Electromagnetism

In physics, electromagnetism is an
interaction that occurs between particles
with electric charge via electromagnetic
fields. The electromagnetic force is one of
the four fundamental forces of nature. It is
the dominant force in the interactions of
atoms and molecules. Electromagnetism can
be thought of as a combination of
electrostatics and magnetism, two distinct
but closely intertwined phenomena.
Electromagnetic forces occur between any
two charged particles, causing an attraction
between particles with opposite charges and
repulsion between particles with the same
charge, while magnetism is an interaction
that occurs exclusively between charged
particles in relative motion. These two
effects combine to create electromagnetic
fields in the vicinity of charged particles,
which can accelerate other charged particles
via the Lorentz force. At high energy, the
weak force and electromagnetic force are
unified as a single electroweak force.
 Electromagnetic interactions are responsible for the
glowing filaments in this plasma globe

The electromagnetic force is responsible for

many of the chemical and physical
phenomena observed in daily life. The
electrostatic attraction between atomic
nuclei and their electrons holds atoms
together. Electric forces also allow different
atoms to combine into molecules, including
the macromolecules such as proteins that
form the basis of life. Meanwhile, magnetic
interactions between the spin and angular
momentum magnetic moments of electrons
also play a role in chemical reactivity; such
relationships are studied in spin chemistry.
Electromagnetism also plays a crucial role in
modern technology: electrical energy
production, transformation and distribution;
light, heat, and sound production and
detection; fiber optic and wireless
communication; sensors; computation;
electrolysis; electroplating; and mechanical
motors and actuators.

Electromagnetism has been studied since

ancient times. Many ancient civilizations,
including the Greeks and the Mayans created
wide-ranging theories to explain lightning,
static electricity, and the attraction between
magnetized pieces of iron ore. However, it
wasn't until the late 18th century that
scientists began to develop a mathematical
basis for understanding the nature of
electromagnetic interactions. In the 18th and
19th centuries, prominent scientists and
mathematicians such as Coulomb, Gauss
and Faraday developed namesake laws
which helped to explain the formation and
interaction of electromagnetic fields. This
process culminated in the 1860s with the
discovery of Maxwell's equations, a set of
four partial differential equations which
provide a complete description of classical
electromagnetic fields. Besides providing a
sound mathematical basis for the
relationships between electricity and
magnetism that scientists had been
exploring for centuries, Maxwell's equations
also predicted the existence of self-
sustaining electromagnetic waves. Maxwell
postulated that such waves make up visible
light, which was later shown to be true.
Indeed, gamma-rays, x-rays, ultraviolet,
visible, infrared radiation, microwaves and
radio waves were all determined to be
electromagnetic radiation differing only in
their range of frequencies.

In the modern era, scientists have continued

to refine the theorem of electromagnetism to
take into account the effects of modern
physics, including quantum mechanics and
relativity. Indeed, the theoretical implications
of electromagnetism, particularly the
establishment of the speed of light based on
properties of the "medium" of propagation
(permeability and permittivity), helped inspire
Einstein's theory of special relativity in 1905.
Meanwhile, the field of quantum
electrodynamics (QED) has modified
Maxwell's equations to be consistent with the
quantized nature of matter. In QED, the
electromagnetic field is expressed in terms
of discrete particles known as photons,
which are also the physical quanta of light.
Today, there exist many problems in
electromagnetism that remain unsolved,
such as the existence of magnetic
monopoles, Abraham–Minkowski
controversy, and the mechanism by which
some organisms can sense electric and
magnetic fields.

History

Ancient world

Investigation into electromagnetic

phenomena began as early as 5,000 years
ago. There is evidence that the ancient
Chinese,[1] Mayan,[2] and potentially even
Egyptian civilizations knew that the naturally
magnetic mineral magnetite had attractive
properties, and many incorporated it into
their art and architecture.[3] Ancient people
were also aware of lightning and static
electricity, although they had no idea of the
mechanisms behind these phenomena. The
Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus
discovered around 600 B.C.E. that amber
could acquire an electric charge when it was
rubbed with cloth, which allowed it to pick up
light objects such as pieces of straw. Thales
also experimented with the ability of
magnetic rocks to attract one other, and
hypothesized that this phenomenon might be
connected to the attractive power of amber,
foreshadowing the deep connections
between electricity and magnetism that
would be discovered over 2,000 years later.
Despite all this investigation, ancient
civilizations had no understanding of the
mathematical basis of electromagnetism,
and often analyzed its impacts through the
lens of religion rather than science (lightning,
for instance, was considered to be a creation
of the gods in many cultures).[4]

