CONTENTS

1. ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENT 5. CONTROL SYSTEM

1. Error Analysis and Measurement 3 1. Block Diagram Representation and Signal Flow graph 93
2. Basic Instruments 7 2. Time Response Analysis 96
3. Measurement of Resistance and AC Bridges 12 3. Stability Analysis (Routh Stability) 99
4. Measurement of Energy and Power 19 4. Root Locus 101
5. CRO and Electronic Measurement 22 5. Frequency Domain Analysis 103
6. Instrument Transformers 25 6. Controller and Compensator 105
7. Transducer 26 6. NETWORK THEORY

2. POWER SYSTEM 1. Basic Concepts 109

2. Graph Theory 116
1. Power Plant 33
3. Network Theorem 118
2. Transmission Line Parameter 37
4. AC Fundamentals 121
3. Performance of Transmission Line 40
5. Resonance 125
4. Corona 45
6. Magnetic Circuits 129
5. Power System Transients 46
7. Two Port Network 133
6. Cables and Insulator 48
7. HVDC 51 7. BASIC ELECTRONICS
8. Symmetrical Component and Fault Analysis 52 1. Semiconductor Physics 139
9. Switch Gear and Protection 55 2. Semiconductor Diode 149
10. Power System Stability 60 3. Bipolar Junction Transistor 153
11. Load Flow Studies 62 4. Field Effect Transistor 157
12. Economic Load Dispatch 63
8. DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
3. ESTIMATION AND COSTING
1. Number System 163
1. Electrical Estimation and Costing 67 2. Boolean Algebra and Minimization Techniques 167
3. Logic Gates and Circuits 172
4. SIGNAL AND SYSTEM
4. Combinational Circuits 178
1. Introduction to Signals 73 5. Sequential Circuits 185
2. Linear Time Invariant Systems 77 6. A/D and D/A Converters 191
3. Fourier Series 80
9. POWER ELECTRONICS
4. Fourier Transform 83
5. Laplace Transform 85 1. Power Semiconductor Devices 199
6. Z-Transform 87 2. Thyristor 203
3. Rectifier 207 12. UTILIZATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY
4. Chopper 214
5. Inverter 217 1. Illumination 279
6. AC-AC Converters 222 2. Electric Welding 284
3. Electric Heating 286
 PPLICATION OF COMPUTER SOFTWARES IN
10. A
4. Electric Traction 289
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
5. Electric Drives 292
1. Softwares Used In Electrical Engineering 227
6. Electrolysis 294
2. MATLAB 229
3. Autocad 234 13. MICROPROCESSOR AND MICROCONTROLLER
4. Simulink 236
1. Microprocessor 297
11. ELECTRICAL MACHINES 2. Microcontroller 302
1. Transformers 241
14. PLC AND SCADA
2. Induction Machine 249
3. DC Machine 257 1. Programmable Logic Controller 307
4. Synchronous Machine 268 2. SCADA 309
 1
Error Analysis
CHAPTER

and Measurement

ERROR ANALYSIS Instrumental Error

These errors arise due to three main reasons.
Types of Errors
1. Due to inherent shortcoming in the instrument.
Basically, three types of errors are studied:
Example: If the spring used in permanent magnet
1. Gross Errors instrument becomes weak then instrument will always read
2. Systematic Errors high. Errors may be caused because of friction, hysteresis,
3. Random Errors or even gear backlash.
Error 2. Due to misuse of the instruments.
3. Due to Loading effects of instruments.
Gross Error Systematic Error Random Error 4. Calibration error
5. Ageing effect error
Instrumental Environmental Observational Environmental Error
Error Error Error
• These errors are due to conditions external to the
Loading measuring Device including conditions in the surrounding
Effect instruments.
Misuse of • These may be effects of Temperature, Pressure, Humidity,
Instruments Dust, Vibrations or of external magnetic or electrostatic
fields.
Inherent shortcomings
of Instrumental Observational Error
There are many sources of observational errors:
Gross Error
• Parallax, i.e., Apparent displacement when the line of
Gross Errors mainly covers the human mistakes in reading vision is not normal to the scale.
instruments and recording and calculating measurement results. • Inaccurate estimate of average reading.
Example: Due to oversight, the read of Temperature as 31.5° • Wrong scale reading and wrong recording the data.
while the actual reading may be 21.5°. • Incorrect conversion of units between consecutive reading.
Gross Errors may be of any amount and then their mathematical Random Error
analysis is impossible. Then these are avoided by adopting two
means: The quantity being measured is affected by many happenings
in the universe. The errors caused by happening or disturbances
1. Great care is must in reading and recording the data.
about which we are unaware are Random Errors. It’s also known
2. Two, Three or even more reading should be taken for the as residual Errors. We can’t estimate this error by normal process.
quantity under measurement.
Systematic Error Static Correction
Systematic Errors are classified into three categories: It is a value which is added or subtracted from measured value
to get actual value.
1. Instrumental Errors
2. Environmental Errors δc = Atrue – Ameasured
3. Observational Errors Characteristic of measuring instrument
Average Deviation Percentage static is given by the equation shown below:
• The average deviation is an indication of the precision of %∈r = ∈r × 100
the instruments used in making the measurements. At = Am – ∈r At
• Average deviation is the sum of the absolute values of the Am
deviation divided by the number of readings. At =
1+ ∈r

