sin x
–1
Fig. 2.117
y = sin x → y = [sin x]
y
x
O
–1 y = [sin x ]
–3π– 5π –2π – 3π –π x = – π x=
π π 3π 2π 5π 3π
2 2 2 2 2 2
Fig. 2.118
EXAMPLE 2 Sketch the curve y = [ x 2 – 1]. (where [ ⋅ ] denotes greatest integer function).
When – 2 ≤ x ≤ 2 .
SOLUTION Here y = x 2 – 1
could be plotted as shown in Fig. 2.119. (i) y = x 2 – 1 → y = [ x 2 – 1].
y y
3 3
2 2
1 1
–√3 –√3
x x
–2 –√2 –1 O 1 √2 √3 2 –2 –√2 –1 O 1 √2 √3 2
–1 –1
y = [x 2 – 1]; –2 ≤ x ≤ 2
Fig. 2.119
Fig. 2.120 87

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
EXAMPLE 3 Sketch the curve; y = [ 2 – x 2 ] ; where [ ⋅ ] denotes the greatest integer

function.
SOLUTION We know, y = 2 – x2 represents a circle for y ≥ 0.
Play with Graphs

y
2
√2
1
y = √2 – x 2
x
– √2 –1 0 1 √2
Thus, the graph for y = [ 2 – x2 ] y
√2
1
y = √2 – x 2
x
– √2 –1 0 1 √2
Fig. 2.121
(xv) y = f (x) transforms to y = f ([x])
Here, mark the integers on the x-axis. Draw vertical lines till they intersect the graph of f ( x).
From these intersection points draw horizontal lines (parallel to x-axis) to meet the nearest right
vertical line, with a black dot on each nearest right vertical line which can be shown as in Fig. 2.122.
y = f (x)
y = f ([ x])
y
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 5
Fig. 2.122
88

lOMoARcPSD|33285710

y = f ([x])
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 5
Fig. 2.123
OR
y = f ( x ) → y = f ([ x])
Step 1. Plot the straight lines parallel to y-axis for integral values of x
(say – 3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …)
Step 2. Now mark the points at which x = – 3, x = – 2, x = – 1, x = 0, x = 1, … on the curve.
Step 3. Take the lower marked point for x say if n < x < n + 1 then take the point at x = n and
draw a horizontal line to the nearest vertical line formed by x = n + 1, proceeding in this way we get
required curve.
EXAMPLE 1 Plot the curve y = e[x ].

SOLUTION Here the graph for y = e[x ] is shown as;
y y = ex
y = e [x ]
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3
Fig. 2.124
EXAMPLE 2 Sketch the curve y = sin[ x] when –2 π ≤ x ≤ 2 π.

SOLUTION The curve for
y = sin[ x]; could be plotted as shown in Fig. 2.125.
89

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
y
Play with Graphs
x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 5 6
y = sin x
y = sin [x ]
Fig. 2.125
EXAMPLE 3 Sketch the curve for y = cos[ x] ; – π ≤ x ≤ π.

SOLUTION The curve for y = cos[ x] could be plotted as;
y
y = cos [x ]
x
–π –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 π
Fig. 2.126
EXAMPLE 4 Plot the curve y = [ x]2 ; –2 ≤ x ≤ 2 .

SOLUTION The curve for y = [ x]2 ; –2 ≤ x ≤ 2 could be plotted as;
y
y = x2
4
y = [x ] 2
1
x
–2 –1 O 1 2
Fig. 2.127
(xvi) y = f (x) transforms to y = [f ([x])]

Here, we should follow two steps;
90

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
y = f ( x) → y = f ([ x])

(i)
(ii) y = f ([ x]) → y = [ f ([ x])]
EXAMPLE 1 Sketch the curve y = [sin[ x]]; where [ ⋅ ] denotes the greatest integral function
when 0 ≤ x ≤ π.
SOLUTION Here; first we shall plot the curve for y = sin[ x], when x ∈[ 0, π].
y y
y = sin [x ]; 0 ≤ x ≤ π
sin 2 sin 2
sin 1 sin 1
sin 3 sin 3
x x
O 1 2 3 π O 1 2 3 π
y = [sin [x]]; 0 ≤ x ≤ π
Fig. 2.128
From above figure we conclude that;
when 0 ≤ x ≤ π ⇒ y = sin[ x] ∈ [ 0, 1).
⇒ y = [sin[ x]] → 0 for all 0 ≤ x ≤ π.
EXAMPLE 2 Plot the curve y = [ e[x ]] ; when – 4 < x < 2 .
SOLUTION Here to sketch y = [ e[x ]], we should follow the steps as;
(i) y = e x
(ii) y = e[x ]
(iii) y = [ e[x ]]
(i) y = ex (ii) y = e[ x ]
y y
(2, e2)
4
3 e 2.7
(1, e)
1 (–1, 1 )
(–2, 2 ) e
2 (1, e) 1 e (0, 1)
(–3, 3 )
e
1 (–1, 1 ) 1 –4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2
x
1 (–2, 2 ) e (0, 1)
(–3, 3 ) e
e
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2
Fig. 2.129 Fig. 2.130
91

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
(iii) y = [ e[ x ]]; from Fig. 2.130. y
 0 < e[x ] < 1; x < 0


e[x ] =  e[x ] = 1 ; 0≤ x< 1
Play with Graphs
e
 [x ]
 e = 2.7 ; 1 ≤ x < 2 2 y = [e [x] ]
1
Thus; y = [ e[x ]]
 0; x< 0 x
–4 –3 –2 –1 O
 1 2
⇒ y = 1; 0 ≤ x < 1 shown as in
 2; 1 ≤ x < 2

Fig. 2.131. Fig. 2.131
Graph for; y = [ e[x ]]; when x < 2.
(xvii) y = f (x) transforms to [y ] = f (x) / Graph of Candles

Here, to plot[ y ] = f ( x); we check only those points for which f ( x)∈ integers, as[ y ] ∈integers for
all x.
Thus; [ y ] = f ( x) represents only integral values of y. Here, domain of f ( x) are set of values of x
for which f ( x) ∈integers.
EXAMPLE 1 Sketch the curve;

[ y ] = sin x.
SOLUTION As we know; – 1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 but since; [ y ] = sin x.
⇒ sin x = – 1, 0, 1 are only solutions;
nπ
or x= ∈ Domain of [ y ] = sin x.
2
Thus, [ y ] = sin x is shown as in Fig. 2.132.
Graph for y = sin x :
y
x
–2π – 3π
–π –π O –π π 3π 2π
2 2 2 2
–1
Fig. 2.132
92

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
Graph for [ y ] = sin x :

y
2
3π , – 1 π,1 5π , 1
–
2 1 2 2
C′ A E
(–3π, 0) (–2π, 0) (–π, 0) (π, 0) (2π, 0)
x
F′ D′ B′ O (0, 0) B D
E′ A′ C
π , –1 [y ] = sin x
5π , – 1 – 3π , – 1
– 2
2 2
Fig. 2.133
From above figure, (the points marked O, A, B, C, D, E, A ′ , B′ , C ′ , D′ , E′ ,… is the graph for

candles), or graph for [ y ] = sin x.
EXAMPLE 2 Sketch the curve [ y ] = sin –1 x.

SOLUTION As we know the graph for y = sin –1 x; shown as in Fig. 2.134 and 2.135.
Graph for y = sin –1 x; Graph for [ y ] = sin –1 x;
y y
2
π/2
π/2
1 C (sin 1, 1)
1
x
–1 sin(–1) O sin 1 1
B (0, 0)
–1 x
–1 –sin 1 O
sin 1 1
–π/2
A –1
(–sin 1, –1)
–π/2
Fig. 2.134
Fig. 2.135
From above figure, [ y ] = sin x.
(xviii) y = f (x) transforms to [y ] = [f (x)]

As we have earlier discussed y = [ f ( x)], i.e., transformation (xiv), and we know [ y ] implies
only those values of x for which f ( x) ∈ integer.
EXAMPLE 1 Sketch the curve; [ y ] = [sin x] .

SOLUTION To sketch the curve [ y ] = [sin x] we first plot y = [sin x].
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lOMoARcPSD|33285710
(i) Graph for y = [sin x]

y
2
Play with Graphs
π x
–3π –2π –π O 2π 3π
–1
Fig. 2.136
(ii) Graph for [ y ] = [sin x]

y
2
(–3π/2, 1) 1 (π/2, 1) (5π/2, 1)
π x
–3π –2π –π O 2π 3π 4π
–1
Fig. 2.137
From above figure it is clear [ y ] = [sin x] is periodic with period 2 π.
(xix) y = f (x) transforms to y = f ({x}); (where { ⋅ } denotes fractional part of x,

i.e., {x} = x – [x] )
f ( x) → f ({ x})
Graph of f ( x – [ x]) or f ({ x}) can be obtained from the graph of f ( x) by following rule.
“Retain the graph of f ( x) for values of x lying between interval [0, 1). Now it can be repeated for
rest of the points. (taking periodicity 1).
New obtained function is graph for y = f ({ x})”.
Graph for y = f ( x ) Graph for y = f ({ x})
y y
neglecting
y1 y1
x
–3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 x
–4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4
Fig. 2.138
94 Fig. 2.139

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
y = ({ x} – 1) 2 .

EXAMPLE 1 Sketch the curve
SOLUTION Here, we know the curve for y = ( x – 1) 2 shown as;
Graph for y = ( x – 1)2: Graph for y = ({ x} – 1)2 :
y y
y = (x – 1)2
1
1
y = ({x} – 1)2
x
–2 –1 0 1 2 x
–3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4
Fig. 2.140 Fig. 2.141

Now; to plot y = ({ x} – 1) retain the 2
graph for the interval x ∈[ 0, 1) and

repeat for length ‘one’.
EXAMPLE 2 Sketch the curve |y| = ({ x} – 1) 2 .

SOLUTION As discussed in above example y = ({ x} – 1) 2 .
Thus, |y| = ({ x} – 1) 2 is image of ({ x} – 1) 2 on x-axis whenever ({ x} – 1) 2 is positive.
Graph of| y | = ({ x} – 1)2 :
y
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4
–1
Fig. 2.142
2x
EXAMPLE 3 Sketch the graph of y = .
2[x ]
SOLUTION As we know 2 x is exponential function and we want to transform it to 2 x –[x ], it retain
the graph for x ∈[ 0, 1) and repeat for rest points.
Graph for y = 2x Graph for y = 2{ x}
To retain graph between x ∈[ 0, 1).
y y
y = 2x
2
2
y = 2{x}
1
1
x
x –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4
O 1
Fig. 2.143 Fig. 2.144 95

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
(xx) y = f (x) transforms to y = {f (x)}

Here, plot the horizontal lines for all integral values of y and for the point of intersection on
y = f ( x) plot draw vertical lines and translate the graph for boundary y = 0 and y = 1.
Play with Graphs
EXAMPLE 1 Sketch the curve y = {sin x}. (where { ⋅ } denotes the fractional part of x).
SOLUTION As we know the graph for y = sin x. Shown as.
Graph of sin x :
y
1
y = sin x
x
O
–1
Fig. 2.145
As to retain the curve when 0 ≤ y < 1; and shift other sections of graph between y = 0 to y = 1.
Graph for y = {sin x} :
y
1
As it is
–2π
x
–3π 5π 3π –π –π O π π 3π 2π 5π 3π
– –
2 2 2 2 2 2
–1
Fig. 2.146
EXAMPLE 2 Sketch the curve y = { x 2 }.

SOLUTION As we know the curve y = x 2 , is shown as:
y
5
y = x2
4
1
x
–2 –√3 –√2 –1 O 1 √2 √3 2
96
Fig. 2.147

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
Now to sketch y = { x 2 }; retain the graph for 0 ≤ y < 1 and for other intervals transform the

graph between 0 ≤ y < 1.
y
3
Translated
between
2
0 ≤ y <1
1
x
–2 –√3 –√2 –1 O 1 √2 √3 2
Fig. 2.148
EXAMPLE 3 Sketch the curve y = { e x }.

SOLUTION As we know the curve y = e x ;
shown as: Graph for y = { ex } :
To retain the graph for 0 ≤ y < 1 and transform
the others to 0 ≤ y < 1.
3
y
2
3
1
2 Transformed
between
1 0≤y<1
O log 2 log 3
Retained y = {e x }
x
Fig. 2.149 O log 2 log 3
Fig. 2.150
(xxi) y = f (x) transforms to y = {f ({x})}

Here, we have to follow two steps :
(i) Draw the graph for y = f ({ x}).
(ii) f ({ x}) → { f ({ x})}
EXAMPLE 1 Sketch the curve y = { e{ x} }.

SOLUTION As we know the curve for y = e x , is plotted as shown in Fig. 2.151.
97

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
Graph for y = ex : Now to sketch y = e{ x} retain the graph for

y = e x between 0 ≤ x < 1 and repeat for entire
y
real x.
Graph for y = e{ x} :
Play with Graphs
y = ex
y
e
1
e
x
O 1 1
x
Fig. 2.151 –2 –1 O 1 2 3
Fig. 2.152
Graph for y = { e{ x} }:
y
y = {e {x}}
x
–3 –2 –1 –log 2 O log 2 1 2 3 4
Fig. 2.153
Here, we know the graph for y = e{ x} , now to plot straight lines||to x-axis for integral values of y
and retain the graph for 0 ≤ y < 1 and transform the others between 0 ≤ y < 1.
EXAMPLE 2 Sketch the curve y = {sin{ x}}.

SOLUTION As we know the curve y = sin x; is plotted as;
y
sin1
π x
O 1 π 2π
2
Fig. 2.154
98

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
Graph for y = sin{ x} :

y
1
sin 1
x
–3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 5
Fig. 2.155
Graph for y = {sin{ x}} :

From above figure
y = sin{ x} ⇒ 0 ≤ y < 1.
y
1
sin1
y = {sin {x }}
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4
Fig. 2.156
So, the graph of y = sin{ x} and y = {sin{ x}} are same.
(xxii) y = f (x) transforms to {y} = f (x)

Here; retain the graph of y = f ( x) only when y = f ( x) lies between y ∈[ 0, 1) and neglect the
graph for other values.
y
neglected
Graph for y = f (x )
1
Graph for {y} = f (x )
x
O
Fgi. 2.157
99

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
EXAMPLE 1 Sketch the curve { y } = x 2 .

SOLUTION As we know the curve for y = x 2 , is plotted as:
Graph for y = x 2: Graph for { y } = x 2:
Play with Graphs
y y
y = x2
ted
neg
lec
lect
neg
ed
1 1
{y } = x 2
x x
–1 O 1 O
–1 1
Fig. 2.158 Fig. 2.159
EXAMPLE 2 Sketch the curve { y } = sin x.

SOLUTION As we know the curve y = sin x, is plotted as shown in Fig. 2.160 and 2.161.
y
x
–3π –2π –π O π 2π 3π
Fig. 2.160
Now to sketch { y } = sin x: We retain the graph for 0 ≤ y < 1 and neglect the graph for other
values.
Graph for { y } = sin x :
y
{y } = sin x
x
neglected
Fig. 2.161
100

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
(xxiii) y = f (x) transforms to {y} = {f (x)}

As we have earlier discussed y = { f ( x)} (i.e., transformation ( xx), which shows y = { f ( x)}
belongs to [0, 1) ⇒ { y } = { f ( x)}. Thus, the graph of y = { f ( x)} and { y } = { f ( x)} are same.
EXAMPLE 1 Sketch the curve { y } = { x}.

SOLUTION As we know the curve for y = x. Graph for y = { x} :
y y
1
1
x y = {x}
–2 –1 O 1
x
–3 –2 –1 O 1 2
–1
–2
Fig. 2.162 Fig. 2.163
Graph for { y } = { x} : From above figure we can see y = { x} attains all values between [0, 1).
Thus, graph remains same.
y
{y } = { x }
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3
Fig. 2.164
EXAMPLE 2 Sketch the curve { y } = {cos x}.