19th century

Cover of A Treatise on Electricity and

Magnetism
In Europe, electricity and magnetism were
originally considered to be two separate
forces. This view changed with the
publication of James Clerk Maxwell's 1873 A
Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism[5] in
which the interactions of positive and
negative charges were shown to be mediated
by one force. There are four main effects
resulting from these interactions, all of which
have been clearly demonstrated by
experiments:

1. Electric charges attract or repel one

another with a force inversely
proportional to the square of the
distance between them: unlike charges
attract, like ones repel.[6]
2. Magnetic poles (or states of
polarization at individual points) attract
or repel one another in a manner similar
to positive and negative charges and
always exist as pairs: every north pole is
yoked to a south pole.[7]
3. An electric current inside a wire creates
a corresponding circumferential
magnetic field outside the wire. Its
direction (clockwise or counter-
clockwise) depends on the direction of
the current in the wire.[8]
4. A current is induced in a loop of wire
when it is moved toward or away from a
magnetic field, or a magnet is moved
towards or away from it; the direction of
 current depends on that of the
movement.[8]

In April 1820, Hans Christian Ørsted observed

that an electrical current in a wire caused a
nearby compass needle to move. At the time
of discovery, Ørsted did not suggest any
satisfactory explanation of the phenomenon,
nor did he try to represent the phenomenon in
a mathematical framework. However, three
months later he began more intensive
investigations.[9][10] Soon thereafter he
published his findings, proving that an
electric current produces a magnetic field as
it flows through a wire. The CGS unit of
magnetic induction (oersted) is named in
honor of his contributions to the field of
electromagnetism.[11]

His findings resulted in intensive research

throughout the scientific community in
electrodynamics. They influenced French
physicist André-Marie Ampère's
developments of a single mathematical form
to represent the magnetic forces between
current-carrying conductors. Ørsted's
discovery also represented a major step
toward a unified concept of energy.

This unification, which was observed by

Michael Faraday, extended by James Clerk
Maxwell, and partially reformulated by Oliver
Heaviside and Heinrich Hertz, is one of the
key accomplishments of 19th-century
mathematical physics.[12] It has had far-
reaching consequences, one of which was
the understanding of the nature of light.
Unlike what was proposed by the
electromagnetic theory of that time, light and
other electromagnetic waves are at present
seen as taking the form of quantized, self-
propagating oscillatory electromagnetic field
disturbances called photons. Different
frequencies of oscillation give rise to the
different forms of electromagnetic radiation,
from radio waves at the lowest frequencies,
to visible light at intermediate frequencies, to
gamma rays at the highest frequencies.
Ørsted was not the only person to examine
the relationship between electricity and
magnetism. In 1802, Gian Domenico
Romagnosi, an Italian legal scholar, deflected
a magnetic needle using a Voltaic pile. The
factual setup of the experiment is not
completely clear, nor if current flowed across
the needle or not. An account of the
discovery was published in 1802 in an Italian
newspaper, but it was largely overlooked by
the contemporary scientific community,
because Romagnosi seemingly did not
belong to this community.[13]

An earlier (1735), and often neglected,

connection between electricity and
magnetism was reported by a Dr.
Cookson.[14] The account stated:

A tradesman at Wakefield in
Yorkshire, having put up a great
number of knives and forks in a
large box ... and having placed the
box in the corner of a large room,
there happened a sudden storm of
thunder, lightning, &c. ... The
owner emptying the box on a
counter where some nails lay, the
persons who took up the knives,
that lay on the nails, observed that
the knives took up the nails. On
 this the whole number was tried,
and found to do the same, and
that, to such a degree as to take up
large nails, packing needles, and
other iron things of considerable
weight ...

E. T. Whittaker suggested in 1910 that this

particular event was responsible for lightning
to be "credited with the power of magnetizing
steel; and it was doubtless this which led
Franklin in 1751 to attempt to magnetize a
sewing-needle by means of the discharge of
Leyden jars."[15]
A fundamental force

Representation of the electric field

vector of a wave of circularly
polarized electromagnetic radiation.

The electromagnetic force is the second

strongest of the four known fundamental
forces. It operates with infinite range.[16] All
other forces (e.g., friction, contact forces) are
derived from these four fundamental forces
and they are known as non-fundamental
forces.[17]

Roughly speaking, all the forces involved in

interactions between atoms can be explained
by the electromagnetic force acting between
the electrically charged atomic nuclei and
electrons of the atoms. Electromagnetic
forces also explain how these particles carry
momentum by their movement. This includes
the forces we experience in "pushing" or
"pulling" ordinary material objects, which
result from the intermolecular forces that act
between the individual molecules in our
bodies and those in the objects. The
electromagnetic force is also involved in all
forms of chemical phenomena.

