PSIR Paper 1 Section A (Short Notes)

PSIR
Political Science & International

Relations Optional
PAPER 1 PART A
COMPLETE FOOTNOTES
Shashank Tyagi
Faculty PSIR Optional, StudyiqIAS
Ex. Consultant, Office of Minister
Social Welfare, GNCTD
Paper 1 Part A
Political Theory: Meaning and approaches
Theories and Components and Ideas

Concepts
Introduction ● Political science is a social science that encompasses the study of
governance, power systems, political activities, thought, behavior, and
the examination of constitutions and laws.
● Stands apart due to its practical applications.
● Provides valuable insights into governance and societal structures.
Aristotle's View on ● Encompasses diverse spheres of human life, including economy, politics,
Political Science as governance, society, and law.
the Master Science ● Greeks viewed politics holistically rather than in isolated segments.
● Its association with justice makes it architectonic in nature.
● Displays flexibility and dynamism through behavioral and
post-behavioral movements.
● Embraces a tolerant culture with its diversity of ideologies.
Approaches to ● Originated as a part of political philosophy, with Plato being a
Study Political prominent exponent.
Science: ● Focuses on ideal states and the role of political philosophy in shaping a
Traditional good life.
Philosophical ● Relies on dialectics to understand the essence of governance.
Approach ● Supporters like Berlin, Rawls, and Leo Strauss believe the discipline's
purpose is to improve human existence.
● Often prescriptive and idealistic, resulting in disconnected armchair
theories with limited real-world applicability and potential bias.
Historical Approach ● Views history as the foundation and politics as the manifestation of
historical developments.
● Scholars like Laski emphasize the importance of studying history for
understanding politics.
● Historical approach is based on common sense reasoning, as explained
by George Holland Sabine.
● Recognizes the enduring relevance of certain ideas and concepts despite
changes in time and circumstances.
Empirical Approach ● Focuses on factual observations and data rather than philosophical
ideals.
● Machiavelli exemplifies this approach, prioritizing the study of what "is"
rather than what "ought to be."
● Aristotle serves as a bridge between the philosophical and empirical
realms, emphasizing the interdependence between the world of ideas
and the world of observation.
● Rejects the notion of inherent knowledge and emphasizes the role of
observation and experience in acquiring knowledge (e.g., Locke's
"tabula rasa" concept).
Legal ● Concentrates on the study of constitutions and political institutions.
Constitutional ● Dominated political science before World War II and remains valuable in
Approach comparative politics.
● Experienced a resurgence in the form of neo-institutionalism and serves
as the foundation for the structural-functional approach.
Decline of Political The decline of political theory can be attributed to its inability to explain
Theory certain phenomena, such as the rise of fascism and authoritarianism, and its
struggle to comprehend third-world politics due to vast contextual
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differences from established constitutional texts, especially in prismatic

societies.
Behavioral The American Political Science Association (APSA) sought to transform
Approach political science into a pure science, focusing on empirical observation and
(Post-WW2) analysis rather than abstract normative theories created by philosophers in
an armchair setting.
Rise of Behavioral ● David Easton is a prominent figure associated with the behavioral
Approach movement.
● In 1951, he criticized contemporary political theory's preoccupation
with the history of ideas, which he believed led to the decline of the
discipline.
● Easton pinpointed historicism as a major cause, emphasizing that too
much focus on history made political theory stagnant and detached
from the present reality.
● Additionally, hyper-factualism and the dominance of moral theory also
contributed to its decline.
Features of ● Research-Oriented: Emphasizes empirical research and data analysis.
Behavioralism ● Scientific Method: Adopts the principles of natural sciences for political
inquiry.
● Testable Hypotheses: Formulates hypotheses that can be empirically
tested.
● Value-Neutral: Strives for objective analysis, free from moral and
ideological biases.
● Methodological Individualism: Focuses on individual behavior as the
primary unit of analysis.
● Verifiability: Aims to produce theories that can be verified through
empirical evidence.
● Multi-Method: Utilizes a variety of methods, such as surveys and
experiments, for analysis.
● Interdisciplinary: Incorporates insights from other disciplines like
psychology and sociology.
Achievements of ● Development of scientific literature: Led to the study of exit polls, voter
Behavioralism behavior, and approval ratings, aiding political parties in framing policies
and governments in welfare scheme design.
● Revival of political science: Shifted focus to empirical research,
revitalizing political science's relevance to real-world issues.
● Comparative political approaches: Facilitated structural-functional and
political sociology approaches, enhancing understanding of diverse
political systems.
● Relevance to developing societies: Suited for studying prismatic
societies, addressing gaps between constitutions and practice through
field research.
● Systems approach in IR: Influenced the study of international relations,
considering interconnections between nations.
Critiques of ● Ignoring normative values: Neglected justice and rights, lacking
Behavioralism solutions during social unrest.
● "Naive scientism": Accused of simplistic scientific adoption without
critical reflection.
● Technique over substance: Concerns that techniques overshadowed
deeper understanding.

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● Decline of practical relevance: Risk of becoming less useful in

addressing real-world problems.
● Values and meaning: Emphasized the importance of considering ethical
aspects alongside empirical research.
Post-Behavioralism David Easton outlined the principles of Post-Behavioralism in a statement
called the "credo of relevance" at APSA.
Key Features of ● Emphasis on Purpose: While technique remains important, the purpose
Post-Behavioralism for which the technique is used holds greater significance.
● Dealing with Social Crisis: Theories should have the capacity to address
and tackle social crises effectively.
● Value Consideration: Post-behavioralism does not reject values;
instead, it welcomes the incorporation of normative values.
● Promotion of Positive Values: Emphasis on promoting values that
contribute to the betterment of human civilization.
● Responsibility of Social Scientists: Political scientists hold a greater
responsibility than natural scientists, as their work has significant
societal implications.
● Applied Science: Political science is viewed as an applied science rather
than a pure science, emphasizing practical relevance.
● Support for Political Science: Advocates active support and funding for
political science from universities and foundations.
Conclusion No political science approach is foolproof, given the complexity of politics
resembling an endless, borderless sea (Oakeshott's analogy). Flexibility and
inclusivity are essential for understanding governance and power dynamics.

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Justice: Conceptions of justice with special reference to Rawl’s theory of

justice and its communitarian critiques.

Concepts
Introduction The concept of justice holds a central position in political philosophy, with
John Rawls famously labeling it as the "first virtue of social institutions." As a
social liberal and an egalitarian, Rawls' views on justice gained prominence.
Context Behavioralism, though influential, failed to adequately explain the emergence
of significant social movements such as feminism and the civil rights
movement for black Americans. In response to this limitation,. His theory
played a pivotal role in reviving political philosophy as a discipline by
addressing complex societal issues and offering a new perspective on justice
and equality.
Rawls' Theory of ● John Rawls proposes a social contract formed by rational, moral
Justice individuals in the original position under a "veil of ignorance," unaware of
their personal characteristics.
● Through rational debate, they establish just principles for distributing
primary goods, encompassing rights, liberties, opportunities, income, and
wealth, which enable individuals to achieve their life goals.
● Rawls contends that the rational choice is adopting an option with the
best worst-case outcome. While liberalism or socialism may lead to
unfavorable results for some, a welfare state ensures care for all,
regardless of wealth or status, as the rich contribute through taxation.
● Rawls emphasizes managing, rather than eliminating, inequality,
recognizing that disparities arise due to varying talents. Justice demands
not repressing hardworking and talented individuals. He terms his
welfarism as "democratic equality."
● Rawls characterizes his theory as purely procedural, devoid of ideological
bias. He argues that principles of justice should align with our intuition
and reflect a state of equilibrium between our heart and mind (reflective
equilibrium).
Lexical order of 1) equal liberty for all
distribution for 2) equality of opportunity for all.
primary goods 3) Difference principle
● The difference principle regulates inequalities occurring after the first two
principles. It permits only those inequalities that benefit the worst-off in
society, compensating for natural disparities in talents and circumstances.
● Rawls justifies his theory by introducing the concept of luck,
acknowledging that luck plays a role in determining one's wealth and
opportunities. Consequently, he argues that those who are more
fortunate should contribute to the well-being of the less fortunate.
● Rawls' theory emphasizes looking after the least advantaged members of
society, aligning with Gandhi's talisman and Deen Dayal Upadhyaya's
antyodaya, which prioritize the welfare of the last person on the social
ladder.
● The difference principle forms the basis for democracies worldwide,
advocating for progressive taxation and welfare policies that favor the
poor and strive to reduce socio-economic disparities.

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Feminist criticism ● Rawls' theory addresses inequality in the political sphere but neglects to
bridge disparities in the personal realm, drawing concern from feminists.
● They advocate for a more comprehensive approach to achieve social
justice and equality.
Libertarian ● Nozick presents the entitlement theory of justice as an alternative to
Criticism by Rawls' theory.
Robert Nozick ● He justifies inequality resulting from fair competition in society.
● Advocates for a minimal state, intervening only in extreme cases, such as
preventing monopolies over essential resources like water.
● Opposes progressive taxation, viewing it as bonded labor and an affront
to human dignity.
● Rejects the concept of historical injustice.
● Not in favor of a welfare state, supporting a night watchman state with
minimal government intervention.
Social Liberal ● Sen criticizes Rawls for considering abstract individuals negotiating in an
Criticism by abstract situation (original position). He advocates for social choice
Amartya Sen theory, focusing on the real choices of people in actual situations.
● Sen argues that a grand idea of justice, as conceptualized by Rawls, is
neither feasible nor preferable in the complexities of the real world.
● He emphasizes that merely distributing goods is not enough. To achieve
justice, it is crucial to ensure that people's capabilities are made equal,
enabling them to effectively utilize the distributed goods.
Value Pluralism ● Berlin criticizes Rawls' lexical order of values: liberty, equality of
Criticism by opportunity, and the difference principle.
Isaiah Berlin ● It implies the inherent supremacy of one value, contradicting value
pluralism's idea that different values can exist independently without one
being inherently superior.
Communitarian ● Alasdair McIntyre: Reality is perceived through the lens of one's
Criticism community. The concept of an original position is unrealistic as individuals
are shaped by their communities, making them realists.
● Charles Taylor: Man is a situated self, influenced by his social context.
● Michael Sandel: Man is an embedded self in a network of social relations.
His sense of justice aligns with his community's, rejecting Rawls' proposal
of abstracted individuals.
● Michael Walzer: Universal principles of justice are untenable. Justice is an
art of differentiation, not a science of universalism. Different goods must
be distributed differently, and justice varies across societies and
institutions. Political and economic spheres require distinct principles of
justice.
Rawls' Response ● Rawls introduces the concept of overlapping consensus, reflecting
people's agreement on common issues based on different but converging
reasons. In pluralistic societies, overlapping consensus emerges from
democratic culture, where toleration, public reasoning, and reciprocity
foster shared understanding.
● In his book "Political Liberalism," Rawls presents a political conception of
justice specifically for Western societies, limited to the political sphere.
Conclusion ● Despite criticism from Nozick and others, Rawls remains a reference point
for contemporary political philosophers.
● His theory of justice has initiated a "golden age" of theorizing about
justice, stimulating important debates in the field.

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Equality: Social, political, and economic; the relationship between equality

and freedom; Affirmative action.

Concepts
Introduction ● Equality, often defined as the "absence of privilege," is a complex and
disputed concept in political science.
● Various interpretations and dimensions, such as formal equality, moral
equality, equality of resources, welfare, and opportunity, contribute to its
loaded nature.
Ronald Dworkin's ● In his book "Sovereign Virtue," Dworkin elevates equality as the sovereign
Equality of virtue.
Resources and ● According to Dworkin, a just society ensures a fair initial distribution of
Distributive resources, emphasizing resource egalitarianism and focusing on the initial
Justice distribution of resources.
● Dworkin introduces the concepts of "brute luck" and "option luck,"
advocating compensation for brute luck (circumstances beyond one's
control) but not for option luck (choices leading to unfavorable
outcomes).
● He argues against holding individuals responsible for circumstances they
did not choose (brute luck), highlighting the importance of addressing
such inequalities through state intervention.
Criticism of Amartya Sen: Sen's capability approach argues that simply providing equal
Dworkin's initial resources is insufficient. It emphasizes the importance of enhancing
Concept of people's capabilities to use those resources effectively, ensuring real equality.
Equality
Michael Walzer: Equality is a complex phenomenon, and Dworkin's emphasis
on choice and individual ambition neglects the influence of communities on
people's aspirations. Identifying the exact difference between "bad luck" and
"bad choice" is challenging, making implementation difficult.
Comparison with ● Rawls' Theory: Dworkin's theory has a thinner veil of ignorance,
Other Theories distinguishes between worst-off due to brute luck or option luck, and
of Equality focuses on equality of resources rather than opportunities.
● Nozick's Theory: Dworkin's view advocates a fair insurance market to
address misfortune, while Nozick opposes state intervention for the
worst-off.
● Iris Marion Young: Young calls for differentiated equality and affirmative
action in determining the initial distribution.
● Marxist Perspective: Marxists critique Dworkin's liberal conception of
equality as formal and procedural, advocating for absolute/substantive
equality focusing on equal outcomes.
Equality and ● F.A. Hayek: Hayek argues that inequality is bound to emerge even in
Liberty Debate conditions of equality due to individual skill differences. He opposes state
intervention for equality of outcome, as it curtails individual freedom. He
considers social justice to be a mirage and advocates for the pursuit of
liberty.
● Rawls: Rawls reconciles the principles of equality and liberty in his theory
of justice. He justifies inequality only when it benefits the least
advantaged (difference principle). Rawls explains the importance of

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liberty as a precondition for equality, creating just differences through a

fair distribution of opportunities.
● Scholars' Perspectives: Different scholars have varying views on equality,
with some, like Aristotle favoring proportionate equality, while others, like
Marx and Gramsci, advocate for absolute equality.
● Amartya Sen: Sen emphasizes the significance of capabilities in enhancing
liberty. He believes liberty holds value when people are made equal in
terms of capabilities (capability approach).
Equality as an ● Equality grants the state significant power to enforce equal outcomes,
Impediment to potentially limiting individual liberty.
Liberty ● Excessive focus on equality of outcomes can discourage hard work and
innovation, leading to lower resources for distribution and perpetuating
inequality.
Reasons for ● Scarcity of resources and the nature of distribution create tension
Conflict between equality and liberty.
● Conflict arises when equality is perceived as equal outcomes and liberty
as the freedom to make choices.
● When liberty and equality are equated with fairness, clashes can occur
between those advocating for different aspects of justice.
Francis Fukuyama's thesis suggests that liberalism (liberty) triumphed over
Fukuyama's End communism (equality). However, Thomas Piketty's work highlights growing
of History Thesis global inequality as a threat to freedom itself.
Complementary ● Herbert A. Dean argues that liberty and equality are not conflicting ideals
View but different facets of the same goal.
● Indian Government's Approach: India reconciles equality and liberty
through Affirmative Action programs (reservation for SEBC), attempting to
address historical inequalities while preserving individual freedoms.
● Laski and MacPherson view equality and liberty as complementary
principles.
● Laski went as far as to state that those who consider equality an obstacle
to liberty misunderstand the true essence of liberty itself.
● According to their perspective, these principles can reinforce each other,
contributing to a more just and free society.
Conclusion As Alexis de Tocqueville observed, the history of human society involves the
continual expansion of the idea of equality, reflecting ongoing debates and
evolving concepts of justice.

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Rights: Meaning and theories; different kinds of rights; Concept of Human

Rights

Concepts
Introduction ● Laski defines rights as essential conditions for individuals to achieve their
best life.
● According to Laski, rights are crucial for individuals to flourish and reach
their full potential.
Karel Vasak's 3 ● Focus on Liberty and Political Participation: These rights emphasize
Generations of individual liberties and the right to participate in political life.
Rights: ● Core Rights: The core civil and political rights include the right to life,
First Generation: liberty, and property, as advocated by John Locke.
Civil and Political ● Negative Rights: They are often considered as negative rights, requiring
Rights constraints on others to be enjoyed.
Second ● Inspired by Socialist Ideas and Social Justice: This generation of rights
Generation: draws inspiration from socialist principles and aims for social justice.
Socio-Economic ● Inclusive Rights: Socio-economic rights include the right to work,
Rights healthcare, education, and other essential services.
● Positive Rights with State Intervention: These rights often require
significant state intervention to ensure their fulfillment.
Third ● Championed by Multiculturalists: Scholars like Bhikhu Parekh advocate
Generation: for these rights, which are linked to social groups or entire societies.
Cultural and ● Collective/People's Rights: Cultural and developmental rights are seen as
Developmental collective rights, emphasizing the rights of entire communities.
Rights ● Examples of Third-Generation Rights: Examples include the right to
self-determination, right to peace, right to environmental protection, and
multicultural rights.
Natural Rights ● Based on the liberal theory of the state's origin from the social contract.
● Suggests that human beings possess rights before the establishment of
the state.
● Refers to rights enjoyed by individuals in the state of nature, to be
protected by the state.
● John Locke's "Second Treatise on Civil Government" is a significant
theory of natural rights.
● Considers individuals as ends and the state as a means to protect natural
rights: life, liberty, and property.
● Natural rights are self-evident truths, inherent in individuals from birth,
regardless of state recognition.
● Natural rights are derived from the intuition and reason of individuals
rather than state institutions.
● According to Locke, human reason guides people not to harm others in
life, liberty, and property.
Theory of Social ● Individuals possess these rights from their natural state before the
Contract as basis formation of the state.
of rights ● These rights are considered inalienable and cannot be transferred to the
state under the social contract.
● The state cannot limit or infringe upon these rights.
● Exponents: John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau.