SOLUTION As we know the curve y = {cos x} is plotted as shown in Fig. 2.165.
y
x
–
5π –
3π –π Oπ 3π 5π
2 2 2 2 2 2
Fig. 2.165
101

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
From above figure; y = {cos x} lies between [0, 1), which shows y = {cos x} and { y } = {cos x}
are same.
Thus, graph for { y } = {cos x}:
y
Play with Graphs
{y } = {cos x }
x
O
Fig. 2.166
(xxiv) y = f (x) transforms to y = f –1 (x)

As discussed in chapter 1. y = f –1 ( x) is the mirror image of y = f ( x) about y = x.
OR
“Interchange x and y-axis when function is bijective.”
Graphically it could be stated as :
y y = f (x)
y =x
y = f –1(x)
x
O
Fig. 2.167
2.4 SKETCHING h( x ) = MAXIMUM { f ( x ), g ( x )} AND h( x ) = MINIMUM { f ( x ), g ( x )}
(i) h (x ) = maximum {f (x ), g (x )}
 f ( x); when f ( x) > g( x)
⇒ h( x) = 
g( x); when g( x) > f ( x)
∴ Sketch f ( x) when its graph is above the graph of g( x) and sketch g( x) when its graph is above
the graph of f ( x).
(ii) h (x ) = minimum {f (x ), g (x )}
 f ( x), when f ( x) < g( x)
⇒ h( x) = 
g( x), when g( x) < f ( x)
∴ Sketch f ( x) when its graph is lower and otherwise sketch g( x).
102

lOMoARcPSD|33285710

Note One must remember the formula we can write;
f (x) + g (x) f (x) – g (x)
max {f (x), g (x)} = +
2 2
f (x) + g (x) f (x) – g (x)
min {f (x), g (x)} = –
2 2
OR
“To draw the graph of functions of the form
y = max { f ( x ), g( x )} or y = min { f ( x ), g( x )}.”
We first draw the graphs of both the functions f ( x) and g( x) and their points of intersections.
Then we find any two consecutive points of intersection. In between these points either
f ( x) > g( x) or f ( x) < g( x), then, in order to max{ f ( x ), g( x )} we take those segments of f ( x ) for
which f ( x ) > g( x ), between any two consecutive points of intersection of f ( x) and g( x).
Similarly, in order to min { f ( x ), g( x )}, we take those segments of f ( x ) for which f ( x ) < g( x ),
between any two consecutive points of intersection of f ( x) and g( x).
 3π 
EXAMPLE 1 Sketch the graph of y = max {sin x, cos x}, ∀ x ∈  – π, .
 2
SOLUTION First plot both y = sin x and y
y = cos x by a dotted curve as can be seen

1
 3π 
from the graph in the interval  – π, 
 2 B
and then darken those dotted lines for –π π O π π 3π
x
–
which f ( x) > g( x) or g( x) > f ( x). A 2 2 C 2
From adjacent figure the point of –1

intersections are A, B, C.
Fig. 2.168
∴ Graph of max {sin x, cos x}
y
y = max. { sin x, cos x }

B
π x
–π – O π π 3π
2 2 2
A C
Fig. 2.169
EXAMPLE 2 Sketch the graph for y = min {tan x, cot x}.
SOLUTION First plot both f ( x) = tan x and g( x) = cot x by a dotted curves as can be seen from the
graph and then darken those dotted lines for which f ( x) < g( x) and g( x) < f ( x).
103

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
y
Play with Graphs
B D F
π π π x
3π –π – O 3π
– 2 2
2 2
A C E
Fig. 2.170
From above figure we obtain the graph of min{tan x, cot x}.

Graph of min {tan x, cot x} :
y
π π π x
3π –π – O 3π
–
2 2 2 2
–1
Fig. 2.171
EXAMPLE 3 Sketch the curve y = min {|x |,|x – 1 |,|x + 1 |}.
SOLUTION First plot the graph y

y = |x + 1|
for: y = |x |
y = |x |, y = |x – 1 |, y =|x + 1| 3
y = |x – 1|
by a dotted curve as can be seen
from the graph and then darken 2
those dotted lines for which
|x | < {|x – 1 |,|x + 1 |}; 1
|x – 1 | < {|x |,|x + 1 |}
x
and |x + 1 | < {|x |,|x – 1 |}. –3 –2 –1– 1 O 1 1 2 3
Graph for 2 2
y = | x|, y =| x – 1|, y = | x + 1| .
Fig. 2.172
104

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
As from the above curve graph for y = min {|x – 1|,|x|,|x + 1|} is plotted as;

y
1
y
≥
=
x
|x
1;
+
–
1|
x
=
=
–x
1|
1
–
–
2
|x
1;
y =1–x
=
x
x +1 –x x
y
–1
x
–3 –2 –1– 1 O 1 1 2 3
2 2
Fig. 2.173
From above figure;

 –( x + 1) ; x≤ –1
 1
( x + 1) ; – 1≤ x≤ –
 2
 1
 –( x) ; – ≤ x≤ 0
 2
min {|x – 1 |,|x |,|x + 1 |} = 
( x) 1
; 0≤ x≤
 2
 1
(1 – x) ; ≤ x≤1
 2
( x – 1) ; x≥1
2.5 WHEN f ( x ), g ( x ) → f ( x ) + g ( x ) = h ( x )
There is no direct approach; but we can use following steps if minimum or maximum value of any
one is known.
Step 1. Find maximum and minimum value of g( x) say; a ≤ g( x) ≤ b.
Step 2. Plot the curve h( x) = f ( x) + g( x) between f ( x) + a to f ( x) + b.
i.e., f ( x) + a ≤ h( x) ≤ f ( x) + b
Step 3. Check g( x) = 0 ⇒ h( x) = f ( x).
Step 4. When g( x) > 0 ⇒ h( x) > f ( x).
Step 5. When g( x) < 0 ⇒ h( x) < f ( x).
EXAMPLE 1 Plot the curve y = x + sin x.

SOLUTION Here, y = x + sin x = f ( x) + g( x)
as we know; g( x) = sin x ∈ [– 1, 1]
∴ x – 1≤ y ≤ x + 1 …(i)
⇒ To sketch the curve between two parallel lines y = x + 1and y = x – 1(called bounded limits)
also; g( x ) = 0 ⇒ y = x …(ii)
g( x) > 0 ⇒ y = x + sin x > x …(iii)
105

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
g( x) < 0 ⇒ y = x + sin x < x …(iv)

Using Eqs. (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv), we get
y=x–1
y=x
Play with Graphs
y=x+1
x (3π/2, 3π/2 – 1)
+ sin
y y=x (π, π)
(π/2, π/2 + 1)
x
–3π/2 –π –π/2 –1 (0, 0) 1 π/2 π 3π/2
–1
(–π/2, –π/2 – 1)
(–3π/2, –3π/2 + 1) (–π, –π)
Fig. 2.174
2.6 WHEN f ( x ), g ( x ) → f ( x ) ⋅ g ( x ) = h ( x )
There is no direct approach but we can use the following steps if minimum and maximum of any
one is known.
Step 1. Find the minimum and maximum of any one of them say a ≤ g( x) ≤ b.
Step 2. From step 1; a ⋅ f ( x) ≤ h ( x) ≤ b ⋅ f ( x)
Step 3. Check g( x) = 0 ⇒ h( x) = 0 .
EXAMPLE 1 Sketch the curve; y = x sin x.
SOLUTION Here; y = x sin x; y = –x

y
y=x
where, – 1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 y = x sin x
⇒ – x≤ y ≤ x …(i)
x
also; sin x = 0 –2π –3π/2 –π –π/2 O π/2 π 3π/2 2π
⇒ x = – 2 π, – π, 0, π, 2 π, …
∴ y = 0 when
x = – 2 π, – π, 0, π, … Fig. 2.175
106

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
π 5π

and y =x when x= , ,…
2 2
π 3π
y =–x when x=– , ,…
2 2
sin x
EXAMPLE 2 Draw the graph of the function y = .
x
sin x 1 1
SOLUTION As we know; –1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 ⇒ y = lies between – to .
x x x
1 1
or to sketch the curve where – ≤ y ≤ …(i)
x x
Here at x = 0; y is not defined but as;
sin x
x → 0 ⇒ y = → 1 …(ii)
x
also; y = 0 at x = nπ ; n ∈ z – { 0} …(iii)
Using Eqs. (i), (ii) and (iii), the curve could be plotted as;
y
y = –1/x y = 1/x
x
–3π –5π/2 –2π –3π/2 –π –π/2 O π/2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2 3π
sin x
y=
x
y = 1/x y = –1/x
Fig. 2.176
EXAMPLE 3 Draw the curve: y = e – x sin x.

y
SOLUTION As we know; y = e–x
–1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1
∴ y = e x sin x y = e–xsin x
⇒ – e– x ≤ y ≤ e– x …(i) x
–2π –π O π 2π
4π
3π
Thus, y is bounded between
y = – e– x and y = e– x .
Shown as in Fig. 2.177;
y = –e–x
107
Fig. 2.177

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
SOME MORE SOLVED EXAMPLES

Play with Graphs
EXAMPLE 1 Sketch the curves of the following :

(i) y = x – [ x] (ii) y = [ x] + x – [ x]
(iii) y = |[ x] + x – [ x] |; where [ • ] represent greatest integer function
SOLUTION (i) As we know that;
0 ≤ x – [ x] < 1 for all x ∈ R.
Also, for any x ∈[ 0, 1), we have
x2 ≤ x ≤ x
∴ x – [ x] ≤ x – [ x]
 x + 1 , when – 1 ≤ x < 0

 x , when 0 ≤ x < 1
Now, y = x – [ x] = 
 x – 1 , when 1 ≤ x < 2

 x – 2 , when 2 ≤ x < 3 … and so on.
Thus, from above we have to plot;
y = x, when 0 ≤ x < 1
y = x – 1, when 1 ≤ x < 2
(i.e., same as shifting x towards right by 1 unit.)
y = x – 2, when 2 ≤ x < 3
(i.e., same as shifting x towards right by 2 units)
∴ the curve for y = x – [ x] is periodic with period ‘1’. Shown as in Fig. 2.178.
y
√x + 3 √x + 2 √x + 1 √x √x – 1 √x – 2 √x – 3
x
–3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3
Fig. 2.178
(ii) As we know; y = [ x] + x – [ x]
 –1 + x + 1, when – 1 ≤ x < 0

 x , when 0 ≤ x < 1
⇒ y =
1 + x – 1 , when 1 ≤ x < 2

 2 + x – 2 , when 2 ≤ x < 3 … and so on.
108

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
Thus, the graph for y = [ x] + x – [ x] is obtained by the graph of y = x – [ x] by translating

it by [x] units in upward or downward direction according as [ x] > 0 or [ x] < 0.
Thus, the curve for y = [ x] + x – [ x]
y
3 + √x – 3
3
2 + √x – 2
2
1 + √x – 1
1
√x
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 5
–1 + √x + 1
–1
–2 + √x + 2
–2
–3 + √x + 3
–3
Fig. 2.179
From above curve we could discuss that;

y = [ x] + x – [ x] is continuous and differentiable for all x.
(iii) The graph for y = [ x] + x – [ x] is obtained by reflecting the portion lying below x-axis of
the graph of y = [ x] + x – [ x] about x-axis and keeping the portion lying above x-axis (as it
is).
Thus, the graph for y = [ x] + x – [ x] .
y
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4
Fig. 2.180
109

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
EXAMPLE 2 Sketch the curve y = (1 – x 2/ 3 ) 3/ 2 .

SOLUTION Here;
(a) f (– x) = f ( x) ∴ even function or symmetric about y-axis …(i)
Play with Graphs
x=0 ⇒ y =1 
(b) When  …(ii)
y = 0 ⇒ x = ± 1
Domain ∈ [– 1, 1] 
(c)  …(iii)
Range ∈ [ 0, 1] 
dy 
> 0 when x ∈ [– 1, 0] 
dx 
(d)  …(iv)
dy
< 0 when x ∈ [ 0, 1] 
dx 
2
d y 
(e) 2
> 0 when x ∈ [– 1, 1]  …(v)
dx 
From above;
y
y = (1 – x 2/3 )3/2
x
–1 O 1
Fig. 2.181
EXAMPLE 3 Sketch the graph for y = ( x – 1)x 2/ 3 .

SOLUTION In y = ( x – 1)x 2/ 3
(a) Not symmetric about any axis or origin. …(i)
as x = 0 ⇒ y = 0 
(b)  …(ii)
as y = 0 ⇒ x = 0, 1
Domain ∈ R
(c)  …(iii)
Range ∈ R 
dy 2( x – 1) 5x – 2
(d) = x 2/ 3 + =
dx 3x1/ 3 3x1/ 3
dy 2
> 0, when x < 0 or x >
⇒ dx 5
 …(iv)
dy 2 
< 0, when 0 < x <
dx 5 
110

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
 1/ 3 1 

y
x ⋅ 5 – ( 5x – 2) ( x) –2/ 3
d 2y 1 3 
(e) =   y = (x –1)x 2/3
dx 2 3 x 2/ 3

 
10x + 2
= O
x
9x 4 / 3 –2/5 2/5 1
d 2y 2 
> 0, when x < – or x > 0
dx2
5 
⇒  …(v
d 2y 2 
< 0, when – < x < 0
dx 2
5 
Fig. 2.182
)
Thus, curve for y = ( x – 1) x 2/ 3 is shown in Fig. 2.182.
EXAMPLE 4 Draw the graph for:

(i) y = | 1 – |x – 1 || (ii) |y | = |1 – |x – 1||
SOLUTION As we know the graph for y = x – 1
y
y=x–1
x
O 1
–1
Fig. 2.183
(a) y = ( x – 1) → y = |x – 1| (b) y = |x – 1 | → y = – |x – 1 |
y y
Im
ag
W
y = |x – 1|
he
ab
n
ou
1
y
1
<
x-
0
x
ax
i
O
s
Sm
x
O 1
al
la
bo
–1
ut
x-
–1
ax
is
Fig. 2.185
Fig. 2.184
111

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
(c) y = – |x – 1 | → y = 1 –|x – 1 | (d) y = 1 – |x – 1 | → y = 1 – |x – 1 |

y y
Play with Graphs
1 1 y = |1 – |x – 1||
x x
O 1 2
O 1 2
y = 1 – |x – 1|
Fig. 2.186 Fig. 2.187
(e) y = 1 – |x – 1 | → |y | = 1 – |x – 1 |
y
(1, 1) |y | = |1 – |x – 1||
1
x
O 1 2
–1
(1, –1)
Fig. 2.188
EXAMPLE 5 Draw the graph for:

1 1 1
(i) y = 2 – (ii) y = 2 – (iii) |y | = 2 –
|x – 1 | |x – 1 | |x – 1 |
1
SOLUTION We know the graph for y = is shown as;
x
y
1
y=
x
1 (1, 1)
x
–1 O 1
(–1, –1) –1
Fig. 2.189
112

