OXFORD

INSIGHT
SCIENCE

7
AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW

STAGE 4

JENNY ZHANG
DIANE ALFORD
DAVID MCGOWAN
CRAIG TILLEY
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 OXFORD

INSIGHT
SCIENCE
AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW

7
STAGE 4

JENNY ZHANG
DIANE ALFORD
DAVID MCGOWAN
CRAIG TILLEY

i
1
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It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research,
scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered
trademark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other
countries.
Published in Australia by
Oxford University Press
253 Normanby Road, South Melbourne, Victoria 3205, Australia
© Jenny Zhang 2013
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
First published 2013

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National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication data
Oxford Insight Science 7 student book / Jenny Zhang, Craig Tilley, Di Alford, Dave McGowan
ISBN 978 019 557754 9 (pbk plus obook/assess)

Includes index.
For secondary school age.
Science – Australia – Textbooks.
500
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iii
 CONTENTS
Correlation to the syllabus vi
What is Insight? viii
Answering science questions xi

1 CURIOSITY, WONDER AND QUESTIONING 2

1.1 Questioning in science 4
1.2 Exploring science safely 17
1.3 Science skills and accuracy 29

2 CLASSIFICATION 50
2.1 Classifying living things 52
2.2 Using keys as tools for classification 66
2.3 Classification today 74

3 CELLS 100
3.1 Looking at cells 102
3.2 Cell structure and function 109
3.3 Different types of cells 121

4 THE NATURE OF MATTER 136

4.1 States of matter 138
4.2 Physical properties of matter 148
4.3 Heating matter 159

iv OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7

5 MIXTURES 176
5.1 Types of mixture 178
5.2 Separating mixtures 189
5.3 Separating solutions 203

6 THE EARTH, SUN AND MOON 216

6.1 Interactions between the Earth, the sun
and the moon 218
6.2 Understanding the solar system 231
6.3 Learning about space 242

7 THE EARTH’S RESOURCES 258

7.1 Types of resources 260
7.2 Managing resources 273
7.3 Water as a resource 289

8 FORCES 302
8.1 Types of forces 304
8.2 Gravity as a force 321
8.3 Magnetism and electrostatic forces 326

Glossary 346
Index 353
Acknowledgements 357

v
 CORRELATION TO THE NSW SYLLABUS
FOR THE AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM:
SCIENCE STAGE 4 Insight Science 7 Insight Science 8

1 Curiosity, Wonder and Questioning

4 Elements and Compounds

2 Functioning Organisms
6 Earth, Sun and Moon

6 The Changing Earth

7 Earth’s Resources

5 Chemical Change
4 Nature of Matter
2 Classification

1 Ecosystems
5 Mixtures

3 Energy
8 Forces
Stage 4 outcomes

3 Cells
A student:

identifies questions and problems that can be tested

SC4-4WS or researched and makes predictions based on ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

scientific knowledge

collaboratively and individually produces a plan to

SC4-5WS ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
investigate questions and problems
Working Scientifically Skills

follows a sequence of instructions to safely under-

SC4-6WS take a range of investigation types, collaboratively ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

and individually

processes and analyses data from a first-hand in-

SC4-7WS vestigation and secondary sources to identify trends, ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

patterns and relationships, and draw conclusions

selects and uses appropriate strategies, under-

SC4-8WS standing and skills to produce creative and plausible ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

solutions to identified problems

presents science ideas, findings and information

SC4-9WS to a given audience using appropriate scientific ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

language, text types and representations

describes the action of unbalanced forces in every-

SC4-10PW ●
day situations

discusses how scientific and technological develop-

SC4-11PW ments have contributed to solving problems involv- ●

ing energy transfers and transformations

Change to an object’s motion is caused by unbalanced

Physical World

PW1 ●
forces acting on the object. (ACSSU117)

The action of forces that act at a distance may be

PW2 ●
observed and related to everyday situations.

Energy appears in different forms including movement

PW3 (kinetic energy), heat and potential energy, and causes ●

change within systems. (ACSSU155)

Science and technology contribute to finding solu-

PW4 tions to a range of contemporary issues. (ACSHE120, ●

ACSHE135)

vi OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7

00_ZHA_IS7_77549_SI.indd 6 1/09/2017 1:15 PM

 Insight Science 7 Insight Science 8

A student: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6

describes the dynamic nature of models, theories

SC4-12ES and laws in developing scientific understanding of ● ●

the Earth and solar system

explains how advances in scientific understanding of

SC4-13ES processes influence the choices people make about ● ●

resource use and management

Sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks contain

Earth and Space

ES1 minerals and are formed by processes that occur with- ●

in Earth over a variety of timescales. (ACSSU153)

Scientific knowledge changes as new evidence be-

ES2 comes available, changing people’s understanding of ●

the solar system.

Scientific knowledge influences the choices people

ES3 make in regard to the use and management of the ●

Earth’s resources.

Science understanding influences the development

ES4 of practices in areas of human activity. (ACSHE121, ●

ACSHE136)

relates the structure and function of living things to ● ● ● ●

SC4-14LW
their classification, survival and reproduction

explains how new biological evidence changes peo- ● ● ● ●

SC4-15LW
ple’s understanding of the world

There are differences within and between groups of

LW1 organisms; classification helps organise this diversity. ●

(ACSSU111)
Living World

Cells are the basic units of living things and have spe- ●
LW2
cialised structures and functions. (ACSSU149)

Multicellular organisms contain systems of organs that

LW3 carry out specialised functions that enable them to ●

survive and reproduce. (ACSSU150)

Scientific knowledge changes as new evidence be-

LW4 comes available, changing people’s understanding of ●

the world. (ACSHE119, ACSHE134)

Science and technology contribute to finding solutions ●

LW5
to conserving and managing sustainable ecosystems.

describes the observed properties and behaviour of

SC4-16CW matter, using scientific models and theories about ● ● ● ●

the motion and arrangement of particles

explains how scientific understanding of, and discov-

SC4-17CW eries about the properties of elements, compounds ● ● ●

and mixtures relate to their uses in everyday life

The properties of the different states of matter can be

Chemical World

CW1 explained in terms of the motion and arrangement of ●

particles. (ACSSU151)

Scientific knowledge and developments in technology

CW2 have changed our understanding of the structure and ●

properties of matter.

Mixtures, including solutions, contain a combination of

CW3 pure substances that can be separated using a range ●

of techniques. (ACSSU113)

In a chemical change, new substances are formed,

CW4 which may have specific properties related to their ●

uses in everyday life.

vii
 WHAT IS INSIGHT SCIENCE?
Oxford Insight Science is a comprehensive and flexible suite of resources
designed specifically to address the NSW Syllabus for the Australian Cur-
riculum: Science. Engaging content and activities to suit a range of
abilities enable students to develop deep understanding and knowledge of
science concepts, and transferable scientific skills and capabilities to pro-
mote scientifically literate citizenship.

FOUR STRANDS OF SCIENCE

Knowledge and understanding of Science has been classified into four main strands of
content and ideas. Within each strand, core concepts build on the previous year as students
progress through the stages.

Physical World Earth and Space

Forces, motion, energy transfers and The Earth and its place in the solar system,
transformations, and the contribution of the development of models and theories,
scientific and technological development to resource use and management, and
solving problems geological activity

Living World Chemical World

Structure and function of living things, Properties of matter and arrangement

classification, interactions between living of particles, relating properties to uses,
things and their environment, and the chemical reactions produce new substances,
advancement of biological understanding and the refinement of models, theories and
through technological development laws with new scientific evidence

WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY
Knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas is gained through the application of
scientific skills. The development of these key skills enables students to transfer them to new
situations and through inquiry, discover new ideas for themselves. The use of scientific skills
promotes deeper understanding of and greater engagement with content.
The Working Scientifically skills of the NSW Syllabus are scaffolded and integrated
throughout all experiments and activities within the Oxford Insight Science series:

Questioning and predicting

Identifying problems, and developing predictions and testable hypotheses
Planning investigations
Collaboratively and individually develop plans to investigate questions, problems and
hypotheses

viii OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7

 Conducting investigations
Preparing cells is used to help make
them more visible.