d1  d 2  d3 ...  d n  di Where, At = true value

D=  (For n > 20) Am = Measured value
n n
Standard Deviation Static Correction
• It is the difference between the true value and the measured
By definition, the standard deviation σ of an infinite number of
value of the quantity or opposite to static error.
data is the square root of the sum of all the individual deviations
dc = – dA = At – Am
squared, divided by the number of readings.
% Guaranteed Accuracy Error
Mathematically:
• When accuracy is expressed in terms of error, it is called
d12 + d 22 + d32 + ... + d n2 ∑ di2 percentage guaranteed accuracy error.
s= = (For n < 20)
n n • % GAE is expressed with respect to full scale deflection
In practice, of course, the possible number of observations is of meter.
finite. The standard deviation of a finite number of data is given • It is called a constant error for meter.
by • It is fixed by manufacturer.
Limiting Error
d12 + d 22 + d32 + …+ d n2 ∑ di2
s= = • Limiting Error is defined as the maximum deviation either
n −1 n −1
in positive side or negative side in the measurement by an
Variance instrument from the nominal value or true value.
• Variance or mean square deviation, which is the same as • Let us assume that the true value or nominal value of a
the standard deviation except that the square root is not quantity is At and the measured value by the instrument
extracted. is Am, then.
• Variance, V = mean square deviation = (σ)2 • Limiting Error ∆A = (Am – At).
• For example, the nominal value of a resistor is 100 Ω with
Note: a limiting error of ±10 Ω. The magnitude of measurement
0.4769 will be between the limits, (100 ±10) Ω i.e., 90 and
• Probable error = 0.6745σ or (where h is precision 110 Ω. Thus, the measurement of resistor by the instrument
h
is guaranteed to be between 90 & 110 Ω.
index)
σ % Limiting error
• Standard deviation mean, σm = ( Am − At )
n % Limiting
= error × 100
At
σ
• Standard deviation of Standard deviation = σσ = % limiting error is a variable error
2
Composite Error
x1 = a ± %ε r1
RELATIVE STATIC ERROR AND
% STATIC ERROR x2 = b ± %ε r2

The quality of measurement is provided by the relative static x3 = c ± %ε r3

error, i.e., the ratio of absolute static error (∆A) to the true value (a) Additional/Subtraction
of the quantity under measurement (At). Therefore the relative
x = x1 ± x2 ± x3
static error is given by
% Limiting Errors
absolute error Am − At ∆A  a b c 

=∈r = = (εx) = ±  ε r1 + εr + εr %
true value At At a + b+ c a + b + c 2 a + b + c 3 

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 3
Measurement
CHAPTER

of Resistance
and AC Bridges
MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE  R 
True value of resistance,
= R R m 1 − a 
Measurement of Low Resistance  Rm 