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
1 1 1 1

(a) y = → y = (b) y = → y =
x x–1 x–1 |x – 1|
y y
(2, 1) 1 (2, 1)
x x
O 1 2 O 1
(0, –1)
x=1
x=1
Fig. 2.190 Fig. 2.191
1 1 1 1
(c) y = → y = – (d) y = – → y = 2 –
|x – 1 | |x – 1 | |x – 1| |x – 1|
y y 1
y=2–
|x – 1|
1 (2, 1)
x x
O 1 2 O 1 3 2
2 2
(0, –1) –1
(2, –1)
x=1
x=1 Fig. 2.193
Fig. 2.192
1 1 1 1
(e) y = 2 – → y = 2 – (f) y = 2 – → |y |= 2 –
|x – 1| |x – 1| |x – 1 | |x – 1 |
y y 1
|y | = 2 –
|x – 1|
1
y= 2–
|x – 1|
1
1
x
O
x 1 3
O 1 3 –1 2 2
2 2
x=1 x=1
Fig. 2.194 Fig. 2.195
113

lOMoARcPSD|33285710

(i) y = e|x| – e – x (ii) y = |1 + e|x| – e – x|
(iii) |y| = |1 + e|x| – e – x| (iv) |y | ≤ | 1 + e|x| – e – x |
Play with Graphs
SOLUTION
(i) Here y = e |x| – e –x
ex – e– x ; x ≥ 0
⇒ y =
e – e ; x < 0
–x –x
ex – e– x ; x ≥ 0
y =
0 ; x< 0
To discuss; y = ex – e– x
(i) when x = 0 ⇒ y = 0 (it passes through origin)
(ii) when y = 0 ⇒ e 2x – 1 = 0 ⇒ x=0
(iii) f (– x) = – f ( x)
as y = f ( x) = e x – e – x
⇒ f (– x) = e – x – e x = – f ( x);
it shows y = f ( x) = e x – e – x is odd function, i.e., symmetric about origin.
(iv) y = ex – e– x
dy e 2x + 1
⇒ = ex + e– x = > 0 for all x ∈ R.
dx ex
∴ y is increasing for all x.
d 2y e 2x – 1
(v) = e x
– e –x
=
dx 2 ex
d 2y
⇒ > 0 when x > 0; concave up and increasing .
dx 2
d 2y
also < 0 when x < 0; concave down and increasing from above discussion
dx 2
y = ex – e– x ; is plotted as shown in Fig. 2.196.
y Recall : Increasing
n
ow
ed
ave g
v
co easin
up
a
nc
1 Co p
r
e– u
Inc
nc
e ve
n ca
x Co
–1 O 1
1
n
ng
ow
–e
con reasi
e
ed
cav
Inc
y = e x – e –x ; x ∈ R
Fig. 2.196
114

lOMoARcPSD|33285710

Now;
y = ex – e–x; x ≥ 0
ex – e– x ; x ≥ 0
y =e |x|
–e –x
= ∴ y = e|x | – e–x
0 ; x < 0.
y = 0; x < 0
Thus from Fig. 2.197. x
(0, 0)
Fig. 2.197
(ii) Plotting of y = | 1 + e |x| – e –x |
y y
y = 1+ ex – e–x; x ≥ 0 y = |1+ e|x | – e–x|
y = 1; x < 0 1 1
x x
O O
Fig. 2.198 Fig. 2.199
From above Fig. 2.198.

y = e|x| – e – x → y = 1 + e|x| – e – x
1 + e x – e – x ; x ≥ 0
⇒ y =
1 ; x< 0
Thus, the graph for; y = |1 + e|x| – e – x|
is same as; y = 1 + e|x| – e – x {as y ≥ 1 for all x ∈ R}
∴ Graph for y = |1 + e | x| –x
– e | is shown in Fig. 2.199.
(iii) Plotting of | y | = | 1 + e |x|
– e –x |
y
y = 1 + ex – e–x; x ≥ 0
y = 1; x < 0 1
x
O
–1
y = –1; x < 0
y = –(1 + ex – e–x); x ≥ 0
Fig. 2.200
115

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
(iv) Plotting of | y | ≤ |1 + e |x| – e –x | y

y = 1 + ex – e–x; x ≥ 0
From above figure check any point say
(0, 0)
Play with Graphs
y = 1; x < 0 1
⇒ 0 ≤ | 1 | (True, thus to shade area |y | ≤ |1 + e|x | – e–x|
towards (0, 0). x
From given figure shade part represents y = –1; x < 0

the area bounded between two curves.
y = –(1 + ex – e–x); x ≥ 0
Fig. 2.201
EXAMPLE 7 Sketch the curve of the following:

(i) |x + y| ≥ 1 (ii) |x – y | ≤ 1
(iii) |x| + |y | ≤ 2 (iv) |x| – |y | ≥ 1
SOLUTION
(i) Here to sketch, | x + y | ≥ 1
we know; |x + y| ≥ 1
y
x + y ≥ 1
⇒ 
x + y ≤ – 1
or x+y≥1
and x+ y ≤ –1
First we shall draw the graph for 1
x + y = 1 and x + y = – 1, now we
–1
shall consider any fixed point say x
1
(0, 0) and check x + y ≥ 1 and
x + y ≤ – 1 holds or not. x + y ≤ –1 –1
As; x + y ≥ 1 ⇒ 0 ≥ 1 (false).
∴ shaded part is away from origin.
again as; x+y≤–1
⇒ 0≤ – 1 (false)
Fig. 2.202
∴ Shaded part is away from origin
shown as in Fig. 2.202.
(ii) To sketch | x – y | ≤ 1
we know |x – y| ≤ 1
⇒ –1 ≤ x – y ≤ 1
⇒ –1 – x ≤ – y ≤ 1 – x
116

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
y
( x – 1) ≤ y ≤ ( x + 1)

or
1
+
Thus, to plot y between ( x – 1) to ( x + 1).
x
=
y
In figure shaded parts is towards origin as; 1
1
–
putting any fixed point say (0, 0); in|x – y| ≤ 1.
x
=
–1
y
x
⇒ | 0 – 0| ≤ 1 O 1
⇒ 0≤ 1 (true) –1
|x – y | ≤ 1
(iii) To sketch | x | + | y | ≤ 2 Fig. 2.203

Here; |y | = 2 – |x | is plotted as;
y y y
2 2 2
|y | = 2 – |x |
1
x x x
–2 –1 O 1 2 –2 O 2 –2 O 2
–1
y=2–x y = 2 – |x |
–2 –2 –2
(i) (ii) (iii)

Fig. 2.204
y
From above graph of|y | = 2 – |x |, we can check shading 2

of
|y | ≤ 2 – |x | or |x | + |y | ≤ 2 . x
–2 2
as at (0, 0) ⇒ 0≤ 2 (true)
∴ shading towards origin; shown as in Fig. 2.205. –2 |x | + |y | ≤ 2
(iv) Sketching of | x | – | y | ≥ 1
Fig. 2.205
To sketch |x | – |y | ≥ 1; we proceed as:
y = ( x – 1) → y = |x | – 1 → | y |= |x | – 1 → |x | – |y | ≥ 1
y y
y=x–1 y = |x | – 1
x x
O 1 –1 O 1
–1 –1
(i) (ii)
117

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
y y
|x | – |y | ≥ 1
|y | = |x | – 1
Play with Graphs
x x
–1 O 1 –1 O 1
(iii) (iv)
Fig. 2.206
EXAMPLE 8 Sketch the curve;

(i) |x + y | + |x – y | ≤ 4 (ii) |x + y | + |x – y | ≥ 4
SOLUTION (i) As we know;
y
|x | – |y |; |x | ≥ |y |
|x – y | = 
 –(|x | – |y |); |x | ≤ |y | 2
Thus; |x + y| + |x – y| ≤ 4
 x + y + x – y ≤ 4; |x | ≥ |y | x
⇒  –2 2
 x + y – x + y ≤ 4; |x | < |y |
|x + y | + |x – y | ≤ 4
 2x ≤ 4; |x | ≥ |y |
⇒  –2
 2y ≤ 4; |x | < |y |
or |x + y | + |x – y | ≤ 4
Fig. 2.207
⇒ |x | ≤ 2 and |y | ≤ 2
Thus, to shade the portion when –2 ≤ x ≤ 2 and –2 ≤ y ≤ 2 . Shown as in Fig. 2.207.
(ii) Again; |x + y| + |x – y| ≥ 4 ⇒ |x | ≥ 2 and |y | ≥ 2
Thus, to shade the portion when x ≤ –2 or x ≥ 2 and y ≤ – 2 or y ≥ 2 . Shown as in
Fig. 2.208.
y
x
–2 O 2
–2
|x + y | + |x – y | ≥ 4
Fig. 2.208
118

lOMoARcPSD|33285710

EXAMPLE 9 Sketch the curve for;
1 1
(i) 2| x||y | + 2| x|–1 ≤ 1 (ii) 2|x| |y| + 2|x|–1 ≤ 1; |x | ≤ and |y | ≤ .
2 2
 1
SOLUTION (i) Here 2|x||y| + 2|x|–1 ≤ 1 ⇒ 2| x| |y| + ≤1
 2
1
⇒ |y| + ≤ 2 –|x|
2
1
Thus, to plot |y| + ≤ 2 –|x| , we proceed as;
2
 – x 1 1 1 1
y =  2 –  → y = 2 –|x| – → |y| = 2 –|x| – → |y| ≤ 2 –|x| –
 2 2 2 2
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
Shown as;
y
(0, 1)
y = 2–x
x
O
Fig. 2.209
y y
y = 2–x–1/2
neglecting
1/2
1/2
Image
x x
O 1 –1 O 1
–1/2 –1/2
1 1
(i) y = 2 – x – (ii) y = 2 –|x | –
2 2
y y
1/2 1/2
x x
–1 O 1 –1 O 1
–1/2 –1/2
1 1
(iii) | y | = 2 –|x| – (iv) | y | ≤ 2 –|x | –
2 2
Fig. 2.210
119

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
1
Here, figure (iv) is shaded towards origin as putting x = 0, y = 0 in |y| ≤ 2 –|x| – .
2
1 1
⇒ 0≤ 1 – or 0 ≤ , which is true, therefore, shaded towards origin.
2 2
Play with Graphs
(ii) Plotting of 2|x||y | + 2|x|–1 ≤ 1; y
1 1
|x | ≤ and |y | ≤ .
2 2 1/2 y = 1/2
from above figure; x

–1 O 1
2|x||y | + 2|x|–1 ≤ 1
–1/2 y = –1/2
2|x ||y | + 2|x | –1 ≤ 1;
1 1
and |x | ≤ , |y | ≤ shown as in |x | ≤
1 and |y | ≤ 1
2 2 2 2 x = –1/2 x = 1/2
Fig. 2.211.
Fig. 2.211
EXAMPLE Sketch the graph of the function:

10
f ( x) = log 2 (1 – x 2 )
SOLUTION Here, log 2 (1 – x 2 ) exists when, –1 < x < 1 

i. e., doman ∈ (– 1, 1)  …(i)
and range ∈ (– ∞, 0] 

as x → ± 1 ⇒ y → – ∞ …(ii)
differentiating y = log 2 (1 – x 2 ),
dy (–2x) x
we get = 2
⋅ (log 2 e) = 2 log 2 e 2
dx 1 – x ( x – 1)
Using number line rule;
– + – +
–1 0 1
dy 
> 0, when – 1 < x < 0
dx 
 …(iii)
dy
< 0, when 0 < x < 1 
dx 
y
d 2y –2 log 2 e(1 + x 2 )
also, = < 0 for all x ∈ (– 1, 1)
dx 2 (1 – x 2 ) 2
O
∴ y = log(1 – x 2 ) is concave down for x ∈ (–1, 1)} …(iv) x
increa own
Con
–1 1
sing
decr
from above results we can draw

d
cave
cave
easin
y = log 2 (1 – x 2 ) as shown in Fig. 2.212.

dow
Con
g
n
y = log2 (1 – x 2 )
Fig. 2.212
120

lOMoARcPSD|33285710

EXAMPLE 11 Sketch the graph of y = log(sin x) .
SOLUTION Here;
(i) y = log(sin x) is defined, when sin x > 0 ⇒ x ∈ ( 2nπ, ( 2n + 1)π ).
(ii) Since, sin x is periodic with period 2 π .
∴ to discuss y = log(sin x), when x ∈ ( 0, π ) as exists when x ∈ ( 0, π ) and then plotted for
entire number line.
(iii) as x → 0 ⇒ y = log( 0) = – ∞.
π
as y → 0 ⇒ sin x → 1 ⇒ x= .
2
dy 1
(iv) = ⋅ cos x = cot x
dx sin x
dy  π
⇒ > 0 when x ∈  0, 
dx  2
dy π 
< 0, when x ∈  , π
dx 2 
d 2y
(v) = – cosec 2 x < 0 for all x ∈ ( 0, π )
dx 2
Thus, increasing and concave down x ∈( 0, π / 2)
decreasing and concave down x ∈( π / 2, π ).
and to plot the curve only when x ∈ ( 2nπ, ( 2n + 1) π ). Shown as in Fig. 2.213.
y
–π π π x
–2π O π 3π 2π 3π
own
decre
3π – 5π
– 2 2
2 2 2
cave d
asing
nd con
a
nd con
sing a
c
ave do
increa
n w
Fig. 2.213
EXAMPLE 12 Sketch the graph for

y = – log sin x e.
–1
SOLUTION (i) Here, y = – log sin x e = is defined when,
log e sin x
sin x > 0 and sin x ≠ 1.
i.e., x ∈ ( 2nπ, ( 2n + 1) π ) – { 2nπ + π / 2}; n ∈ N …(i)
121

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
–1
(ii) y = is periodic with period 2 π,
log e sin x
∴ to discuss the graph for x ∈ ( 0, π ) – { π / 2} and sketch for the entire number line.
dy 1 1 dy cot x
Play with Graphs
(iii) ∴ =+ 2
⋅ ⋅ cos x ⇒ =+
dx (log sin x) sin x dx (log sin x) 2
dy  π
or > 0 when x ∈  0, 
dx  2
dy π 
< 0 when x ∈  , π
dx 2 
d 2y  (log sin x) 2 ⋅ (– cosec 2 x) – cot x ⋅ 2 (log sin x) ⋅ cot x
(iv) = +  
dx 2  (log sin x) 4 
{(log sin x) 2 cosec 2 x + 2 (log sin x) cot 2 x}
=–
(log sin x) 2
d 2y  π
⇒ x ∈ ( 0, π ) –  
> 0 for all
dx 2
 2
 π 
 increasing and concave up x ∈  2 , π
1 
Thus, y = ⇒ 
log sin x  decreasing and concave up x ∈  0, π 
  2
y
1
y=–
logesin x
3π –π π π π x
–2π – O 3π 2π 5π 3π
– 2 2
2 2 2
y = – logsin x e
Fig. 2.214
EXAMPLE 13 Sketch the curve:

(i) [ y ] = cos x; x ∈ [–2 π, 2 π]
(ii) [ y ] = [cos x]; x ∈ [–2 π, 2 π] ; where [ ⋅ ] denotes greatest integer function.
SOLUTION As we know; y = cos x could be plotted as;
y
π O π x
–2π – 3π –π – π 3π 2π
2 2 2 2
–1
122 Fig. 2.215

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
(i) Sketching of [ y ] = cos x

3π π π 3π
From above curve cos x = – 1, 0, 1 when x = – 2 π, – ,– π, – , 0, , π, , 2π
2 2 2 2
y
⇒ [ y ] = cos x is possible only
2
 3π π 
when x ∈  ±2 π, ± , ± π, ± , 0
 2 2  1
Thus,
x
π
–π π
–π O
cos x = – 1 ⇒ –1 ≤ y < 0
–2π – 3π 3π 2π
2 2 2 2
cos x = 0 ⇒ 0≤ y < 0 –1
cos x = 1 ⇒ 1≤ y < 2 –2
Thus, [ y ] = cos x is plotted as [y] = cos x

shown in Fig. 2.216.
Fig. 2.216
(ii) Sketching of [ y ] = [cos x ]

First to plot y = [cos x]. Shown as;
y
(–2π, 1) (0, 1) (2π, 1)
x
–2π – 3π –π O π 3π 2π
2 2 2 2
Fig. 2.217
From above figure y = [cos x]
 π 3π
 –1 ; 2 < |x | < 2

 π 3π
⇒ y =  0 ; 0 < |x | ≤ and ≤ |x | < 2 π
 2 2
 1 ; |x | = 0, 2 π


Thus, when y =0 ⇒ [ y ] ∈ [ 0, 1)
y =1 ⇒ [ y ] ∈ [1, 2)
y = –1 ⇒ [ y ] ∈ [– 1, 0)
123

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
Thus, graph for [ y ] = [cos x]

y
2
Play with Graphs
1 (2π, 1)
(–2π, 1)
x
3π π π 3π
–2π < x ≤ – – ≤x<0<x≤ ≤ x < 2π
2 2 2 2
3π π –1 3π
– <x<– 2π < x <
2 2 2
Fig. 2.218
EXAMPLE 14 Sketch the curves

(i) y = 4 – [ x]
(ii) [ y ] = 4 – [ x]
(iii) [|y |] = 4 – [|x |]
SOLUTION As we know;
(i) y = 4 – [ x] could be plotted with in two steps;
y = 4 – x → y = 4 – [ x]
y
y 5
4 4
3 3
2 y=4–x 2
1 1
x x
–4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 5 –4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 5
–1 –1
–2 –2
–3 –3
y = 4 – [x ]
(i) (ii)
Fig. 2.219
(ii) Since, we know from above curve y = 4 – [ x]

⇒ y ∈integer, thus, on taking integral part, say
[ y ] = I ⇒ I ≤ y < ( I + 1)
124

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
∴ Graph for [ y ] = 4 – [ x]

y
6
5
4
Included Excluded
3
2
1
x
–3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 5
–1
–2
and so on
–3
[ y ] = 4 – [x ]
Fig. 2.220
In above curve lower boundary are included and upper are excluded.
(iii) To sketch [| y |] = 4 – [| x |]
From above figure we can say;
[ y ] = 4 – [ x] → [ y ] = 4 – [|x |] → [|y |] = 4 – [|x |]
y
4
3
2
1
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 5
–1
[|y |] = 4 – [|x |]
–2
–3
–4
–5
[|y |] + [|x |] = 4
Fig. 2.221
EXAMPLE 15 Shade the region whose co-ordinates x and y satisfy the equation.
cos x – cos y > 0
 x + y  y – x
SOLUTION Here, cos x – cos y > 0 can be written as, 2 sin   sin  >0
 2   2 
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lOMoARcPSD|33285710
 x + y  y – x
⇒ sin   sin  >0
 2   2 
This inequality holds true for all points,
 x + y  y – x
Play with Graphs
when sin   and sin   have same sign.