Collaboratively and individually follow for microscopy

To look at cells clearly
through a compou
Different stains are
different components
used to highlight

Placing a cover slip

of the cells.
microscope, very thin nd over the top of
layers of a specime the stained specime
n

instructions to safely conduct must be used. The

through the specime
looking at), otherw
light must be able
to pass
n (the object you are
ise all you will see
sample in place and
the specimen itself.
n helps keep the
helps to protect
The coverslip can be
SCIENCE
SKILLS
is a sealed onto the slide
dark shadow. creating a preserved
tion
Setti ng up for filtra
investigations and collect valid and Specimens are prepare
very thin slice of the
sharp blade or even
d by taking a
object, using a very
and reusable specime
number of these prepare
experiments in this
n. You may use a
d slides during the
book. You may also
a laser. Most cells are to hone your skills have
clear, which makes and prepare some

reliable data a stain such as iodine

them difficult to see,
or methylene blue
so own slides to examin
e.
of your Figure 3.8 Cel
viewed more
a microscope
C lls can be
Cells
e ea
easily
asily under
p iff tthey
been stained.
stained
hey have
d.

Ten tips for work

ing with microsco
Processing and analysing data and Microscopes are expens
instruments. They
ive, fragile
pes
4 Look from the side
SCIENCE
SKILLS
in 2 Unfold the filter
paper and lay it flat.
need to be handled and adjust the paper in half, then
coarse focus 1 Fold a round filter
carefully
ly and used
used prope focus knob
knob so that s, then in half
half again to get quarter
information
p
properl
rly
ly if they are that the
th objectiv
obj
bjective
e
going to help you see lens is just above— .
the microscopic and not touching— again to get eighths
world. the slide. Check which
way you must
turn the knob to move
1 Always use two the objective
hands to carry a lens away from the
microscope—one hand slide.
should be 5 Use the coarse
Process and analyse first- and second- around the main part
and the other undern
2 Some microscopes
of the instrument
eath it.
focus knob to bring
the specimen into view.
fine focus knob to help
Then use the
you see it more
have a built-in clearly.
lamp. Others have

hand data to identify trends and

separate lamps that 6 If you want a higher
need to be set up so magnification,
they shine onto rotate the objective
the mirror. Adjust the lens to a higher
mirror to project magnification.
the light through the and flask as shown.
stage onto the 4 Set up the funnel
specimen. Do not allow 7 Draw what you see forth over the creases
3 Re-fold back and
relationships and to draw conclusions sunlight to (as a record) using
shine directly up the a pencil.
column. to obtain a fluted shape.
3 Place the slide on 8 Work out the total
the stage
ge then
then select magnification.
th objectiv
the bj e lens with the lowest 9 Write
W i the magnification
next to your

based on evidence
magnification first. diagram.
10 Label and date
the diagram.
ACTIVITY 3.1.1: UNDER
THE MICROSCOPE

Problem solving Collect a few small

a hand-held magnif
objects from around
wings, a piece of hair, the classroom or outside
small leaves or flower
ying glass, a stereo
such as insect
petals. Carefully examin paper with some
need your teacher’s microscope and a light
e the object using 6 Dampen the filter
microscope. You may into the funnel. it stick to the sides
help to focus the micros
copes. 5 Place the filter paper extra water to help
1 What do these three

Develop and use appropriate of the funnel.

pieces of equipment
2 In what ways are have in common?
they different?
3 Which piece of equipm it
ent was best to view mixture slowly until
think this? your chosen object,
and why do you 8 Keep adding the
is all used up.
strategies to produce plausible 4 If you see someth
ing interesting, draw
it and try to explain
what it may be. 9 Extra water can
be added to the beaker
mixture to pour out
the last solid
particles.
n to finish. Remove
solution for problems 3.1 LOOKING AT CELLS
CELL
LS 105
10 Wait for the filtratio
the filter paper careful
to dry.
ly and allow it

from a beaker into

7 Slowly pour a mixture

Communicating the funnel. Do not overfill

the funnel.

5.2 SEPARATING MIXTUR

ES 197

Present science ideas in a manner, language and

presentation type appropriate for a specific purpose or audience

Step-by-step instructional photography models

correct scientific skills and techniques in
experiments

ENGAGING LEARNING
Each Student Book chapter is designed to visually and creatively engage students with
beautiful artwork, photographs, case studies, source material and in-depth coverage of
each topic being studied. Supported by numerous experiments and activities suitable for
classrooms and different learning styles, all students have the opportunity to engage with
science and their own learning.

ACTIVITY 2.3.2: WHO ARE THE VERTEBRATES?

Example CLASSIFYING INVERTEBRATES
Amphibians

Vertebrate alphabet graffiti

This task could be completed as a webpage, with images and links to further
information about each animal.
There are many more invertebrates on the
Earth than vertebrates: 96% of all animals
Invertebrates are grouped by their
characteristics (in the same way that Spectacular and
are invertebrates. Invertebrates have vertebrates are classified). Characteristics used
Example 1 You will be placed into one of five groups, each of which will be allocated one class
of vertebrate.
either an external skeleton (exoskeleton)
or no skeleton at all. The giant squid,
to classify invertebrates include the presence of
a shell or hard cover, tentacles and spiny skin.
current photography
Reptiles

2 Label an A3 sheet of paper with the name of your class of vertebrate. huge as it is, has no backbone. As well as Organisms with similar features are placed in
3 Write the letters of the alphabet down the left-hand side of the page.
4 For each letter, write the name of an animal that fits this category.
enormous animals like this, thousands of
tiny insects and other creatures belong to
the same group. The tabular dichotomous key
in Table 2.5 can be used to place an organism
bring science to life.
Example 5 When finished, you will have the names of up to 26 different vertebrates. Some the invertebrates group. Invertebrates are in a particular phylum. Not all phyla of
Vertebrates

categories will be harder to fill than others. classified into several main groups or phyla. invertebrates are shown on the key.
Fish

6 Put up the finished sheets around the room.

Table 2.5 A tabular dichotomous key for classifying invertebrates.
Jellyfish organiser for vertebrates Body spongy, with many holes Porifera
Example A jellyfish graphic organiser is a good way to show how subgroups make up a whole. 1
Body not spongy Go to 2
It can also be used to list specific examples at the same time.
Mammals

Soft body, no shell Go to 3

1 Individually, go around to each of the five sheets of vertebrates and select six 2
animals from each class. Outside shell or hard cover Go to 6

2 On a full page, draw five ‘jellyfish’ connected to the main group (vertebrates), as Many tentacles or arms Go to 4
shown in Figure 2.49. 3
Magpie Long body without tentacles Go to 5
Sparrow 3 Label each jellyfish with the class names (fish, reptiles, amphibians, mammals
Eagle Tentacles around the mouth of a sac-like body Cnidaria
Birds

and birds). 4
Arms with suction discs Mollusca
4 Write a description of the characteristics of each class in the appropriate body of
each jellyfish. Soft body, large foot Mollusca
5
Figure 2.49 A jellyfish Worm-like or leaf-like Nematodata, Platyhelminthes or Annelida
organiser for vertebrates.
5 Place the six animals you selected along six tentacles on each jellyfish.
Proper shell or smooth, hard covering Go to 7
6
Spiny skin with rough covering Echinodermata
QUESTIONS 2.3.3: CLASSIFYING VERTEBRATES Limbs in pairs Arthropoda
7
Shell, no segments, large foot Mollusca
Remember
1 Describe the main characteristics of mammals.
2 Describe how a baby echidna is born and develops before it comes out of the
mother’s pouch.
3 Identify the defining characteristics of each class of mammal.

Apply
4 Seals have fins like fish and live on the land and in the water like amphibians.
Question blocks throughout a Investigate how a seal’s young are born.
b Given that a seal has long whiskers, to which class of vertebrate do seals

the text for constant review belong?