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Thomas Paine's ● In his book "The Rights of Man," Paine argues that humans are inherently
Perspective different from animals and should be granted rights befitting their unique
nature.
● Criticizes the social contract theory for not justifying the binding of future
generations to agreements made by previous generations.
Criticism of ● Source of rights is the law/state, not inherent in individuals.
Natural Rights: ● Natural rights are seen as nonsensical and abstract, lacking certainty.
Legal Positivists' ● Considered a recipe for lawlessness and chaos.
View (Bentham, ● According to Hobbes, man can only enjoy rights under the state's
Hobbes) protection; the state is the real source of rights.
● Bentham criticizes natural rights from a utilitarian perspective, calling
them "terrorist language" that limits state authority and leads to chaos.
● Positive rights, given by the state (legal positivism), are codified and avoid
vagueness.
Theory of ● Cultural, not natural, origins are the source of rights.
Cultural Rights ● Rights must be sanctioned by society, and individuals cannot challenge
(Edmund Burke) customs for untested ideas.
● Natural rights are criticized for being universalist, disregarding
socio-cultural diversity and based on abstract individualism.
Human Rights Rights inherent to all individuals by virtue of being human, making them
universal and inalienable.
Origins Concept strengthened post-WWII due to Hitler's atrocities against Jews.
James Nickel's ● Human rights are a non-negotiable part of human identity.
View ● Universally applicable, fundamental, and absolute.
● Modern and secular version of natural rights, encompassing legal rights
granted by the state.
● Available to all, regardless of caste, creed, religion, race, sex, etc.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) + Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights 1966 + Covenant on Social and Economic Rights = International
Bill of Rights.
Criticism ● Crisis of Legitimacy: Human rights face challenges as they are perceived
as a tool for Western geopolitical interests and regime change.
● Selective Imposition: Western nations are accused of applying human
rights standards selectively, ignoring violations in certain countries.
● Clash of Civilizations: Different interpretations of human rights contribute
to cultural clashes.
● Lack of Consensus: There is no agreement on universal minimum rights or
whether certain groups, like terrorists, should be granted human rights.
Cultural ● Cultural relativists argue that culture shapes one's perception of rights
Relativists and that the concept of rights cannot be separated from cultural context.
Criticism ● Each culture is considered rational, and no culture should be deemed
inferior or superior.
● Cultural relativists claim that natural rights' universalist approach
overlooks socio-cultural diversity.
● Leaders like Xi and Putin view human rights promotion as a guise for
regime change and installing puppet regimes.
Asian Values ● Cultural Imperialism: Lee Kuan Yu and Mahathir Mohammad criticize
human rights as a form of cultural imperialism. They argue that HR is
based on the concept of "Atomistic man," which doesn't align with the
Asian view of "situated self" and the special attachment to community
and organic solidarity in Asian societies.

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● Arab Exceptionalism: Arab exceptionalism scholars assert that the state

preceded societies in the Orient, and its commands are obligatory to
citizens. This challenges the notion of universal human rights derived from
Western cultures.
● Respect for Non-Western Societies: The proponents of Asian values
advocate against imposing Western-derived rights on non-Western
societies, emphasizing the need for respect and consideration of cultural
differences.
Criticism of Asian ● Amartya Sen criticizes the concept of Asian values in his book "The
Values Argumentative Indian."
● He argues that Asian values are used as a cover for enforcing totalitarian
regimes in Asian countries.
● Sen highlights the heterogeneity of Asia and emphasizes that there is no
single set of Asian values.
● Sen believes that the idea of putting individuals under the subordination
of society, as propagated by Asian values, can lead to soft
authoritarianism, curbing individual liberties and freedoms.
● Sen points out historical examples like Akbar's regime (Din-i-Ilahi) in India,
which showcased pluralism, tolerance, and free thinking, challenging the
notion that democratic values are exclusive to the West.
Conclusion ● In his book "Taking Rights Seriously," Ronald Dworkin emphasizes the
concept of rights as "trumps."
● This means that the rights of individuals should be given precedence and
priority over any other considerations, including the interests of the
community or the decisions of the state.
● Dworkin advocates for the protection and enforcement of individual rights
as a fundamental principle of justice.
Multiculturalism Multiculturalism in political science sparks a debate on how to comprehend
and address the complexities arising from cultural diversity rooted in ethnic,
national, and religious distinctions.
Kymlica’s view ● Will Kymlicka, a liberal multiculturalist, emphasizes that liberalism is not
just about individual liberty but also about tolerating diverse cultures.
● book- multicultural citizenship
● In the age of globalization and ethnic tensions, Kymlicka advocates for
multicultural citizenship, as universal citizenship overlooks cultural
differences and leads to homogenization.
● While equal citizenship is important to build a community, it is not enough
to address the deep sense of alienation felt by minority communities.
● Ignoring multiculturalism can result in color blindness, failing to recognize
and accommodate cultural diversity.
● Kymlicka argues in favor of special rights for minorities, including cultural
and educational rights, representation rights due to numerical
disadvantages, self-government rights, judicious affirmative actions, and
state support for minority institutions.
● However, he limits these special rights to national minorities and not
immigrants, as the latter have chosen to adopt mainstream culture.
● Kymlicka's perspective aligns with Dworkin's view that individuals should
not be held responsible for circumstances beyond their control,
preventing discrimination against those born into minority communities.

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Indian context ● Article 29 and 30: These articles provide cultural and educational rights to
minorities, allowing them to preserve and promote their distinct
language, script, and culture.
● Fifth and Sixth Schedule: These schedules protect the rights of tribal
communities and grant autonomy to tribal areas to preserve their culture
and traditions.
● The concept of "Ganga-Jamuna Tahzeeb" (Ganges-Yamuna Culture)
exemplifies the intermixing of Hindu and Islamic cultures in India
Bhikhu Parekh ● Bhikhu Parekh is a plural multiculturalist with a postcolonial view.
● He criticizes Kymlicka's liberal multiculturalism as an extension of
liberalism.
● Parekh calls for extending special rights to non-citizen minorities and
challenges the sense of superiority in liberals.
● He emphasizes that society's principles should emerge from dialogue
among civilizations, not based on a single culture's values.
● Parekh praises India's handling of a multicultural society.
● He proposes the harm principle, allowing certain cultural practices as long
as they do not harm society or state security.
● Multiculturalism, for Parekh, involves the interplay of insights: individuals
shaped by culture, each culture being inherently plural, and having its
own conception of the good life.
● Raimon Panikkar advocates for "diatopical" exchange, promoting dialogue
and mutual learning between cultures without imposing superiority.
Criticism of ● Feminist (Susan Moller Okin): Criticizes multiculturalism for not
Multiculturalism addressing gender discrimination prevalent in all religions and cultures.
Advocates for the replacement of culture and religion with reason to
ensure gender justice.
● Liberal (Sen): Criticizes multiculturalism for potentially leading to the
isolation and ghettoization of minorities, fostering apprehension among
the majority population.
● Post-colonial (Chandran Kukathas): Calls for protecting minorities within
minorities, such as the LGBT community, to prevent their marginalization
within the larger cultural context.
● Cosmopolitan scholars: Argue that multiculturalism may underestimate
people's capacity to understand and appreciate other cultures,
emphasizing the importance of promoting cosmopolitan values and
mutual understanding.
Crisis of ● Clash of Civilizations by Huntington: Conceptualizes a clash between
multiculturalism different civilizations, questioning the compatibility of multiculturalism
and leading to increased tensions between diverse cultural groups.
● French Ban on Religious Attire: France's ban on Sikh turbans and Muslim
hijabs is seen as a violation of multicultural principles, fueling
controversies and incidents like the Charlie Hebdo bombings and the
killing of a school teacher.
● China's Treatment of Uighur Muslims: China's imposition of the Han way
of life on Uighur Muslims highlights the suppression of cultural diversity
and raises concerns about human rights violations.
● Backlash Against Multiculturalism: Rise of religious fundamentalism and
far-right parties in various liberal countries, exemplified by the AFD in
Germany, Marine Le Pen in France, and Brexit in the UK, reflects growing
intolerance towards immigrants and cultural diversity.

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● Incidents of Terrorism: Terrorist attacks in Europe, such as the Charlie

Hebdo attacks, Berlin Christmas market attack, London Bridge attacks, and
the killing of Samuel Patty in France, have contributed to the rise of
Islamophobia and negative perceptions of multiculturalism.
Conclusion To address the crisis of multiculturalism, societies need to foster tolerance
towards different ways of life and strive to establish a consensus on minimum
universal rights for all, irrespective of their minority or majority status.
Value Pluralism ● Value pluralism, as proposed by Isaiah Berlin, posits the existence of
multiple fundamental values that may be in conflict with each other.
● These incompatible values may be incommensurable, meaning they
cannot be objectively ranked in terms of importance.
● Value pluralism stands in opposition to the idea of value monism, which
asserts that there is only one ultimate value.
● Berlin emphasizes that conflicts of values are intrinsic to human life and
encourages understanding and tolerance of others' beliefs and
commitments.
● Within liberalism, Berlin sees toleration as the most defining feature
rather than liberty or utility.
● Berlin believes that a tolerant society, which respects individual liberty, is
essential for value pluralism to flourish.
● With increasing globalization and migration, the need for toleration in
diverse societies becomes more significant.
● Huntington's "Clash of Civilizations" theory aligns with the notion of
conflicting liberal values against oriental values, reinforcing the
importance of toleration in a pluralistic world.

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Democracy: Classical and contemporary theories; different models of

democracy: representative, participatory and deliberative.

Concepts
Introduction ● The contested concept of democracy: Mill describes it as "government by
discussion".
● J.S. Mill emphasizes the significance of a democratic culture where human
dignity is integrated into people's lives for the success of democracy.
● Gandhi's Vision: Democracy revolves around providing equal
opportunities for all.
● Dr. B.R. Ambedkar: Democracy's essence lies in empowering the
voiceless.
Held's ● It highlights how globalization has weakened democracy, leading to power
cosmopolitan concentration in non-democratic organizations like IMF and UNSC, lacking
model genuine popular representation.
● The dominance of non-democratic institutions detached from popular will
has triggered a crisis in democratic governance, raising concerns about its
effectiveness and legitimacy.
● Held advocates for reforming global institutions to establish a
democratically elected world government that better reflects the interests
and voices of people worldwide.
Crisis of ● Samuel P. Huntington identifies that diverse opinions in democratic
Democracy societies can lead to policy complexity and result in policy paralysis, which
he terms as a crisis of democracy.
● Authoritarianism during the Pandemic: The global spread of the
coronavirus has provided an opportunity for authoritarian governments to
impose restrictions on civil liberties, persecute opponents, delay
elections, and introduce mass surveillance measures.
● Technological Threat to Democracy - Jamie Bartlett's book "The People vs
Tech" warns that the rise of quantified society and increasing reliance on
smart decision-making machines may undermine political agency and
render democracy obsolete.
Conclusion B.R. Ambedkar views democracy not merely as a form of government but as
an attitude of respect and reverence towards fellow human beings,
underscoring the essence of democracy lies in recognizing and valuing each
individual's worth and rights.
Participatory Participatory democracy is a form of governance where citizens actively
Democracy engage in the decision-making processes and public affairs of their society.
Supporters of ● Carole Pateman: Advocates that participation in governance creates
Participatory responsible citizenship, fosters an understanding of administrative
Democracy complexities, makes democracy inclusive, and provides legitimacy to laws,
thus realizing popular sovereignty.
● Rousseau: Believed that direct participation in law-making is the only way
to reconcile liberty and authority. He considered participation essential for
individual self-development, which leads to the generation of the general
will representing the collective common goal of the community.
● Gandhi: Advocated for a participatory democracy with direct people's
participation, emphasizing the importance of grassroots engagement in
decision-making.

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● Hannah Arendt: Advocated Civic Republicanism, which emphasizes

political action as a means for individuals to become zoon politikon, i.e.,
political beings.
● Habermas: Proposes that legitimate policies can be formed through
people's participation, termed as communicative action in ideal speech
situations. This ensures the legitimacy and effectiveness of policies.
● Agenda 21: Emphasizes that sustainable development requires
community participation to be effective and successful.
Deliberative ● Deliberative Democracy represents a system where laws are products of
Democracy rational debate. It is a characteristic of open society.
● Unlike traditional democratic theories that rely solely on voting for
legitimacy, deliberative democracy emphasizes the importance of
authentic and inclusive deliberation in reaching democratic decisions.
Features ● This model challenges the aggregate model proposed by Bentham, which
tends to result in majoritarian democracies.
● Instead, deliberative democracy adopts a consociational model, where the
arguments and perspectives of all stakeholders are carefully considered.
● It views democracy as more than just a head-counting mechanism and
places significant value on the process of deliberation itself.
● Deliberative democracy is normative in nature, focusing on core values
rather than procedural mechanisms.
● Unlike procedural theories, such as elitism and pluralism, which view
democracy primarily as an electoral mechanism or the outcome of
pressure group politics, deliberative democracy places greater emphasis
on the ethical aspects of democratic decision-making.
Supporters of ● Pericles - Advocated that discussion and deliberation are not obstacles
Deliberative but preconditions for wise action in governance.
Democracy ● Aristotle - Favored a polity where people could come together and engage
in deliberation, opposing the concept of a philosopher king.
● Amartya Sen - Argues that deliberation holds a constructive value as it
helps us understand our genuine needs through dialogue, discussion, and
debate.
● John Stuart Mill - Emphasized the importance of freedom of speech and
expression, and believed that laws should be the result of thorough
deliberations.
● Hannah Arendt - Considered political action through debates in the
"public sphere" to be the most vital form of human action.
● John Locke - Asserted that the idea of democracy is rooted in deliberation
and human reasoning.
● Jürgen Habermas - Propounded the concept of "ideal speech situation"
and "communicative action" as means to gain legitimacy for policies and
believed that the strength of democracy lies in public discussions, such as
those held in coffee houses.
● Nancy Fraser - Advocated the development of a "counter-public" for
marginalized sections of society to raise their voices and participate in
deliberative processes.
● Joshua Cohen - Advocates for the primacy of argument in shaping policies
and decisions, emphasizing the force of reasoned deliberation in
democratic governance.
Conclusion Rawls, in his Theory of Justice, emphasizes that the core concept of
deliberative democracy lies in the act of deliberation itself. When citizens

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engage in deliberation, they participate in exchanging views and debating the

underlying reasons that pertain to public political issues.
Representative ● Edmund Burke: Supported an enlightened model of representation,
Democracy: where representatives possess more knowledge and experience to make
Supporters decisions on behalf of the people.
● John Locke: Presented the first theory of representative democracy based
on a majoritarian model, where decisions are made through voting and
majority.
Models of ● Majoritarian Model: Used in the US, UK, India, and others. "Winner takes
Representative all" through voting, but criticized for potential tyranny of the majority.
Democracy ● Consociational Model: Found in Germany, Switzerland, etc. Emphasizes
proportional representation and coalition governments to accommodate
minorities.
Models on ● Delegate Model: Supported by Locke, Bentham. Government's powers
Decision-Making are delegated by people, representatives stick to mandates.
Power of ● Enlightened Representation Model: Backed by Mill, Burke.
Representatives Representatives trusted for their expertise and given autonomy in
decision-making.
Critics of ● Rousseau: Representative institutions prioritize self-interest over the
Representative community's interest. Rousseau advocates for direct democracy with
Democracy community ratification of legislation.
● Gandhi: Opposes political parties, seeing them as immoral. Favors a
partyless democracy and advocates for village republics.
● M.N. Roy
● J.P. Narayan
Macpherson’s ● Liberalism cannot claim a monopoly over democracy. Even the communist
model of model of a one-party state can be considered democratic if it practices
democracy: Book intra-party democracy and deviates from the Western model. China refers
"Democratic to itself as a "democracy that works."
Theory: Essays in ● Macpherson defines two types of power: extractive power (coercive
Retrieval" power) and developmental power (power used for development and
creative freedom).
● He expresses disappointment with the state of democracy in the Western
world and advocates for a situation where no one exercises extractive
power over others, and each individual has equal opportunities for
development and creative freedom.
Models of ● Protective Model (Locke, Bentham): Aims to protect the rights of
Democracy: individuals.
Classical Models ● Development Model (Mill): Focuses on the overall development of
individuals.
Contemporary ● Elitist Model (Schumpeter): Emphasizes free and fair elections as the
Models essence of democracy.
● Pluralist Model (Robert Dahl, Charles Lindblom): Views pressure groups
as central actors in the democratic process, aligned with the pluralist
theory of sovereignty (Laski).
C.B. ● Macpherson criticizes the classical model for lacking empirical
Macpherson's understanding of the real world, while he finds the contemporary model
Perspective lacking substantive aspects.
● He proposes an egalitarian model that promotes creative freedom,
maximizes developmental power, and eliminates extractive power,
aligning it with his vision of a more comprehensive democracy.