 2   2 
 x + y  y – x
i.e., sin   > 0 and sin  >0
 2   2 
 x + y  y – x
or sin   < 0 and sin  <0
 2   2 
⇒ x + y > 2nπ and y – x > 2nπ
or x + y < 2nπ and y – x < 2nπ
 y > 2nπ – x  y < 2nπ – x
⇒  or 
 y > 2nπ + x  y < 2nπ + x where n ∈ z
Here, the equation x + y = 2kπ represents a system of parallel straight lines corresponding to
different values of k.
Say k = 0, 1 ⇒ y = – x and y = – x + 2 π.
i.e., the set of points whose coordinates satisfy the inequality
0 < x + y < 2π
Similarly, for general points: 2kπ < x + y < ( 2k + 1) π …(i)
x + y
Now, the set of points which satisfy sin   > 0.
 2 
y
8π
6π
4π
2π
y – x = 2n π
x
–8π –6π –4π –2π O 2π 4π 6π 8π cos x > cos y
–2π
–4π
–6π
–8π
x + y = 2k π
Fig. 2.222
126

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
x+y

⇒ 2nπ < < ( 2n + 1) π
2
⇒ 2 ( 2nπ ) < x + y < 2 ( 2n + 1) π …(ii)
⇒ only those points of x, y which satisfy Eq. (ii).
Similarly, 2 ( 2p – 1) π < y – x < 2 ( 2p ) π …(iii)
From above results, graph for cos x > cos y is shown in Fig. 2.222.
EXAMPLE 16 Sketch the curve x 2/ 3 + y 2/ 3 = a 2/ 3 .

SOLUTION As to sketch, x 2/ 3 + y 2/ 3 = a 2/ 3 .
(i) Curve is symmetric about y-axis (as when x is replaced by (– x) curve remains same)
(ii) Curve is symmetric about x-axis (as when y is replaced by (– y) curve remains same).
(iii) Curve is symmetric about origin (as when x is replaced by y and y by x curve remains same).
(iv) When, x=0 ⇒ y =±a
when, y = 0 ⇒ x = ± a.
(v) y 2/ 3 = ( a 2/ 3 – x 2/ 3 ),
or y 2 = ( a 2/ 3 – x 2/ 3 ) 3 ;
dy  2 
differentiating both sides, 2y = 3 (a 2 / 3 – x 2 / 3 )2 ⋅  – x –1 / 3 
dx  3 
dy
⇒ < 0 when x > 0, y > 0 [to discuss 0 < x ≤ a and to take symmetry for rest of graph
dx
using Eqs. (i), (ii) and (iii)].
dy
(vi) From above y = – x –1/ 3 ( a 2/ 3 – x 2/ 3 ) 2
dx
Differentiating again, we get;
2
d 2y  dy   2  1
y +   = – x –1/ 3 ⋅ 2( a 2/ 3 – x 2/ 3 ) ⋅  – x –1/ 3  + x –4 / 3 ⋅ ( a 2/ 3 – x 2/ 3 ) 2
dx 2  dx   3  3
4 1
= x –2/ 3 ( a 2/ 3 – x 2/ 3 ) + x –4 / 3 ( a 2/ 3 – x 2/ 3 ) 2
3 3
1 –2/ 3 2/ 3
= x (a – x 2/ 3 ){ 4 + x –2/ 3 ( a 2/ 3 – x 2/ 3 )} y
3
a
d 2y
= + ve whenever; 0 < x ≤ a and y > 0. decreasing and
dx 2 concave up
Thus; when 0 < x ≤ a and y > 0 O
x
2 –a a
dy d y
⇒ < 0 and > 0, x2/3 + y2/3 = a2/3
dx dx 2 –a
i.e., decreasing and concave up.
∴ Graph for x 2/ 3 + y 2/ 3 = a 2/ 3 Fig. 2.223
Note Above curve is known as Astroid represented by the following parametric equations:
x = a cos3 t 
 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π , a > 0
y = a sin3 t 
127

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
Eliminating cos t and sin t from above equations, we get x 2/ 3 + y 2/ 3 = a 2/ 3 .

where the quantities x and y are defined for all values of t. But since, the functions cos 3 t and sin 3 t are
periodic with period 2 π, it is sufficient to discuss the curve for t ∈[ 0, 2 π].
Domain of function ∈ [ 0, 2π]
Play with Graphs
Thus,  …(i)
Range of function ∈ [– a, a] 
dx 
= – 3a cos 2 t sin t
dt 
Now,  …(ii)
dy
= + 3a sin 2 t cos t
dt 
dx dy π 3π
Here, = 0, = 0 ⇒ t = 0, , 8 π, , 2 π.
dt dx 2 2
dy 
∴ = – tan t …(iii)
dx 
d 2y  1
2
=  4
…(iv)
dx 3a cos t sin t 
From Eqs. (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv), we construct a table;
dy d 2y
Range of t Domain (x) Range (y) Sign of Sign of
dx dx 2
π 0< x< a 0< y < a – +
0< t <
2
π – a< x< 0 0< y < a + +
< t< π
2
3π – a< x< 0 – a< y < 0 – –
π< t<
2
3π 0< x< a –a < y < 0 + –
< t < 2π
2
y
On the basis of above information we can sketch
x = a cos 3 t a Astroid : x2/3 + y2/3 = a2/3
or x = a cos3t
y = b sin 3 t y = a sin3t
x
Students are adviced to convert the cartesian into –a O a
parametric if possible.
–a
Fig. 2.224
EXAMPLE 17 Sketch the curves:

ex + e– x ex – e– x ex – e– x ex + e– x
(i) y = (ii) y = (iii) y = (iv) y =
2 2 ex + e– x ex – e– x
e x + e –x
SOLUTION (i) Sketching of f (x ) = y =
2
(a) f (– x) = f ( x), ∴ even or symmetric about y-axis …(i)
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lOMoARcPSD|33285710
x=0 ⇒y =1

(b) When …(ii)
dy e x – e – x e 2x – 1
Differentiating, we get; = =
dx 2 2 ex
d 2y ex + e– x e 2x + 1
⇒ = =
dx 2 2 2 ex y
dy  ex + e–x
> 0 whenever x > 0 y=
2

de cave
dx

co
From above; …(iii)
av ing
cre
p
n
dy 
eu
co reas
as p
< 0 whenever x < 0

ing
dx
inc
nc
u
d 2y  1
> 0 for all x …(iv)
dx 2  x
O
Thus, from Eqs. (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv) graph of
ex + e– x Fig. 2.225
y = is;
2
e x – e –x
(ii) Sketching y =
2
(a) f (– x) = – f ( x),
y
∴ odd function or symmetric about origin …(i) ex – e–x
y=
2
(b) x=0 ⇒ y =0 …(ii)
av ing
p
eu
s
dy e + ex –x
rea
(c) = > 0 for all x …(iii)
Inc
nc
dx 2
co
x
d 2y ex – e– x O
ed g
=
n
(d)
n
ow
nc easi
dx 2 2
r
av
Inc
d 2y 
> 0 when x > 0 
co
dx 2

⇒  …(iv) Fig. 2.226
2
d y
< 0 when x < 0
dx 2 
ex – e– x
From Eqs. (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv) graph of y = .
2
e x – e –x
(iii) Sketching of y =
e x + e –x
(a) f (– x) = – f ( x), ∴ odd function or symmetric about origin …(i)
(b) as x=0 ⇒ y =0 …(ii)
Domain ∈ R 
(c)  …(iii)
Range ∈ (– 1, 1)
dy
(d) > 0 for all x ∈R …(iv)
dx
129

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
d 2y  y
< 0 for x > 0
dx 2

(e)
2
 …(v) 1
d y
> 0 for x < 0 ex – e–x
y=

Play with Graphs
dx 2 e x + e –x
x
O
From Eqs. (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) and (v) graph of
ex – e– x –1
y = x is shown as in Fig. 2.227.
e + e– x
e x + e –x Fig. 2.227
(iv) Sketching y = x –x
e –e
(a) f (– x) = – f ( x), ∴ odd function or symmetric about origin …(i)
as x → 0; y → ∞ y

(b) as y → 1; x → ∞  …(ii)
y → – 1; x → – ∞  ex + e–x
y= x
e – e–x
Domain ∈ R – { 0}  1
(c)  …(iii)
Range ∈ R – [– 1, 1] x
O
dy
(d) < 0 for all x ∈ R – { 0} …(iv)
dx –1
2
d y 
> 0 for x > 0
dx 2

(e)
2
 …(v)
d y
< 0 for x < 0  Fig. 2.228
dx 2 

ex + e– x
From above information, graph for y = x as shown in Fig. 2.228.
e – e– x
1 x
Note In many applications we come across exponential functions of the form (e – e – x ) and
2
1 x
(e + e – x ) known as “hyperbolic functions” represented by;
2
ex – e– x 
sin hx = 
2
–x 
…(i)
e +e 
x
cos hx = 
2
called hyperbolic sine and hyperbolic cosine.
ex – e– x 
tan hx = x
e + e – x 
also,  …(ii)
ex + e– x 
cot hx = x
e – e – x 
called hyperbolic tangent and hyperbolic cotangent. Where if; x = cos ht , y = sin ht
⇒ x 2 – y 2 = cos2 ht – sin2 ht = 1 {Using Eq. (i)}
which is equation of hyperbola.
ex – e– x ex + e– x
Thus, sin hx = and cos hx = are hyperbolic functions.
2 2
130

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
y = 2 sin x + cos 2x.

E X A M P L E 18 Sketch the curve
SOLUTION Since, the function is periodic with period 2 π, it is sufficient to investigate the
function in the interval [0, 2 π].
dy
(a) = 2 cos x – 2 sin 2x = 2 (cos x – 2 sin x cos x)
dx
dy
∴ = 2 cos x(1 – 2 sin x)
dx
dy π π 5π 3π
Here, =0 ⇒ x= , , ,
dx 6 2 6 2
d 2y
(b) = – 2 sin x – 4 cos 2x
dx 2
 d 2y  3
 2 = – 3< 0 where y =
 dx  at x = π 2
6
π π  d 2y 
∴ at x= is maximum at x = .  2 = 2 > 0;
6 6  dx  at x = π
2
π π
∴ at x = is minimum at x = , where y = 1 y
2 2
5π d 2y 2
at x= we have, 2
= – 3< 0 3/2
6 dx 1
3
and y = (maximum) x
2 O π π 5π π 3π 2π
6 2 6 2
3π d 2y –1
at x= , we have, 2
= 6> 0
2 dx –2
and y = – 3 (minimum)
–3
Thus, curve for y = 2 sin x + cos 2x; y = 2 sin x + cos 2x
Fig. 2.229
2
EXAMPLE 19 Sketch the curve y = e– x (Gaussian curve)
2
SOLUTION As the curve y = f ( x) = e – x
(a) Symmetric about y-axis {as f (– x) = f ( x)} …(i)
as x → 0 ⇒ y → 1 
(b)  …(ii)
as y → 0 ⇒ x → ± ∞
dy 
< 0 ⇒x> 0
dy 
= e – x (–2x) ⇒ dx
2
(c)  …(iii)
dx dy
> 0 ⇒ x < 0
dx 
131

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
d 2y 2 2 2
(d) 2
= – 2e – x – 2x(– 2xe – x ) = 2e x ( 2x 2 – 1)
dx
d 2y 1 1
> 0 ⇒x< – or x > 
Play with Graphs
dx 2
2 2
⇒  …(iv)
2
d y
<0 ⇒–
1
< x<
1 
dx 2 2 2 
y
2
(e) y = e – x assumes maximum at
1 Con
wn de cav
y=1
do
x=0 ⇒ y =1 av
e
ing cr e d
ea o
o nc reas sin wn
C inc g
and Domain ∈ R …(v) e up e–1/2 Conc
ave u
cav
Con asing decr p
Range ∈ ( 0, 1] incr
e easin
g x
–1/√2 O 1/√2
From above discussion;
Fig. 2.230
x
EXAMPLE 20 Sketch the curve y = .
1 + x2
Domain ∈ R 
SOLUTION Here; (a)  …(i)
Range ∈ [– 0.5, 0.5]
(b) f (– x) = – f ( x), hence, f ( x) is odd, symmetric about origin …(ii)
(c) When x=0 ⇒ y =0 …(iii)

2 – + –
dy 1– x
(d) = –1 1
dx (1 + x 2 ) 2
Fig. 2.231
dy 
> 0 when – 1 < x < 1 
dx
or  …(iv)
dy
< 0 when x < – 1 or x > 1
dx 
From above maximum at x = 1 and minimum at x = – 1} …(v)

2 x 2 – + – +
d y 2 ( x – 3)
(e) =
dx 2
(1 + x 2 ) 3 –√3 0 –√3
2  Fig. 2.232
d y
> 0, when x ∈ (– 3, 0) and ( 3, ∞ ) 
dx 2

⇒  …(vi)
d 2y
< 0, when x ∈ (– ∞, – 3 ) and ( 0, 3 )
dx 2 
x
From above conditions graph for y =
1 + x2
132

lOMoARcPSD|33285710

1
0.5 (1, 0.5)

decr
i ng easin (√3, √3/4)
as g
–√3 re
decr c x
easin –1 in O 1 √3
g
(–√3, –√3/4)
(–1, –0.5) –0.5
Concave down Concave up Concave down Concave up
Fig. 2.233
In above figure :
x dy/dx d 2y / dx 2
–∞ < x < – 3 – –
– 3< x< –1 – +
– 1< x< 0 + +
0< x< 1 + –
1< x< 3 – –
3< x< ∞ – +
EXAMPLE 21 Sketch the curve y 2 = x 3 . (Semicubical parabola).

