Cognitive Constructivism:

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

Background of Theory of Jean Piaget (1896-1980)

Jean Piaget was a Swiss Psychologist who earned his Ph.D. in Zoology. He was
considered as the greatest contemporary figure in child psychology. For almost half
a century, he studied the intellectual development of children. Thus, basically he was
a biologist, who was renowned as a psychologist due to his valuable contribution to
child psychology. In 1920, he associated himself with the Alfred Binet Testing
Laboratory in Paris. Jean Piaget assisted Binet in standardization of intelligence
tests. After going through hundreds of answers written by the children belonging to
various age groups he told Binet that he does not believe in defining intelligence in
terms of correct answers since he was fascinated by the wrong answers written by
the children. He arrived at a conclusion that the children of the same age group
make similar statements repeatedly, which means their level of understanding is
same. He stated the stages of development based on the wrong answers or
mistakes made by the children. He initiated his research by observing and
experimenting on his own children.

Piaget’s stage theory describes the cognitive development of children. Cognitive

development Involves changes in cognitive process and abilities. According to
Piaget's view. Early cognitive Development involves processes based upon actions
which later progresses into changes in mental Operations.

Key Concepts of Piaget's Theory

Schemas: Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and

understand the world. A child is born with schemas like looking, sucking, grasping,
etc. As a child grows, he is able to form different schemas resulting in modifications
in his cognitive structure. As the child develops, his environment changes and the
schema also change as per the change in stimuli.

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For example, if a set of blocks is given to a child, initially he will use sucking schema.
It will be followed by catching, throwing and arranging the blocks.

Assimilation: The process of taking new information into our previously existing
schema is known as assimilation. For example, seeing a dog and labelling it "dog" is
an example of assimilating the animal into the child's dog schema.
Another example of assimilation is, an infant sitting on a baby cot and trying to grasp
a long toy in horizontal position through the vertical bars of the cot. Here the infant
assimilates the grasping schema to reach the toy

Accommodation: Accommodation involves altering existing schemas, or ideas, as a

result of new information or new experiences. New schemas may also be developed
during this process.

Example of accommodation in the above-mentioned example is if the infant changes

the position Of the toy and holds it vertically, which can be grasped through the bars
of baby cot then it can be called accommodation.

Example of a football player who gradually acquires the three key concepts:
A football player learns certain skills (schemas) of the game.
He applies the Schemas, while playing football.
He chooses certain schemas and adjusts them according to the way the ball is
moving.

Equilibration: Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between
assimilation and accommodation, which is achieved through a mechanism called
equilibration. Equilibration helps explain how children are able to move from one
stage of thought into the next.

Stages of Cognitive Development

Characteristics of the Sensorimotor Stage: (Age 0-2years)

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During the sensorimotor stage, an infant's knowledge of the world is limited to their
sensory perceptions and motor activities. During this period, intelligence is
demonstrated through motor activity without the use of symbols. Behaviours are
limited to simple motor responses caused by sensory stimuli. Children utilize skills
and abilities they were born with. Piaget calls these schemas, such as looking,
sucking, grasping, and listening, into learn more about the environment. Initially the
natural responses are uncoordinated, but gradually they become coordinated. The
understanding of objects also begin during this time (8-12 ·Months) arid children
begin to recognize certain objects as having specific qualities. For example. A child
might realize that a rattle will make a sound when shaken. Responses become
coordinated into more complex sequences. Actions take on an "intentional"
character, for example the infant reaches behind a screen to obtain a hidden object.
Piaget calls it a phase of object permanence.

Characteristics of the Preoperational Stage: (Age 2-7 years)

The stage is further divided into: I. Pre-conceptual Phase, 2. Intuitive Phase

1. Pre-conceptual Phase (Age 2-4 years)

Language development is one of the hallmarks of this period. Concepts pertaining to

human beings, animals, plants and other objects are not formed at the beginning of
this stage. For example, all men are called by one name 'Daddy'. Piaget noted that
children in this stage do not yet understand concrete logic and are unable to take the
point of view of other people and the things around, which he termed egocentrism.
For example, the child thinks, he is walking and the moon is following him or it
should not rain at mat-time since he wants to play.
During this phase, children also become increasingly imaginative, as evidenced by
the increase in playing and pretending. For example, a child is able to use an object
to represent something else, like pretending a broom is a horse. R ole playing also
becomes important during the pre-operational stage. Children often play the roles of
"mommy," "daddy," "doctor," and many others.