5 A dolphin lives in the ocean and has fins. To which class does it belong? Explain.
ARTHROPODS MOLLUSCS PORIFERANS
⋅ Segmented bodies ⋅ Soft body ⋅ Spongy body with holes

of knowledge and concepts. 6 A flying fox can fly through the air like a bird but is covered in fur. To which class
does it belong? Why? Explain.
7 Draw a dichotomous key to separate out the different classes of vertebrates.
⋅
⋅
Paired and jointed legs
Exoskeleton
⋅ Usually have a protective shell
⋅ Examples: snail, octopus, oyster, slug
⋅ Found in water, attached to rocks
⋅ Examples: breadcrumb sponge, glass sponges
⋅ Examples: insect, spider, centipede, scorpion

84 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4 2.3 CLASSIFICATION TODAY 85

ix

Active index takes you where
you want to go, when you want
to go there
The Teacher Kit makes
lesson planning quick and
easy.
2 CHAPTER 2 CLASSIFICATION
2 INTRODUCING CHAPTER 2
CLASSIFICATION
SYLLABUS LINKS
Outcomes
SC4-14LW relates the structure and function of
living things to their classification, survival and
reproduction
SC4-15LW explains how new biological evidence
changes people’s understanding of the world
Knowledge and understanding
LW1 There are differences within and between
groups of organisms; classification helps organise
this diversity (ACSSU111).
Students:
a identify reasons for classifying living things
b classify a variety of living things based on
similarities and differences in structural features
c use simple keys to identify a range of plants
and animals
d identify some examples of groups of
microorganisms
e outline the structural features used to group
living things, including plants, animals, fungi
and bacteria
f explain how the features of some Australian
plants and animals are adaptations for survival
and reproduction in their environment
t
EFTJHO
BOE
DPOTUSVDU
TJNQMF
LFZT
UP
JEFOUJGZ

a range of living things (additional)
t
DMBTTJGZ
VTJOH
B
IJFSBSDIJDBM
TZTUFN
B
SBOHF

of selected plants and animals to species level
(additional)
Working scientifically
SC4-4WS Questioning and predicting
SC4-6WS Conducting investigations
SC4-7WS Processing and analysing data and
information
SC4-9WS Communicating
Learning across the curriculum
t
Critical and creative thinking
t
Information and communication technology
capability
t
Literacy
t
Personal and social capability
x OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7
INTEGRATED TEACHING AND LEARNING SUPPORT
Oxford’s electronic book format—the obook—is included with this Student Book and offers
online and offline access to the complete Student Book in an easy-to-read format for any
screen size, with multimedia links, interactive learning objects, videos, note-taking tools
and dynamic question blocks. Oxford’s obook is compatible with laptops, iPads, tablets
and IWBs. assess provides 24/7 online assessment designed to support individual student
progression and learning.
Tools give students the
opportunity to personalise
their learning environment
Demonstration videos presented
by an experienced teacher for all
key experiments and practical
activities
Content is screen friendly
Workbook
Oxford Insight Science is supported by a Workbook for each of the Years 7–10. The
Workbooks provide extra practice of key skills and encourage an inquiry-based approach
to learning—perfect for use in class or for homework. All Workbook activities are also
available digitally through the obook.
7 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM 7 TEACHERS KIT 2.1 CLASSIFYING LIVING THINGS 3
Teacher Kit
This chapter introduces the concept of
classification of living things based on their
structure and function. It highlights the
help them to survive in their environment.
Learning about classification provides a basis
for Stage 5 outcome SC5-14KU: a student
analyses interactions between components
variety of practical activities and numerous
opportunities to observe living and/or
preserved specimens. Group work is useful
because it gives students opportunities to
students to move around to record words
and ideas of their responses to each picture
(floor storming). Collate and discuss student
responses in a class discussion about the
Introduce the concept of criteria as we use it in
everyday life when we classify objects and then in
classification of living things. For example, we could
classify medications based on how they are taken and
Each Teacher Kit includes all
and processes within biological systems, discuss and justify their opinions. From time amount of biodiversity that exists. their form—orally (tablet, capsule, liquid), by injection
pages from the student book
problematic nature of scientific knowledge,
the effect of new technologies and how and outcome SC5-15KU: a student explains to time, after doing practical classification Conduct a ‘think–pair–share’ activity to into a muscle or under the skin, absorbed (rubbed
classification has been refined. Accurate how scientific understanding has advanced or identification activities, revisit the come up with as many living things as possible on or by suppository—kids will love that!), inhaled.
through scientific discoveries, technological relationships between structure, function, and place the organisms into a mind map. We could alternatively classify medications based on
identification of species is important for all
branches of biology, so the skills developed in developments and needs of society. survival, reproduction and classification. Students compare the diversity of organisms or their function, for example, destroying bacteria,
using dichotomous keys are fundamental.
This chapter builds upon Stage 3 outcome
ST3-10NE: a student describes how structural
Teaching strategies
This is probably the first biology topic
Starter activities
Use coloured pictures of a variety of
listed and their mind maps when sharing. As
a class, discuss how and why students grouped
the organisms in the branches of the mind
reducing pain or inflammation. This can be used to
introduce the distinction and relationships between
structure and function. You could then get students to
scaffolded with teaching
studied by students at secondary school, so commonly known and unusual living map. construct T-charts to identify structures and functions
features and other adaptations of living things
strategies, lesson planning tips,
it is important to engage students with a things. Place them around the room and get in living things, or to present them in a cause-and-effect
relationship. The T-charts are useful for the diagnostic
assessment of student knowledge of living things.
Discuss examples of classification in everyday life, for
additional activities, assessment
example, the hierarchical arrangement used in a library.
2
Identify the criteria for classifying the materials in a
library. Get students to suggest ways that the materials in
a public library may have changed over the past 50 years
CLASSIFYING LIVING THINGS 2.1 and how the classification scheme may have changed.
Differentiation
For less able students:
advice and suggested answers—
Classifying is a tool that is not restricted to the study of science. You probably classify things
every day without really being aware of it. Classification is the process of separating items t
5IFTF
TUVEFOUT
OFFE
NPSF
DPODSFUF
FYQFSJFODFT

based on similarities and differences.
Students:
» Identify the purpose of classification
» Classify living things based on structural similarities and differences
Common activities include classifying the contents
of their pencil cases, pieces of laboratory equipment
or even buttons or food. Use these activities to
everything you need to integrate
» Explain how features of some Australian plants and animals are adaptations for survival
and reproduction discuss the criteria used and relate to structure
and function of the items.
Oxford Insight Science resources
USING KEYS AS TOOLS FOR
2.2
For more able students:
CLASSIFICATION t
5IFTF
TUVEFOUT
NBZ
BMSFBEZ
VOEFSTUBOE
NBOZ
PG

Once items have been classified, we can work backwards using what we already know to
identify unknown items or organisms.
Students:
the concepts and relationships. They could be
challenged to choose and research an extreme or
unusual organism (for example, giant squid, ice fish,
into your teaching.
» Use the Linnaean classification system to name organisms deep sea bacteria, insect-eating plant) and present
» Use keys to identify plants and animals information to the class that describes the features
and explains the classification of the organism.
Get the students to think critically and creatively to
CLASSIFICATION produce a diary entry for the day in the life of their
selected organism.
2.3
The Earth is teeming with life. Approximately 1.8 million known types of organism (living thing) on
the Earth have been described and named. Scientists estimate there are 10–30 million other kinds CLASSIFICATION TODAY FURTHER RESOURCES
of living things that haven’t even been discovered yet. Scientists use classification to organise this t
Images of organisms (many are copyright free or just
diversity of life forms (biodiversity) in a logical fashion. Classification is an example of a system All known living things have already been classified. Using this information, new species that need a simple acknowledgment) www.commons.
are discovered can also be classified based on the key features they have in common with
that scientists have created, and continue to develop, to help us better understand the world. known species. How life is classified can change as new scientific discoveries are made. wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page
Students: t
Why and how to conduct a ‘think–pair–share’
» Outline the features used to group plants, animals, fungi and bacteria activity www.readingquest.org/strat/tps.html
» Identify groups of microorganisms
t
How to use T-charts www.enchantedlearning.com/
graphicorganizers/tchart
51
ANSWERING SCIENCE QUESTIONS
In the senior sciences, questions asked in examinations are often phrased as statements, nts, which
begin with a verb such as ‘identify’ or ‘justify’. While not all questions are structured in this
way, it is important to learn how to respond to these types of questions. In this book, many
of the questions start with these verbs. The table below gives a quick guideline to the level
evel of
response and the types of information required for some of the verbs that you are likely ely to
come across.

Verb Explanation

Recall Usually based on a simple fact or theory. Requires you to remember ideas
as or facts and present them.

Identify Can be completed in a sentence or two. Recognise the content and name certain features.

Define Identify the main qualities and/or state the meaning.

Outline Give the main features of something in general terms.

Calculate Use calculations to determine information from facts or figures.

Deduce Make conclusions based on information given.

Account Give reasons for the statement/s made.

Predict Suggest what may happen. This usually needs to be done based on the information available.

Describe Give features and characteristics.

Increasing in complexity

Distinguish Note how things are different.

Compare Show how things are different and similar.

Contrast Show how things are different. Contrast is often used with compare in order to look at both similarities and differ-
ences.

Interpret Usually refers to figures, diagrams or graphs. Find meaning of the trends, or draw meaning from the diagrams.