P P′ Rm − R Ra
Relative error,
= εr =
R R
Voltmeter on Load Side
I IR
R A

A A′
(4 terminal represent) V V R

R < 1Ω

• A and A′current terminals

• P and P′ voltage terminals Measured value of resistance,
V V V R
Method for Low Resistance R m= = = =
I I R + IV V /Rv 1 + R /Rv
• Potentiometer method
• Ammeter-voltmeter method
 1 
• Kelvin Double bridge method True value of resistance, R = R m  
 1 − R / R
m v 
Ammeter-Voltmeter Method If Rv ≫ Rm then Rm/Rv is very small.
Ammeter on Load Side  R 
∴=R Rm 1 + m 
Va  Rv 
A
Rm − R Rm2
Relative error,
= εr =
R Rv R
V V VR R If Rm ≈ R then
R
ε r =−
Rv

Voltage across the ammeter, Va = IRa (where Ra is resistance of Note: The relative error of above two cases are equal when
ammeter)
Ra R
Rm is the measured value of resistance =
R Rv

V VR + Va IR + IRa
R = = = = R + Ra R = Ra Rv
m I I I
Kelvin Double Bridge PS
B R =
Q
VS (∆R)
Deflection of galvanometer (for small unbalance), θ = Sv
P Q where Sv is voltage sensitivity. ( R + S )2
G
Bridge Sensitivity
E SvV
SB =
P Q
p q +2+
Q P

For a bridge with equal arms, R = S = P = Q

A C
R D r S SV
S = v
Test link Standard B 4
resistance resistance resistance
Ohmmeter
M
We use Ohmmeter to determine approximate resistance of circuit
components. Ohmmeter is aid to precision bridge laboratories
V
because it is convenient to measure resistance directly.
PS qr P p
R= +  −  Series Ohmmeter
Q p + q + r Q q 
R1
Im I1
Note: We short link resistance (r = 0) to convert kelvin bridge I2 A
into wheat stone bridge.
R2
Rm Unknown Rx
Measurement of Medium Resistance resistor
1Ω < R < 100 kΩ Basic
meter Battery B

R E I – Im = Ish

It consists of d’Arsonval movement connected in parallel with

1 1′ shunt resistance R2. This parallel circuit is in series with resistance
R1 and a battery of emf E. The series circuit is connected to
Method for Medium Resistance
terminal A and B of the unknown resistance Rx.
• Wheatstone Bridge Method
• Substitution Method When Rx = 0 Ω then position of the pointer is marked 0 Ω (short
• Voltmeter – Ammeter Method circuit condition).
• Ohmmeter method When Rx = ∞ Ω then the current in the meter drop to zero and
Wheatstone Bridge position of the pointer is marked 0 Ω (open side condition).
A
Shunt Ohmmeter
I1 I2 S
R1 I1 Ix A
Ig
V B G C
Im
P R E Basic Rx
meter Rm
D
Circuit diagram
S B
P Measurement of Resistance and AC Bridges 13
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 1
CHAPTER

Microprocessor

MICROPROCESSOR Interpreter
• Microprocessor is an integrated chip that fetch instructions • It is a software which reads one instruction at a time from
from the memory and provides results by executing them. source code and produce its object code.
Microprocessor Bit of Memory Technology Note:
Microprocessor Capacity Bit – Short form of Binary digit, it may be 0 or 1.
4004 4 bits 640 B PMOS 1 Nibble = 4 bits
8085 8 bits 64 KB NMOS 1 Byte = 8 bits
8086 16 bits 1 MB HMOS
8085 MICROPROCESSOR
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
X1 1 40 VCC (+5V)
Crystal Input 2
Programming Languages X2 39 HOLD
Reset out 3 38 HLDA
SOD 4 37 CLK (out)
Serial I/O port 36
Low-Level Language Middle-Level Language High-Level Language SID 5 RESET IN
TRAP 6 35 READY
Machine Language C Language Python, JAVA, PASCAL, 7 34
RST 7.5 IO/M
Assembly Language .NET, FORTRAN, COBOL, PROLOG
Interrupt signals RST 6.5 8 33 S1
9 32
Low Level Languages RST 5.5 RD
INTR 10 31 Control and
WR

80 85
INTA 11 30 ALE Status signal
• It is platform specific language. AD 0 12 29 S0
For example, Machine Language and Assembly Language. AD 1 13 28 A15
AD 2 14 27 A14
Machine Language Multiplexed AD 3 15 26 A13
address/data bus AD 4 16 25 A12
• Its instructions are written in binary pattern. AD 5 17 24 A11 Address Bus
AD 6 18 23 A10
Assembly Language AD 7 19 22 A9
• In this language binary patterns are replaced by mnemonics VSS (GND) 20 21 A8

i.e., short English word.