A necessary part of understanding the intra-

atomic and intermolecular forces is the
effective force generated by the momentum
of the electrons' movement, such that as
electrons move between interacting atoms
they carry momentum with them. As a
collection of electrons becomes more
confined, their minimum momentum
necessarily increases due to the Pauli
exclusion principle. The behaviour of matter
at the molecular scale including its density is
determined by the balance between the
electromagnetic force and the force
generated by the exchange of momentum
carried by the electrons themselves.[18]

Classical electrodynamics

In 1600, William Gilbert proposed, in his De

Magnete, that electricity and magnetism,
while both capable of causing attraction and
repulsion of objects, were distinct effects.[19]
Mariners had noticed that lightning strikes
had the ability to disturb a compass needle.
The link between lightning and electricity was
not confirmed until Benjamin Franklin's
proposed experiments in 1752 were
conducted on 10 May 1752 by Thomas-
François Dalibard of France using a 40-foot-
tall (12 m) iron rod instead of a kite and he
successfully extracted electrical sparks from
a cloud.[20][21]

One of the first to discover and publish a link

between human-made electric current and
magnetism was Gian Romagnosi, who in
1802 noticed that connecting a wire across a
voltaic pile deflected a nearby compass
needle. However, the effect did not become
widely known until 1820, when Ørsted
performed a similar experiment.[22] Ørsted's
work influenced Ampère to conduct further
experiments, which eventually gave rise to a
new area of physics: electrodynamics. By
determining a force law for the interaction
between elements of electric current, Ampère
placed the subject on a solid mathematical
foundation.[23]

A theory of electromagnetism, known as

classical electromagnetism, was developed
by several physicists during the period
between 1820 and 1873, when James Clerk
Maxwell's treatise was published, which
unified previous developments into a single
theory, proposing that light was an
electromagnetic wave propagating in the
luminiferous ether.[24] In classical
electromagnetism, the behavior of the
electromagnetic field is described by a set of
equations known as Maxwell's equations,
and the electromagnetic force is given by the
Lorentz force law.[25]

One of the peculiarities of classical

electromagnetism is that it is difficult to
reconcile with classical mechanics, but it is
compatible with special relativity. According
to Maxwell's equations, the speed of light in
vacuum is a universal constant that is
dependent only on the electrical permittivity
and magnetic permeability of free space.
This violates Galilean invariance, a long-
standing cornerstone of classical mechanics.
One way to reconcile the two theories
(electromagnetism and classical mechanics)
is to assume the existence of a luminiferous
aether through which the light propagates.
However, subsequent experimental efforts
failed to detect the presence of the aether.
After important contributions of Hendrik
Lorentz and Henri Poincaré, in 1905, Albert
Einstein solved the problem with the
introduction of special relativity, which
replaced classical kinematics with a new
theory of kinematics compatible with
classical electromagnetism. (For more
information, see History of special relativity.)
In addition, relativity theory implies that in
moving frames of reference, a magnetic field
transforms to a field with a nonzero electric
component and conversely, a moving electric
field transforms to a nonzero magnetic
component, thus firmly showing that the
phenomena are two sides of the same coin.
Hence the term "electromagnetism". (For
more information, see Classical
electromagnetism and special relativity and
Covariant formulation of classical
electromagnetism.)
Extension to nonlinear
phenomena

The Maxwell equations are linear, in that a

change in the sources (the charges and
currents) results in a proportional change of
the fields. Nonlinear dynamics can occur
when electromagnetic fields couple to matter
that follows nonlinear dynamical laws.[26]
This is studied, for example, in the subject of
magnetohydrodynamics, which combines
Maxwell theory with the Navier–Stokes
equations.[27] Another branch of
electromagnetism dealing with nonlinearity is
nonlinear optics.
Quantities and units

Here is a list of common units related to

electromagnetism:[28]

ampere (electric current)

coulomb (electric charge)
farad (capacitance)
henry (inductance)
ohm (resistance)
siemens (conductance)
tesla (magnetic flux density)
volt (electric potential)
watt (power)
weber (magnetic flux)
In the electromagnetic CGS system, electric
current is a fundamental quantity defined via
Ampère's law and takes the permeability as a
dimensionless quantity (relative permeability)
whose value in vacuum is unity.[29] As a
consequence, the square of the speed of
light appears explicitly in some of the
equations interrelating quantities in this
system.
 SI electromagnetism units v·t·e
Symbol[30] Name of quantity Unit name Symbol Base units