Propose Usually used in conjunction with other verbs, ‘propose’ typically requires you to put forward an action.

Explain Give reasons for the statement/s made relating cause and effect. Generally, you will need to link ideas and state-
ments by looking at the relationship between them.

Analyse Identify the key components of the context and explain the relationship/s between them. Relate cause and effect
and relate this to implications.

Justify Support a statement, argument or conclusion based with your understanding and/or scientific knowledge. This
usually requires you to explain your reasoning in order to justify a statement.

Discuss Provide points for and against a particular issue. This usually requires you to use evidence from given information
as well as your background understanding.

Assess Based on the information given, and through thorough discussion, make a judgement regarding the content. A
question beginning with the verb ‘assess’ is typically an extended response requiring a high level of succinctness
and depth in the answer. Ensure you include a judgement statement based on the evidence you provide.

Evaluate Similar to an assess question, evaluate questions require you to make a judgement. The key difference is that
evaluations require a judgement based on a given criteria and require you to make a statement regarding the
value of the context.

xi
CURIOSITY, WONDER
AND QUESTIONING
1
The word ‘explore’ can mean many things: discover, investigate, question, inquire, search or study.
Science is exploration, whether it is done by a scientist or at school or university. But science
isn’t something that happens only inside a classroom or a laboratory—science is everywhere and
it informs almost everything we do. This chapter includes some tools to help you with your own
exploration of the big ideas of science.
 QUESTIONING IN SCIENCE 1.1
Science is not just a subject at school but it is also a way of thinking and a collection
of skills. All scientific discovery starts with a question. But good scientists don’t just
start experimenting blind—they make predictions based on what they already know
and then design experiments to test those predictions.
Students:
» identify questions that can be tested or researched and make predictions
based on existing knowledge

EXPLORING SCIENCE SAFELY 1.2

Experiments are one of the greatest tools of science, but it is important that the experiments
performed use the appropriate equipment otherwise the results may not have any real
meaning. It is also important to understand how to use scientific equipment in a safe manner.
Students:
» collaboratively and individually follow instructions to safely
undertake investigations

SCIENCE SKILLS AND ACCURACY 1.3

Scientific discoveries can make huge impacts on the lives of people, so it is important that the
results are accurate and relevant to the aim of the experiment. These discoveries must also
be shared in a manner so that everyone can understand and agree on the results.
Students:
» collaboratively and individually plan to investigate questions and problems
» process and analyse data to identify trends, patterns and relationships and
draw conclusions
» present scientific ideas and information in appropriate scientific language,
text and representations

3
1.1 QUESTIONING IN SCIENCE
Have you asked a question today? A large part of science is asking questions,
being curious about the world, and using that curiosity to find answers.
It is human nature to be curious—many of the greatest discoveries and
inventions in our history have been inspired purely by human curiosity.
As a science student, you possess three important tools: curiosity, wonder
and questioning.
CURIOSITY, WONDER AND QUESTIONING
Young children are naturally curious
and they ask questions to learn about new
experiences. Asking questions is good—
questions help us to understand things.
As we get older, we sometimes feel self-
conscious or scared to ask what we might
think is a ‘silly question’. A scientist would
say that there is no such thing as a silly
question, and that all questions lead us
towards a better understanding of the world.
Questions are one of the most important
tools of a scientist—they help scientists
to make decisions, solve problems, invent
things, and change and improve our lives.
Why is the
sky blue?
Why do my
feet wrinkle
in the bath?
What
does
‘hot’
mean?
What is carpet
made of?
Figure 1.1 Scientists ask a lot of questions to better understand the world.
4 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4
Curiosity through history
Many scientific discoveries start with one
person who is curious about something. Our
world would be a very different place without
people wondering, ‘How does this work?’ or
‘Why is this so?’
Sometimes, curiosity comes from
necessity. To survive, the first humans had to
discover, through trial and error, which foods
were edible and which were poisonous. This
was curiosity with life-and-death results! The
information was then passed from person to
person to benefit many more people.
Curiosity can also come from the desire
to find things out. In ancient Greece,
there was much curiosity about the stars,
the sun, the moon and our own planet.
Early scientists weren’t called scientists at
all—they were called natural philosophers
because of their interest in studying nature.
Philosopher means ‘lover of knowledge’.
Natural philosophers used their observations
to develop calendars, to locate the Earth in
the universe and to prove that the Earth is
round and not flat, as previously thought.
Finding answers to problems that affect
people and society is another result of
curiosity. Many of the great advances in
medicine, such as vaccinations and the
discovery of antibiotics, are the result of
years of research. They have changed our
lives immensely, and mostly for the better.

Curiosity today
Science is in the news every day. Some of the
issues that scientists are curious about right
now are alternative energy sources, clean
drinking water and food for a growing world
population, and new cures for diseases.
Science is an ongoing process that is never
‘finished’—it is always changing.
Science and technology work well
together. As new technology is developed,
it enables scientists to discover new
information. This new information may
be a brand new discovery, or it may simply
confirm theories or build on existing
knowledge and understanding.
For example, the invention of
microscopes allowed cells to be seen for the
first time. Now as microscope technology
improves, the detail in which we can view
cells also improves. Scientists can build
on their knowledge of cell structure and
function as the new technology enables
new discoveries. One day we may have
microscopes powerful enough to allow us to
see atoms and even the subatomic particles
that make them up!
Scientist
Scientists create awarded
tsunami warning Australian
system of the Year

Scientists find cause SCIENTISTS DEVELOP

of disease outbreak CERVICAL CANCER
VACCINE

ACTIVITY 1.1.1: BUBBLEOLOGY

What you need: bubble mix (100 mL glycerine, 100 mL dishwashing liquid, 850 mL water),
straw, plastic ruler
1 Pour a little bubble mixture onto a clean bench surface.
2 Put the end of the straw in the bubble mix.
3 Blow gently through the straw. Caution: Do not suck on the straw.
4 Use the ruler to measure each bubble as you blow it and record your results in
a table.
Trial Height (cm) Width (cm)

5 Gently touch a bubble with a wet finger and observe what happens.
6 Gently touch a bubble with a dry finger and observe what happens.
• Try to explain why wet and dry fingers affect the bubbles differently.
• What is the widest bubble that you made?
• What is the tallest bubble that you made?
• What is inside the bubbles?
• Why do you need to blow gently through the straw?
• What might happen if some of the bubble mixture came up the straw into
your mouth?

1.1 QUESTIONING IN SCIENCE 5

 DEEPER
U N D E R S TA N D I N G Why did the golden toad disappear?
Professor Tim Flannery is a prominent Australian
scientist who became Australian of the Year in 2007.
In addition to his work with mammals and dinosaurs,
he has become particularly well known for his research
into global warming. In 1981, Professor Flannery was
in Papua New Guinea, climbing Mt Albert Edward,
when he noticed that the forest stretched further up the
mountain than on his previous visit. He was troubled
by the observation and asked himself the question,
‘Why are the forests expanding?’ He wondered whether
the temperature had increased and whether this had
allowed the forest to expand. From this first question he
started to think about the impacts of climate change,
Figure 1.2 The golden toad of and to devote his life to investigating the effects of global
Costa Rica was last seen in 1989. warming. Professor Flannery has found out that climate
change is not good for frogs: they are very sensitive to
changes in their environment. In his book The Weather Makers, Professor Flannery
writes about the disappearance of the spectacular golden toad in Costa Rica. Unable to
breed, as the weather got drier, the toads died in just a few years. Now, they are extinct.
This is just one example of the impact of global warming, and it is evidence of our
changing world.
Figure 1.3 Professor Professor Flannery is a passionate Australian scientist whose work today stems
Tim Flannery. from his curiosity and questioning back in 1981.

QUESTIONS 1.1.1: CURIOSITY, WONDER AND QUESTIONING

Remember
1 Have you ever been too self-conscious to put up your hand and ask a question in
the classroom? Describe why you felt this way.
2 Identify what early scientists were called.
3 Explain why curiosity, wonder and questioning are important in science.
4 Explain what you think all scientists have in common.

Apply
5 Discuss how Professor Flannery used curiosity, wonder and questioning.
6 Have you ever heard of the saying ‘necessity is the mother of invention’? Evaluate
whether you agree with this.
7 Explain what else, apart from necessity, encourages invention.
8 Identify an example of a discovery by scientists that wasn’t good. Was it the
discovery itself, or the way people used it that wasn’t good?
9 Ask an adult friend or family member if they can recall one thing that has changed
in their lifetime due to science. Identify something that has changed in your lifetime
due to science.