2. Intuitive Phase (Age 4-7 years)

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The thinking of children in this phase is marked by the inability to conserve in terms
of quantity as well as number as can be understood through the following
experiments. In one conservation experiment equal amounts of liquid are poured into
two identical containers. The liquid in one container is then poured into a different
shaped cup, such as a tall and thin cup, or a short and wide cup. Children are then
asked which cup holds the most liquid. Despite seeing that the liquid amounts were
equal, children almost always choose the cup that appears fuller. Piaget conducted a
number of similar experiments on conservation of number, length, mass, weight,
volume, and quantity.
At this age children do not understand reversible relationship. For example, she
understands who her mother is. But is unaware about, who mother's daughter is.
Similarly, they do not understand classification in terms of classes and its
subclasses. Given a set of animal toys comprising four cats and nine dogs. If they
are asked - are there more dogs or animals? The child will point to the dogs.
Similarly, he cannot answer correctly with reference to the types of dogs.

Characteristics of Concrete Operations: (Age 7-11years)

During this time, children gain a better understanding of mental operations. Piaget
determined that children in the concrete operational stage were fairly good at using
inductive logic. Inductive logic involves going from a specific experience to a general
principle. On the other hand. Children at this age have difficulty using deductive
logic, which involves using a general principle to determine the outcome of a specific
event. One of the most important developments at this stage is an understanding of
reversibility. The child now develops the ability to conserve both in terms of quantity
and number of objects. The child develops the ability to deal adequately with
classes.

Characteristics of the Formal Operational Stage: (Age 11- adulthood)

During this time, people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts. Skills
such as logical thought, deductive reasoning, and systematic planning also emerge
during this stage. Piaget believed that deductive logic becomes important during the
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formal operational stage. Deductive logic requires the ability to use a general
principle to determine a specific outcome. This type of thinking involves hypothetical
situations and is often required in science and mathematics. While children tend to
think very concretely and specifically in earlier stages, the ability to think about
abstract concepts emerges during the formal operational stage.
Instead of relying solely on previous experiences, children begin to consider possible
outcomes and consequences of actions. This type of thinking is important in long-
term planning. In earlier stages. Children used trial-and-error to solve problems.
During the formal operational stage, the ability to systematically solve a problem in a
logical and methodical way emerges. Children at the formal operational stage of
cognitive development are often able to quickly plan an organized approach to
solving a problem. It is important to know that all children and adults may not reach
this stage in terms of cognitive development.

Educational Implications of Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

• Piaget interpreted and defined intelligence in a practical way. This led to

revision of traditional tests of intelligence. Modern tests of intelligence have an
emphasis on adaptation of a child with his environment.
• Piaget's theory provides valuable information and advice on curriculum
planning. Since children of a particular region tend to reach.
• Piaget realized that the time periods of the stages vary by child and
environment; thus, the environment should be set up in a way so as to
maximize the speed of advancement and understanding.
• It is of great importance that unfamiliar ideas are not imposed on a child. He
should be guided into finding the relations being studied; the ideas and
processes must be understood completely before he is introduced to the
formal notation and complexities.
• Deductive reasoning should follow from the experience with the mathematical
entities and from this the understanding of mathematics.
• Methods of reasoning, not necessarily specific concepts, should be taught;
while the instructor provides direction, the concepts are best left to be found
by the child through investigation.

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• Visual and tactual representations of the concepts, such as those used by
Piaget in his studies, will aid in comprehension. The children should pe1form
real actions ·with the learning materials, such as counting and exchanging
pennies.
• The child should be encouraged to put objects, events, and actions into
relationships, and to think actively about everyday living with minimal
interference.
• Peer interaction should also be encouraged. Often, through agreements or
discussions, a correct answer that would not have been realized otherwise will
result, as is true for most age groups.
• Various situations that encourage mathematical reasoning can be set up.
Children can be told to distribute materials among the class, requiring them to
approximate numbers and differences. Dividing objects among a group fairly
requires (or will improve) understanding of division. Keeping records, such as
attendance, and voting to make class decisions can also, be helpful.