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● He refers to the Schumpeter-Dahl axis to highlight the procedural nature

of both contemporary models.
Concept of power: hegemony, ideology, and legitimacy

Concepts
Introduction ● Max Weber defines power as the ability to impose one's will upon others.
● It can be likened to the significance of money in economics, making it an
essential and ubiquitous aspect of politics.
Steven Lukes ● Power as Decision-Making: Attributed to thinkers like Hobbes, it
classification highlights the role of the state in making significant decisions that impact
individuals and society as a whole.
● Power as Agenda-Setting: Inspired by Marx, it emphasizes the ability of
capitalists or influential groups to shape the agenda and priorities of
political discourse and action.
● Power as Thought Controlling Process: Referring to concepts such as
hegemony and interpellation, it focuses on how power is exercised
through controlling and shaping people's thoughts, beliefs, and
ideologies.
Liberal Theory ● Power ultimately rests with the people in a democratic society.
● Criticized by Marxists, like Ralph Miliband.
Elitist Theory ● Mosca: In "The Ruling Class," Mosca asserts that organizational skills
create elites in a democracy.
● Pareto: In "Mind and Society," Pareto discusses the circulation of elites
and the historical rise and fall of ruling classes.
● Robert Michels: In "Political Parties," Michels introduces the "iron law of
oligarchy," stating that power tends to concentrate in the hands of party
leaders, even in socialist or liberal states.
● C. Wright Mills: He presents the concept of "power elites" in the USA,
referring to influential figures in military and government. He contends
that the USA is more of an oligarchy than a genuine democracy.
Elitist Theory of ● Based on the elitist theory of power.
Democracy ● Views elections as the main function of citizen participation in democracy.
● Balances between monistic theory (state holds sole authority) and
pluralistic theory (power distributed among pressure groups).
● Recognizes the emergence of "counter-elites" within excluded groups.
● Exponents: Max Weber, Joseph Schumpeter, Anthony Downs (market
model of democracy).
Pluralist theory ● Advocated by scholars like Robert Dahl and Charles Lindblom
● Power is dispersed among various pressure groups and interest
organizations in society.
● Criticism of Elitist Theory: Emerged as a response to the elitist theory.
● Dahl's Perspective:Criticized Mills' view and argued that power in the USA
is not solely with power elites but dispersed among various interest
groups.
● Power in Polyarchy: Dahl's survey in his work "Polyarchy: Participation and
Opposition" found that power in the USA is enjoyed not as individuals but
through associations and interest groups.

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● Polyarchy - Rule of Many: Described as the rule of many, a functional form

of democracy where power is dispersed into numerous interest groups.
● Participative and Representative: Polyarchies help keep arbitrary
government powers in check and make politics more participative and
representative.
● Deformed Polyarchies: Dahl and Charles Lindblom introduced the
concept of "deformed polyarchies," acknowledging that not all groups
enjoy equal power.
● It means some polyarchies may be tilted in favor of certain corporate
groups, similar to the relative autonomy theory of the state proposed by
structural Marxists.
Marxist View of ● Money and power share similar characteristics, as both tend to
power concentrate in the hands of a few.
● Criticize the notion of a "trickle-down" approach to power and wealth
distribution.
Michel Foucault's ● Micro View: Power is omnipresent throughout society, not limited to state
Views on Power institutions or specific groups.
● Multidimensional: Power has no fixed source or direction, and individuals
both experience and exert power.
● Power and Resistance: Wherever there is power, there is also resistance
as a counterforce.
● Productive Power: Power can be constructive, shaping identities and
maintaining social stability.
● Knowledge and Power: Knowledge itself is a form of power, influencing
societal structures.
● Disciplinary Power: Individuals subjected to power may internalize it,
leading to self-governance and convenience for the state.
Gramsci's Theory ● Hegemony: Gramsci's theory of power revolves around the concept of
of Power hegemony, where the dominant class exercises control by establishing its
ideology and culture as the norm in society.
● Cultural Influence: The dominant class maintains power by making its
ideas and values seem like common sense and shaping the cultural
landscape accordingly.
● Sanskritisation: Gramsci's ideas can be related to MN Srinivas's concept of
"sanskritisation," where lower castes adopt the culture and practices of
the upper castes without seeking to overthrow them.
● Unidirectional Power: Gramsci's notion of power is unidirectional,
emphasizing the influence of the ruling class on the rest of society.
● Limitations of Revolution: Both Gramsci and Foucault argue that mere
revolution may not be enough to dismantle complex power structures like
capitalism, as it often requires a broader transformation of societal norms
and values.
Hannah Arendt's ● Political Power: It is not about domination but empowerment.
View of Power ● Collective Action: Power emerges when individuals come together and
act collectively.
Legitimacy Legitimacy is a fundamental concept in political science, signifying the
acceptance of authority, typically of a governing law or regime.
Max Weber's ● Contrasts with Marx's view of an overthrowing state.
theory of ● Weber posits that the state wields power not merely through force, but
legitimacy through legitimate power obtained with the consent of the governed.

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● This consent arises from the social contract, an idea previously explored
by thinkers such as Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau.
Main ideas ● Rousseau emphasized the importance of perceived legitimacy of laws for
effective governance.
● Legality can only be enforced when laws reflect the consent of the
governed.
● Lack of consent leads to a "crisis of governability" as observed in regions
like Kashmir and the north-eastern states in India (Atul Kohli's analysis).
● Coercive state apparatus may be employed when consent is lacking, which
can further challenge governability and even lead to the collapse of the
state.
● Indian state uses Article 371 to grant special powers to certain states,
allowing them to accept specific laws aligned with their traditions and
culture.
● Gramsci suggested that the state generates legitimacy through
manufacturing consent.
● Foucault's view on legitimacy involves discourses, biopower, and creating
a "governed mentality."
● States maintain legitimacy through ensuring fundamental rights for
citizens, freedom of the press, judicial independence, and conducting free
and fair elections.
Crisis of ● Habermas, a neo-Marxist from the Frankfurt School, discussed it in his
Legitimacy book "Legitimation Crisis."
● He criticized the welfarism adopted by capitalist democracies worldwide,
viewing it as unsustainable in the long term due to conflicting principles of
capitalism and socialism.
● Liberal democracies face a contradiction in attempting to fulfill popular
demands for social security and welfare rights while maintaining a market
economy based on private profit.
● The reliance on welfare schemes funded by a capitalist economic system
creates tensions and challenges in sustaining legitimacy.
● In times of crisis, governments may need to reduce welfare schemes and
fiscal deficits, leading to resentment among the masses.
● Democratic systems, rule of law, and freedom of the press are crucial for
creating and maintaining legitimacy, according to Habermas.
● A legitimation crisis indicates a decline in the acceptance and confidence
in administrative functions, institutions, or leadership.
● It occurs when institutions fail to deliver the social goals for which they
were established, resulting in a violation of the social contract.
● Government overload is a term used to describe the situation where
demands of the population exceed the government's capacity to deliver.
● Industrialization and rapid development can lead to social movements
and protests as government regulations and workers' rights struggle to
catch up.
● Examples of the legitimation crisis include the Arab Spring in 2011 and the
failures of unbridled welfarism in countries like Greece and Venezuela.
Authority= Authority refers to legitimate power, and Max Weber identified three ideal
Power+Legitimac types:
y ● Traditional Authority: Based on long-established customs and traditions.
● Charismatic Authority: Derived from the exceptional qualities and
charisma of a leader.

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● Rational-Legal Authority: Established through rational and objective rules

and laws.
Conclusion Importance of the concept of power can be described in the words of Harold
D Lasswell who said “political science is nothing but sharing and shaping of
power.”
Political Ideologies: Liberalism, Socialism, Marxism, Fascism, Gandhism, and

Feminism.

Concepts
Introduction The term was coined by Claude de Tracy which meant "science of ideas".
Ideas on ideology ● Michael Foucault asserts that no ideology is free from the connection
between knowledge and power.
● Karl Marx suggests that in every era, the ideas of the ruling class hold
sway and become the dominant ideas.
● Hannah Arendt observes that ideology is employed by totalitarian states
to rationalize acts of terror.
● Karl Mannheim, in his sociology of knowledge, posits that every theory is
shaped by the perspective of a particular social class.
● Jean-François Lyotard, a postmodernist, labels ideology as a
"meta-narrative."
End of Ideology ● Daniel Bell, introduced the concept of the "End of Ideology."
● He argued that regardless of the ideological differences between East and
West, similar political and administrative developments have occurred.
● Both regions have witnessed the rise of bureaucratic and technocratic
societies, especially in the era of globalization.
● S.M. Lipset proposed the idea of moving away from ideological politics
and focusing on the "politics of development."
● According to Lipset, the post-war societies in the West have addressed the
fundamental political challenges of the industrial revolution, rendering
ideologies less necessary.
● W.W. Rostow, in his book "Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist
Manifesto," presented the modernization theory, asserting that every
state, irrespective of its ideology, goes through comparable stages of
economic growth.
Critics of the ● C. Wright Mills, who argued that the West has not resolved all its social
"End of conflicts through its liberal ideology.
Ideology" theory ● C.B. MacPherson pointed out wealth inequality in Western states.
● Ralph Miliband viewed the "End of Ideology" as a justification for
maintaining the status quo and discouraging the proletariat from pursuing
revolutionary change. He considered the welfare state a myth, as wealth
still remains concentrated in the hands of capitalists.
● Alasdair MacIntyre criticized the "End of Ideology" notion as being an
ideology itself, aimed at preserving the existing order. He suggested that
Lipset implicitly favored Western liberal democracy as the ideal model.
End of History ● Introduced by Francis Fukuyama in 1989 after the Cold War.
● Signifies the endpoint of man's ideological evolution.

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● Collapse of communism and the end of the Cold War demonstrated the
superiority of Western liberal democracy.
● Inspired by Hegel's dialectics, suggesting that historical conflicts would
end, leading to a universal homogeneous state.
● Alexander Kojève's idea that history would culminate in the establishment
of a universal state influenced Fukuyama.
● George Kennan's concept of "spiritual vitality" and a country's ability to
provide a better standard of living influenced the idea of winning the Cold
War.
● Christian mythology of the world coming under the unifying influence of
Jesus played a role in the concept.
Criticism of End ● Sees clash between corporate culture and religious orthodoxy.
of History ● Seumas Milne's criticism highlights Western support for authoritarian
regimes, questioning the morality of political traditions like liberalism.
● Samuel P. Huntington's critique suggests that the end of ideological
conflicts has been replaced by the "clash of civilizations," where cultural
and religious differences are the primary source of tensions in the
post-Cold War world.
Relevance of ● Weakening of Liberal World Order
Clash of ● Rising populist movements and authoritarian leaders have undermined
civilization the global influence of liberal institutions.
● Challenge from Chinese Han Way of Life
● China's rise as a superpower has presented an alternative to Western
liberal democracy, with the promotion of its own cultural and political
values.
● The Chinese model of governance, with its emphasis on state control and
limited political freedoms, challenges the universality of liberal principles.
● Ethnic Factors Threatening Liberal Institutions
● Conflicts like the one between Azerbaijan and Armenia, rooted in religious
and ethnic differences, illustrate this challenge.
● There is an ongoing debate over the compatibility of Western rights-based
values and Asian cultural values, which emphasize collective harmony
over individualism.
● Events like the 9/11 attacks, global financial crisis in 2008, and the rise of
China have raised questions about the credibility of liberal institutions and
their ability to address emerging challenges effectively.
● Globalization has increased identity consciousness and intensified
struggles for recognition and representation.
Criticism of the ● Too simplistic and fails to explain complex conflicts, such as civil wars in
Clash of Sudan and Yemen.
Civilizations ● Struggles to account for conflicts within the same civilization, like the
(COC) Theory Sunni-Shia divide in the Middle East.
● Serves to justify U.S. hegemony and its actions to counter perceived
challenges from other regions.
● The Abraham accord between Jewish and Islamic nations is an example of
geopolitical realities trumping civilisational values based on religion.
Conclusion Postmodernists like Lyotard say all ideologies are discourses. No ideology tells
the truth.

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SOCIALISM

Concepts
Introduction ● Joseph A. Schumpeter, in his book "Capitalism, Socialism, and
Democracy"
● Defined it as a society organized with public authority controlling the
means of production and making decisions on production and
distribution.
● This stands in contrast to private ownership in capitalism.
Backdrop ● Socio-economic inequalities caused by the Industrial Revolution
● Schumpeter rejects the aggregative view of society associated with
capitalism and favors an organic view that emphasizes sharing surplus
among all members.
Core ideas ● Concept of socio-economic equality.
● Instead of advocating for equality of opportunity like liberals, socialists
emphasize equality of outcomes, aiming to reduce disparities among
individuals.
Democratic/Evol ● Edward Bernstein believed that revolution was unnecessary due to
utionary workers having the right to vote.
Socialism ● He advocated for a parliamentary approach to bring about revolution.
● Karl Kautsky supported combining democracy and socialism, considering
it logical and inevitable.
Fabian Socialism ● Based on the ideas of Roman General Fabius
● Advocates for a gradual conversion to socialism through democratic
means, in contrast to revolutionary overthrow.
● It seeks to permeate all classes with socialist ideas, but critics argue that it
failed to arouse the working class, the primary sufferer under capitalism.
● Represented by G.D.H. Cole, Annie Besant, and George Bernard Shaw,
who were considered organic intellectuals spreading socialist ideas.
Syndicalism ● French in origin, this form of socialism is more violent and nearest to
Marxism.
● It aims to end the political state and establish an economic state where
workers acquire all offices.
● In contrast to Marxism, Syndicalism recognizes workers as the ruling class.
Guild Socialism ● A British variety represented by G.D.H. Cole
● Advocates public ownership of industries based on economic associations
called guilds.
● It proposes functional representation and a functional parliament, where
different professions have representation.
Contemporary ● The World Inequality Report highlights extreme wealth disparities
relevance of globally.
socialism/Marxis ● Thomas Piketty's work emphasizes rising economic inequality.
m ● Advocacy for progressive socialism with increased worker rights and
economic participation.
● Socialist ideas gaining traction in U.S. politics with figures like Bernie
Sanders and Elizabeth Warren.
● Demand to focus on an inclusive economy and workers' influence in
company management.
Criticism of Winston Churchill criticized socialism, stating that while capitalism may have
socialism flaws in unequal distribution of benefits, socialism's virtue lies in equalizing

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miseries among people.