Evaluate
10 It is often said that science is never ‘finished’. Evaluate this statement with a few
specific examples.

6 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 DIFFERENT TYPES OF QUESTION
We ask each other questions every day:
‘What time is it?’, ‘Should I use a red pen or
a blue pen?’, ‘How much does it cost?’ Some
questions are found in textbooks and your
teachers give you questions to answer: ‘Is
a sea sponge part of the animal or plant
family?’, ‘What is an adjective?’, ‘45 ÷ 5 = ?’
These are all simple questions, which you
can answer in a couple of words or with a
number. These types of question are useful
and help us to gather basic information
and facts. A ‘big’ question, however, is a
question that scientists (and non-scientists)
ask when they are really curious about a
more complex topic, such as ‘How did the
universe begin?’
Imagine that your teacher asks you to
do a project on whales. The first thing you
would do is to make a list of questions or
topics that you want to research and write
about. Questions that you might come up
with are:
• Where do whales live?
• What do whales eat?
• Who hunts whales?
• What is the Sea Shepherd?
These questions are good, but they aren’t
really big questions because they have simple
answers: whales live in the sea; whales eat
plankton, krill and other small animals
(depending on the type of whale); more
than ten countries still conduct whaling
on a large scale; the Sea Shepherd is a ship
whose crew protest against whaling. Bigger
questions will help you to understand
whales and the bigger system that whales
fit into.
The questions in the second column
of Table 1.1 are much bigger. Researching
these bigger questions would help you
to understand whales and the system of
living things. These questions help make
connections with what you already know.
Asking and answering bigger questions can
help you to do more than make a long list of
facts. Bigger questions can help you to better
understand the topic discussed.
Table 1.1 Simple questions and big questions have different purposes.
Simple questions Big questions
Where do whales live? What kind of environment do whales live in?
What do whales eat? Where do whales fit into the food chain of the sea?
Who hunts whales? Why are whales an endangered animal?
What is the Sea Shepherd? How do humans protect endangered animals?
1.1 QUESTIONING IN SCIENCE 7
 QUESTIONS 1.1.2: DIFFERENT TYPES OF QUESTION

Remember
1 Define the term ‘simple question’.
2 What is the main difference between a big question and a simple question?

Understand
3 Identify which of the following questions are simple and which are big.
a How far is the moon from the Earth?
b What kind of environment do we live in?
c How is climate change affecting the Earth?
d What is the highest temperature ever recorded in Australia?
4 For the simple questions that you have identified in question 3, re-write them as
big questions.
5 Write an example of a simple question and an example of a big question about any
topic you are interested in.
6 Re-read your answers to question 5. Explain which question you think is more
interesting.

Apply
7 Examine Figure 1.4. Identify what sorts of question a scientist might ask to find out
more about this animal. Write down two simple and two big questions.
8 There are many weird and wonderful animals that may never have seen or heard of,
like the aye-aye pictured in Figure 1.4. Do an Internet search using the phrase
‘weird animal’ and select three examples of these animals. For each animal:
a Identify the animal.
b Write down the first three questions that come to mind when you see the picture
of the animal.
c Determine which of your questions are simple and which are big questions.
d Rewrite your simple questions as big questions.
e Research your weird animals to find some answers to your big questions.
f Present the information as a poster or a flyer for each of your animals.
9 Think back to Activity 1.1.1. Outline:
a What small questions can you ask about bubbles?
b What big questions can you ask about bubbles?

Figure 1.4 The

e rare aye-aye.

8 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 WHO’S ASKING THE QUESTIONS?
As informed and responsible citizens, we
should all be asking questions about the
world we live in. Scientists have jobs that
focus on asking questions and finding
answers.
All sorts of people are scientists: men,
women, young people and older people.
Scientists work in all kinds of fascinating
places: in Antarctica, in space, near
volcanoes and under the sea. Although
some science happens in the laboratory,
a lot happens in other places. Scientists
work alone or in teams, using their
curiosity to ask questions. They answer
questions by observing, recording and
interpreting what they find. Later in this
chapter, when you start to do your own
experiments, you’ll find out more about
how scientists work.
Scientists in the world
There are four main branches of science:
biology, physics, chemistry and geology. All
the other names given to science fields and
scientists can be classified into one of these
four main branches. As you can see in Table
1.2 (on the next page), different scientists
do lots of different and useful things.
Each type of scientist is an expert in their
field. Many scientists work in teams with
different experts when the questions they
are researching are relevant across different
topics.
Sometimes it is tempting to think that
we already know everything and that there’s
nothing left to discover, but this is not so!
Science is an ever-expanding search for
knowledge and there is still a lot to find out.

ACTIVITY 1.1.2: QUESTIONS IN DIFFERENT PROFESSIONS

Consider some questions a farmer

might ask: ‘What should I feed my
livestock? When will I water my crops?’
An accountant might ask a customer
how much they earn or whether they
have bought any new equipment. Simple
questions are quite straightforward, with
a definite answer at the end. Scientists
ask simple questions, too, but often they
do this to help them find answers to big
questions. Sometimes big questions do
not have an answer!
Looking at the four images, discuss the
following questions in small groups, and
then share your thoughts with the rest of
the class.
• What questions might someone doing
each of these jobs ask?
• Are the questions different for each
job, or do some jobs have questions in
common?

1.1 QUESTIONING IN SCIENCE 9

 Table 1.2 Types of scientist and questions they might ask.
Scientist What they investigate Questions they might ask

Pharmacologist Medicines and drugs What is the best way to

treat different cancers?

Environmental scientist The environment How is climate change

affecting the Earth?

Astronomer Planets, stars and the How did the universe

universe begin?

Geneticist Features of living things, How can we predict

such as hair colour, which genetic disorders?
are passed from parents
to offspring

Palaeontologist Prehistoric life Why did the dinosaurs

die out?

Meteorologist The atmosphere and How can we accurately

weather patterns predict cyclones?

Marine biologist Life in the oceans How are coral reefs

and seas essential to ocean food
chains?

Nanotechnologist Substances at the atomic Can we design drugs to

(very small) scale target individual cells?

10 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4


Asking questions
There are a lot of fascinating questions in the world—some big, some small. Read these
questions and answers and look at the pictures to get your own curiosity bubbling.
Q How do Aboriginal trackers find
missing people?
A Highly skilled Aboriginal trackers
can ‘read’ both human and animal
footprints and other signs of human
presence. Usually the older people,
with a deep understanding of the land
and its wildlife, notice things that
others cannot. Police say that the best
trackers usually have more than 30
years of experience. Aboriginal trackers
can help find escaped prisoners or look
for missing persons. Sometimes people
have a car accident in a remote area
and then go wandering away from their
car when they are injured and in a daze.
Trackers are brought in to help find
them. Yuendumu man Teddy Egan is a
well-known Aboriginal tracker. In 2000,
he helped the Northern Territory police
to track and then recapture an escaped
prisoner. He was one of four trackers
employed by police in 2001 to find
missing English tourist Peter Falconio.
Teddy Egan says that tracking humans
is much easier than tracking animals
because ‘people make too much mess’.
Q Are we really related to monkeys?
A Monkeys are not your cousins—
Figure 1.5 Aboriginal trackers can use their
knowledge of the land to save lives.
Q Can people breathe fire?
A No, not really. But a circus trick
called fire-breathing is performed for
entertainment. Fire-breathing requires
a lot of scientific knowledge. The
DEEPER
U N D E R S TA N D I N G
experienced performer sprays a type Figure 1.6 Fire-breathing.
of fuel from their mouth into a flame.
The performer might hold the flames
in their mouth for just a few seconds
before blowing the flame away with
a large exhalation (breathing out).
The exhalation has to be continuous;
if the performer inhales (breathes
in), they will be seriously injured, with
burns, collapsed lungs and even a
heart attack from the shock. Fire-
breathing is extremely dangerous,
even for the experts, who often put up
with minor injuries, such as blistered
lips and tongues. Fire-breathers
never perform in windy conditions
and must have years of experience
and understanding of the science
of fire. Never play with fire!
perhaps cousins many times removed
is a better description. Scientists
have spent a long time trying to work
out how humans came to be on the
Earth. They’re still trying to pinpoint
the beginning of life here, but most
scientists agree that life on Earth
began at least 3 billion years ago. They
think that the first living things were
microscopic and put oxygen into the
atmosphere. Over the next billion or so Figure 1.7 Is this your cousin?
years, life continued to evolve. The first
fish could be found about 500 million
years ago. Birds and mammals only
1.1 QUESTIONING IN SCIENCE 11