Note:
Assembler
• It is an 8-bit microprocessor.
• It is a software that converts assembly language into
• It is based on NMOS technology.
machine language.
• Total number of memory location that can interfaced
High Level Languages with 8085 is 64 K location. Therefore, its memory
capacity is 64 KB.
• These are platform independent languages.
• It has 40-pin integrated chip.
Compiler • Inward pins = 21 and Outward pins = 27
• It reads the whole program at once and produce its object • It has 16-bit unidirectional address bus and 8-bit
code which is machine understandable language that means bidirectional data bus.
converts high level language program into machine level
• Clock frequency is 3 MHz.
language.
Address and Data bus • Memory capacity = (2N × d) bits
• 16-bit unidirectional address bus and 8-bit bidirectional
data bus. Where, N = No. of address bus
• Lower 8-pins of address bus are multiplexed with data
bus (AD0 – AD7). d = No. of data bus

Control and Status pin

0 – Transfer of data from memory 0 → AD7 – AD0 (Data bus)
IO/ M – ALE (Address latch enable) –
1 – Transfer of data from I/O devices 1 → A16 – A8 (Address bus)

WR = 0 → Perform write operation Note:

RD = 0 → Perform read operation
Maskable interrupt: TRAP
• In 8085, five pins are active low.
Non-maskable interrupt: RST 7.5, RST 6.5, RST 5.5, INTR
Serial I/O pins Vectored interrupt: TRAP, RST 7.5, RST 6.5, RST 5.5
Non-vectored interrupt: INTR
• These pins are used to transfer the data serially by the use • RST 0, RST 1, RST 2, RST 3, RST 4, RST 5, RST 6,
of RIM and SIM instructions. RST 7 are software interrupts.
SID = 1 → Serial input data
HOLD
SOD = 0 → Serial output data
• It is used by another controller to request the microprocessor
to use address, data and control signal.
Externally Initiated Signals
HLDA
Interrupt Signals • It is hold acknowledgement signal.
• In 8085, there are five pins of hardware interrupts.
READY
• Priority order: TRAP > RST 7.5 > RST 6.5 > RST 5.5
• If READY is high then it indicates that the processor is
> INTR
ready to send or receive data.
• TRAP has highest priority and INTR has lowest priority.
• TRAP is also known as RST 4.5. RESET IN
• TRAP is edge and level triggered. • Used to reset the program counter.

INTERNAL ARCHITECTURE OF 8085

• Register unit
• Timing and control unit
• Interrupt control unit

Register Unit
Register

General purpose register Special purpose register

• These are 8-bit registers.

B, C, D, E, H, L
User accessible
Accumulator (8-bit)
Flag register (8-bit)
Stack pointer (16-bit)
Program counter (16-bit)
Not accessible for user
Temporary register (8-bit)
Interrupt register (8-bit)
Latches (16-bit)

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 Note: Note:
In 8085, there are eight 8-bit register and two 16-bit register • For the storage of 16-bit data two registers are combined
in pair such as BC, DE, HL pair.
Accumulator • Higher byte of 16-bit data always stored in higher order
• All arithmetic and logical operations are performed in register. Whereas lower order byte of data store in lower
accumulator and the result is stored in the accumulator. order register.
Flag register
• In 8085, five flags are defined at the different bits of flag INSTRUCTIONS IN 8085
registers.
D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 Flowchart of Program Execution
S Z  AC  P  CY
Start
Sign flag Auxiliary Parity flag Carry flag
Zero flag Carry flag

16-bit address of instruction to be

Note:
fetch given by processor
• Status of flag is affected according to the result of
arithmetic and logic operation.
• If in the result of accumulator,
Number is positive, S = 0 Fetching of instructions from memory
Number is negative, S = 1
If all bits are zero, Z = 1
Any bit is one, Z = 0 Decode
If number of one’s are even, P = 1
Number of one’s are odd, P = 0
If carry is present at MSB, CY = 1 otherwise, CY = 0
Execute
If carry passes from lower nibble to upper nibble
(D3 → D4), AC = 1 otherwise, AC = 0