SOLUTION To plot the curve we discuss;
(i) Symmetric about x-axis (as y → – y curve remains same).
(ii) Domain ∈ [ 0, ∞ )
(iii) Range ∈ R.
Here, to plot y 2 = x3 ⇒ y = x3 and y =– x 3 , we draw y = x 3 and take image
about x-axis for y = – x 3 . (i.e., to discuss curve when x, y ≥ 0).
dy 3 1/ 2 3
(iv) = x = x > 0 for all x, y > 0.
dx 2 2 y
d 2y 3
(v) = > 0 for all x, y > 0. y = (x 3/2 )
dx 2 4 x
⇒ Increasing and concave up when x > 0.
From Eqs. (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) and (v). x
O
x y dy / dx d 2y / dx 2
y = –(x 3/2 )
+ + + +
+ – – – Fig. 2.234
133

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
Note In above curve y 2 = x 3 (semicubical parabola). For x = 0 we have y = 0 and y′ = 0, thus, the
branch of the curve has a tangent at y = 0 at origin. The second branch of y = – x3 also
passes through origin and has the same tangent y = 0. Thus, two different branches of the
curve meet at origin, have the same tangent, and situated at different sides of origin. This
Play with Graphs
is known as cusp of first kind.
EXAMPLE 22 Sketch the curve: y 2 = x 4 – x 6.

SOLUTION Here; y = ± x2 1 – x2
Thus, to plot the curve for y = x 2 1 – x 2 and take image about x-axis.
(i) Symmetric about x and y-axis.
(ii) Domain ∈[– 1, 1]
 2 2 
(iii) Range ∈ – , .
 3 3 3 3
(iv) When x=0 ⇒ y =0
y = 0 ⇒ x = 0, ± 1.
dy
(v) 2y = 4x 3 – 6x 5 = 2x 3 ( 2 – 3x 2 ) = 2x 3 ( 2 – 3x)( 2 + 3x)
dx
dy 2
⇒ > 0 when; 0 < x < and y > 0.
dx 3
dy 2
< 0 when < x < 1 and y > 0.
dx 3
Here, we are sketching the curve only when x, y ≥ 0and then take image about x and y-axis.
d 2y 2
(vi) 2
> 0 when 0< x< and y > 0.
dx 5
d 2y 2
2
< 0 when < x < 1 and y > 0.
dx 5
From above discussion.
y Concave up and increasing
Concave downward increasing
2 Concave down and decreasing
By symmetry 3√3
x
–1 O 1
– 2 By symmetry
3√3
√2 – √2 √2 √2
– 5
3 5 3
Fig. 2.235
Note At the origin (as the singular point) the two branches of the curve corresponding to plus
and minus in front of the radical sign are mutually tangent. Known as point of osculation
or tacnode or double cusp.
134

lOMoARcPSD|33285710

EXERCISE
1. Sketch the curves; (where [ ⋅ ] denotes the (vi) y = 2sin x

greatest integer function).
(vii) y = log2 (| sin x | )
(i) y = |2 – | x – 1||
(viii) | y | = log2 | sin x |
4
(ii) y = 2 –  1
| x – 1| (ix) y = logsin x  
 2
4
(iii) | y | = 2 –  1
| x – 1| (x) | y | = logsin x  
 2
4 1– x 2
(iv) y = 2 –
| x – 1| 3. Sketch the curve y = sin–1  
1+ x 2
4
(v) | y | = 2 – 4. Sketch the curve y =
2x
| x – 1| x +1
2
(vi) y = | e| x | – 2 | 5. Sketch the curves;

(vii) | y | = | e| x | – 2 | (i) y = x 2 – 2 | x | (ii) y = e –| x |
(viii) y = x – [x ] (iii) y = e |x|
(iv) | y | = x
(ix) y = x – [x ] (v) y = x – x 3
(vi) y 2 = x – 1
(x) y = (x – [x ]) 2
6. Construct the graph of the function
(xi) | y | = x – [x ] y = f (x – 1) + f (x + 1)
(xii) | y | = (x – [x ]) 2 1 – | x |, when | x | ≤ 1
where f (x ) = 
(xiii) y = | x – 1| + | x + 1| 0, when | x | > 1
(xiv) | y | = | x – 1| + | x + 1| 7. Sketch the curves;
(xv) y = [| x – 1|] (i) y =
1
(ii) y =
1
(xvi) | y | = [| x – 1|] x –2 |x | – 2
(xvii) y = x + [x ] 1 1
(iii) y = (iv) | y | =
(xviii) y = | x | + [| x |] |x | – 2 |x | – 2
(xix) | y | = x + [x ]
8. Find number of solutions of 2 cos x = | sin x |.
(xx) | y | = | x | + [| x |]
When x ∈[ 0, 4π ].
2. Sketch the curves;
9. Find the number of solutions of;
(i) y = sin x
sin π x = |log| x ||.
(ii) | y | = sin x
10. Sketch the curve
(iii) y = | sin x | + | cos x | sin 2x
(iv) | y | = cos x + | cos x | y = + cos x .
2
(v) y = sin2 x – 2 sin x
ANSWERS
8. 2 solutions, 9. 6 solutions.
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Graph Jells Us
Play with Graphs
Remark 1
Absolute maximum
No greater value of f any where.
Also a local maximum
Local minima
No greater value of f near by
y = f (x)
Local minimum
No smaller value of f near by
Local minima
No smaller value of f near by
Absolute minima
No smaller value of f any where.
Also a local minimum.
a c e d b x-axis
Local vs absolute (Global) Extrema
Fig. 1
Remark 2
Absolute maximum
f ′undefined
Local maximum y = f (x)
f ′= 0
No extremum
f ′< 0 f ′= 0
f ′> 0
No extremum f′ > 0
f ′< 0
f ′= 0 Local minimum
f ′> 0
f ′= 0
Absolute minimum Local minimum
a c1 c2 c3 c4 c5 b x-axis
Local vs absolute (Global) Extrema
Fig. 2
Remark 3
The First derivative Test for Local Extreme Value
(i) If f ′ changes from positive to negative at C (f ′ > 0 for x < c and f ′ < 0 for x > c), then f has a
local maximum value at c.
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Local maximum Local maximum
Graph Tells Us
f ′> 0 f ′< 0
f ′> 0 f ′< 0
x=c x-axis x=c x-axis

(a) f ′(c) = 0 (b) f ′(c) undefined
Fig. 3
(ii) If f ′ changes from negative to positive at c (f ′ < 0 for x < c and f ′ > 0 for x > c), then f has a
local minimum at x = c.
f ′< 0 f ′> 0 f ′< 0

f ′> 0
Local minimum Local minimum
Fig. 4
(iii) If f ′ does not change sign at c (f ′ has the same sign on both sides of c), then f has no local
extreme value at c.
no extreme no extreme
f ′> 0
f ′> 0

Fig. 5
(iv) At a left end point ‘a’: If f ′ < 0 Local maximum
(f ′ > 0) for x > a, then f has local
Local minimum f ′> 0
f ′< 0
maximum (minimum) value at
x = a.
x=a x-axis x=a x-axis
Fig. 6
(v) At a right end point ‘b’: If f ′ < 0 ( f ′ > 0) for x < b, then f has local minimum
(maximum) at x = b.
Local maximum
Local minimum
x=b x-axis x=b x-axis

Fig. 7
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ter
ap ASYMPTOTES,
3
C h
Play with Graphs
SINGULAR POINTS AND

CURVE TRACING
In this chapter we shall study:
➥ Plotting of Rational and Irrational functions.
➥ Intersection of Curve and Straight line at Infinity.
3.1 ASYMPTOTES
A straight line, at a finite distance from origin, is said to be an asymptote of the curve y = f ( x), if
the perpendicular distance of the point P on the curve from the line tends to zero when x or y both
tends to infinity.
OR
A straight line A is called an asymptote to a curve, if the distance δ from the variable point M of
the curve to this straight line approaches zero as the point M tends to infinity. Shown as:
y y
e
ot δ
pt M
ym M
As t e
o
pt
m
Asy
Curve
x x
O O
Fig. 3.1
Mathematically
Let y = f ( x) be a curve and let (x, y) be a point on it.
Tanget at (x, y) is given by;
dy
Y–y = ( X – x)
dx
dy  dy 
Y= ⋅ X + Y – x  …(i)
dx  dx 
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Now, if asymptote exists, then x → ∞
Asymptotes, Singular Points and Curve Tracing

dy  dy 
⇒ and  y – x  → finite limit say m and c
dx  dx 
dy x dy
Say →m and y – →c
dx dx
∴ Eq. (i) reduces to, Y = mX + c is asymptote of equation.
Now we shall discuss the following cases
(i) Asymptote parallel to x-axis.
(ii) Asymptote parallel to y-axis.
(iii) Asymptote of algebraic curves or oblique asymptotes.
(iv) Asymptote by inspection.
(v) Intersection of curve and its Asymptotes.
(vi) Asymptote by Expansion.
(vii) The position of the curve with respect to asymptote.
3.1 (i) Asymptote parallel to x-axis
Let the equation of curve be,
( a 0 x n + a1 x n – 1 y + a 2 x n – 2 y 2 + … + a n y n ) + ( b1 x n – 1 + b 2 x n – 2 y + … + b n y n – 1 )
+ ( c 2 x n – 2 + c 3 x n – 2 y + … + c n y n– 2 ) + … + … = 0 …(i)
then it can be arranged in descending powers of x as follows:
a 0 x n + ( a1 y + b1 )x n – 1 + ( a 2 y 2 + b 2 y + c 2 )x n – 2 + … = 0 …(ii)
Now, if a 0 = 0, i.e., the term consisting x is absent, then a1 y + b1 = 0, i.e., coefficient of x = 0
n n–1
will make two roots of Eq. (i) infinite as coefficients of both x n and x n–1 are zero.
Hence, a1y + b1 = 0 is an asymptote parallel to x-axis.
Again if; both x n and x n–1 are absent, then a 2 y 2 + b 2 y + c 2 = 0, i.e., coefficient of x n– 2 being
zero will make three roots of Eq. (ii) infinite hence, a 2y 2 + b2y + c2 = 0 will give two asymptote
parallel to x-axis.
Method to find asymptote parallel to x-axis
To find the asymptote parallel to x-axis equate the coefficient of highest power of x to zero.
If the coefficient is constant, then there is no asymptote parallel to x-axis (horizontal).
3.1 (ii) Asymptote parallel to y-axis
From above article, if we need an asymptote parallel to y-axis, equate the coefficient of highest
power of y to zero.
If this coefficient is constant, then there is no asymptote parallel to y-axis (vertical).
1
EXAMPLE 1 Sketch the curve y =
x–5
SOLUTION Here; y ( x – 5) = 1
∴ Asymptote parallel to x-axis.
⇒ y =0 (equating highest power of x = 0)
Asymptote parallel to y-axis.
⇒ x=5 (equating highest power of y = 0)
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Thus, x = 5 and y-axis are asymptotes shown as in figure.

y
Asymptote
y= 1
x–5
Play with Graphs
Asymptote
O x y=0
x=5
Fig. 3.2
EXAMPLE 2 Show the curve y = tan x has an infinite number of vertical asymptote.
SOLUTION y = tan x
π 3π
here y → ± ∞ as x→ ± ,± ,…
2 2
π 3π
or tan x → ∞ as x→ ± , ± ,…
2 2
i.e., equating highest power of y = 0.
(as y = tan x ⇒ y cot x = 1, where cot x → 0).
Shown as:
y
x
–3π/2 –π –π/2 O π/2 π 3π/2
Asymptote
Asymptote
Asymptote
Asymptote
Fig. 3.3
EXAMPLE 3 Show the curve y = e1/ x has a vertical and horizontal asymptote.
SOLUTION Here y = e1/ x

⇒ y ⋅ e –1/ x = 0
or e –1/ x → 0 as x→ 0 (Since, lim e –1/ x → 0)
x→ 0
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From adjoining figure
y = e1/ x
1
⇒ = log y
x
Asymptote y =1 1
1
⇒ x=
log y
x
O
Asymptote
which shows x(log y ) = 1 has an asymptote
parallel to x-axis as
log y = 0 ⇒ y = 1.
Thus, y = e 1/ x
has two asymptote Fig. 3.4
x = 0 and y = 1.
3.1 (iii) Asymptote of algebraic curves or oblique asymptote

An asymptote which is not parallel to y-axis is called an oblique asymptote. Let y = mx + c be an
asymptote of y = f ( x), then
y
m = lim and c = lim ( y – mx)
x→ ∞ x x→ ∞
or x→ – ∞ or x→ – ∞
Method to find oblique asymptote

Suppose y = mx + c is an asymptote of the curve. Put y = mx + c in the equation of the curve and
arrange it in descending powers of x. Equate to zero the coefficients of two highest degree terms.
Solve these two equations, find m and c. Put them in y = mx + c to get asymptotes.
Note 1. Here, we will find non-parallel or non repeated asymptote only.
2. Neglect all imaginary values of m.
1
EXAMPLE 1 Find the asymptotes to the curve y =x+ and then sketch.
x
1
SOLUTION Here, the given curve y = x +
x
⇒ x y = x2 + 1
or x 2 – xy + 1 = 0
(i) Asymptote parallel to x-axis
Equating highest power coefficient of x to zero in x 2 – xy + 1 = 0
⇒ 1= 0 (which is not true)

∴ no asymptote parallel to x-axis.
(ii) Asymptote parallel to y-axis
Equating highest power coefficient of y to zero in

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x 2 – xy + 1 = 0
⇒ – x=0
1
or x=0 (i.e., y-axis) is asymptote for y = x +
Play with Graphs
x
(iii) Oblique asymptote
Let y = mx + c in x 2 – xy + 1 = 0
i.e., x 2 – mx 2 – xc + 1 = 0
⇒ x 2 (1 – m ) – ( c)x + 1 = 0
Equating highest and second highest power of x to zero
i.e., 1 – m = 0 and c=0
∴ m = 1 and c=0
or y =x
1
is oblique asymptote to y =x+ .
x
Now to trace the curve;
(iv) Symmetric about origin (as odd function)
(v) Domain ∈ R – { 0}.
(vi) Range ∈ (– ∞, – 2] ∪ [ 2 , ∞ )
dy 1 x2 – 1 + – +
(vii) =1– 2 = {using number line rule, }
dx x x2 –1 1
dy
> 0, when x < – 1 or x > 1
dx
dy
< 0, when – 1 < x < 1 – { 0}
dx
which shows y max at x = – 1
y min at x = 1
d 2y 2
(viii) Also, 2
=
dx x3
d 2y
⇒ > 0, when x> 0 (concave up)
dx 2
d 2y
< 0, when x< 0 (concave down)
dx 2
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Using above information we can trace y = x + as:
x
y up
ave
c
con y = x
d
1 an
y = x + , x > 0 ing
x s
ea
cr
In
Asymptote
2
Local minimum at x = 1
Asymptote
x
–1 O 1
Local maximum
–2
1 ,x<0
y=x+
x
Fig. 3.5
x 2 + 2x – 1
EXAMPLE 2 Find the asymptotes of the curve y = and hence, sketch.
x
x 2 + 2x – 1
SOLUTION Here, the curve y = could be written as;
x
x 2 + 2x – yx – 1 = 0 …(i)
(i) No asymptote parallel to x-axis.
(ii) Asymptote parallel to y-axis. ⇒ x = 0.
(iii) Oblique asymptote
Let y = mx + c be oblique asymptote
∴ x 2 + 2x – x( mx + c) – 1 = 0
x 2 – mx 2 + 2x – cx – 1 = 0
⇒ x 2 (1 – m ) + x( 2 – c) – 1 = 0
For oblique asymptote equate highest power and second highest power of x to zero.
i.e., Coefficient of x2 = 0 ⇒ m = 1
Coefficient of x = 0 ⇒ c = 2
1
∴ y = x + 2 is oblique asymptote to y = x – + 2.
x
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(iv) Neither symmetric about axis nor about origin.