Conclusion Until class divide exists, socio-economic inequality exists, socialism would
exist.
LIBERALISM

Concepts
Introduction Liberalism, an ideology originating in the Enlightenment era, prioritizes
safeguarding and promoting individual freedom as its central political theme.
Its development can be traced through different phases: Classical, Modern,
Neo, and Social Liberalism.
Classical ● Associated with thinkers like Locke, Bentham, and Mill.
Liberalism ● Views all individuals as equal due to their possession of reason.
● Emphasizes individualism and humanism, considering man as supreme.
● Sees society as a result of a contract to further individuals' interests.
● Adopts an aggregative view of society, focusing on individual interests
rather than a collective view.
● Considers the state necessary but potentially evil, as it restricts freedom.
● Thomas Jefferson's belief: "That state is best which governs the least."
● Classical liberals oppose welfarism and progressive taxation, prioritizing
progressive individualism.
● Vijay Kelkar in "In the Service of Republic" argues against government
intervention, citing interference with personal freedom and unintended
consequences.
Modern ● Modern liberalism integrates idealism into liberalism to counter crude
liberalism/Welfar economic determinism.
e state ● Mill emphasizes liberty, not just utility, as the core theme of liberalism.
● Man is viewed as social by nature, leading to obligations towards society.
● Rejects the atomistic concept of man presented by classical liberals.
● Society is seen as an organic entity rather than a mere market mechanism.
● The state is considered an instrument created by man for happiness and
pleasure, promoting virtue and ensuring citizens' welfare.
● Affirmative action is advocated to address inevitable inequalities and
restore the dignity of the poor.
● Modern liberalism maintains a positive relationship between man, society,
and the state, striking a balance between socialism and classical
liberalism.
Criticism of ● Asian Values: Opposes universal human rights, prioritizes community over
Liberalism individual, and justifies sacrificing rights for state security. Criticized by
communitarian scholars for its atomistic view of man.
● Insufficient Address of Discrimination: Left-wing criticism asserts that
liberalism doesn't effectively combat deep-seated discrimination.
● Vacuum in Liberal Societies: Francis Fukuyama highlights a lack of
guidance on how to live in liberal societies, leading to potential
consumerism and pop culture influences instead of human flourishing.
Libertarianism/N ● Calls taxation "bonded labor" and aggression on individual personality.
eoliberalism/Was ● Seeks to roll back the state due to excessive welfarism and advocates for a
hington revival of the nightwatchman state.
Consensus

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● Believes markets lead to desirable outcomes (Pareto optimal) without

government intervention.
● Criticizes the welfare state for transforming the government into a nanny
state that controls citizens' lives from cradle to grave.
● In neoliberalism, the market is deemed more powerful than the
government.
● Advocates include Margaret Thatcher, Ronald Reagan, Milton Friedman,
Robert Nozick, and F.A. Hayek.
● Hayek calls it a fruitless exercise and road to serfdom
● Calls social justice through welfarism as mirage.
● In the name of social justice, the state increases its powers. Says the state
is incapable of doing justice.
Criticism of ● Karl Polanyi: Criticizes neoliberalism for prioritizing market laws over the
Libertarianism/N well-being of society, subordinating social needs to market forces.
eoliberalism ● Arun Maira: In his book "A Billion Fireflies," argues that liberal economics
leads to the emergence of illiberal societies. Inequality in society is
causing a rise in authoritarianism and nationalism even within democratic
societies.
● Shift from Washington to Cornwall Consensus: The world is moving away
from the Washington Consensus, which emphasized neoliberal policies, to
the Cornwall Consensus, suggesting a shift in economic approaches.
Social Liberalism ● Joseph Stiglitz: In his book "Globalization and Its Discontents," he
emphasizes the need to address the democratic deficit in global
institutions.
● Stiglitz introduces the concept of "asymmetric information," where
privileged knowledge leads to adverse outcomes in free markets for
society as a whole.
● He also raises concerns about increasing inequality, which he considers
"intolerable."
● Amartya Sen: While supporting welfarism, Sen calls for a constructive role
of the state in promoting growth and development.
● He believes the state should enhance the capacity of the masses to
achieve inclusive growth.
● Others: Dworkin, John Rawls
Conclusion Liberalism as an ideology has evolved with changing needs of time. It has
helped realise the importance of individual freedom , limited the authority of
state and promoted ideals of humanism and rationalism.
MARXISM

Concepts
Introduction ● Marxism, derived from the ideas of Karl Marx, encompasses a
comprehensive social, political, and economic philosophy.
● It critically analyzes the impact of capitalism on labor, productivity, and
overall economic development.
● Marxism advocates for a worker-led revolution aimed at dismantling
capitalism and establishing a communist society.
Orthodox Emphasizes the primacy of the economy as the foundational structure in
Marxism society, shaping all other aspects of social life.
Neo-Marxism Inspired by the early works of Marx, Neo-Marxism seeks liberation from the

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alienation of man, focusing on overcoming human estrangement and

advocating for societal transformation.
The Critical ● Also called Frankfurt School
School ● Emphasize human liberation from exploitation, the end of alienation, and
the attainment of true freedom.
● Criticizes orthodox Marxism for leading to the establishment of
totalitarian states and emphasizes that Marx's ultimate aim was human
liberation, not just revolutionary overthrow.
● Argues that in totalitarian states, people are aware of their lack of
freedom, whereas in democracies, individuals may live under false
consciousness, unaware of their lack of true freedom.
● Critical of science's role, viewing it as serving capitalist interests and
undermining rationality.
● Modify the traditional Marxist view by asserting that culture is the basic
structure that needs changing to challenge capitalism effectively.
● The Critical School believes that capitalism has become deeply ingrained
in society and will persist. They attribute its survival to factors like the
advertising industry and information and communication technology.
● Herbert Marcuse: Known as the father of the New Left, introduced the
concept of the "one-dimensional man," referring to a mindless
consumerist society.
● Theodore Adorno advocated negative dialectics, suggesting a decline in
freedom as individuals become enslaved by capitalism.
The Structural ● Emphasizes multi-structural approach to determine the basic structure of
School society.
● Recognizes state's functioning through ideological (media, academic
institutions) and coercive (police, army) apparatuses.
● Louis Althusser is a prominent exponent of the Structural School, inspired
by mature Marx with differences from critical Marxists.
● E.F. Schumacher's "Small is Beautiful" presents a Marxian analysis of
modern industries, critiquing dehumanization and alienation of workers.
● Rise of capitalism associated with a rise in depression and dissatisfaction
in work due to profit-driven decision-making and gigantism.
● Schumacher advocates for a people-centric economy, prioritizing human
happiness over material wealth.
Conclusion Marxism's influence divided the world into two blocs during the Cold War. As
long as class divide and socio-economic inequality exist, Marxism remains
relevant for analyzing and addressing such issues. Its focus on challenging
inequalities makes it enduring in political and economic thought.
FASCISM

Concepts
Introduction ● Fascism, derived from the Italian word "Fascio," meaning unity and
strength, emerged with Mussolini as its leader during World War II.
● It sought a shift from 19th-century ideals of socialism and democracy to
embrace authority, collectivism, and the totalitarian state in the 20th
century.

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Inspiration ● Plato: Advocated the rule of a philosopher king and absolute obedience,
emphasizing duties over rights of citizens.
● Machiavelli: Justified actions in the national interest (raison d'etat).
● Hegel: Described the state as the embodiment of God's will on Earth.
● Hobbes: Advocated a powerful state (Leviathan) to prevent anarchy.
● Rousseau: Believed that man -must be compelled to embrace freedom.
● Henri Bergson: Introduced the concept of vitality, valuing passions over
reason.
Features of ● Anti-Rationalism: Emphasizes emotions over reason, using myths for
Fascism mass propaganda.
● Totalitarianism: Imposes single-party dictatorship, enabling absolute
control without opposition, leading to no rights or liberties.
● Elitism: Radically rejects equality, promoting rule by a small elite known as
junta.
● Anti-Democracy: Rejects democracy, views it as a luxury of rich nations,
and dismisses parliamentary systems.
● Militarism: Advocates a regimented society based on hierarchy and a
chain of command.
● Ultranationalism and Imperialism: Promotes the idea of nations as
natural rivals in the quest for dominance, advocating expansionist foreign
policies based on racial superiority.
● Economic System: Supports protectionism and self-sufficiency (autarky)
instead of international trade.
● State Supremacy: Believes in the absolute authority of the state, with
nothing above, against, or outside it.
Criticism of ● Arendt and Popper: View fascism as a form of totalitarianism, marking the
Fascism shift from class politics to mass politics.
● Gandhi: Sees fascism as a manifestation of Machiavellianism, likening it to
British imperialism. Gandhi highlights the danger of compromising means
to achieve ends, leading civilization towards satanic tendencies.
● Laski: Considers fascism as a crisis of capitalism and a counter-revolution
by elite classes against the masses. It represents a desperate attempt to
protect against the potential socialist revolution.
Contemporary It is argued that while fascists were defeated in war, they weren't fully
rejected. Since 9/11 and 2008, right-wing and neo-fascist ideologies have
grown, creating a crisis for the liberal project.
Conclusion Fascism lacks coherence, a hodgepodge of ideologies adapting to
circumstances, not a unified school of thought.
FEMINISM

Concepts
Introduction ● JS Mill's essay "The Subjugation of Women" exposes the continued
slavery of women, despite abolishing other forms of slavery.
● Feminism as a belief in gender equality has internal debates (meta
ideology).
Earlier feminists ● Earlier feminists didn't differentiate sex and gender, advocating for civil
and political rights.
● Mary Wollstonecraft, the "mother of feminism," sought voting rights for
women during the French Revolution.

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● Suffragette movements, led by Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters

Elizabeth and Sylvia, fought for women's voting rights.
Radical Feminists ● Termed True feminism, developed by and for women.
● Emphasize gender and sexuality differentiation.
● Patriarchy is a central concept; advocate sexual revolution for female
liberation.
Carole Hanisch ● Introduced the concept "Personal is Political."
● Argued that the separation between personal and political perpetuates
discrimination against women at home.
● Gender division of labor in the private sphere creates barriers for women
in other areas.
● Reservations in PRI in India enhanced women's participation in household
decision-making (World Bank).
● Bihar government banned alcohol due to domestic violence against
women.
● Rejected essentialism regarding women's qualities as loving and caring.
Susan Moller Argues that the family perpetuates gender inequalities by instilling sexist
Okin - Gender, values in children, which continue into adulthood.
Justice, and
Family
Catherine ● Views gender as a system of dominance, not difference.
MacKinnon - ● Exposes a political system of male dominance and female subordination,
"Feminism sexualizing power dynamics.
Unmodified" ● Critiques organized feminism's failure to challenge patriarchy perpetuated
by state laws.
● Notes that being a woman is not inherently bad, but patriarchy in society
is harmful.
● Customs and myths institutionalize inequality, teaching women to
conform to feminine roles that complement men's masculine traits.
Simone de ● Women are not the second sex, but the secondary sex.
Beauvior – “The ● "One is not born woman, one becomes woman."
Second Sex” ● Women exist provisionally as an extension of men, highlighting the
constructed nature of gender roles.
Betty Friedan - ● Conducted a survey of discontented white, affluent women, labeling it a
"The Feminine problem with no name.
Mystique" ● Identifies patriarchy as the root cause of women's dissatisfaction.
● Patriarchy perpetuated through family as the core institution.
● Highlights the role of myths in subordinating women (e.g., menstruation
restrictions, marriage age, property rights).
● Argues patriarchy also persists through knowledge systems (e.g., Freud's
views on women's purpose).
● Emphasizes the need to end patriarchy for true upliftment of women
despite civil, political, and socio-economic rights.
Kate Millett - ● Analyzes the patriarchal system and its impact on women's subordination.
"Sexual Politics" ● Focuses on the politics of sexuality and gender roles.
Shulamith ● Argues that patriarchy, not just the economy, is the fundamental structure
Firestone - "The of society.
Dialectic of Sex" ● Advocates the use of technology to liberate women from the constraints
of motherhood.
Iris Marion Young ● Advocates for differentiated citizenship and affirmative action.
● Believes in equalizing differences to achieve true equality.

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Contemporary ● #MeToo Movement: A global campaign against sexual harassment and

Examples assault, empowering women to share their experiences on social media.
● International Women's Day (March 8th): Marked worldwide, promoting
women's rights and gender equality with hashtags and online activism.
● Digital Feminism/Radical Feminism: Utilizing social media platforms to
advocate for women's rights and challenge patriarchal norms in the digital
age.
Conclusion Feminism isn't about making women stronger, women are already strong, it's
about changing the way the world perceives that strength.

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Theories of state: Liberal, Neo-liberal, Marxist, Pluralist, Post-colonial, and

Feminist.

Concepts
Introduction The study of state has been one of the most important concepts in normative
political theory.
Monistic Theory ● Hobbes: Established supremacy of positive law (law given by the state)
over natural/customary laws. He considered sovereignty as a permanent
characteristic of the state, inalienable, and indivisible.
● John Austin: In his book "Lectures on Jurisprudence," he further
elaborated on the monistic theory of sovereignty, emphasizing the
absolute and supreme authority of the state's laws
Pluralist Theory

Concepts
Main Ideas ● Considers Monistic theory a legal fiction.
● The state's choices are externally limited by other actors and its
relationships with them.
● Internally, the state's sovereignty is constrained by various organizations
and associations.
● State not the only institution responsible for fulfilling human needs.
● Consequently, the state should not have exclusive authority to make laws.
Exponents of ● Advocates that in a federal society, authority should also be federal.
Pluralist Theory: ● Criticizes monistic theory as a potential recipe for a totalitarian state and a
Harold Laski threat to international peace and human rights.
● Believes that seeking Austinian sovereignty in a federal state is an
impossible misadventure.
● Argues that allegiance to various associations is partial and proportionate
to their contribution.
● Suggests that surrendering the concept of sovereignty would be beneficial
for political science.
R. M. MacIver ● Classified as an extreme pluralist.
● Proposes the concept of a "service state," where the state's purpose is to
serve the people.
● States that the law does not originate from the state itself but exists
independently, with the state shaping and implementing it.
● Emphasizes that institutions like family and kinship predate the state and
are not dependent on it.
● For moderate pluralists, the state is crucial in social architecture and
enjoys primacy in keeping society together, but it is not the only
institution of significance.
● Believes that the state, as a social organization, should share the authority
to formulate laws with other societal organizations.

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Critical ● They want to keep the state to avoid anarchy but also limit its power.
evaluation of ● But the state automatically assumes primacy due to the unique role that it
pluralists performs.
● Hence they want to keep the cake and have it too.
● More realistic and relevant in present times as there is a cry for more and
more decentralisation and diffusion of power.
Liberal Theory of State

Concepts
Introduction The liberal theory of the state is rooted in the idea of a social contract, where
the state emerges through a mutual agreement among individuals. There are
two main schools of thought within liberalism.
Nightwatchman ● Inspired by Locke, Smith, Nozick, and Hayek.
State (Classical ● Advocates for a limited state with minimal intervention in economic and
Liberalism) social affairs.
● Emphasizes individual rights and free-market principles.
Welfare State ● Supported by Rawls and Sen.

(Modern ● Argues for a more active state role in addressing social inequalities and
Liberalism) promoting social justice.
● Proposes a welfare system to provide essential services and safety nets for
citizens.
Marxist Theory of State

Concepts
Introduction ● State as Superstructure: Marxists view the state as a part of the
superstructure, which is shaped by the economic base of society.
● Reflection of Capitalist Control: Since the means of economic production
are controlled by the capitalist class, the state is perceived as an
instrument used by the capitalists to protect and further their interests.
● Force Theory: Engels proposed the Force Theory, suggesting that the state
is not a result of a social contract or voluntary agreement. Instead, it is
imposed upon the weaker members of society by the dominant ruling
class.
● Role of the State: From the Marxist standpoint, the state serves to
maintain the existing class structure and to enforce the interests of the
ruling capitalist class over the working class and other societal groups.
Instrumentalist ● Influenced by the Communist Manifesto,they label the state as the
School "executive committee of the capitalist class"
● Reject the notion of state neutrality, considering it false consciousness,
and view the state as inherently biased towards the capitalist class.
● The state is seen as a class institution, favoring the ruling class, and
providing little justice or fairness for the working class.