Stack Pointer Instructions

• It is a 16-bit special purpose register. • Command that is given to microprocessor to perform a
• Stack pointer holds the address of top of the stack that task.
defined inside the memory. Instruction = Opcode + Operand
Program Counter
• It is 16-bit special purpose register that holds the address Operational Code On which data operation is performed
of next instruction to be fetched.
PSW (Program Status Word)
Which type of task to be performed
• It is a 16-bit register in which higher 8-bit are accumulator
and lower 8-bit are flag register.
PSW
TYPES OF INSTRUCTIONS IN 8085
• Data transfer instructions
A F
• Arithmetic and logical instructions

Accumulator • Branching and conditional instructions

Flag • Machine control instructions
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Data Transfer Instructions
Instruction Opcode Operand Machine cycle T-States No. of Bytes
MOV Rd, Rs: Move the data from source register Rs to destination register Rd. MOV Rd, Rs 1 4 1
MVI Rd, 8-bit data: Move immediate 8-bit data to MVI Rd, 8-bit data 2 7 2
destination register Rd.
LXI Rp, 16-bit data: Load immediate register pair with 16-bit data. LXI Rp, 16-bit data 3 10 3
STA 16-bit address: Store accumulator with the data whose address is given STA 16-bit address 4 13 3
in the instruction.
LDA 16-bit address: Load the accumulator with the data whose address is LDA 16-bit address 4 13 3
given in the instruction.
LDAX Rp: Load the accumulator with the data whose address is given in the LDAX Rp 4 13 3
register pair Rp.

Arithmetic and Logical Instructions

Instruction Opcode Operand Machine cycle T-States No. of Bytes
ADD R: Add the data of given register to the accumulator. ADD R 1 4 1
ADI 8-bit data: Add immediate the 8-bit data to the accumulator. ADI 8-bit data 2 7 2
ADC R: Add the data of given register to accumulator with carry. ADC R 1 4 1
ACI 8-bit data: Add immediate the 8-bit data to accumulator with carry. ACI 8-bit data 2 7 2
SUB R: Subtract the data given in a register from accumulator. SUB R 1 4 1
CMP R: Compare the data of given register with accumulator. CMP R 1 4 1
CMA: Complement of accumulator. CMA – 1 4 1
ORA R: Logical OR operation of the data in given register with accumulator. ORA R 1 4 1
ANA R: Logical AND operation of the data in given register with accumulator. ANA R 1 4 1
XRA R: Logical XOR operation of the data in given register with accumulator. XRA R 1 4 1
ORI 8-bit data: Logical OR operation of 8-bit data immediately with ORI 8-bit data 2 7 2
accumulator.
ANI 8-bit data: Logical AND operation of 8-bit data immediately with ANI 8-bit data 2 7 2
accumulator.
XRI 8-bit data: Logical XOR operation of 8-bit data immediately with XRI 8-bit data 2 7 2
accumulator.
Branching and Conditional Instructions
Instruction Opcode Operand Machine cycle T-States No. of Bytes
CALL 16-bit address: Unconditional subroutine call. CALL 16-bit address 5 18 3
RET: Unconditionally return from subroutine. RET – 3 10 1
JMP 16-bit address: Jump unconditionally at the given location. JMP 16-bit address 3 10 3
Machine Control Instructions
Instruction Opcode Operand Machine cycle T-States No. of Bytes
PUSH Rp: Push register pair on to the stack. PUSH Rp 3 12 1
POP Rp: Pop of the stack to the register pair. POP Rp 3 10 1
RIM: Read Interrupt Mask RIM – 1 4 1
SIM: Set Interrupt Mask SIM – 1 4 1
IN 8-bit address: Input data to the accumulator from the given 8-bit address. IN 8-bit address 3 10 2
OUT 8-bit address: Output data from the accumulator to the given 8-bit address. OUT 8-bit address 3 10 2
HLT: Stop the operation of processor. HLT – 1 4/5 1

Addressing Modes
Register Addressing Mode
• The address of the data given in the form of register.
Example: MOV B, C

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