(v) Domain ∈ R – { 0}.
(vi) Range ∈ R.
dy 1
Play with Graphs
(vii) =1+ 2
dx x
dy
⇒ > 0, for all x ∈ R – { 0}.
dx
d 2y 2
(viii) 2
=– 3
dx x
2
d y
⇒ > 0, when x < 0 (concave down)
dx 2
d 2y
< 0, when x > 0 (concave up)
dx 2
1
Using above information, we can plot the curve y = x – + 2 as;
x
y
3
x 2 + 2x – 1
y=
2 x
x
–2 –1 O 1 2
–1
Asymptote x = 0
–2
+ te
= pto
2
ym
x
As
–3
y
Fig. 3.6
3.1 (iv) Asymptote by inspection

If the equation of the curve be of the form Fn + Fn – 2 = 0, where Fn and Fn– 2 are expressions in x
and y such that degree of Fn = n and degree of Fn– 2 ≤ n – 2, then every linear factor equated to zero
will give an asymptote if no two straight lines represented by any other factor of Fn is parallel or
coincident with it.
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Find the asymptote of the curve x 2 y + xy 2 = a 3 .

EXAMPLE 1
SOLUTION Here, the given curve is.

x 2 y + xy 2 = a 3 or x 2 y + xy 2 – a 3 = 0
This equation is of the form Fn + Fn – 2 = 0
Here, F3 = x 2 y + xy 2 and F0 = – a 3
∴ By inspection the asymptotes are given by
x 2 y + xy 2 = 0 or xy ( x + y ) = 0
∴ The asymptotes are x = 0, y = 0, x + y = 0.
1
EXAMPLE 2 Find the asymptote of the curve y =x+ (by Inspection).
x
SOLUTION Here, the given curve is x 2 – xy + 1 = 0
This equation is of the form Fn + Fn – 2 = 0
Here F2 = x 2 – xy
F0 = 1
∴ By inspection the asymptotes are given by
x 2 – xy = 0 or x( x – y ) = 0
∴ The asymptotes are x = 0 and x – y = 0.
3.1 (v) Intersection of curve and its asymptote

An asymptote of curve of nth degree cut the curve in ( n – 2) points provided the asymptote is not
parallel to any asymptote.
Hence, if there be N asymptotes of the curve, then they cut the curve in N( n – 2) points.
Note The number of asymptotes of an algebraic curve of nth degree can not be more than n.
EXAMPLE 1 Show the asymptote of the curve xy ( x 2 – y 2 ) + x 2 + y 2 – 1 = 0 cut at 8

points.
SOLUTION The equation of the curve is,
xy ( x 2 – y 2 ) + x 2 + y 2 – 1 = 0 …(i)
Here n=4
This equation is of the type Fn + Fn – 2 = 0
Hence, Fn = xy ( x 2 – y 2 ) = xy ( x – y ) ( x + y )
and Fn– 2 = x 2 + y 2 – 1
∴ Fn = 0
⇒ x = 0, y = 0, x – y = 0 and x + y = 0 are the equations of asymptotes.
The combined equation of the asymptotes is,
xy ( x – y )( x + y ) = 0 …(ii)
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Subtracting Eq. (ii) from (i), we get

x2 + y 2 – 1 = 0
Thus, intersection of curve and asymptotes lie on this curve since, there are 4 asymptotes, i.e.,
N = 4.
Play with Graphs
∴ Point of intersection of curve and asymptotes = 4( 4 – 2) = 8.
3.1 (vi) Asymptote by expansion

If the equation of the curve is of the form
A B C
y = mx + c + + + 3 +…
x x2 x
Then y = mx + c will be an asymptote of the given curve.
EXAMPLE 1 Find the asymptote of the curve y 3 = x 2 ( x – a).

 a
SOLUTION The curve is, y 3 = x 2 ( x – a) = x 3 1 – 
 x
 a
1/ 3
 1 a 1 a2 
⇒ y = x 1 –  or y = x 1 – – …
 x  3 x 9 x2 
a 1 a2
or y =x– – … which is of the form
3 9 x
A B
y = mx + c + + 2 + …
x x
⇒ y = mx + c is asymptote
a
Hence, y = x – is asymptote of the given curve.
3
1
EXAMPLE 2 Find the asymptote for y =x+ .
x
1
SOLUTION Here; y = x + is of the form,
x
A B
y = mx + c + + 2 +…
x x
⇒ y = x is asymptote of the curve
1
y =x+ .
x
Note Above method is useful to find oblique asymptote. Thus, students are adviced to find
vertical and horizontal asymptote (i.e., asymptote parallel to x-axis and y-axis).
3.1 (vii) The position of the curve with respect to an asymptote

Let the equation of the curve is of the form;
A B C
y = mx + c + + + 3 + …, then
x x2 x
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(a) The curve lies above the asymptote if
(i) A ≠ 0 and, A and x have same signs
or (ii) A = 0, B > 0
or (iii) A = 0, B = 0, C ≠ 0 and C and x have same signs and
(b) The curve lies below the asymptote if
(i) A ≠ 0 and, A and x have opposite signs.
or (ii) A = 0, B < 0
or (iii) A = 0, B = 0, C ≠ 0 and C and x have opposite signs.
EXAMPLE 1 For the curve y 5 = x 5 + 2x 4 ; show;

2
(i) The curve lies above the asymptote y =x+ , if x < 0.
5
2
(ii) The curve lies below the asymptote y = x + , if x > 0.
5
SOLUTION The given curve is, y 5 = x 5 + 2x 4
 2
or y 5 = x 5 1 + 
 x
1/ 5
 2
y = x 1 + 
 x
 2 1 8 1  2 8
y = x 1 + ⋅ – ⋅ … = x + – +…
 5 x 25 x 2  5 25x
2
∴ The asymptote is y =x+ ;
5
8
(i) Now if A =– and x have same sign ⇒ x < 0. Then the curve lie above the
25
asymptote.
8
(ii) Now if A = – and x have opposite sign ⇒ x > 0. Then the curve lie below the
25
asymptote.
1
EXAMPLE 2 For the curve y = x + show,
x
(i) The curve lies above the asymptote y = x, if x> 0
(ii) The curve lies below the asymptote y = x, if x< 0
1
SOLUTION The given curve is, y = x + , is of the form
x
A B C
y = mx + c + + 2 + 3…
x x x
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1
Thus, y = x is the asymptote to y =x+ .
x
(i) Now if A = 1 and x have same sign ⇒ x > 0, then the curve lies above the
asymptote.
Play with Graphs
(ii) Now if A = 1 and x have opposite sign ⇒ x < 0, then the curve lies below the
asymptote.
3.2 SINGULAR POINTS
Here, we shall discuss the following

(i) Multiple points
(ii) Double points
Types of double points :
(a) Node (b) Cusp (c) Isolated point
(iii) Tangent at the origin.
(iv) Necessary conditions for existence of double points.
(v) Types of cusps.
3.2 (i) Multiple points
A point on a curve is said to be a multiple point of order r, if r branches of the curve pass through
this point.
If P is the multiple point of order r, then there will be r tangents at P, one of each of the r
branches. These r tangents may be real, imaginary, distinct, coincident.
3.2 (ii) Double points
A point on a curve is said to be a double point of the curve, if two branches of the curve pass
through this point.
Double points have two tangents, they may be real, imaginary, distinct or coincident.
Types of Double points
(a) Node
If the two branches of a curve pass through the double point and the tangents to them at the point
are real and distinct, then the double point is called a node as shown in Fig. 3.7.
y y
Tangent
nt
Curve
nge
P Tangent Ta
Curve
Node
Cusp
x x
O O
Fig. 3.7 Fig. 3.8
(b) Cusp
If the two branches of the curve pass through the double point and the tangent to them are the
point is real and coincident, then the double point is called cusp as shown in Fig. 3.8.
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Cusps :
The graph of a continuous function y = f ( x) has a cusp at a point x = c if the concavity is
same on the both side of c and either.
1. lim f ′ ( x) = ∞ and lim f ′( x) = – ∞
x → c– x→ c+
OR
2. lim f ′ ( x) = – ∞ and lim f ′ ( x) = ∞ shown as:

x→ c– x→ c+
1. lim f ′ ( x) = ∞ and lim f ′ ( x) = – ∞ 2. lim f ′ ( x) = – ∞ and lim f ′ ( x) = ∞

x→ c– x→ c+ x→ c– x→ c+
y-axis y-axis
Cusp y = f (x)
lim f ′(x) = ∞
x→c– lim f ′(x) = –∞ lim f ′(x) = ∞
x→c+ lim –f ′(x) = –∞ x→c+
x→c
Cusp
x-axis x-axis
O c O c
y = f (x)
Fig. 3.9 Fig. 3.10
Note A cusp can either be a local maximum (1) or a local minima as in (2).
(c) Isolated point

If there are no real point on the curve in the neighbourhood of a point P is called an isolated or a
conjugate point.
y
P
isolated point
x
O
Fig. 3.11
3.2 (iii) Tangent at the origin

If an algebraic curve passes through the origin, the equation of tangent or tangents at the origin is
obtained by equating to zero the lowest degree terms in the equation of the curve.
EXAMPLE 1 Show that the curve y 2 = 4x 2 + 9x 4 has a node at origin and hence, sketch.
SOLUTION The equation of the curve is,

y 2 = 4x 2 + 9x 4 …(i)
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It passes through the origin.

Now, equating to zero the lowest degree terms of the given curve, i.e.,
y 2 – 4x 2 = 0
⇒ y = 2x and y = – 2x
Play with Graphs
There are two real and distinct tangents y = 2x and y = – 2x. Thus, two branches of curve
passes through origin (0, 0).
∴ origin is node. …(ii)
Now to sketch;
(iii) Symmetric about x-axis, y-axis and origin.
(iv) As x → 0 ⇒ y → 0
(v) Domain ∈ R.
(vi) Range ∈ R.
Here, we shall discuss the behaviour of y = x 4 + 9x 2 , x ≥ 0 and use symmetry to
construct y 2 = x 2 ( 4 + 9x 2 ).
dy
(vii) 2y = 8x + 36x 3 = 4x( 2 + 9x 2 ) y
dx
dy nt y = 2x
ge
⇒ > 0 for all x, y > 0 Ta
n
dx
(viii) Also, node
x
2
 dy  d 2y O
  +y = 4 + 54x 2 Ta
n
 dx  dx 2
ge
nt
2 y = –2x
d y
⇒ > 0 for all x
dx 2
Fig. 3.12
Thus, the graph for y 2 = x 2 ( 4 + 9x 2 )
EXAMPLE 2 Show origin is a conjugate point for

x 4 + y 3 + 2x 2 + 3y 2 = 0
SOLUTION The given curve is, x 4 + y 3 + 2x 2 + 3y 2 = 0
It passes through origin.
∴ To find equation of tangent at origin equating the lowest degree term to zero.
i.e., 2x 2 + 3y 2 = 0
2
⇒ y =±i x
3
which are imaginary tangents.
Hence, origin is a conjugate point of the curve.
3.2 (iv) Necessary conditions for the existence of double points

Let (x, y) be a point on the given curve f ( x, y ) = 0.
The necessary and sufficient conditions for (x, y) to be a double points are:
∂f ∂f
f = 0, = 0, = 0 at ( x, y )
∂x ∂y
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∂ 2f ∂ 2f ∂ 2f

Now, if , and are not all zero, then,
∂x ∂y ∂ x 2 ∂y 2
(i) Double point will be a node if
2
 ∂ 2f   ∂ 2f   ∂ 2f 
  –  2  2 > 0
 ∂x ∂y   ∂x   ∂y 
or 2
f xy – f xx f yy > 0
(ii) The double point will be an isolated point, if
2
f xy – f xx f yy < 0
(iii) The double point will be a cusp if
2
f xy – f xx f yy = 0.
Here, if f xx = f xy = f y y = 0at ( x, y ), then it will be a multiple point of order greater than 2.
EXAMPLE 1 For the curve x 3 + x 2 + y 2 – x – 4y + 3 = 0 , find the double point and hence,
whether the point is node or isolated point.
SOLUTION Let f ( x, y ) = x 3 + x 2 + y 2 – x – 4y + 3 = 0
∴ f x = 3x 2 + 2x – 1
f y = 2y – 4 for a double point f x = 0, fy = 0
∴ f x = 0 ⇒ 3x + 2x – 1 = 0 2
1
or x= , –1
3
fy = 0 ⇒ 2y – 4 = 0 ⇒ y = 2.
1 
∴ Possible double points are  , 2 , (– 1, 2)
3 
1 
Q f  , 2 ≠ 0 and f(– 1, 2) = 0
3 
∴ f(– 1, 2) is a double point.
f xx = 6x + 2 ⇒ f xx at (– 1, 2) = – 4
f xy = 0 ⇒ f xy at (– 1, 2) = 0
f yy = 2 ⇒ f yy at (– 1, 2) = 2
∴ f xy – f xx f yy = 0 – (– 4)( 2) = 8 > 0
∴ (– 1, 2) may be node.
For shifting origin to (– 1, 2), substitute x = X – 1, y = Y + 2 in the given equation,
we get, X 3 – 2X 2 + Y 2 = 0
or Y = ± X 2– X
For numerically small values of X, Y is real.
∴ (–1, 2) is a node on the given curve.
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EXAMPLE 2 For the curve x 3 + 2x 2 + 2xy – y 2 + 5x – 2y = 0, find the double point and
hence, check whether node, cusp or isolated point.
SOLUTION Let f ( x, y ) = x 3 + 2x 2 + 2xy – y 2 + 5x – 2y = 0 …(i)
Play with Graphs
∂f
fx = = 3x 2 + 4x + 2y + 5
∂x
∂f
fy = = 2x – 2y – 2
∂y
∂ 2f
f xx = = 6x + 4
∂x 2
∂ 2f
f xy = =2
∂x ∂y
∂ 2f
f yy = =–2
∂y ∂x
For double points fx = fy = f = 0
f x = 0 ⇒ 3x 2 + 4x + 2y + 5 = 0 …(ii)
f y = 0 ⇒ 2x – 2y – 2 = 0
or 2y = 2x – 2 …(iii)
Solving Eqs. (ii) and (iii), we get 3x + 4x + 2x – 2 + 5 = 0
2
⇒ x=–1
also x = – 1, y = – 2 satisfies the given equation.
∴ (– 1, – 2) is a double point.
At (– 1, – 2), f xx = 6 (– 1) + 4 = – 2
f xy = 2 , f yy = – 2
∴ 2
f xy at (– 1, – 2) = 0
– f xx f yy
∴ (–1, – 2) may be a cusp.
For shifting the origin to (– 1, – 2) substitute x = X – 1, y = Y – 2 in the given equation.
( X – 1) 3 + 2( X – 1) 2 + 2( X – 1)( Y – 2) – ( Y – 2) 2 + 5( X – 1) – 2( Y – 2) = 0
or X 3 – X 2 + 2XY – Y 2 = 0 …(iv)
∴ Y=X±X X
Y is real for all positive value of X.
∴ Two branches of (iv) pass through origin.
∴ Two branches of (i) pass through (– 1, – 2).
⇒ (– 1, – 2) is a cusp.
EXAMPLE 3 Find for the curve y 2 = x sin x origin is node, cusp or isolated point.
SOLUTION Let f ( x, y ) = y 2 – x sin x

f x = – sin x – x cos x
f y = 2y
f xx = – cos x + x sin x – cos x
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f xy = 0

f yy = 2
∴ at x = 0 : f xx = – 2, f xy = 0, f yy = 2
∴ 2
f xy – f xx f yy at (0, 0)
⇒ 0 + 2( 2) = 4 > 0
2
f xy – f xx f yy > 0 ∴ origin is node.
3.2 (v) Types of cusps

When two branches of a curve pass through a cusp and the tangents at cusp are coincident.
Therefore, normal to the branches at a cusp would also be coincident.
Cusp can be of five kinds
(a) Single cusp
If the branches of the curve lie on the same side of the common normal, then the cusp is called a
single cusp.
y y
t
en
nt
ng
ge
Ta
n
Ta
Normal
Normal
x x
O Single cusp of first species O Single cusp of second species
Fig. 3.13
(b) Double cusp
If the branches of the curve lie on the both sides of the common normal, then the cusp is called
double cusp.
Here, both the branches of the curve lie on the both sides of common tangent, then the cusp is of
first kind.
Also if, the branches of the curve lie on the same side of the common tangent, then the cusp is
called cusp of second species or Ramphoid cusp.
y y
Normal
nt Normal
nge
Ta nt
nge
Ta
x x
O Double cusp of first species O
Fig. 3.14 Fig. 3.15
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(c) Point of oscu-inflexion