Q How did the Universe begin?
A This is one of the biggest questions in
Figure 1.8 Many scientists
think that the universe
began with a Big Bang.
Q What is nanotechnology?
A Nanotechnology is an amazing area
Figure 1.9 Nanobots
may one day be used to
repair cells.
12 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4
evolved around 200 million years ago.
All mammals that exist today have
evolved from the first mammals. The
current theory suggests the ancestor
we have in common with modern apes
lived about 2.5 million years ago.
science and no one really knows the
full answer. Cosmologists, scientists
who study the universe, think that the
universe started with an event called
the Big Bang. This is based on the
idea that our universe (stars, planets,
suns—everything) started as a ‘ball’
in dark, lifeless, empty space. Billions
of years ago, an enormous explosion
inside this ball in space created a huge
amount of energy and flung all the bits
and pieces of ‘stuff’ (gases, solids and
liquids) that make up our universe all
around space. Over billions of years,
some of this ‘stuff’ joined together to
form stars, like our sun, and planets,
like the Earth. The Big Bang idea
is being increasingly supported by
evidence collected by cosmologists.
of science. Nanotechnology is all
about scale—a very small scale.
Nanotechnologists work with things
that are one-billionth of a metre, which
is one ten-thousandth of the width of a
human hair. Push your thumb and first
finger together really hard. Can you
see a gap? If you could shrink yourself
down small enough, there is a whole
nanometre between your two fingers—
this gap is huge in nano terms.
Studying things at this very small scale
means that scientists can change the
way things are programmed. Imagine
a future with nanotechnology: paint
that repairs itself when it gets chipped;
tiny nano-robots, called nanobots,
that can enter your body and repair a
damaged cell; self-cleaning glass and
smart clothing that protects you from
the sun, resists water and even irons
itself! Nanotechnology might be small
science but its possibilities are huge.
Q Will the snubfin dolphin become
extinct in my lifetime?
A In August 2007, the Yangtze River
dolphin, found only in the Yangtze River
in China, was declared extinct. This
means that there are no more of these
dolphins left on our planet, and there
never will be again. This event marks
the first cetacean (dolphin, whale or
porpoise) to be driven to extinction by
humans. Do you think something like
this can only happen in China? The rare
snubfin dolphin, found in the Pacific
Ocean off the coast of Townsville, is
thought to be endangered but there
is not sufficient data to support this
claim. The dolphins are hard to track
down and therefore difficult to study,
but there could fewer than 1000 left.
Until more is known about these rare
mammals, they will not be listed
as endangered and thus receive no
government funding for work to help
their survival. The dolphins are thought
to be threatened by things such as
overfishing of their food source and
damage to their habitat.
Figure 1.10 The snubfin dolphin is thought to be
critically endangered.
Pseudoscience
Scientists are reliable sources of information because of the way they test their ideas.
Unfortunately, some people use the language of science to promote unscientific information.
This is called pseudoscience. ‘Pseudo’ (seoo-doe) means ‘false’. Have you ever seen
advertisements for weight loss or hair growth ‘miracles’ or ‘miraculous’ wrinkle treatments?
Although some of these products may have been partly developed by scientists, the results
are usually less fabulous than they claim. Real science is based on logic and evidence, and
the results can be repeated by others. The Australian Government has regulations about
many of the products sold in Australia. However, not all types of product are covered.

ACTIVITY 1.1.3: ASTROLOGY: SCIENCE OR PSEUDOSCIENCE?

Your teacher will provide you with a set of last week’s horoscopes. They will be
randomly numbered and the dates and star signs removed.
1 Decide which horoscope from last week best fits you.
2 Collate all of the horoscope numbers and class members’ names on the board.
3 Your teacher will list the corresponding star signs for each number. Figure 1.11 ‘Miracle’ products
are often found to be the
• Identify how many horoscopes were correct. result of pseudoscience.

• Explain what this tells you about astrology.

• Discuss if astrology is a science or a pseudoscience.
• Write down two new things that you learned from this activity.

QUESTIONS 1.1.3: WHO’S ASKING THE QUESTIONS?

Remember
1 Identify the four main branches of science.
2 Identify what kind of people scientists are.
3 Identify the type of scientist who would work on developing new medicines.
4 Outline where science happens.
5 Explain how pseudoscience is different from science.

Understand
6 Explain why science is important.
7 Explain what pseudoscience is.

Apply
8 Have you been in a situation where somebody tried to convince you or someone you
know to believe his or her story? Describe what happened.
9 Research the following types of scientist to find out what they study, and then write
a question that each of them might ask.
a herpetologist
b taxonomist
c forensic scientist
10 The names of what scientists study often come from Latin names. Complete an
Internet search to determine the meaning of palaeontology. Explain the relevance
of this name.
11 What might a biochemist study? How about a biophysicist?

1.1 QUESTIONING IN SCIENCE 13

 MAKING PREDICTIONS
All scientific research starts with questions.
But before any experiments begin, scientists
use what they already know to make
predictions about what they think will
happen. The experiment is designed to test
that prediction.
Water boils at 100°C. But what if we
changed something? Could we change the
temperature at which water boils? Start with
a question, and then make a prediction.
Question: What if salt was added to
boiling water?
Prediction: The temperature at which
water boils will increase.
When this prediction tries to explain
a cause and effect relationship, scientists
call it a hypothesis. A hypothesis is always
written as an ‘If … then …’ statement that
describes what happens if something is
changed. You can use your question and
your prediction to write a hypothesis.
What If salt was added to boiling
water? then the temperature at which
water boils will increase.
Hypothesis: If salt was added to
boiling water, then the temperature
at which water boils will increase.
You then test your hypothesis with an
experiment. If your hypothesis is not correct,
that does not mean that you are a failed
scientist! You just need to find out more
information. Talk to people, ask for advice
or look up some information to help you
predict what will happen. Then, using your
new knowledge, make another hypothesis,
modify your experiment and try again.
Scientists find answers to questions in
the same way. Like you, they do experiments
and then think and talk about the results.
When scientists make a new discovery, the
results are usually presented at meetings and
published in scientific journals or magazines.
Other scientists can then read these results
and agree with the explanations or perhaps
suggest alternative hypotheses. New scientific
research and experiments are often based
on the results of old experiments. Especially
when the results are not what was expected.
Experiments that ‘go wrong’ are often the
starting place for new and exciting research.
You school library will probably have
some scientific journals for you to look
through.

ACTIVITY 1.1.4: SIDEWAYS PING PONG

What you need: ping pong ball

1 Working in pairs, drop a ping pong ball from a height of 1.5 m above the ground.
Your job is to investigate how far it will travel sideways after it bounces. You can
only drop the ball or roll it out of a tube. Do not throw or flick it. You can spin the
ball, provided it does not go forward while it is falling.
2 Test as many ideas as you can. Some ideas that you could test include the effect of
the colour of the ball, temperature of the ball, type of floor covering and whether
the ball has holes drilled in it.
3 Before each test, make a prediction about how the ball will move and write it down
as a hypothesis (an ‘If … then ...’ statement).
4 In your notebook, describe what you tried and the distance of the sideways bounce.
• What did you find was the best way to make the ping pong ball bounce sideways?
5 Draw a conclusion based on your results.

Figure 1.12 Making a ping

pong ball bounce sideways.

14 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

QUESTIONS 1.1.4: MAKING PREDICTIONS

Remember
1 Define the term ‘hypothesis’.
2 Outline why scientists do experiments.
3 How would you find background information for an investigation? Identify at least
three places that you could look.

Apply
4 Identify the following statements as either a prediction or a hypothesis.
a The plant will grow faster.
b If the angle of the tube is steeper, then the ping pong ball will bounce further
sideways.
c If more detergent is added to the bubble mix, then bigger bubbles can be blown.
d The flame will change colour.
5 Rewrite the predictions from the previous question as hypotheses. You will have to
make a possible question to do so.
6 Would it be easier to work in a group, in pairs or by yourself when conduction
scientific experiments? Explain your answer.
7 Construct a hypothesis for the following actions:
a adding blue dye to a bucket of water with a white shirt soaking in it
b putting a chocolate bar in the sun
c putting an ice tray of water into a freezer.
8 Describe the advice you would give to a fellow scientist whose experiment did not
support their hypothesis. Are they a failed scientist? What should they do?