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● Marxists, including Lenin, envision a stateless society as the ultimate goal,

reflecting the irreconcilability of class conflicts.
● Friedrich Engels stated that in a society with genuine freedom, the state
would become obsolete.
● Ralph Miliband's book "The State in Capitalist Society" challenges the
notion of the welfare state, arguing that wealth remains concentrated in
the hands of a few.
Structuralist ● Structuralists emerged as a criticism of the Instrumentalist school.
View of the State ● They focus on the superstructure and are called structuralists because of
this emphasis.
● State as Part of Superstructure, not merely an instrument of the capitalist
class.
● They argue that capitalists also need the state to preserve and protect
capitalism.
● Relative Autonomy Theory: State, under normal conditions, may appear
neutral. However, in times of crisis, it tends to favor the propertied class.
● State may occasionally appear to act on behalf of the proletariat, but it is
done to prevent an uprising that could threaten the capitalist system as a
whole.
● Concept of Bonapartism: refers to a situation where the executive
(government) becomes the strongest in the state, overpowering the
legislative, judicial, and even the capitalists themselves.
● Bargaining Power and Relative Autonomy: When the feudal class,
capitalists, and workers are all strong and well-organized, none of them
can fully control the state.
● The state gains relative autonomy and uses this power to mediate conflicts
between different classes.
● State Intervention in Crisis: During times of crisis, the state tends to
intervene to save the capitalists, linking it to the concept of deformed
polyarchy. For example, during the 2008 financial crisis, democratic
governments rescued banks while common people faced losses.
● Example of Protests in West Bengal: Structuralists cite examples like
protests against the Nano plant in West Bengal, where the communist
government used force against protestors, indicating the state's role in
protecting capitalist interests.
Exponents of the ● Karl Marx
Structuralist ● Gramsci: Emphasized the role of civil society in shaping the state's
View of the State appearance of autonomy from the capitalist class while arguing that, in
reality, the state serves the interests of the ruling elite.
● Louis Althusser: Concept of ideological state apparatus and repressive
state apparatus to explain how the state exercises control over society
through institutions and coercion.
Nicos Poulantzas ● Book "Political Power and Social Classes"
● Emphasized the significance of elements in the superstructure.
● Explained that in a pluralist society, various social groups are in constant
conflict. The state's aim is to unite these factions, and this requires
maintaining a neutral stance.
● Argued that the state needs to achieve equilibrium and cannot be a mere
instrument of any particular class at all times.
● Universal adult franchise has granted voting rights to the poor, leading
political parties to cater to every section of society. As the poor constitute

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a majority, the state is compelled to become relatively autonomous from

the capitalist class and adopt welfare measures.
James Burnham ● Gave the concept of managerial revolution
● Held that there is a shift in the decision making power from the capitalist
class to the managerial class, a class of managers that anyone can join.
Ralph Miliband ● Rejects above idea.
● Says capitalist class has made MBA requisite for it and MBA so costly that
only rich can afford it and become managers
● Hence power is still effectively in the hands of managers who come from
the elite class.
● It is rare that sons and daughters of the lower class can join this
managerial class
Post Colonial Theory of State

Concepts
Main Ideas ● Post-colonial states after WW2 - termed "prismatic societies" (F.W. Riggs),
coexistence of modernity & tradition.
● Soft state (Gunnar Myrdal) - weak governance in poverty alleviation
programs, like in India.
● Functional anarchy (Galbraith) - formal institutions exist but weak and
disorganized in post-colonial states.
Neo-Marxist ● Instrumentalist Approach: Scholars of the Third World use the core and
analysis of periphery concept to analyze neo-colonialism's continued impact.
post-colonial ● Periphery states are seen as instruments of the bourgeoisie in core
states countries.
● Conflicts, like in the Middle East, are influenced by arms and nuclear
industry lobbies seeking profit.
● Lenin: Capitalism's expansionism and colonies' dependency on the core
countries are inherent traits. Colonies are called "dependency."
● A.G. Frank: Introduced the concept of "development of
underdevelopment."
● Samir Amin: Advocates for peripheries to sever ties with core countries,
criticizing US actions and calling for a multipolar world.
● Immanuel Wallerstein: World systems theory highlights unequal
economic exchanges between core and periphery, predicting capitalism's
decline and advocating for "National Autonomous Development" in
post-colonial states.
Hamza Alvi’s ● Instrumentalist approach relevant in fully developed capitalist countries,
Perspective not in post-colonial states.
● Structural mismatch between political and socio-economic evolution in
post-colonial states.
● Overdeveloped state machinery exists as compared to transitioning
socio-economic structure.
● Colonial legacy led to an important institution imposed by colonial
masters, resulting in a strong executive and "bureaucratic-military
complex."
● Post-colonial states have three propertied exploiting classes with
competing interests, leading to a relatively autonomous role for the state:

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Indigenous bourgeois, Metropolitan neo colonialist bourgeois, Landed

classes.
● The state becomes a "Bonapartist state" with a strong executive, not a
mere instrument of any single class.
● Post-colonial states directly appropriate a significant portion of economic
surplus for bureaucratically directed economic activity in the name of
development.
● Political parties as vanguards of national independence inherit legitimacy
and hold dominant positions, further enhancing state power.
● Overdeveloped state nature: heavily bureaucratised, despotic, and
encourages hero worship.
● Efforts like the introduction of PRI in India during LPG reforms aimed to
empower citizens and reduce the gap between state and society.
Conclusion Garner rightly said that political science begins and ends with state.
Feminist theory of state

Concepts
Main Ideas ● Catherine MacKinnon, a radical feminist, views the state as patriarchal.
● She critiques organized feminism, especially legal feminism, for its
inability to change the political system of male dominance and female
subordination upheld by the state's laws.
● She argues the laws of the state have been made to perpetuate patriarchy
● Feminists have an ambivalent stance on the state, recognizing it as an
institution of patriarchy but also acknowledging the need for state
intervention, even in personal spheres, to empower women ("the
personal is political").

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Indian Political Thought

BUDDHIST POLITICAL THOUGHT

Concepts
Introduction ● Political thought based on Buddhist ideals emerged around the 6th
century BC, during the time of Mahajanapads.
● While Buddha is widely recognized as a symbol of peace and spirituality,
certain scholars, including Upinder Kaur, Gail Omvedt, and Kancha Ilaiah,
consider him as the first social and political philosopher.
● Many kings, such as Bimbisara and Ajatsatru, sought Buddha's guidance.
Origin of State ● The Digha Nikaya discusses the origin of the state.
According to ● Initially, an ideal state existed, but with time, corruption and greed arose,
Digha Nikaya leading to the necessity of a central authority similar to Hobbes' social
contract.
The Role of the ● The king, known as "mahasammat" (the great elect), had the
King: responsibility to uphold dharma and ensure the well-being of his subjects,
Mahasammat both materially and spiritually (rajadhamma).
and Rajadhamma ● The king was elected from the Buddhist sanghas, displaying a republican
and democratic nature.
● The people selected the most noble among them, considering qualities
like knowledge, liberality, gentleness, modesty, and selflessness.
● This concept is reminiscent of Plato's philosopher king, but with the
distinction that the king's authority was subordinate to the dhamma.
Chakravarti ● The ideal king was termed "chakravarti samrat."
Samrat: Foreign ● His foreign policy was not based on force but on the principles of
Policy Guided by righteousness, aligning with the concept of virtuous actions, deeds, and
Righteousness thoughts, similar to the Socratic tradition.
Focus on Peace, ● Buddhism emphasized maintaining peace and harmony, promoting
Harmony, and non-violence towards both humans and animals.
Non-Discriminati ● It centered around ideals such as justice, liberty, equality, fraternity, and
on the concept of a welfare state.
● The Buddhist sanghas were open to all, as Buddhism rejected
discrimination.
Rationality, ● Buddhist political thought was subject to the test of rationality, reason,
Reason, and and logic.
"Madhyama ● Buddha's emphasis on the "madhyama marg" aligned with Aristotle's
Marg" middle path.
As a Counter Some scholars perceived Buddhist political thought as a counter hegemony to
Hegemony the dominance of the Kshatriya-Vaishya coalition and Brahminical thought.
Conclusion Buddhist political thought contributed to more egalitarian and republican

forms of politics, emphasizing peace and harmony. It advocated for
non-discrimination and welfare, reflecting a holistic approach to governance.

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KAUTILYA

Concepts
Introduction ● Kautilya, also known as Chanakya, is regarded as the father of Indian
strategic thought, statecraft, and political economy.
● He served as Chandragupta Maurya's chief advisor, helping him defeat the
Nanda dynasty and establish the Mauryan dynasty.
Context ● Similar to Machiavelli's discontent with corruption in Italy, Kautilya was
unhappy with the corrupt and inefficient governance of the Nanda
dynasty in Magadha.
● He wrote the Arthashastra, a comprehensive treatise aiming to create an
ideal and corruption-free state.
The Book: ● The Arthashastra addresses both dharma (laws) and danda (statecraft)
Arthashastra - A and encompasses both internal and external aspects of statecraft.
Comprehensive ● It discusses grand strategy, including military and non-military, material
Work and ideational resources, to achieve foreign policy goals.
● Comparable to Sun Tzu's "Art of War" and Machiavelli's "The Prince," the
Arthashastra delves into various subjects, such as types of wars,
espionage, and corruption.
Kautilya's Ideas ● State of Nature - "Matsa Nyaya": Kautilya described the state of nature as
and Key "Matsa Nyaya," similar to Hobbes' anarchical state of nature.
Concepts ● State as an Organism and the Imperative of Expansion: Kautilya believed
the state is like an organism and will perish if it does not expand.
Neighboring states are considered natural enemies, as they vie for the
same territory.
● The Ideal King: "Vijigishu" and "Chakravartin Samrat": Kautilya referred to
his king as "vijigishu" and aspired for him to be an all-encompassing
emperor, a "chakravartin samrat."
● Sources of a King's Power: According to Kautilya, a king derives his power
from three main sources: Prabhushakti (military and treasury),
Mantashakti (advice of wise men), and Utsahshakti (charisma).
● Bureaucracy and Influence on Max Weber: Kautilya organized an
elaborate network of bureaucracy to manage the Mauryan Empire, which
inspired Max Weber's work on bureaucracy as a highly structured,
formalized, and impersonal organization.
● War and "Kshatriya Dharma": Kautilya believed that war is the "kshatriya
dharma" or duty of the warrior class.
● Psychological Warfare and Offensive Realism: Kautilya promoted the use
of psychological warfare, akin to Sun Tzu. He followed the school of
offensive realism, believing offense to be the best defense.
● Mandal Siddhant - The Circle of Friends and Foes: Kautilya's "Mandal
Siddhant" involved understanding a dynamic circle of friends and foes,
embracing 12 neighboring kings. It emphasized that there are no
permanent friends or enemies in international politics, and a king must
expand his empire from inner to outer circles.
On Statecraft: ● Kautilya's Arthashastra includes the concept of the Saptang theory, which
Saptang Theory postulates that a state has seven limbs, and the interaction between these
limbs is represented by 12 mandals.
● This theory determines the possibilities of conflict, leading to a
consideration of 84 elements of sovereignty before a king engages in

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warfare.
● It emphasizes the importance of a strong king even if other elements in
the state are weak. It serves as a reminder for the king to prioritize the
well-being of his citizens, as their welfare directly affects the prosperity of
the kingdom.
King's Duties: ● Kautilya advocates for the king to follow "rajdharma," understanding that
Rajdharma and the well-being of the citizens is interconnected with the well-being of the
Upholding king himself.
Dharma ● This highlights the significance of just and benevolent rule to maintain the
harmony and prosperity of the state.
● Furthermore, Kautilya advises the king to uphold dharma, the righteous
path, and create conducive conditions for trade and commerce.
● Ensuring a stable and fair economic environment is crucial for the welfare
of the people and the overall prosperity of the kingdom.
On Corruption ● Kautilya identifies 40 ways of embezzlement and corruption within the
state.
● He emphasizes the importance of tackling corruption and suggests
measures such as regular transfers to prevent officials from becoming too
powerful or corrupt.
● Additionally, whistleblowers should be protected, and the entire chain of
corrupt transactions must be punished to discourage corruption within
the state.
Current ● The potential roles that India envisions its two largest neighbours will play
relevance in securing its foreign policy objectives is in tandem with Kautilyan
concepts: of Pakistan as “innate” and China as “contingent” enemy; and
of the former as a “strategic opponent” and the latter, a “strategic
competitor”.
● Can also about India's neighbourhood and extended neighbourhood
through mandal siddhant.
● Checks on govt corruption through PCA and lokpal.
● Espionage through RAW, IB.
Similarities ● Shift to Political Science: Both shifted focus from political philosophy to
between Kautilya pragmatic political science, analyzing statecraft and governance.
and Machiavelli ● Politics vs. Ethics: They distinguished politics from ethics, emphasizing
pragmatic considerations over moral principles.
● State Security: Prioritized state security and advocated for a strong state.
● War as Last Resort: Urged war as a last resort due to economic losses and
citizen well-being.
● Emphasis on Conquest: Stressed territorial expansion to strengthen the
state.
● Use of Strategies: Advocated for clever strategies and tactics in statecraft.
● Corruption Concerns: Addressed corruption issues, with Kautilya
providing a detailed analysis.
Differences ● King and Dharma: Kautilya believed a king must adhere to Dharma, while
between Kautilya Machiavelli suggested using religion to control people.
and Machiavelli ● Implementation of Ideas: Kautilya's ideas were practically applied, while
Machiavelli's remained theoretical.
Weber and ● Max Weber saw Kautilya as more Machiavellian than Machiavelli.
Nehru's ● Nehru referred to Kautilya as the "Indian Machiavelli" in his book
Perspectives "Discovery of India."

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Criticism Gandhi criticized the separation of ends and means, advocating for holistic
well-being that includes spiritual aspects.
Conclusion Medha Bisht's book emphasizes Arthashastra's grand strategy, filling gaps in
Eurocentric perspectives on statecraft. Its enduring relevance lies in its holistic
approach and pragmatic principles.
SIR SYED AHMED KHAN

Concepts
Introduction ● Syed Ahmad Khan was a 19th-century Islamic scholar, reformist, and
philosopher.
● During his time, the Muslim community faced frustration and stagnation
due to British skepticism following their active involvement in the 1857
mutiny.
His Ideas ● Emphasized the importance of combining the Quran with scientific
knowledge.
● Authored "Asbab-i-Baghawat-e-Hind," analyzing the causes of the 1857
revolt and promoting Western education for Muslim youth instead of
British resistance.
● Published "Loyal Mohammadens of India," pledging Muslim loyalty to the
British.
● Criticized outdated customs of Islam in the magazine "Tehzeeb ul
Akhlaaq."
● Presented a modernist interpretation of the Quran.
● Founded Aligarh Muslim University (AMU) and initiated the Indian
Institute Gazette, a scientific journal.
Originator of Two Initially, Syed Ahmad Khan regarded Hindus and Muslims as two eyes of India,
Nation Theory symbolizing unity. However, his views changed due to several factors:
● British appeasement towards Hindus.
● Language controversies, such as the movement to make Hindi the official
court language in place of Urdu.
● Marginalization of Muslim customs.
● The adoption of Ganesh Chaturthi and Vande Mataram by the Indian
National Congress further alienated Muslim sentiments.
Modern Day ● Sacchar committee report highlights only 3% Muslims in AIS and 4%
Relevance graduates
● Muslims below sc/st in many socio-economic indicators/
● His ideas serve as a guide to prevent misguided youth from joining
extremist outfits like JKLF and ISIS.
Conclusion ● Syed Ahmad Khan provided enlightened leadership during a critical period
for the Muslim community.
● His ideas, including the modernist interpretation of Islam, remain
significant today in understanding the challenges faced by the community
and guiding them towards a better future.

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AUROBINDO GHOSH

Concepts
Introduction Sri Aurobindo Ghosh, an Indian philosopher, yogi, poet, and nationalist,
embraced the extremist brand of nationalism. He rejected the belief that
British rule was beneficial and emphasized India's true independence.
On Nationalism ● Inspired by neo-Vedantism, as advocated by Swami Vivekananda, which
encompasses Humanism and Universalism, two cardinal features of Indian
spiritual thought.
● Influenced by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee's novel "Anandmath," Ghosh
synthesized Herder's concept of cultural nationalism and Hegel's idea of
the state as a march of God on Earth, combining them with Vivekananda's
and Chatterjee's ideologies.
● Ghosh skillfully integrated the rationality of the West with the spirituality
of the East, demonstrating his ability as a great synthesizer.
● According to Ghosh, a nation possesses a soul, a divine entity, challenging
the notion that India was merely a geographical entity.
● "Bharat Mata" (Mother India) represents a concrete manifestation of
India being a natural and living entity.
● For Sri Aurobindo, "Freedom of India" was not a mere political ideal but a
spiritual necessity. He believed that without India's freedom, the nation
would perish, and humanity would lose its spiritual guide, as India serves
as the spiritual guide for mankind.
● Ghosh emphasized that India's freedom was crucial to end all forms of
oppression, slavery, and imperialism.
● He believed that India must be reborn as demanded by the future world.
● PM Modi describes India's role in the world as that of Vishwaguru, the
teacher of the world, representing a superior spiritual path to solve global
problems.
● Ghosh's nationalism had a profound spiritual dimension, and he urged
people to embrace nationalism with the same fervor as their religion.
● He attributed India's fall to a focus on "tamas" (inertia) and considered
British rule as the hammer of God that awakened the country to its
originality.
● Ghosh aimed to create a counter-hegemony against the Western notion
that India was not a nation but merely a geographical identity.
● According to Dr. Karan Singh's book, "Prophet of Nationalism," Ghosh
believed that true nationalists should embrace the new religion, the
religion of nationalism. He cautioned against blind imitation of Europe,
stating that every nation possesses innate uniqueness, and their objective
should be self-awareness of their potential.
● Ghosh viewed nationalism as more than a mere political program; he
considered it a religion that comes from God.
● In conclusion, Sri Aurobindo Ghosh's rejection of liberal nationalism and
his emphasis on the cultural sanctity of nationalism provided a significant
boost to India's freedom struggle, particularly during a time when
different confused notions of nationalism prevailed in the country.
Ghosh's Concept ● Ghosh's concept of freedom began with the idea of "swaraj" (self-rule) for
of Freedom the country, which eventually extended to the individual level.
● He believed that the craving for freedom is deeply ingrained in the human

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Paper 1 Part A
heart, making countless arguments against it powerless to uproot.