A double cusp of both the species is called a point of oscu-inflexion.
y
Normal
Play with Graphs
nt
n ge
Ta
x
O
Fig. 3.16
EXAMPLE 1 Sketch the curve y 2 ( a + x) = x 2 ( a – x).
SOLUTION Here, the curve is

y 2 ( a + x) = x 2 ( a – x) …(i)
1. The curve is symmetrical about x-axis.
2. Curve passes through origin and cuts the x-axis at a point (a, 0).
3. Equating to zero the lowest degree terms of Eq. (i), we get the tangents at origin.
∴ y 2 = x 2 or y = ± x
∴ origin is node.
4. Equating to zero the highest degree term, we get the asymptote
x + a = 0, i.e., x = – a.
a– x
5. From Eq. (i) y =±x
a+x
∴ y exists when – a < x ≤ a ⇒ Domain ∈ (– a, a].
6. As x increases from 0 to a ⇒ y increases upto a point then decreases to zero.
⇒ y increases when x ∈[ 0, a]
y decreases when x ∈ (– a, 0]
Thus, y 2 ( a + x) = x 2 ( a – x) could be plotted as;
y
y=x
nt
node n ge
Ta
asym ptote
x
(–a, 0) O (a, 0)
Ta
nge
nt
y = –x
x = –a
154 Fig. 3.17

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3.3 REMEMBER FOR TRACING CARTESIAN EQUATION
1. Check symmetry
(a) A curve is symmetrical about x-axis, i.e., y is replaced by – y and curve remains same.
(b) A curve is symmetrical about y-axis, i.e., f (– x) = f ( x).
(c) A curve is symmetrical about y = x, i.e., on interchanging x and y curve remains same.
(d) A curve is symmetrical about y = – x. i.e., on interchanging x by – y and y by – x curve
remains same.
(e) The curve is symmetrical in opposite quadrants, i.e., f (– x) = – f ( x).
2. Check for origin

Find whether origin lies on the curve or not.
If yes, check for multiple points (See Art. 3.2).
3. Point of intersection with x-axis and y-axis
Put x = 0 and find y, put y = 0 and find x. Also obtain the tangents at such points.
4. Asymptotes
Find the point at which asymptote meets the curve and equation of asymptote (see Art. 3.1)
5. Domain and range
To check in which part the curve lies.
6. Monotonicity and maxima minima
dy
Find and check the interval in which y increases or decreases and the point at which it
dx
attains maximum or minimum.
7. Concavity and convexity
The interval in which,
d 2y
>0
dx 2
d 2y
and <0
dx 2
Using all the above results we can sketch the curve
y = f ( x ).
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SOME MORE SOLVED EXAMPLES

Play with Graphs
EXAMPLE 1 Sketch the curve y 2 (a 2 + x 2 ) = x 2 (a 2 – x 2 )
x 2 (a 2 – x 2 )
SOLUTION Here, the curve is y2 =
(a 2 + x 2 )
1. The curve is symmetric about x-axis and y-axis {as on replacing y by – y curve remains same
and on replacing x by – x curve remains same thus, symmetric about x and y-axis
respectively).
2. It passes through origin and y = ± x are two tangents at origin. Thus, the origin is node.
3. It meets x-axis at (a, 0), (0, 0) and (– a, 0) and meets y-axis at (0, 0) only.
The tangents at (a, 0) and (– a, 0) are x = a and x = – a respectively.
4. The curve has no asymptote.
a2 – x2
5. Here, y =±x 2
a + x2
∴ Domain ∈[– a, a]
dy a 4 – 2a 2 x 2 – x 4
6. = 2
dx ( a + x 2 ) 3/ 2 ( a 2 – x 2 )1/ 2
dy
→∞ as x→ ± a
dx
dy
Also =0 when a 4 – 2a 2 x 2 – x 4 = 0
dx
dy a 4 – 2a 2 x 2 – x 4
i.e., =
dx ( a 2 + x 2 ) 3/ 2 ( a 2 – x 2 )1/ 2
– { x 4 + 2a 2 x 2 + a 4 – 2a 4 }
=
( a 2 + x 2 ) 3/ 2 ( a 2 – x 2 )1/ 2
– {( x 2 + a 2 ) 2 – ( 2a 2 ) 2 }
=
( a 2 + x 2 ) 3/ 2 ( a 2 – x 2 )1/ 2
– { x – (– 1 + 2 )a} { x + (–1 + 2 )a} { x 2 + (1 + 2 )a 2 }

=
( a 2 + x 2 ) 3/ 2 ( a 2 – x 2 )1/ 2
 0; x = ± (– 1 + 2) a

dy 
⇒ = + ve; x ∈ (– (– 1 + 2 ) a, (– 1 + 2 ) a)
dx 
 – ve; x ∈ (– a, – (– 1 + 2 ) a) or ( (–1 + 2 ) a, a)

i.e., y increasing when x ∈ (– (– 1 + 2) a, (– 1 + 2 ) a)
and y decreases when x ∈ (– a, – (– 1 + 2 ) a) or ( (– 1 + 2 ) a, a)

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OR
dy
> 0, when x ∈ (– ( 0.6) a, ( 0.6) a)
dx
dy
< 0, when x ∈ (– a, – ( 0.6) a) or (( 0.6) a, a)
dx
where –1+ 2 = ( 0.6) approx
Thus, the curve for y (a + x ) = x 2 (a 2 – x 2 )
2 2 2
Ta in
n ge orig
n at
ta nt
to
rig nge
in Ta
x
(–a, 0) (–0.6a, 0) O (0.6a, 0) (a, 0)
Fig. 3.18
EXAMPLE 2 Sketch the curve y 2 ( x – a) = x 2 ( a + x).
x 2 ( a + x)
SOLUTION Here, the curve is given by y 2 =
( x – a)
1. Symmetrical about x-axis only.
2. It passes through origin and y 2 + x 2 = 0, i.e., y = ± ix are two imaginary tangents at origin.
Thus, origin is isolated point.
3. It meets x-axis at (– a, 0), (0, 0) and y-axis at (0, 0).
The tangent at (– a, 0) is x = – a.
4. y = ± ( x – a) and x = a are three asymptote.
x 2 ( x + a) x+a
5. y2 = ⇒ y =±x
( x – a) x– a
x+a
Thus, for domain; ≥ 0 and x ≠ a
x– a + – +
–a a
i.e., x ≤ – a and x> a
or Domain ∈ (– ∞, – a] ∪ ( a, ∞ ) ∪ { 0}
 1   1 
2 2  x – (1 + 5 )a  x – (1 – 5 )a
=±    
dy x – ax – a 2 2
6. =±
dx ( x – a) ( x + a)
3/ 2 1/ 2
( x – a) ( x + a)1/ 2
3/ 2
dy 1 
⇒ > 0, when x ∈ (– ∞, – a] ∪  (1 + 5 )a, ∞
dx 2 
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dy  1 
< 0, when x ∈  a, (1 + 5 ) a
dx  2 
Thus, the curve;
Play with Graphs
x 2(a + x)
y y 2=
(x – a ) x + a = 0
(a, 2a)
as
ym
pto (0, a)
x=a
te
asym ptote
x
(–a, 0) O (a, 0)
te
m pto (0, –a)
a sy 2 x 2(x + a)
y =
(x – a) (a, –2a)
x 2 (x + a ) y = –(x + a)
y 2=
(x – a)
Fig. 3.19
EXAMPLE 3 Sketch the curve y 2 = ( x – 1)( x – 2)( x – 3).
SOLUTION Here, y 2 = ( x – 1)( x – 2)( x – 3)

1. Symmetrical about x-axis.
2. It does not pass through origin.
3. It meets x-axis at (1, 0) (2, 0) and (3, 0) but it does not meet y-axis.
4. No asymptote.
5. For domain: ( x – 1) ( x – 2) ( x – 3) ≥ 0 – + – +
⇒ Domain ∈[1, 2] ∪ [ 3, ∞ ) 1 2 3
6. y = ± ( x – 1)( x – 2)( x – 3)
 6 – 3  6 + 3
3 x –  x – 
dy ( 3x – 12x + 11) 2
 3   3 
∴ =± =±
dx 2 ( x – 1)( x – 2)( x – 3) 2 ( x – 1)( x – 2) ( x – 3)
3( x – 1.42)( x – 2.5)  6– 3 6+ 3 
=±  as = 1.42 and = 2.5/approx
2 ( x – 1)( x – 2)( x – 3)  3 3 
dy
⇒ > 0, when x ∈ (1, 1.42) ∪ ( 3, ∞ )
dx
dy
< 0, when x ∈ (1.42 , 2)
dx
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y 2 = ( x – 1)( x – 2)( x – 3)

Thus, the curve
y
x
O 1 2 3
x=1 x=2 x=3

Fig. 3.20
EXAMPLE 4 Sketch the curve y 2x 2 = x 2 – a2.
x2 – a2
SOLUTION Here, y2=
x2
1. Symmetrical about both the axis.
3. x-intercepts are (a, 0) and (– a, 0)
The tangent at (a, 0) is x = a and the tangent at (– a, 0) is x = – a.
4. y = ± 1 are the two asymptotes.
x2 – a2
5. y =± ⇒ Domain ∈ (– ∞, – a] ∪ [ a, ∞ )
x
dy a2 dy
=± ⇒ > 0, when x ∈ (– ∞, – a) ∪ ( a, ∞ )
dx x2 x2 – a2 dx
x2 – a2
Thus, the curve for y 2 = is,
x2
y
asymptote
y=1
(0, 1)
2 2
y 2= x –2a
x
x
(–a, 0) O (a, 0)
y = –1
(0, –1) asymptote
x = –a x=a
Fig. 3.21
159

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EXAMPLE 5 Sketch the curve y 2 ( x 2 – 1) = 2x – 1.

2x – 1
SOLUTION Here, y2 =
x2 – 1
Play with Graphs
1. Symmetrical about x-axis.

1 
3. It meets x-axis in  , 0 and y-axis in (0, 1) and (0, – 1) respectively.
2 
1  1
The tangent at  , 0 is x= .
2  2
4. x = 1, x = – 1 and y = 0 are three asymptotes.
2x – 1  1
5. y 2 = ⇒ Domain ∈  – 1,  ∪ (1, ∞ )
x2 – 1  2
2x – 1 dy  –x2 + x + 1 
6. y = ± ⇒ =± 
x2 – 1 dx  ( 2x – 1) ( x – 1) 
1/ 2 2 3/ 2
dy  1
⇒ < 0 when x ∈  –1, ∪ (1, ∞ )
dx  2
∴ y is decreasing in its domain.
2x – 1
Thus, the graph for y 2 = 2 is,
x –1
y
2x – 1
y 2=
x 2– 1
(0, 1)
1
x
(–1, 0) O ( , 0) (1, 0) y=0
2
(asymptote)
asymptote
asymptote
(0, –1)
x = –1 x = 1/2 x = 1
Fig. 3.22
EXAMPLE 6 Sketch the curve :

( x 2 + y 2 ) x – a( x 2 – y 2 ) = 0; ( a > 0)
 a – x
SOLUTION Here, y2 = x2  
 a + x
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1. Symmetric about x-axis.
2. Origin lies on the curve and y = ± x are two tangents at origin. So, origin is node.
3. x-intercept are (0, 0) and (a, 0). The tangent at (a, 0) is x = a.
4. x = – a is the only asymptote.
a– x
5. y =±x
a+x
∴ Domain ∈ (– a, a]
y
dy a 2 – ax – x 2
6. =±
dx ( a + x) a 2 – x 2
nt
ge
asymptote
Tangent
dy  –1 + 5  Ta
n
⇒ > 0 , when x ∈  – a, a
dx  2 
. (–a, 0) (a, 0)
x
O
dy  –1 + 5 
⇒ < 0 , when x ∈ a, a . Ta
n
dx  2  ge
nt
Thus, the graph for

x = –a x=a
 a – x
y 2 = x2   as shown in Fig. 3.23. Fig. 3.23
 a + x
EXAMPLE 7 Sketch the curve x 3 + y 3 = 3ax 2 ( a > 0).
SOLUTION Here, x 3 + y 3 = 3ax 2

1. No line of symmetry.
2. Origin is cusp and x = 0 is tangent.
3. x-intercept, (0, 0) (3a, 0)
The tangent at (3a, 0) is x = 3a.
 a 2a
4. y = a – x is asymptote and the curve meets asymptote at  ,  .
3 3 
5. Here; x 3 + y 3 = 3ax 2
⇒ 3ax 2 > 0 (as, a > 0)
∴ x +y >0
3 3
i.e., x and y both cannot be negative (thus, curve would not lie in third quadrant).
dy
6. y2 = x ( 2a – x)
dx
dy
⇒ > 0, when x ∈ ( 0, 2a)
dx
dy
< 0, when x ∈ (– ∞, 0) ∪ ( 2a, ∞ )
dx
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lOMoARcPSD|33285710
Thus, the curve y 3 + x 3 = 3ax 2 is,

y
Tangent
x+
Play with Graphs
y=
a
Tangent
(0, a)
x
O (a, 0) (2a, 0) (3a, 0)
as x = 3a
ym
pt
ot
e
x+
y=
a
Fig. 3.24
EXAMPLE 8 Sketch the curve with parametric equation θ.

x = a(θ + sin θ), y = a(1 + cos θ); x ∈ (– π, π ).
SOLUTION Here, x = a(θ + sin θ) and y = a(1 + cos θ) gives the following table for x and y
with θ.
θ – π 0 π
x – aπ 0 aπ
y 0 2a 0
So, that we have,

– π≤θ≤ 0
⇒ (x, y) starting from (– aπ, 0) moves to the right and upwards to (0, 2a).
0≤ θ≤ π
⇒ the point (x, y) starting from (0, 2a) moves to the right and downward to ( aπ, 0).
dx
Also = a(1 + cos θ)
dθ
dy
and = – a sin θ
dθ
dx
Now, = 0 if θ = π, – π
dθ
dy tan θ
=– ,
dx 2
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lOMoARcPSD|33285710
dx

except for the values + π of θ for which = 0.
dθ
Also, tangent at θ = π and θ = – π are x = π and x = – π.
Thus, the curve for x = a (θ + sin θ) and y = a (1 + cos θ).
y
x
–π O π
Fig. 3.25
EXAMPLE 9 Sketch the curve : x 5 + y 5 = 5a 2 xy 2 .
SOLUTION Here;
1. The curve is symmetrical in opposite quadrants.
2. The curve passes through origin and x = 0, y = 0 are tangents. Thus, origin is node.
3. It meets coordinate axis at origin.
4. x + y = 0 is an asymptote.
5. On transfering to polar coordinates, we get.
5a 2 cos θ sin θ
r2=
cos 5 θ + sin 5 θ
π
when, θ = 0, r = 0 when, θ = , r = 0
2
π 3π 2
As θ increases from to , r is negative and hence, r is imaginary.
2 4
∴ no portion of the curve lies in this region.
3π 3π
At θ = , r = ∞ as θ increases from to π ⇒ r decreases from ∞ to 0.
4 4
∴ Curve x 5 + y 5 = 5a 2 xy 2
y
x 5+ y 5= 5a 2xy 2
x
O
as
ym
pt
ot
e
x+y=0
Fig. 3.26
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EXAMPLE 10 Sketch the curve y 4 – x 4 + xy = 0.
SOLUTION Here, y 4 – x 4 + xy = 0
1. No line of symmetry.
Play with Graphs
2. It passes through origin two tangents at (0, 0) as x = 0 and y = 0,

∴ origin is node.
3. It cuts the coordinate axes at the origin only.
4. y = x, y = – x are its asymptotes.
5. Converting into polar coordinates,
1
r 2 = tan 2 θ
2
π π
6. When, 0< θ< or 0 < 2 θ < ⇒ r 2 increases from 0 to ∞.
4 2
π π π
When, <θ< or < 2θ < π ⇒ r 2 is negative,
4 2 2
π π
∴ no curve when < θ < .
4 2
Hence, the curve
y
y=x
to te
y mp
as
x
O
as
ym
pto
te
y = –x
Fig. 3.27
164

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EXERCISE
Plot the Curves :
1. y = 1 + x 2 –
1 4
x . 24. y = (x + 1)2 / 3 + (x – 1)2 / 3
2 25. y 2 = 8x 2 – x 4
2. y = (x + 1)(x – 2)2
26. y 2 = (x – 1)(x – 2)(x – 3)
2 1 1 5
3. y = x – x 3 + x . x –1
5 2 10 27. y 2 =
x +1
4. y = (1 – x 2 )–1
x 2 (1 – x )
x4 28. y =
2
5. y = (1 + x )2
(1 + x )3
29. y 2 = x 4 (x + 1)
(1 + x )4
6. y = 30. x 2 (y – 2)2 + 2xy – y 2 = 0
(1 – x )4
1 1
x 2 (x – 1) 31. x = (t + 1)2 , y = (t – 1)2
7. y = 4 4
(x + 1)2 t2 1
x 32. x = , y =
8. y = 1– t2 1+ t2
(1– x 2 )2
t2 t
1 33. x = , y = 2
9. y = 2x – 1 + t –1 t –1
(x + 1)
34. x = – 5 t 2 + 2 t 5 , y = – 3 t 2 + 2 t 3
x2 + 1
10. y = 2 t2+ 1 t
x –1 35. x = , y =
4(1 – t ) t +1
a 2x
11. y = (t + 2)2 (t – 2)2
a + x2
2
36. x = , y =
(t + 1) t –1
a + x 
12. y 2 = x 2   t – t2 t2– t3
b – x  37. x = , y =
8a 3 1+ t 2
1+ t 2
13. y = 38. x + y = 3 axy , where a > 0.
3 3
x + 4a 2
2
cos x 39. (x – a )2 (x 2 + y 2 ) = b 2x 2 , where a, b > 0.