1.1 QUESTIONING IN SCIENCE 15

1.1
CHECKPOINT
QUESTIONING IN SCIENCE
Remember and understand
1 Explain why asking questions is good.
[1 mark]
2 Explain what a big question is and give
an example of a big question in a field
of science that you are interested in.
[2 marks]
3 Outline some qualities a scientist
should have. [1 mark]
4 Explain why scientists often work in
teams. [1 mark]
5 In your own words, explain the
difference between a simple question
and a big question. [1 mark]
6 Demonstrate three things that you
know about:
a scientists [1 mark]
b the history of science [1 mark]
c the future of science [1 mark]
Apply
7 Change these simple questions into big
questions:
a What do crocodiles eat? [1 mark]
b Where do crocodiles live? [1 mark]
c What can we do to stop crocodiles
from being hunted for their skin?
[1 mark]
8 Use the Internet, library or other
research tools to examine what the
following types of scientist do:
a entomologist [1 mark]
b seismologist [1 mark]
c botanist [1 mark]
9 Do you know of any famous scientists?
Research the life and times of one
scientist. Describe when and where
they lived, what questions they asked
Figure 1.13 The gastric and how they explored science.
brooding frog.
[2 marks]
10 The following observations can be
]TOTAL MARKS turned into questions that can then be
[ /35] investigated.
16 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4
Observations:
i The temperature is very hot today.
ii The ice seems to melt faster when
it is warmer.
iii A kilogram of feathers seem to take up
more room than a kilogram of coins.
iv In autumn, only some trees tend
to lose their leaves.
a Write the question that can be
investigated. [4 marks]
b Identify some sources that can be used
to investigate the questions. [2 marks]
Analyse and evaluate
11 Choose one of the questions from the
Deeper Understanding box: Answering
questions on pages 11–12. Draw up a
KWLH (Know–Want–Learned–How) chart.
Identify and write what you know about the
topic already (column 1), what you want to
know (column 2), what you have learned
(column 3) and how you found out this
information (column 4). [4 marks]
12 Imagine you are a judge at the court of
pseudoscience. Today’s case is about
Casper White. Casper studied science
at school and at university. He now has
his own business as a ghost hunter. He
charges $400 an hour to look for signs
of ghosts in people’s homes. He has a
business card that reads ‘Dr Casper White,
Professional Ghostologist’. Is Casper a
scientist or a pseudoscientist? Explain
your answer. [2 marks]
Critical and creative thinking
13 In this section, you have read about several
different animals that are endangered
or extinct. The gastric brooding frog is
an Australian frog thought to be extinct.
Investigate this frog and present your
findings in a creative format. [4 marks]
14 Describe and explain one action that
could cause a species of animal to
become extinct and one action that
could prevent this. [2 marks]
EXPLORING SCIENCE SAFELY
An important part of exploring science is knowing how to conduct
experiments safely and successfully. An experiment is a way to solve a
problem or to find the answer to a question. Only through experimentation
can some of the truly big questions of science be answered. You need to
know about three important things before you can start experimenting:
1.2
equipment, general safety in the laboratory and how to use one of the most
useful pieces of laboratory equipment, the Bunsen burner.

ACTIVITY 1.2.1: USING THE RIGHT EQUIPMENT

Working with a partner, list as many situations as you can from your daily lives that
require specialist equipment. For example, to bake a great cake you would use a
proper cake tin of the correct size and an oven set to just the right temperature.
For each situation you think of, note whether there are alternatives to the
equipment and, if so, how they might affect the results.
Finally, consider how the choice of equipment affects investigations done in
a science laboratory. Would plastic test tubes and beakers work as well as glass
laboratory equipment? Never? Sometimes? Does it matter if scientists in other parts
of the world have different equipment from that of scientists in Australia? Discuss your Figure 1.14 Could plastic
thoughts with others in the class. containers be used in a
laboratory?

SCIENTIFIC EQUIPMENT
Equipment is the name given to the
beakers, burners, flasks, stands and other
items used in the laboratory. The equipment
helps us to do experiments and to do them
safely. Commonly used equipment is shown
in Figure 1.16. Some of the names might
sound unfamiliar to you but you will soon
learn what each piece of equipment is
called and how it is used. The equipment
in your school laboratory may look slightly
different because each laboratory has its
own types of equipment. Some items of
equipment can be used together in an
experiment. Equipment placed together for
an experiment is called apparatus.
Scientific diagrams
To show others how to set up an
experiment, scientists write a list of the
equipment needed and drawings that show
how it is set up. But imagine how long this
would take if every picture was as beautiful
and realistic as the painting in Figure 1.15!
Even if you didn’t use paints, and just
sketched with a pencil, it would still take a
long time to draw the equipment.
Scientists have a quick and simple way
to show scientific equipment. They use
drawings called scientific diagrams. Using
scientific diagrams means you don’t have
to be an artist to be a good scientist and
you have more time to do the experiments.

Figure 1.15 This still-life picture

of science equipment looks great,
but it is not practical for science
experiments.

1.2 EXPLORING SCIENCE SAFELY 17

 Retort stand with boss head Crucible tongs. Used to hold Tripod stand. Used to Bunsen burner. Used to Measuring cylinder.
and clamp. Used to hold up crucibles or hot material. hold up equipment. heat up chemicals. Used to measure
equipment. quantities of liquid.

Gauze mat. Used to evenly disperse Test tube holder. Used to hold test Test tube rack. Used to hold test tubes. Conical flask. Used
heat from a Bunsen burner when tubes when heating. to hold solutions.
heating substances.

Evaporating dish. Used Watch glass. Used to Beaker. Used to hold Filter funnel. Used to help pour Test tube. Used to
to hold substances to hold small amounts of solutions. solutions into smaller containers hold solutions.
evaporate. substances. or to filter solutions.

Stirring rod. Used to stir substances. Spatula. Used to obtain chemicals. Thermometer. Used to measure temperature.

Figure 1.16 Types of equipment used in the laboratory.

18 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

The procedure for drawing scientific diagrams
is as follows:

1 Draw clearly and neatly.

2 Use a sharp pencil. Measuring Tripod stand Retort stand with Bunsen burner
cylinder boss head and
3 Draw the equipment from the side view.
clamp
4 Don’t show any detail, just a simple outline
with no shading.

5 Draw lines using a ruler.

6 Print labels neatly and connect them to

the diagram with a line or arrow.

7 Spell labels correctly. Incorrect spelling Filter funnel Test tube Stirring rod Conical flask
makes good science look bad!

8 Diagrams should be between 6 and

10 centimetres high.

Beaker Evaporating dish

Test tube rack Gauze mat Watch glass Thermometer

Figure 1.17 Scientific diagrams of laboratory equipment.

Equipment to wear
Labfab: Notes from the fashion labwalk
Welcome to our fabulous fashion show for the label that is taking the fashion world
by storm—Labfab.
Olivia is wearing our new designer lab coat, which has three- and four-button
options. Note that the buttons are worn done up. This versatile coat is now available
in colours other than white, for our science fashionistas.
Lab coats are going to be loose this year for stylish comfort during those tricky
experiments. And this year, knee length is the length, to protect you from stray
chemicals (we had a few glitches with last year’s range).
Safety glasses are hot and big. Top model and scientist Corey is modelling a pair
from the new range, which are hipper than the latest sunglasses. If you already wear
glasses you may not need to wear safety glasses, but style leaders everywhere will be
wearing them on top of their usual specs.
This year, laboratory shoes are solid—no tootsies please! Solid and sensible, they
scream ‘enduring style’.
Finally, you can never have too many accessories. The latest in latex—a cheeky take
on rubber—is our fabulous range of disposable gloves. They are available in a range of
high-style colours to suit your every experimental mood. Figure 1.18 The lab fashionistas.

1.2 EXPLORING SCIENCE SAFELY 19

 ACTIVITY 1.2.2: SCIENTIFIC DRAWING

Your teacher will assign half of the class to station 1 while the other half work at
station 2. Swap stations halfway through the class time.

Station 1
What you need: 5 boxes (each containing five different pieces of equipment), grey pencil,
ruler, piece of plain A4 paper
1 Share a box with a partner. Without using this textbook, write down the name of
each piece of equipment in the box and complete a scientific diagram of each in
pencil. When you have finished, return the box and collect a different one.
2 Check your answers and diagrams (and spelling!) for the pieces of equipment
from Figures 1.16 and 1.17. Correct any mistakes.
3 Look at your list of equipment. On a sheet of plain paper, divide the list into groups
according to use. For example, you might put all pouring equipment together, or
all heating equipment, or all safety equipment. Decide on categories first and then
allocate the equipment.