● Transitioning from the political concept of freedom, Ghosh explored the
spiritual dimension of freedom.
● According to him, true freedom is achieved when a person is at peace
with themselves, and the idea of freedom must strike a balance between
the individual and society, avoiding sacrifices of one for the other.
● The purpose of "swaraj" is to comprehend the spiritual aspect and
prepare for a social revolution.
● For Sri Aurobindo, "swaraj" implies freedom of mind, body, and spirit, and
he considered it the Dharma of every human being to be truly free.
● Ghosh emphasized that "swaraj" is not merely a change of government
but a program of nation-building.
● He argued that striving for anything less than "swaraj" would be an insult
to India's past greatness and the magnificent possibilities of its future.
Conclusion Tagore held that through the voice of Ghosh, India would spread its message
to the world.
GANDHI

Concepts
Introduction Mahatma Gandhi, a lawyer, freedom fighter, and one of the most defining
personalities of the twentieth century, drew inspiration from various sources
to shape his ideology and principles.
Inspired by ● John Ruskin's "Unto This Last" - Concept of Sarvodaya, bread labour, land
reforms, trusteeship, and the revival of cottage industries.
● Rousseau and Edward Carpenter on Modernity
● G.K. Gokhale- Spiritualization of Politics
● Henry David Thoreau- Civil Disobedience
On Rights ● Rights are inherent in duties - Bhagavad Gita's Nishkama Karma.
● Rights and duties are interconnected, not independent or contradictory.
● "Hind Swaraj" views real rights as a result of fulfilling duties.
● Western societies prioritize rights, while developing societies prioritize
duties (Asian values).
Satyagraha - The ● Attributed to Thoreau, who introduced the concept of civil disobedience.
Struggle for Truth ● In the Indian context, Ghosh presented the theory of passive resistance.
● No feeling of enmity; it fights against evil, not the evildoer.
● Satyagrahis endure suffering instead of harming others to raise their
consciousness.
● The principle is introspection; viewing the enemy as a part of oneself.
● Spiritually guided and principle-centered movement.
● Not a coercive tactic; it emphasizes moral principles.
Critic of Modern ● Describes modern civilization as satanic and plagued by excessive
Civilization consumerism (inspired by Herbert Marcuse's "One-Dimensional Man").
● Views fascism and imperialism as manifestations of unchecked modernity.
● Raises concerns about unsustainable development, stating that following
the Western model would require at least nine more Earths.
Gandhi vs. ● Arundhati Roy distinguishes Gandhi's spiritual approach, referring to him
Ambedkar on as a saint, and Ambedkar's clinical approach, addressing him as a doctor.
Social Justice ● Gandhi appealed to upper-caste Hindus and founded the Harijan Sevak
Sangh, seen by Ambedkar as paternalistic. Ambedkar aimed to empower

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Dalits to raise their consciousness and become a class for themselves, not
just in themselves.
● Ambedkar preferred the term "depressed classes" over "Harijans" and
supported state-affirmative action and political mobilization.
● Gandhi prioritized freedom from foreign rule as the first step, while
Ambedkar sought to resolve the Dalit question first.
● Though often portrayed as adversaries, their work complements each
other, with Gandhi's tasks leading to Ambedkar's continuation.
Trusteeship ● Gandhi proposed trusteeship as an alternative to communism and
capitalism, which he viewed as based on violence.
● Satyagraha, nonviolent resistance, is justified if the wealthy refuse
voluntary wealth-sharing.
● Trusteeship justifies the demand for communism by preventing labor
alienation in the production process.
● It aligns with the welfare state model and influenced stakeholder
capitalism.
● Trustees are obligated due to the negative externalities of their industries
on society.
● Gandhi's economic actions prioritize the welfare of all beings, reflected in
CSR and philanthropy.
● Concepts like Swaraj, Sarvodaya, Khadi, Swadeshi are woven into the idea
of Atmanirbhar Bharat.
Gandhi and ● Gandhi emphasizes a sustainable economic model against mindless
COVID-19 capitalism and globalization during the pandemic.
● Advocates self-sufficient gram panchayats to combat COVID-19 at the
local level.
● Migrant crisis highlights the need for the owner class to act as trustees
rather than capitalists.
On Swaraj ● True Swaraj is achieved by being free from all desires, inspired by Ghosh
and Upanishads.
● Swaraj encompasses political, social, economic, and cultural dimensions.
● Political Swaraj includes PRI, social Swaraj ends communalism and
untouchability, economic Swaraj involves land reforms, khadi, and cottage
industry, and cultural Swaraj respects every culture.
On Nonviolence ● Nonviolence is the fundamental principle of Gandhi's philosophy and
described as his creed.
● It is more than refraining from violence; it is based on love, compassion,
and fraternity.
● Gandhi opposed British violence for civilizing Indians and built
nonviolence as a counter-hegemony.
● Ahimsa should be practiced toward animals and the environment.
● Nonviolence is the purest means in the pursuit of truth, a powerful force
against physical brutality.
● It is the art of triumphing over brute force with spiritual force.
● Swaraj is meaningless without upholding truth and nonviolence.
Role in Freedom ● Professor Humayun Kabir viewed Gandhi as a man of action and a
Struggle psychologist who understood mass psychology, rather than a traditional
philosopher.
● Bipin Chandra praised Gandhi for his success in making the national
movement a multi-class movement, uniting various social classes.
● Gandhi faced challenges in fighting the British, who ruled through

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coercion and manufacturing consent. He aimed to build a

counter-hegemony.
Critics ● M.N. Roy criticized Gandhi's trusteeship model, alleging it was meant to
protect the bourgeoisie.
● Roy also described Gandhi as weak and indecisive, seeking appointments
with the Viceroy.
Contemporary ● In today's post-truth society, Gandhi's emphasis on seeking and upholding
Relevance from truth remains vital to counter misinformation and deception.
Rajmohan ● With the rise of religious hate and xenophobia, Gandhi's message of
Gandhi's book Hindu-Muslim unity becomes even more relevant in promoting communal
"Why Gandhi harmony.
Still Matters" ● Gandhi's concept of "Gram Swaraj" (self-reliant village communities) is
essential to address rural distress and farmer suicides that persist in
modern times.
● The rampant consumerism of today is depleting Earth's resources faster
than they can be replenished, underscoring the need to adopt Gandhi's
principles of simplicity and sustainability.
● Despite progress, untouchability and oppression of Dalits continue to be
prevalent issues, making Gandhi's fight against social inequality highly
significant today.
Conclusion As Albert Einstein remarked, future generations may find it hard to believe
that such a remarkable individual as Gandhi once walked among us,
emphasizing the enduring impact of his teachings in the present times.
B.R. AMBEDKAR

Concepts
Introduction Ambedkar was a prominent figure among India's modern thinkers,
distinguished for his relentless struggle for the liberation of dalits.
His Ideas ● Critiqued the caste system, arguing that it hampers economic efficiency
and restricts individuals from pursuing their interests and talents.
● Emphasized the importance of exogamy for developing fraternity within
the nation.
● Rejected the idea that the caste system divides labor; instead, he believed
it divides the laborer.
● Advocated for the annihilation of the caste system through education,
agitation, and organization.
● Ambedkar stressed that social justice in India must prioritize the concerns
of the bahujan samaj (the majority population).
● Viewed the state as an instrument of affirmative action, not coercion, in
contrast to Gandhi and Marx's perspectives.
On Social Justice ● Identified dalits as the most oppressed group in Indian society.
● Cited the Manusmriti, where dalits were referred to as antyaj (outside the
Varna system).
● Addressed the multiple deprivations faced by dalits due to their birth.
● Fought for the abolition of untouchability and the establishment of a life
of dignity for untouchables.
● Ambedkar considered the caste system as the foundational structure of
society.
● Employed the concepts of "war of position" and "war of manoeuvre" to

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describe the dalit movement's struggle against the upper castes.

Conclusion Ambedkar's leadership as the tallest dalit leader remains unparalleled, as his
efforts achieved remarkable progress for the welfare and empowerment of
the dalit community.
M.N. ROY

Concepts
Introduction M.N. Roy was a prominent Indian revolutionary, radical activist, political
theorist, and philosopher in the 20th century.
Radical ● Humanism places humans at the center of analysis.
Humanism ● Based on Roy's thesis "New Humanism" (1947).
● Inspired by Marx's scientific materialism, Spinoza's ethics, and Locke's
secular politics.
● Three elements: Rationality, Freedom, and Morality (MRF).
● Critical aspect: Criticizes communism and economic interpretation of
history.
● Constructive aspect: Values individual freedom, presents a humanist
interpretation of history, and outlines radical democracy.
● Aims for a society where individuals are free from class, nation, and
religious identity.
● Advocates for the rejection of irrational customs through evolving
rationality.
● Promotes a society based on secular rationality.
● Believes that human reason evolves through constant struggle for
survival.
● Measures social progress by the amount of freedom provided to
individuals.
● Calls for radical and grassroots democracy.
● Emphasizes the importance of individual welfare over nation or class.
● Advocates for revolution through education, not armed violence.
● Open to adaptation based on changing requirements.
● Roy predicted the breakdown of the non-aggression treaty between
Germany and Russia and the possibilities of the Cold War. He was
regarded as an international political leader.
Ideational ● Started as a revolutionary associated with Yugantar, inspired by Bagha
Journey of M.N. Jatin.
Roy: 20s to 30s ● Went to Mexico from the USA seeking solutions for India's poverty issues
but dissatisfied with Lala Lajpat Rai's answers.
● Founded the Communist Party of Mexico and became a critic of Gandhi.
● Disapproved of Gandhi's non-violence, viewed him as a bourgeois leader,
and criticized the Indian National Congress for representing bourgeoisie
interests.
● Believed Gandhi was weak and avoided confronting the Viceroy.
● Criticized Gandhi for calling off the Non-Cooperation Movement, fearing a
loss of Congress's relevance and advocating suffering for the masses.
● Accused Gandhi of being medieval and introducing religion into politics.
● Lenin saw Roy as a symbol of future revolution in the East and invited him
to Russia, but they disagreed on the role of the communist party in
revolutions.

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30s to 40s ● Joined the Indian National Congress to bring radicalism from within.
● Became sympathetic to Gandhi and criticized Soviet Marxism due to
Gandhi's actions in controlling massacres.
● Criticisms of Marxism included neglecting the importance of ideas in
shaping history, suggesting history moves through class cooperation
rather than struggle, emphasizing equitable distribution of surplus value,
requiring an ideological revolution before materialistic revolution, and
opposing the dictatorship of the proletariat.
40s to 50s ● Left Congress and advocated for partyless democracy while developing
radical humanism.
● Roy is credited with introducing the idea of socialism in the Indian
Constitution by Granville Austin in his book "Indian Constitution:
Cornerstone of a Nation."
Conclusion Sudipto Kaviraj refers to M.N. Roy as a "remarkable failure" because Indian
society has not fully embraced the rationalist way of life advocated by Roy.
Despite his ideas and efforts, the broader societal transformation towards
radical humanism has not materialized in India.

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Western Political Thought

PLATO

Concepts
Introduction The father of political philosophy. Book - "The Republic": Explores the concept of
justice
Context ● Plato aimed to understand the reasons behind Athens' loss to Sparta in the
Peloponnesian War. Reasons for Athens' defeat to Sparta in the Peloponnesian
War:
● Athens was a democratic society (which Plato opposed), while Sparta was a
rigidly structured warrior society.
● Athens experienced a divide between the rich and the poor.
● The elites in Athens were influenced by the teachings of the sophists.
● The sophists were utilitarians who prioritized money and power over
knowledge for leading a good life.
● They promoted populist decisions over the right decisions
● Plato believed that "ought" (what should be) should govern "is" (what
currently exists)
His Ideas ● Plato was a radical thinker who proposed sweeping changes in society and
politics.
● He incorporated Socrates' theory of knowledge into his theory of ideas.
● According to Plato, to build an ideal state, one must first have an idea of what
an ideal state is.
● Knowledge is a prerequisite for developing such ideas, and he proposed a
theory of education to attain knowledge.
● Plato believed that political philosophy has a social purpose, which is to enable
a good life for people
Theory of ● Derived from Socrates' theory of knowledge.
Ideas ● Ideas exist in the realm of the divine, while reality is a flawed manifestation of
those ideas.
● Ideas are transcendent and remain unchanged over time.
● Plato used the allegory of caves to illustrate that ideas represent ultimate
reality
Theory of ● Plato proposed three classes of men: Men of reason (guardians) represented
Souls/Myth by gold, Men of courage (auxiliaries) represented by silver, Men of appetite
of Metals (civilians) represented by copper.
(Kallipolis - A ● Plato believed that some individuals are naturally born to rule, creating natural
Just City) inequality among people.
● Men of silver and copper must follow men of gold blindly
Theory of ● Plato advocated for common ownership and the absence of private property.
Communism ● He proposed communism of property, family, and wives.
(Limited to ● Plato believed that private property and family ties lead to corruption.
the Guardian ● Eliminating property would reduce lust for corruption, while abolishing the
Class) family system would prevent nepotism and favoritism.
● This system would also result in women's liberation

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Theory of ● Plato argued that until philosophers become rulers, people will continue to
Philosopher face predicaments.
King ● The philosopher king is an individual with true knowledge and a lack of lust for
power.
● Plato opposed the idea of democracy, asserting that decision-making should
not involve the general population.
● The ruler's responsibility is to govern reluctantly, and states governed by such
rulers are considered the best.
● The philosopher king represents both knowledge and sacrifice.
● Critics argue that Plato's diagnosis is correct but his prescription is flawed, as
power has a corrupting influence. However, examples like Ashoka are cited as
potential instances of a philosopher king in practice
Theory of ● According to Plato, justice is functional specialization, wherein everyone
Justice performs their designated duties.
● Plato's view of justice is hierarchical, while Rawls' view is egalitarian.
● Aristotle believed in treating equals equally and unequals unequally as a form
of justice. Both Aristotle and Plato uphold a meritocratic principle of justice.
● Rawls, inspired by Immanuel Kant, disagrees with the Greek conception of
justice, emphasizing the inviolability of human dignity.
● Plato considered justice to be superior to power, leading to a peaceful society.
Plato believed that knowledge should hold a supreme position in society,
giving rise to the concept of the philosopher king to establish a just state.
● Sabine described justice as the bond that holds society together, while Barker
argued that Plato's entire thought revolved around the concept of justice
Theory of ● According to Plato, education is crucial to developing ideas about a just society.
Education Individuals must perform duties suitable to their abilities.
● Plato proposed a theory of education to determine which individuals should
perform specific duties in a state.
● The process involved state-sponsored education, strict oversight, education
for women, subjects like philosophy, literature, mathematics, and compulsory
military training.
● Upon completing this education, an individual becomes eligible for the role of
philosopher king.
● Plato considered the state as an individual writ large, created to establish an
ideal state based on the concept of justice.
● He emphasized the interconnection between politics, ethics, and the principles
guiding both individuals and the state
First Feminist ● Plato argued that women do not have any natural disability preventing them
Perspective from receiving an education.
● He even mentioned the concept of a philosopher queen.
● Some argue that his motivation for liberating women was not solely for their
benefit but to utilize their services for the state

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Aristotle vs ● Aristotle, Plato's greatest disciple and critic, differed in various aspects,
Plato particularly Plato's theory of communism regarding private property and
family.
● Aristotle was pragmatic, advocating for the best practicable state, while Plato
was an idealist aiming for an ideal state.
● Plato was radical and perfectionist, desiring extensive reforms, while Aristotle
was more conservative, believing in the principle of the golden mean.
● While Plato correctly diagnosed that even a philosopher king could succumb to
corruption, Aristotle disagreed with Plato's solution.
● He argued that property gives individuals a sense of achievement and
motivation, and everyone's property is no one's responsibility. Aristotle
considered the abolition of property and family as an impractical remedy.
Criticism ● Karl Popper wrote "The Open Society and Its Enemies," in which he
considered Plato an enemy of an open society. Popper argued that those who
were seduced by Plato's writing style disagreed with him. He criticized Plato's
holistic approach, essentialism, and historicism, claiming they hindered critical
examination and questioning.
● Isaiah Berlin labelled Plato as a fascist.
Conclusion Ronald Levinson defended Plato and argued against comparing him to Hitler,
stating that they were incomparable. He considered the concept of the
philosopher king as utopian and challenging to compare with Hitler's fascism.
Ralph Waldo Emerson famously said, "Plato is philosophy, and philosophy is Plato."
ARISTOTLE
Theory Components
Introduction Aristotle is widely recognized as the father of political science due to his
pioneering analysis of politics. Work- ‘Politics’
Similarity ● Both Aristotle and Plato shared a belief in the natural inequality of men.
between ● Plato introduced the concept of the "myth of metals," while Aristotle justified
Aristotle and the institution of slavery.
Plato ● They both prioritized the state over the individual.
● Neither had faith in the masses; Plato advocated for a philosopher king, while
Aristotle considered democracy as the second worst form of government.
Theory of ● Aristotle's theory of justice was formulated in the context of revolution.
Justice ● He acknowledged inherent inequality among individuals and consequently
justified slavery.
● According to him, equals should be treated equally, while unequals should
be treated unequally.
● He advocated for proportional equality, where those who contributed more to
the state and displayed greater civic excellence deserved greater rewards.
● Marxists opposed this view, as they rejected any form of inequality.
● Aristotle disagreed with absolute equality, arguing that it would be unjust
towards individuals with more talent and merit.
● He believed that treating unequals as equals would lead to a sense of
injustice, potentially resulting in revolution and sedition.
● While numerical equality was relevant in democracies, Aristotle did not
support democracy, considering it the second worst form of government after
tyranny.