14. y =
cos 2x 40. x 2/ 3
+y 2/ 3
=a 2/ 3
, where a > 0
1– x 2 1– x 2 41. x + 2x y = y
6 3 3
15. y = arc cos  2
= cos–1  
1+ x  1+ x 2 42. 4y 2 = 4x 2y + x 5
16. y = arc sin (sin x ) = sin (sin x )
–1
43. x 4 + 2y 3 = 4x 2y
17. y = sin (arc sin x ) 44. x 3 – 2 x 2y – y 2 = 0
18. y = arc tan (tan x ) 45. x 2y 2 + y = 1
 1 46. x 3 + y 3 = 3x 2
19. y = arc tan  
x 
47. y 5 + x 4 = xy 2
20. y = (x + 2) e1/ x
48. x 4 – y 4 + xy = 0
1
21. y = ( x 2 + x + 1 – x 2 – x + 1) 49. x 5 + y 5 = xy 2
2
22. y = x 2 + 1 – x 2 – 1 50. x = a sin 2 θ (1 + cos 2 θ ),
y = a cos 2 θ (1– cos 2 θ )
23. y = (x + 2)2 / 3 – (x – 2)2 / 3
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Hints and Solutions

Play with Graphs
INTRODUCTION OF GRAPHS
y y
1. (i) (ii)
y = x 2; x > 0 3
2
y = 1/4 1
x x
–3 –2 –1 0 1
–1
–1 –2
–3
x <0
– 1;
y =x
2. (i) y (ii) y
4
y=
–2 2x 3
x 2 y=
y=
3x
y=2
4
y=
–
x x
–2 –1 0 1 2 1
x
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
–2x ; x < –1

Here; f(x ) =  2; –1 ≤ x ≤ 1
 2x ; x >1

(iii) y y
(iv)
5
4 1
3 x
–1 0 1
2
–1
1
x
–1 0 1 2 3 x 4 ; –1 < x <1
Here, f(x ) = 
 x ; x ≤ – 1 or x ≥ 1
– x ; –1≤x <0
– x + 1 ; 0 ≤ x < 1

Here, f(x ) = x ; 1≤x<2
x + 1 ; 2≤ x < 3

5; x=3
166

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
y = x2 + x + 1
Hints and Solutions

3. We know, is shown as;
y
y
neg
f (x)
lec (0, 1)
ting
f –1 (x)
3/4 (1,0)
x
–1/2 0 x 0 3/4
–1/2
neglecting
Graph for f (x) Graph for f –1(x)
1
From above figures it is clear that the graph would exists only when; x≥– .
2
1
i.e., inverse for f(x ) = x 2 + x + 1 would exists only when x≥– .
2
4.
y
0
;x>
2x 2 ; x ≥ 0
2x 2
2
Here, f(x ) = 
y=
0; x≤0
y = 0; x < 0
x
–2 –1 0 1
5. y
Here, f(x ) = [[ x] – x] = [ x] + [– x]
1 x – x; x ∈ integer
=
[ x] + (– 1 – [ x]); x ∉ integer
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4  0; x ∈ integer
=
–1 – 1; x ∉ integer
6. y From figure;
(α, tan–1)
π/2 Slope of OP < Slope of OQ.
(1, π/4) y = tan–1x
π/4 P π
Q –0
4 tan –1 α – 0
⇒ <
1–0 α–0
O α 1 x
tan –1 α π
⇒ > .
α 4
167

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
y
4 (π, π)
π
3
y = cos–1 (cos x)
2
Play with Graphs
1
x
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 π4 5 2π
–1
–2
–3
–4
Clearly, the above curves intersect at 5 points;

∴ number of solutions = 5.
8. y
π
x
0 1 2 3 4 3π
2
–1
From above figure, number of solutions is infinite.
x2 y
9. Clearly; ≤1
x –1
or x 2 ≤| x – 1|
1
x
2
 –1 – 5 –1 + 5 
<
Ix–
⇒ x ∈ , .
2 
1I
 2 x
–√5–1 O √5–1 1
2 2
10. Here, x 3 = 3 + [ x] y
∴ to sketch f(x ) = x 3
4
and g(x ) = 3 + [ x] 3
2
Clearly; from figure the two curves f(x )and g(x )intersects 1
when g(x ) = 4. x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2
∴ f(x ) = 4 –1
⇒ x3 = 4
or x = 22 / 3 .
168

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
Hints and Solutions

CURVATURE AND TRANSFORMATIONS
1. (i) (ii) y
2
2 y = |2 – |x – 1||
x
–1 1 3 –1 O 1 3
–2 y=2– 4
|x – 1|
x=1
(iii) y (iv) y
x
–1 O 3
x
–1 O 1 2 3
–2 4 y = 2– 4
|y | = 2 – |x – 1|
|x – 1|
x=1
(v) y (vi) y
2 1
x
– log 2 O log 2
x
O 1 3
–1 4 y = e |x | – 2
|y | = 2 –
|x – 1|
–2
x=1
(vii) y (viii) y
x
–log 2 O log 2
x
O 1 2 3 4
–1
y = x – [x]
| y | = e |x | – 2 169

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
(ix) y (x) y
1 1
Play with Graphs
x x
O 1 2 3 4 O 1 2 3 4
y = √x – [x] y = (x – [x])2
(xi) y (xii) y
1 1
x x
–1 O 1 2 3 4 –1 O 1 2 3 4
–1 –1
|y | = (x – [x])2
|y | = √x – [x]
(xiii) y (xiv) y
y = –2x 2 y = 2x 2
y=2
x
x –1 O 1
–1 O 1
y = |x – 1| + |x + 1|
|y | = |x – 1| + |x + 1|
–2
(xv) y (xvi) y
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
x
O 1 2 3 4
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4
y = [|x – 1|] –1
–2
–3
–4
|y | = [|x – 1|]
170

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
(xvii) y (xviii) y
Hints and Solutions

5
5
4 x+2
–x + 2 4 x+2
3
3
2 x+1 –x + 1 x+1
2
1
1
x
x –x x
–2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 x
–3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3
–1
x–1
–2
y = |x| + [|x|]
|y | = x + [x]
(xix) y (xx) y
5 5
4 x+2 4 x+2
3 3
2 x+1 x+1
2
1
1
x x
x x
O 1 2 3 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
O
–1 –1
–2 –2
–3 –3
–4 –4
–5 –5
|y | = x + [x] |y | = |x | + [|x |]
2. (i) y
1 y=1
sin x
x
–2π –π O π 2π 3π
y = √sin x
171

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
(ii) y
Play with Graphs
x
–2π –π O π 2π 3π
|y| = √sin x
(iii)
y
√2
1
x
3π –π π O π π 3π
– –
2 2 2 2
y = |sin x| + |cos x|
(iv) y (v) y
2
2
1
1
x
5π 3π – π O π 3π
– – 2 –1 2 x
2 2 2 O π/2 π 3π/2 2π
–2
|y | = cos x + |cos x|
–1
y = sin2x – 2 sin x
10.
(vi) y
3/2
1/2
x
–3π/2 –π –π/2 O π/2 π 3π/2 2π
y = 2sin x
172

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
Hints and Solutions

(vii) y (viii) y
x
–2π 3π –π – π O π π 3π 2π 5π 3π π O π
x
– –
3π – 3π
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
(ix) y it only represents points

y = log2|sin x|
x
–2π – 3π –π O π π 2π 5π 3π
2 2 2
y = logsin x1/2
(x) y
x
–2π 3π –π O π π 2π 5π 3π
– 2
2 2
|y| = logsin x1/2
3. y 4. y
π/2 1
–3
x
x –2 –1 O 1 2 3
–1 O 1
1 – x2
y = sin–1 –1
1 + x2 y=
2x
–π/2 1 + x2
173

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
5. (i) y (ii) y
1
Play with Graphs
x x
–2 O 2 O
–|x |
y=e
y = x 2 – 2|x |
(iii) y (iv) y
x x
O O
y = e |x |
|y | = x
(v) y (vi) y
x
x O
–1 O 1
x = y 2+ 1
3
y=x –x
6. y
x
–2 –1 O 1 2
y = f (x –1) + f (x + 1)
7. (i) y (ii) y
x
O
y= 1
–2 O 2 x
x–2
–2 1
y=
|x | – 2
174

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
(iii) y (iv) y
Hints and Solutions

2
2
x x
–2 O 2 –2 O 2
–2 1
|y | =
|x | – 2
1
y=
|x | – 2
8. y 9. y
2 |log|x ||
x
O π 2π
x
O
sin πx
–2
Since, 2 cos x and|sin x |, intersects at two points for From above figure we have six solutions.
x ∈[ 0, 2π ].
∴ number of solutions are four when x ∈[ 0, 4π ].
x 0 π/6 π/2 5π / 6 x2  3π  3π  3π  x4 2π
 x 2,   , x 4
 2 2  2 
y′ 0 –2 0 9/8 0 9/8
y′′ –3 3 0 3 3 0 – 0 + 0 –
2 2
3√3
4
0
y 1 0 – 3√15 3√15 1
– 3√3 16 16
4
1
1 y= sin 2 x + cos x,
2
periodic with period 2 π.
x
O π π 5π π 3π 2π
6 2 6 2
–1
175

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
ASYMPTOTES, SINGULAR POINTS AND CURVE TRACING

Play with Graphs
1. y 2. y
1 4 y = (x + 1) (x – 2)2
y=1+x2 – x
2
x x
–1 – 1 O 1 1 (√1 + √3 , 0) (–1, 0) O (1, 0) (2, 0)
√3 √3
3. y 4. y
2 x – 1x3 + 1 x5
y=
5 2 10
x
x (–1, 0) (1, 0)
–1 O 1 2
5. y 6. y
y=x–3
1
x
–4 –1
x
–1 O 1
176

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
7. y 8. y
Hints and Solutions

–3 +√17
O 2
x
–3 –√17 –1
2
x
–1 O 1
x = –1 x=1
9. y y = 2x – 1 10. y
–1 + 1
√2 y=1
x 1
–1 1 O 1
– x
2 2 –1 O 1
–1
–1
x = –1 x=1
11. y 12. y
(–√3a, 0) (–a, 0)
x
O (a, 0) (√3a, 0) x
(–a, 0) O (b, 0)
x=b
177

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
13. y 14. y
(0 , 2a)
y = 2a
Play with Graphs
π x
3π π O 3π
– –
x 4 4 4 4
O
15. y 16. y
π
2
π
x
–π π O π π
–
2 2 2
π
–
x 2
O 1
17. y 18. y
x
x π π
–1 O –
1 2 2
–1
19. y 20. y y=x+3
π
2
x
O
π
–
2
x
–2 –1 O 2
178

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
21. y 22. y
Hints and Solutions

1/2
x
O
x
–1 O 1
–1/2
23. y 24. y
x
–2 O 2 x
–1 O 1
25. y 26. y
x x
– 8 –2 O 2 8 O
1
2–
3
27. y 28. y
x
–1 O 1
x
O
–3 + √17
2
179

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
29. y 30. y
10
3
Play with Graphs
4
x 2
– O
5
x
–1 O 1 5/4
4 2 2
– +
5 5 3
31. y 32. y
1
1/2
x x
O 1 –1
33. y 34. y
63
19
– 16
16 O
x x
1/2 4
y= – 3
x
2 4
35. y 36. y
1
x
4 16
1/2
3
x
O 1/4 –4
– 16
180 3

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
Hints and Solutions

37. y 38. y
x
O 3√2a 3√4a
x
x+
√2 – 1 –1 O √2 – 1
–
y+
2 2
a
=
0
39. y 40. y
x x
O a–b a a+b –a O a
–a
41. y 42. y
x x
O –1 – 24 O
25
43. y 44. y
x – 1
y=
2 8
x
1 4 x
√2 3√3 –
9 –1
8
181

lOMoARcPSD|33285710
45. y 46. y
1
Play with Graphs
x x
–1/4 O 1/4 O 1 2 3
y=
–x
+1
47. y 48. y
y=x
x
x O
y=
–x
49. y 50. y
–3√3a , a 3 √3a , a
4 4 4 4
x
O x
O
y= – √3a , – 3a √3a , – 3a
–x 4 4
4 4
(0, 2a)
182

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Mathematics (Delhi Public School, Damanjodi)

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

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ARIHANT PRAKASHAN (Series), MEERUT

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ARIHANT PRAKASHAN (Series), MEERUT

Administrative & Production Offices

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It is a matter of great pleasure and pride for me to introduce to you this

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1. INTRODUCTION TO GRAPHS 1-50

2. CURVATURE AND TRANSFORMATIONS 51-137

3. ASYMPTOTES, SINGULAR POINTS

HINTS & SOLUTIONS 166-182

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Fractional part function

FUNCTIONS Least integer function

Inverse trigonometric curves

1.1 ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS

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Some of basic polynomial functions are y

A function f defined by f ( x) = x for all x ∈ R, is called the

identity function. 45°

(iii) Graph of f (x) = x 3 Fig. 1.2

(iv) Graph of f (x) = x 2 n ; n ∈ N

(v) Graph of f (x) = x 2 n −1; n ∈ N

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Here, comparison of values of x, x 3 , x 5 ,… y=x 5 y=x 3

x ∈ ( −∞, − 1) x > x3 > x5 > …

Also, as y→∞ as lim f ( x) or lim f ( x) .

and y→0 as lim f ( x).

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symmetrical in opposite quadrants.

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(ii) Graph of f (x) = x1/ 3 y=x3

As discussed above, if g( x) = x 3 . Then f ( x) = x1/3 y =x1/3

Note We have discussed some of the simple curves –1

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Properties of modulus functions x

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Properties of fractional part of x

Properties of least integer function Fig. 1.20

Note We shall discuss the curves:

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1.2 TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS

(a) Sine function

(–π, –1) (π, –1)

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(c) Tangent function

(d) Cosecant function

y = cosec x y = cosec x y = cosec x

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Here, domain of y = cosec x is,

as shown in Fig. 1.26.

The function y = sec x is periodic with period 2 π .

(f) Cotangent function

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and they can be shown as;

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