E energy joule J = C⋅V = W⋅s kg⋅m2⋅s−2

Q electric charge coulomb C A⋅s

I electric current ampere A = C/s = W/V A

ampere per square

J electric current density A/m2 A⋅m−2
metre

U, ΔV; Δϕ; potential difference; voltage;

volt V = J/C kg⋅m2⋅s−3⋅A−1
E, ξ electromotive force

electric resistance;
R; Z; X ohm Ω = V/A kg⋅m2⋅s−3⋅A−2
impedance; reactance

ρ resistivity ohm metre Ω⋅m kg⋅m3⋅s−3⋅A−2

P electric power watt W = V⋅A kg⋅m2⋅s−3

C capacitance farad F = C/V kg−1⋅m−2⋅A2⋅s4

ΦE electric flux volt metre V⋅m kg⋅m3⋅s−3⋅A−1

E electric field strength volt per metre V/m = N/C kg⋅m⋅A−1⋅s−3

coulomb per square

D electric displacement field C/m2 A⋅s⋅m−2
metre

ε permittivity farad per metre F/m kg−1⋅m−3⋅A2⋅s4

χe electric susceptibility (dimensionless) 1 1

p electric dipole moment coulomb metre C⋅m A⋅s⋅m

conductance; admittance;
G; Y; B siemens S = Ω−1 kg−1⋅m−2⋅s3⋅A2
susceptance

κ, γ, σ conductivity siemens per metre S/m kg−1⋅m−3⋅s3⋅A2

magnetic flux density, T = Wb/m2 =

B tesla kg⋅s−2⋅A−1
magnetic induction N⋅A−1⋅m−1

Φ, ΦM, ΦB magnetic flux weber Wb = V⋅s kg⋅m2⋅s−2⋅A−1

H magnetic field strength ampere per metre A/m A⋅m−1

F magnetomotive force ampere A = Wb/H A

R magnetic reluctance inverse henry H−1 = A/Wb kg−1⋅m−2⋅s2⋅A2

P magnetic permeance henry H = Wb/A kg⋅m2⋅s-2⋅A-2

 H = Wb/A =
L, M inductance henry kg⋅m2⋅s−2⋅A−2
V⋅s/A

μ permeability henry per metre H/m kg⋅m⋅s−2⋅A−2

χ magnetic susceptibility (dimensionless) 1 1

m magnetic dipole moment ampere square meter A⋅m2 = J⋅T−1 A⋅m2

ampere square meter

σ mass magnetization A⋅m2/kg A⋅m2⋅kg−1
per kilogram

Formulas for physical laws of

electromagnetism (such as Maxwell's
equations) need to be adjusted depending on
what system of units one uses. This is
because there is no one-to-one
correspondence between electromagnetic
units in SI and those in CGS, as is the case
for mechanical units. Furthermore, within
CGS, there are several plausible choices of
electromagnetic units, leading to different
unit "sub-systems", including Gaussian, "ESU",
"EMU", and Heaviside–Lorentz. Among these
choices, Gaussian units are the most
common today, and in fact the phrase "CGS
units" is often used to refer specifically to
CGS-Gaussian units.[31]

Applications

The study of electromagnetism informs

electric circuits and semiconductor devices'
construction.

See also

Abraham–Lorentz force
Aeromagnetic surveys
Computational electromagnetics
Double-slit experiment
Electrodynamic droplet deformation
Electromagnet
Electromagnetic induction
Electromagnetic wave equation
Electromagnetic scattering
Electromechanics
Geophysics
Introduction to electromagnetism
Magnetostatics
Magnetoquasistatic field
Optics
Relativistic electromagnetism
Wheeler–Feynman absorber theory
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Oxford: Blackwell Science. ISBN 0-632-03583-
8. pp. 14–15. Electronic version. (https://old.iu
pac.org/publications/books/gbook/green_boo
k_2ed.pdf)
31. "Conversion of formulae and quantities
between unit systems" (http://nlpc.stanford.ed
u/nleht/Science/reference/conversion.pdf)
(PDF). www.stanford.edu. Retrieved
29 January 2022.

Further reading

Web sources

Nave, R. "Electricity and magnetism" (http://hype

rphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/emcon.html#e
 mcon) . HyperPhysics. Georgia State University.
Retrieved 2013-11-12.
Khutoryansky, E. "Electromagnetism – Maxwell's
Laws" (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Tm
2c6NJH4Y) . YouTube. Retrieved 2014-12-28.