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Theory of the ● Aristotle famously stated that "man is by nature a political animal,"
State emphasizing the natural inclination of humans towards political organization.
● He asserted that only the state could fulfill the needs of individuals, making it
the highest form of association, surpassing even the village and family.
● This idea influenced the monistic theory of sovereignty advocated by Hobbes
and John Austin. Aristotle argued that those who could live without a state
would either be beasts or gods, but not true humans.
● He believed that the state was more important than the individual since
individuals truly became human in the presence of the state.
● Aristotle contended that nature had not made humans self-sufficient, and
living in a state was the destiny of humankind.
Theory of ● Aristotle defended the natural and practical aspects of slavery.
Slavery ● He contended that individuals lacking reason or courage were suited to be
slaves.
● Slavery served a purpose, allowing masters to engage in activities beneficial to
the state.
● Aristotle argued that slavery was also useful for the slaves themselves, as they
required constant guidance and could learn from their masters to develop
virtues.
● He even suggested that a slave who demonstrated virtue should be liberated.
● Critics, however, argue that while slavery may be a law of nature, societal
context should shape our understanding of what is morally acceptable.
● Immanuel Kant criticized Aristotle's justification of slavery, asserting that
individuals should not be treated merely as means to an end.
Theory of ● Aristotle criticized Plato's communism and recognized the negative
Property consequences of extreme wealth.
● He advocated for individual property rights with a concept of common use,
similar to Gandhi's model of trusteeship.
● Aristotle believed that property gave individuals a sense of achievement and
drew inspiration from Locke's ideas.
● He argued that excessive inequality in property ownership led to revolution,
aligning with Buddha's perspective that wealth accumulation breeds hatred,
cruelty, and violence.
● Supporting references to Thomas Piketty's work and the World Inequality
Report 2022 can be cited.
Theory of ● Aristotle extensively studied 158 constitutions.
Constitution ● He viewed the polity as a balance between democracy and oligarchy,
considering democracy the second worst form of government after tyranny.
● Drawing on the works of Sydney Verba and Gabriel Almond, Aristotle asserted
that excessive participation in politics posed risks to the stability of the polity.
● He believed that the civility of the middle class would help alleviate societal
conflicts.
● Aristotle argued that the rule of the middle class was preferable, as neither
the rich nor the poor could be trusted fully.
● He advocated for a greater number of middle-class citizens, as excessive
inequality bred revolution.

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Theory of ● Aristotle was a conservative who opposed revolution and favoured the status
Revolution quo.
● He believed that any change, whether small or large, constituted a revolution.
● According to Aristotle, the main cause of revolution was inequality and
injustice.
● He asserted that societies built on extreme inequality were destined to
collapse.
Critics ● Immanuel Kant criticized Aristotle for justifying slavery.
● Dworkin criticized Aristotle's theory of justice, asserting that individuals
should not be held responsible for circumstances beyond their control.
Aristotle as an ● Aristotle influenced Locke's justification of the need for private property.
Inspiration ● Aristotle's ideas influenced Arendt's theories of deliberative democracy and
direct democracy, highlighting the importance of collective deliberation
among different families within a state.
Conclusion Aristotle stands as an intellectual colossus, unrivalled in his intellect by any

individual before or after him, as noted by Jonathan Barnes.
MACHIAVELLI
Theory Components
Introduction Niccolò Machiavelli was an Italian Renaissance diplomat, philosopher, and writer.
His book "The Prince" is widely considered the best book on statecraft.
Context ● The rise of nation-states in Europe influenced Machiavelli's ideas.
● Machiavelli aimed to consolidate Italy into a strong nation-state.
● Corruption in the Roman church was prevalent, affecting the common people.
Ideas ● Machiavelli believed that a prince should possess the art of power
management and be a political entrepreneur.
● He embraced a realpolitik perspective, emphasizing practicality in politics.
● National interest should always take precedence, even over personal religion or
ethics.
● He separated church and state, aligning with the ideals of the Renaissance.
● Machiavelli's prince was not a hereditary monarch but a political entrepreneur.
● He emphasized the importance of history and psychology for a prince, rather
than philosophy.
Advice ● Machiavelli advised understanding politics before entering the field,
highlighting the need to be cunning like a fox and brave like a lion.
● He urged princes to see things as they are and not abandon reality for idealistic
notions.
● Machiavelli believed that human nature was inherently selfish, cowardly,
ungrateful, fickle-minded, avaricious, and deceitful.
● People prioritize self-interest over the interest of the state, making gratitude
fleeting.
● Machiavelli advised maintaining law and order to allow individuals to pursue
their property interests.
● A wise prince provides security for the lives of his subjects to maintain control.
● Machiavelli stressed the importance of a cold-blooded approach, avoiding
actions driven by passion.
● He endorsed the idea that the ends justify the means, with the prince's success

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absolving any questionable means.

● Princes should not shy away from vices like cruelty or dishonesty if they benefit
the state.
● The concept of raison d'État, acting purely in the national interest, was integral
to Machiavelli's philosophy.
● Regarding religion, Machiavelli saw its utilitarian potential for disciplining the
people, but he advised princes to appear supportive of religion even if they
lacked faith.
Comparison ● Both Machiavelli and Kautilya shifted their focus from political philosophy to
with Kautilya political science and realism.
● They distinguished between ethics and politics.
● Both prioritized the security of the state over building an ideal state.
● They emphasized conquest and territorial expansion.
● Both viewed war as a last resort and stressed the use of diplomacy and other
strategic elements.
● Differences include Kautilya's emphasis on dharma and the implementation of
his ideas by Chandragupta Maurya.
Criticism ● George Holland Sabine criticized Machiavelli as narrowly dated and located.
● Gandhi, in "Hind Swaraj," opposed politics without ethics, calling it a death
trap.
Conclusion ● Machiavelli is considered the first modern political thinker, and his ideas have
influenced political realism.
● Laski calls him the father of political realism.
● His works highlight the practicalities of politics and the importance of the
state's well-being.
HOBBES
Theories Components
Intro ● Thomas Hobbes, hailed as the first modern thinker in Western philosophy, is
renowned for presenting a comprehensive theory of sovereignty.
● His notable work, "Leviathan," delves into the intricate aspects of political
authority and governance.
Context ● Hobbes's experiences during the Puritan Revolution of the 17th century in
Britain deeply influenced his concerns for establishing peace and order in
society.
● In medieval times, the theory of the "two swords" caused chaos, with
conflicting authorities of the emperor and the pope.
● Hobbes, however, advocated for the integration of the church under the
state's authority to ensure a unified power structure.

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Core Ideas ● Belongs to the social contract tradition, viewing the state as a result of a
social contract.
● Belongs to the positive school of law, emphasizing that the state is the
source of laws.
● Advantages of positive law: Certain source, Definite, Enforceable, Creates
equality between individuals
● Rejects natural law derived from reason, instead focusing on positive law as
man's reason is limited.
● Describes natural law as "counsels of prudence."
● Considers security of life as paramount, emphasizing the absolute right to
life given by nature.
● Methodological individualist and normative individualist, establishing that
man is utilitarian by nature using the resolutive compositive method.
● Advocates for an all-powerful state with absolute powers to preserve human
life, making him an absolutist.
State ● Inspired by Aristotle's theory, giving primacy to the state over other
Absolutism institutions.
● Monistic theory of sovereignty, emphasizing that the state alone possesses
authority.
● Rejects the sharing of authority with any other institution.
● Sabine says that there is no contradiction between his individualism and
state absolutism. It is in the interest of individualism that state absolutism
becomes necessary. Only a centralised state with institutional law and order
can prevent anarchy to save life of man.
Hobbes as a ● Asserts that all men are guided by pain and pleasure, driven by their
Scholar of passions.
possessive ● Establishes equality among men based on their shared pursuit of
individualism self-interest.
● Views man as individualistic by nature and social only due to compulsion.
● Presents life as a continuous search for power, leading to competition and
anarchy
● Utilizes the resolutive compositive method to scientifically prove his
theories.
Political ● States that man has liberty only where the law is silent, losing liberty when
Obligation the state creates laws.
● Advocates for state punishment of those who do not follow the sovereign's
law, resonating with Rousseau's concept of forcing individuals to follow the
general will. Says covenants without swords are nothing but empty words.
● In the state of nature man's life is poor, nasty, brutish and short. State of
nature is characterized by “war of all against all.”
● He calls the state Leviathan (all powerful). In a piece of territory, there can
only be one sovereign, the state.
● Hobbes dealt with the dilemma of limited means and boundless desires.
● He developed a political obligation model based on the "consent-contract"
theory, asserting that individuals are morally obligated to obey the
commands of the sovereign for the sake of their own lives.
● Hobbes introduced the right to punish, including the use of violence, against
those who defy the sovereign's commands.
● Hobbes's concept of political obligation shares similarities with Plato's
philosopher king.
● However, it is important to acknowledge that totalitarian and fascist

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regimes, such as Hitler and Mussolini, misused Hobbes's ideas to demand

absolute political obedience from citizens towards the state.
Critics of ● Thomas Paine rejects the binding nature of the contract on future
Social generations.
Contract ● Henry Maine views the concept as entirely hypothetical.
● David Hume questions how an extremely self-centered man develops
enough reason to enter into the contract.
Other ● According to C. B. MacPherson, Hobbes begins with an individualistic
Criticisms perspective but ultimately adopts an absolutist stance.
● Laski argues that the monistic theory of sovereignty, upheld by Hobbes, is
philosophically unsustainable. Laski contends that humans possess multiple
dimensions and that the state alone cannot fulfill all of their demands. With
the rise of federal forms of government, Laski suggests that the monistic
view of sovereignty has become an impractical and misguided endeavor.
Conclusion To quote Oakeshott, Hobbesian Leviathan is the greatest masterpiece of political
philosophy written in the English language.
JOHN LOCKE
Theories Components
Introduction John Locke, known as the "father of liberalism," is renowned for his
contributions to political philosophy. He developed theories on natural rights,
government by consent, and toleration.
Context Locke witnessed the Glorious Revolution of 1688, which involved the peaceful
transfer of power from the monarchy to parliament.
Locke's Key ● Critique of Robert Filmer: In his first book, Locke criticized Robert Filmer's
ideas theory of divine rights, which posited that the state is created by God and the
king represents God's absolute authority on Earth.
○ Locke opposed this view and replaced it with the concept of natural
rights, asserting that the state is a creation of humanity and should serve
the purpose of facilitating a good life rather than being worshipped.
● Theory of Limited State: Unlike philosophers like Plato, Rousseau, and
Hobbes who advocated for an all-powerful state, Locke proposed the idea of
a limited state.
○ He argued that the government does not possess original powers but only
delegated powers.
● Reason and Passion in Man: Locke believed that humans possess both
reason and passion but should maintain a balanced state.
○ He argued that even in a state of nature, individuals do not harm others
as they possess enough reason to understand that anarchy is to their own
disadvantage.
○ This concept influenced MN Roy's idea that humans develop morality to
foster harmonious and mutually beneficial social relationships.
● Tabula Rasa: Locke rejected Socrates' view that the soul guides a good life.
○ Instead, he proposed the concept of the mind as a "tabula rasa," a clean
slate, asserting that humans learn from their experiences.
● Toleration of Religions: Locke advocated for religious tolerance, stating that
the state should tolerate all religions since individuals do not listen to the
magistrate in matters of religion.

50
Paper 1 Part A
● Limited and Constitutional Government: In his work "The Second Treatise,"

Locke introduced the concept of a limited and constitutional government.
○ He presented an enlightened view of self-interest, arguing that individuals
understand that peace and tranquility are to their own benefit.
● Consent and Right to Revolt: Locke proposed the theory of government
based on the consent of the people.
○ He emphasized that laws should be made with the consent of the people.
Additionally, he supported the right to revolt against the state if the social
contract is breached.
Views on ● Locke's views on property centered around its protection.
Property ● He stated that the sole purpose for establishing a Commonwealth is the
protection of property.
● Inspired by Aristotle, Locke considered property as a source of inspiration for
individuals, as it is an extension of their labor and personality.
● He outlined three limits on man's right to property: it should be a product of
labor, everyone should have an equal right to property, and property is
sacred and should not be spoiled.
Criticism Marxists criticized Locke for his defense of the right to property, considering it
vulgar.
Conclusion Locke's ideas on liberalism and democracy have had a profound influence.
Scholars such as Hannah Arendt drew inspiration from his theories on civil
republicanism, and John Rawls developed his theory of justice based on Locke's
principles.
J.S. MILL
Theories Components
Introduction ● If anyone is liberal, it is Mill.

● Mill's ideas on natural rights, government by consent, and toleration have
had a profound impact on political philosophy.
On ● Classical liberalism/utilitarianism focused on utility as the core value.
Utilitarianism ● Mill was inspired by Alexis de Tocqueville's insights into the sociological
limitations of utilitarianism.
● Criticized Jeremy Bentham for perverting liberalism with a majoritarian
approach and neglecting human values.
● Highlighted the negative consequences of utilitarianism, such as worker
exploitation and increased socio-economic inequality.
● Thomas Carlyle famously described utilitarianism as a "pig's philosophy."
● Mill revised utilitarianism and placed liberty as the core idea of liberalism.
● Mill asserted, "It is better to be a man dissatisfied than a pig satisfied;
better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied."
● He criticized Bentham's concept of quantifying happiness through the
"felicific calculus," which lacked a consideration of quality.
● Mill drew inspiration from Socrates and Plato, infusing idealism into
utilitarianism.
● He differentiated between pleasure and happiness, with pleasure being
materialistic and happiness being spiritualistic.
● Mill argued that pleasure encompasses both quantitative and qualitative
aspects, asserting that poetry is not inferior to mere physical pleasures like
pushpin.

51
Paper 1 Part A
● Critics of utilitarianism pointed out that two actions alone cannot define
the entirety of human actions, as there is also a sense of sacrifice in human
behavior.
● Mill believed that utility, in its broadest sense encompassing both
happiness and pleasure, should guide human actions.
● Despite initial criticism, Mill's revision and humanization of utilitarianism
strengthened the philosophy over time.
On Liberty ● First person to provide a comprehensive liberal concept of liberty.
● Initially, liberty was associated with property rights and justifying
capitalism.
● Emphasized individual sovereignty and transcendental utility as the core
ideas of liberty.
● Argued for the protection of freedom of speech, expression, and from
exploitative customs and traditions.
● Defended absolute freedom of speech and expression, with restrictions
only when it harms rational individuals.
● Asserted that silencing discussion assumes infallibility and hinders the
pursuit of truth.
● Mill argued that the state must guarantee three essential freedoms to
individuals:
○ freedom of speech and expression
○ freedom to act on one's ideas
○ freedom to form associations with like-minded individuals.
● He defended liberty because he recognized that without it, there can be no
self-development.
● Mill supported negative liberty and compared individuals to plants that
must be free to grow and develop themselves.
● He believed that a state cannot become great by stifling its own people.
On Speech and ● Mill regarded freedom of speech and expression as the most special gift to
Expression humans from God.
● He emphasized that only humans, unlike animals, possess the capacity to
resolve conflicts through dialogue.
● “No state becomes great by dwarfing its own people.”-Mill
● Mill acknowledged that this freedom can be limited if it harms rational
individuals rather than hypersensitive ones.
● He famously stated, "The silencing of discussion is an assumption of
infallibility."
● Mill argued that through dialogue and speech, individuals can arrive at the
truth. Suppressing the truth is futile, as the truth is bound to emerge.
● He believed that only the truth can help individuals lead a good life, and
denying someone the truth deprives them of their right to live a fulfilling
life.
The Harm ● Mill proposed the harm principle to determine the extent of liberty that
Principle the state should provide.
● He distinguished between self-regarding actions and others-regarding
actions.
● The state should only intervene in others-regarding actions, as
self-regarding actions primarily affect the individual themselves.
● Mill contended that any restrictions on liberty, other than preventing harm
to others, are unjustified and mere restrictions for the sake of restrictions.