Textbooks

G.A.G. Bennet (1974). Electricity and Modern

Physics (2nd ed.). Edward Arnold (UK).
ISBN 978-0-7131-2459-0.
Browne, Michael (2008). Physics for Engineering
and Science (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill/Schaum.
ISBN 978-0-07-161399-6.
Dibner, Bern (2012). Oersted and the discovery of
electromagnetism. Literary Licensing, LLC.
ISBN 978-1-258-33555-7.
Durney, Carl H.; Johnson, Curtis C. (1969).
Introduction to modern electromagnetics.
McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-018388-9.
Feynman, Richard P. (1970). The Feynman
Lectures on Physics Vol II (https://feynmanlectur
es.caltech.edu/II_toc.html) . Addison Wesley
Longman. ISBN 978-0-201-02115-8.
Fleisch, Daniel (2008). A Student's Guide to
Maxwell's Equations. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-70147-1.
I.S. Grant; W.R. Phillips; Manchester Physics
(2008). Electromagnetism (https://archive.org/d
etails/electromagnetism0000gran) (2nd ed.).
John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-92712-9.
Griffiths, David J. (1998). Introduction to
Electrodynamics (https://archive.org/details/intr
oductiontoel00grif_0) (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall.
ISBN 978-0-13-805326-0.
Jackson, John D. (1998). Classical
Electrodynamics (https://archive.org/details/cla
ssicalelectro0000jack_e8g9) (3rd ed.). Wiley.
ISBN 978-0-471-30932-1.
Moliton, André (2007). Basic electromagnetism
and materials (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=2kPAIlxjDJwC&q=fundamental) . New
York: Springer-Verlag New York. ISBN 978-0-
387-30284-3. {{cite book}}: |work=
ignored (help)
Purcell, Edward M. (1985). Electricity and
Magnetism Berkeley, Physics Course Volume 2
(2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-004908-6.
Purcell, Edward M and Morin, David. (2013).
Electricity and Magnetism, 820p (3rd ed.).
Cambridge University Press, New York.
ISBN 978-1-107-01402-2.
 Rao, Nannapaneni N. (1994). Elements of
engineering electromagnetics (4th ed.). Prentice
Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-948746-0.
Rothwell, Edward J.; Cloud, Michael J. (2001).
Electromagnetics. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-
1397-4.
Tipler, Paul (1998). Physics for Scientists and
Engineers: Vol. 2: Light, Electricity and Magnetism
(4th ed.). W.H. Freeman. ISBN 978-1-57259-492-
0.
Wangsness, Roald K.; Cloud, Michael J. (1986).
Electromagnetic Fields (2nd ed.). Wiley.
ISBN 978-0-471-81186-2.

General coverage

A. Beiser (1987). Concepts of Modern Physics

(4th ed.). McGraw-Hill (International). ISBN 978-
0-07-100144-1.
L.H. Greenberg (1978). Physics with Modern
Applications (https://archive.org/details/physics
withmoder0000gree) . Holt-Saunders
International W.B. Saunders and Co. ISBN 978-0-
7216-4247-5.
R.G. Lerner; G.L. Trigg (2005). Encyclopaedia of
Physics (2nd ed.). VHC Publishers, Hans
Warlimont, Springer. pp. 12–13. ISBN 978-0-07-
025734-4.
J.B. Marion; W.F. Hornyak (1984). Principles of
Physics. Holt-Saunders International Saunders
College. ISBN 978-4-8337-0195-2.
H.J. Pain (1983). The Physics of Vibrations and
Waves (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-
471-90182-2.
 C.B. Parker (1994). McGraw Hill Encyclopaedia
of Physics (https://archive.org/details/mcgrawhi
llencycl1993park) (2nd ed.). McGraw Hill.
ISBN 978-0-07-051400-3.
R. Penrose (2007). The Road to Reality. Vintage
books. ISBN 978-0-679-77631-4.
P.A. Tipler; G. Mosca (2008). Physics for
Scientists and Engineers: With Modern Physics
(6th ed.). W.H. Freeman and Co. ISBN 978-1-
4292-0265-7.
P.M. Whelan; M.J. Hodgeson (1978). Essential
Principles of Physics (2nd ed.). John Murray.
ISBN 978-0-7195-3382-2.

External links

Magnetic Field Strength Wikiquote has

quotations related
Converter (http://www.uni
 tconversion.org/unit_conv to
Electromagnetism
erter/magnetic-field-stren
gth.html)
Electromagnetic Force (http://scienceworl
d.wolfram.com/physics/ElectromagneticF
orce.html) – from Eric Weisstein's World
of Physics

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