52
Paper 1 Part A
Mill on ● Advocated for deliberative democracy based on the strength of arguments,

Democracy rather than mere numbers.
● Believed that a democratic society must exist before implementing a
democratic political system.
● Expressed concerns about extending voting rights to illiterate and poor
individuals, fearing mobocracy.
● Suggested reforms such as weighted voting, plural voting based on
property ownership, and proportional representation with adequate
representation for the capitalist class.
● Supported the idea that democracy is an end in itself and emphasized the
importance of a civic culture.
Reluctant ● John Stuart Mill has been referred to as a reluctant democrat due to his
Democrat stance on introducing democracy in colonies where it was most needed.
● Mill believed that benevolent despotism, rather than immediate
democracy, was more suitable for societies he considered "barbarians."
● He argued that democracy should not be treated as a free gift to be
distributed without considering the readiness of the people.
● Mill believed that a democratic society should be established first before
introducing a democratic political system.
● He emphasized the importance of a civil culture and the need for people to
have a certain level of readiness and preparedness for self-governance.
Critics ● Ernest Barker referred to John Stuart Mill as the "prophet of empty liberty
and abstract individualism."
● Barker categorized Mill as a negative liberal, while he identified himself as
a positive liberal.
● Barker criticized Mill for making an arbitrary distinction between
self-regarding and others-regarding actions, which allowed significant
room for state intervention.
● While Mill believed in maximizing liberty, he also acknowledged the
negative consequences it could bring. As a result, he allowed for state
intervention in certain cases.
● Mill permitted state intervention, such as preventing an individual from
ending their life, by invoking metaphysical concepts like the real will.
● This contrast between Mill and Barker arises from the fact that Mill
belonged to a transitional period. During this time, people began to
recognize the limitations of laissez-faire, but the idea of positive liberty or
the welfare state had not yet fully emerged.
Mill’s Advocacy ● In his book "The Subjection of Women," Mill addressed the ongoing
for Women’s subjugation of women.
Rights ● Advocated for equality between men and women, supporting voting rights
for women.
● Argued against the legal subordination of one sex to the other,
emphasizing the need for perfect equality.
Conclusion ● Mill's ideas on liberty, the state, democracy, and governance remain
foundational in modern democratic societies.
● His emphasis on individual liberty, protection of minority rights, and
gender equality continues to shape contemporary political discourse.

53
Paper 1 Part A
KARL MARX
Theories Components
Intro Karl Marx's reputation primarily rests on his revolutionary ideas rather than his
philosophical contributions. He is renowned for inspiring the establishment of
numerous communist regimes during the twentieth century.
Inspirations ● Hegel - Marx drew inspiration from Hegel's philosophy, particularly the
concept of dialectics. He criticized Hegel for "standing on his head,"
suggesting that Hegel's philosophy was inverted and needed to be
transformed.
● Ricardo - By Ricardo's labor theory of value, which states that the value of a
good is determined by the amount of labor required to produce it.
● Louis Blanc - By Blanc's ideas on socialism and the need for revolutionary
change.
Marx's Ideas ● Critique of Adam Smith and Laissez-Faire Theory:
o In his book "Critique of Political Economy" Marx argued that this theory
leads to the accumulation of wealth by only a few, as he believed it allows
unrestricted free market forces to prevail.
● Violence as the Midwife of Change
● Scientific Socialism and Praxis: Marx described his version of socialism as
scientific and emphasized its praxis, which means it focuses on practical
action rather than just theory.
● The Goal of Communism
● "Workers of the world, unite! You have nothing to lose but your chains."
● According to Marx, philosophers have traditionally interpreted the world,
but he emphasized the importance of actively changing it.
● Marx argued that human history is primarily shaped by the act of
production rather than abstract thinking. He contended that manual labor
and the creation of goods and services hold greater significance in historical
development than intellectual pursuits.
Base and ● According to this model, the base represents the economic foundation
Superstructure (including the means of production and class relations), while the
Model superstructure encompasses institutions like the family, education, and the
state that are influenced by the economic base.
● Super structure is the reflection of basic structure and as base changes so
does superstructure.
● The class which controls the basic structure(means of production) controls
the institutions of superstructure.
State as a Marx diverged from Hegel's view of the state as a universal institution. Instead,
Class he argued that the state primarily functions as an instrument of the ruling class
Institution to maintain its dominance and suppress the working class.
False ● Marx asserted that religion and nationalism are forms of false consciousness
Consciousness that distract workers from recognizing their true class interests.
and ● He believed that workers needed to become aware of their material
Revolutionary conditions and develop revolutionary consciousness to bring about social
Consciousness change.

54
Paper 1 Part A
True Freedom ● Marx defined true freedom as liberation from the basic necessities of life,
in which he believed could be achieved in a communist society.
Communism ● In communism, private property would be abolished, eliminating the pursuit
of profit and competition.
● Resources would be allocated according to the principle of "from each
according to his ability, to each according to his needs."
Marx's ● Marx believed that capitalism carries within itself the seed of its own decay.
Analysis of ● Under capitalism, individuals view each other as competitors rather than
Capitalism fellow humans, creating a contradiction between man and society.
● Capitalists pay lower wages to workers to remain competitive, leading to the
elimination of small capitalists and the growth of the proletariat.
● This process ultimately leads to the disappearance of the middle class and
exacerbates social inequality.
● Marx argued that this state of inequality is a state of disequilibrium, and
nature is bound to move towards equilibrium.
● The more workers work and generate profit, the stronger the bargaining
power of the capitalists, which leads to the workers' own exploitation and
demise.
Historical ● Marx's theory of historical materialism, also known as the materialistic
Materialism interpretation of history, posits that the driving force of history is not ideas
but the relations between individuals in the process of production.
Dialectical ● Dialectical materialism refers to the conflict between classes that arises due
Materialism to material conditions, driving historical progress.
and Dialectical ● In contrast, dialectical idealism refers to the conflict between ideas that
Idealism influences historical development.
Levels of ● Marx discusses different levels of consciousness, including "class in itself"

Consciousness and "class for itself."
● The transition from "class in itself" to "class for itself" occurs when workers
truly realize their economic condition and reject further exploitation.
History of ● According to Marx, the history of all hitherto existing societies is the history
Class Struggle of class struggle.
● Changes in history occur when there are changes in the relations of
production.
Stages of ● Prehistoric: No private property, primitive communism, no class struggle,
Societal and no state needed.
Development ● Slave Society: Characterized by the master-slave relationship, the existence
of classes, and the need for a state to protect the interests of the masters.
● Feudal Stage: Involving lords and serfs, marked by feudal relations and class
struggle.
● Capitalism: Characterized by the conflict between capitalists and workers.
● Socialism (Dictatorship of the Proletariat): Emerging immediately after the
revolution, with workers controlling the state while capitalists are exploited.
● Communism (End of History): Private property abolished, no class or class
struggle, leading to a state of perfect freedom and equality.
Alienation and ● Marx identified four levels of alienation: alienation from the process of
the Necessity production, alienation from the product, alienation from society, and
of alienation from oneself. He argued that capitalism destroys human essence
Communism and that communism becomes a necessity as a result.

55
Paper 1 Part A
Critiques of ● Karl Popper: Labelled him as reductionist and determinist. He argued that
Marx Marx's theory, with its emphasis on economic factors as the driving force of
historical change, was unscientific and not open to falsification.
● Max Weber criticized Marx for providing a monocausal explanation of
history, as he believed that multiple factors, including culture and ideas,
influenced societal development.
● Gramsci criticized Marx for underestimating the significance of the
superstructure, particularly cultural institutions and their role in shaping
social consciousness.
● Louis Althusser accused Marx of economic reductionism.
● Michel Foucault contended that Marx's focus on relations of production
overlooked the importance of power dynamics in shaping society. He
suggested that power can manifest through various mechanisms unrelated
to economic class, such as gender and sexuality.
Conclusion Hannah Arendt remarked that Marx's enduring influence in our present world
serves as a testament to his greatness.
Antonio Gramsci
Theories Components
Intro Antonio Gramsci is widely celebrated as one of the most original political thinkers
in Western Marxism and is considered the father of neo-Marxism.
Context As a contemporary of Mussolini, Gramsci sought to understand why Marxist
predictions didn't come true and why capitalism continued to prosper.
Neo-Marxism aimed for human emancipation beyond just economic revolution,
emphasizing the need to challenge the mental hegemony of the capitalists.
Influences ● Benedetto Croce: Gramsci appreciated Croce's use of scholarly journals and
the press to shape ideological and social change, saturating the intellectual
life of Italy with a particular culture.
Key Ideas ● Gramsci criticizes Marx for overemphasizing the role of the base structure
and undermining the importance of the superstructure.
● He introduces the concept of cultural hegemony, where a dominant class
controls the oppressed through indoctrinated "common sense" or belief
systems.
● Gramsci seeks to understand the techniques of "bourgeois hegemony" in
order to replace cultural hegemony with one that serves the interests of the
proletariat.
Role of State ● Gramsci argued that the state exists to protect the capitalist class, while civil
and Civil society functions as the first layer of protection.
Society ● Civil society, through institutions like the family, school, and church,
manufactures consent and builds the hegemony of the capitalists.
● The state represents the second level of power, coercive power, which
becomes operational when ideological domination (hegemony) fails.
Obstacles to ● Gramsci suggests that the attraction to capitalist values prevents workers
Revolution from hating capitalists. The values of the capitalist class become the values of
the worker class.

56
Paper 1 Part A
● Gramsci favors a coalition of classes rather than solely relying on workers to

revolt, citing examples of capitalists aligning with church fathers and
intellectuals.
● In Western societies with well-developed civil societies, the state remains
opaque, making it difficult to bring about a socialist revolution.
War of ● Gramsci proposes the "war of position" as a protracted struggle to build
Position and counter-hegemony, with workers creating their own organic intellectuals and
War of forming alternative coalitions.
Manoeuvre ● The "war of manoeuvre" involves direct action and was exemplified by
Gandhi's critique of Western civilization through swadeshi and satyagraha.
Neo-Marxism ● Two schools of neo-Marxism:
● Critical or Frankfurt School: Emphasizes the role of culture in the
superstructure, with mass culture shaping individuals and maintaining
capitalism.
● Structural School: Focuses on the reciprocal relationship between the
economic structure and the superstructure, highlighting the importance of
culture and values in building hegemony.
Criticism ● Althusser criticizes Gramsci for neglecting the coercive state apparatus and
focusing solely on the ideological state apparatus.
● Michel Foucault argues that Gramsci overlooks the micro view of power and
fails to consider the multidimensional flow of power in society.
Conclusion Gramsci, known as the theoretician of the superstructure, has breathed new life
into Marxism with his focus on the role of superstructure and the concept of
hegemony.
Hannah Arendt
Theories Components
Intro Hannah Arendt is a prominent political philosopher who is known for her
heterodox thinking and her unique approach to political philosophy, which is
often described as thinking without barriers. She holds a rare designation in a
male-dominated discipline.
Inspired by ● Aristotle
● Karl Jaspers
● Martin Heidegger
Context As a German Jew during the time of Hitler, Arendt had first-hand experience of
Hitler's totalitarianism. Her work revolves around the importance of politics
and the necessity of participation in politics. She is considered a scholar of civic
republicanism.
On ● Arendt describes her thinking as thinking without barriers, and her method
totalitarianism as phenomenology, emphasizing experience rather than observation or
logic to understand things.
● In her book "The Origins of Totalitarianism," she explains totalitarianism
as arising when the public sphere is lost and the state gains total control.
● Totalitarianism is characterized by the use of terror, ideology, and
propaganda, with ideology playing a crucial role in legitimizing the use of
terror.
● Totalitarian ideologies, such as Nazism and Stalinism, cannot be subjected
to falsification, empirical observation, or logical reasoning.

57
Paper 1 Part A
● Totalitarianism thrives where the masses have become superfluous, losing

their spirit of inquiry and creative imagination. Arendt refers to them as
"crackpots."
● Arendt proposes reclaiming the public sphere and engaging in civil
disobedience as means to end totalitarianism.
● She criticizes modernity for reducing humans to economic beings and
delegating our responsibility as citizens to politicians, leading to the
disappearance of the public sphere and the emergence of a centralized
bureaucratic state.
● Unstable situations make people vulnerable to totalitarian ideologies, as
fear and the absence of a democratic culture can drive individuals to seek
simplistic answers and ideologies.
Conception of ● In her book "Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil,"
the Banality of Arendt argues that ghastly crimes are not necessarily committed by
Evil psychopaths or sadists driven by ideological motives, but by normal human
beings lacking critical reasoning.
● Arendt suggests that evil becomes banal when it acquires an unthinking
and systematic character, with ordinary people justifying it in countless
ways and lacking moral obligations.
● She holds the bureaucratic culture prevalent in society responsible for
promoting blind obedience to orders rather than individual moral
judgment.
Political Action ● In her book "The Human Condition," Arendt calls for action and
distinguishes between three types of human action: labor, work, and
action.
● Action, which occurs when individuals participate in the political sphere, is
considered the most important and distinguishes humans from animals.
● Freedom, according to Arendt, is the capacity to do something new, and
human action is realized through participation in the political sphere.
● Action discloses the identity of the agent, actualizes the capacity for
freedom, and reaffirms the reality of the world and the potential for
change.
● Arendt establishes the superiority of action over other forms of action and
emphasizes the importance of civic participation.
Power ● Arendt distinguishes power from other concepts such as strength, force,
authority, and violence.
● Power is the ability to agree upon a common cause of action in
unconstrained communication.
● Power emerges when people come together in the public sphere and
disappears when they retreat to the private sphere.
● Arendt's view on power differs from Marx's coercive view of power and
Foucault's micro view of power, emphasizing the role of people in wielding
power.
Contemporary ● Arendt's ideas of participatory democracy and civic republicanism have
Relevance influenced contemporary practices such as Gram Sabha, Right to
Information (RTI), Citizen's Charters, and social audits in India.
Criticism ● Arendt has been criticized for overemphasizing political freedom and
prioritizing freedom from tyranny over freedom to pursue individual
desires in the social and economic spheres.
Conclusion ● Recent protests worldwide, such as those in Hong Kong, Venezuela, West
Asia, and Catalonia, demonstrate a growing awareness and support for

58
Paper 1 Part A
civic republicanism and participatory democracy. Arendt's ideas continue

to resonate in the modern context.

59
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PSIR

Political Science & International

Political Theory: Meaning and approaches

Theories and Components and Ideas

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differences from established constitutional texts, especially in prismatic

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● Decline of practical relevance: Risk of becoming less useful in

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Justice: Conceptions of justice with special reference to Rawl’s theory of

Theories and Components and Ideas

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Equality: Social, political, and economic; the relationship between equality

Theories and Components and Ideas

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liberty as a precondition for equality, creating just differences through a

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Rights: Meaning and theories; different kinds of rights; Concept of Human

Theories and Components and Ideas

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● Arab Exceptionalism: Arab exceptionalism scholars assert that the state

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● Incidents of Terrorism: Terrorist attacks in Europe, such as the Charlie

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Democracy: Classical and contemporary theories; different models of

Theories and Components and Ideas

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● Hannah Arendt: Advocated Civic Republicanism, which emphasizes

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engage in deliberation, they participate in exchanging views and debating the

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● He refers to the Schumpeter-Dahl axis to highlight the procedural nature

Concept of power: hegemony, ideology, and legitimacy

Theories and Components and Ideas

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● Polyarchy - Rule of Many: Described as the rule of many, a functional form

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● Rational-Legal Authority: Established through rational and objective rules

Political Ideologies: Liberalism, Socialism, Marxism, Fascism, Gandhism, and

Theories and Components and Ideas

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Theories and Components and Ideas

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miseries among people.

Theories and Components and Ideas

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● Believes markets lead to desirable outcomes (Pareto optimal) without

Theories and Components and Ideas

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alienation of man, focusing on overcoming human estrangement and

Theories and Components and Ideas

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Theories and Components and Ideas

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● Suffragette movements, led by Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters

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Contemporary ● #MeToo Movement: A global campaign against sexual harassment and

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