Station 2
What you need: large conical flask, retort stand, boss head, clamp, funnel, small beaker
1 Set up the stand with the boss head and clamp, placing the boss head about
two-thirds of the way up the stand.
2 Carefully place the flask neck into the clamp and tighten the clamp so the flask is
secure. (The flask should be about 10 cm above the bench, not resting on it.)
3 Predict and write down how many beakers of water you think will fill the flask.
4 Fill the beaker with water. Use the funnel to transfer the water into the flask.
• How many beakers full do you need to completely fill the flask?
• Was your prediction correct?
5 Draw a scientific diagram of what you have set up, labelling all equipment.
6 Take apart the apparatus and place each piece of equipment in its correct cupboard.
• Which piece of equipment was the most difficult to draw? Which did you find
the easiest?
• Identify up to five pieces of equipment that you had not seen before and list
their uses in a laboratory.
• Identify two pieces of equipment that can be used for:
• holding things
• mixing chemicals
• pouring
• Where in your laboratory do you find:
• safety equipment? • test tube racks?
• test tubes? • heating mats?
• Bunsen burners? • a rubbish bin?
• tongs? • beakers?
• retort stands?

20 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

ACTIVITY 1.2.3: MEMORY GAME

1 Your class will divide into two teams and revise Figure 1.16. Spend 2 minutes
reminding yourself of the correct names for the pieces of equipment.
2 Your teacher will uncover a mystery tray containing 16 items of equipment.
You will be able to view the tray for 60 seconds, and then it will be re-covered.
3 Write down the names of all the pieces of equipment you can remember.
4 When you check answers, score two points for each piece remembered and spelled
correctly; score one point if the spelling is incorrect.
5 Add up the points for each team—the team with the most points wins.
Bonus round:
6 Your teacher will prepare a different tray of 10 pieces of equipment. You will be
able to view the tray for 60 seconds, and then it will be recovered.
7 Draw the scientific diagram of all the pieces of equipment you can remember.
8 Score 1 point for every correctly drawn diagram.
9 Add up the points for each team – the team with the most points wins.

QUESTIONS 1.2.1: SCIENTIFIC EQUIPMENT

Remember
1 Match each piece of equipment with the correct label.
a filter funnel b beaker c measuring cylinder

2 Explain the difference between a drawing and a scientific diagram.

3 Match each word with its meaning.
equipment use equipment and apparatus to answer a problem

apparatus place with equipment and apparatus in it

laboratory equipment that is put together to do an experiment

experiment beakers, stands and other items used for experiments

Apply
4 Examine Figure 1.19. Identify two right and two wrong things about
the way the students are dressed.
5 Draw the equipment set up required to:
a heat water in a beaker
b fill a conical flask with water

Figure 1.19

1.2 EXPLORING SCIENCE SAFELY 21

 LABORATORY SAFETY
Scientists may be exposed to a variety
of hazards in their work. In unfamiliar
environments, such as out in the field,
there are many safety hazards they cannot
control. In a laboratory, safety issues
are easier to manage. Working in teams
can make the control of certain hazards
easier; good communication between team
members is essential. You should be aware
of safety for yourself and other students.
As a science student you need to be
familiar with your laboratory, what the
warning signs mean and what to do in
an emergency. Remember, most safety is
common sense, which can prevent many
dangerous situations.
Figure 1.20 What do you think each of these symbols mean?
ACTIVITY 1.2.4: CREATING LABORATORY SAFETY RULES
Figure 1.21 Can you see the potentially dangerous
activities?
22 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4
Safety symbols
Safety symbols are used in a lot of different
settings. You may have seen the ones in
Figure 1.20 on building sites, at entrances
to buildings, at school or on roads. Your
laboratory may already have some of these
symbols displayed.
Symbols are often simple drawings,
although sometimes words are used as well.
If a picture can show a message clearly,
words may not be needed.
Laboratory safety rules
Good laboratories have many features so
that they are safe places to work. A class
laboratory is not like a normal classroom—
there are additional rules to follow. It is a
place where people are learning to be better
scientists, but who don’t always get it right
the first time. You will notice your science
skills improving as you do more and more
experiments carefully in the laboratory.
Look at Figure 1.21.
• How many potentially dangerous
activities can you identify in this
picture?
• Explain the rules that might be
needed to prevent potential danger.
• Create a list of rules you think might
be needed in your science laboratory.
• Compare your list of rules to the tips
listed next.
• Type up your list on a computer, print
it out and stick it on the inside front
cover of your workbook.
 Twenty ways to improve your lab life

5 Do: 4 Don’t:
TIPS

✓ Wear a lab coat for practical work . ✘ Run in a laboratory.

✓ Keep your workbooks and paper away ✘ Push others or behave roughly in
a laboratory.
heating equipment, chemicals
from
and flames. ✘ Eat in a laboratory.

✓ Tie long hair back whenever you use
a Bunsen burner.
✓ Wear safety glasses while mixing or
heating substances.
✓
Tell your teacher immediately if you
cut or burn yourself.
✓ Tell your teacher immediately if you
break any glassware or spill chemicals.
✓ Wash your hands after any experiments.
✘ Drink from glassware or laboratory
taps.
✘ Look down into a container or
point it at a neighbour when heating
or mixing chemicals.
✘ Smell gases or mixtures of chemicals
directly. Instead, waft them near
your nose, and only when instructed.
✘ Mix chemicals at random.

✓ Listenuctio
to and follow the teacher’s ✘ Put matches, paper or other
ns. substances down the sink.
instr
✓ Light Bunse n burners with matches, ✘ Carry large bottles by the neck.
with paper or other materials.
never ✘ Enter a preparation room without
your teacher’s permission.
✓ Wearucts
gloves when your teacher
you to.
instr

QUESTIONS 1.2.2: LABORATORY SAFETY

Remember
1 Identify the three safety symbols shown.
What does each one stand for?
2 Identify three items of protective
clothing you might wear in the
laboratory. Explain why should you wear them.
3 Outline five things you should do to remain safe in the laboratory.
4 Outline five things you shouldn’t do in the laboratory.

Apply
5 With a partner, take turns to mime a safety rule for your partner to guess.
6 Discuss why it is dangerous to drink from laboratory glassware.

Create
7 Create an A4 poster of a rule in science.

1.2 EXPLORING SCIENCE SAFELY 23

 USING A BUNSEN BURNER
A Bunsen burner is one of the most useful The Bunsen burner has a collar that can
pieces of equipment you will use in the be turned to open or close the air hole. The
laboratory. The Bunsen burner is used to position of the air hole controls how much
heat things in the laboratory, so it needs to air can enter the burner and, therefore, how
be hot. In the right conditions, the hottest hot the flame is. The Bunsen burner has two
part of a Bunsen burner flame can be have a flame settings: the yellow safety flame and
temperature of more than 1500°C. the blue heating flame.
A mixture of petroleum gas and air is
used to produce a good flame for heating.
Match held to one side of top of burner
This is the blue or heating flame and is
produced by leaving the air hole open. The
Hand below flame blue flame has a darker blue on its outside,
which is the hottest part, and a lighter
Air hole closed
blue on the inner part, which is cooler, but
will still burn you! The blue flame is often
Figure 1.22 The correct way to light a Bunsen burner.
difficult to see.
When alight but not being used for
heating, the Bunsen burner should be left on
the yellow (safety) flame, which is not as hot
Heating flame Safety flame
and is easy to see. The safety flame is always
used when lighting the burner. The flame will
Air hole Air hole be yellow when the air hole is closed.
open closed The safety flame doesn’t mean that you
can leave your flame unattended though!
Make sure someone is looking after the
Figure 1.23 Blue (heating) and yellow (safety) flames on the Bunsen burner. experiment at all times.
WARNING

TREATING SCALDS AND BURNS

1 Immediately run cold tap water on the scald or burn for at least 15 minutes.
Do not use ice or very cold water because this can harm the skin.
2 Ask another student to tell your teacher about the scald or burn.
3 Remove nearby clothing (unless it is stuck to the burnt area) and jewellery,
such as watches, rings and bracelets, because burnt areas can swell quickly.
4 Try to handle the area as little as possible because skin will be damaged and
may peel off. Do not use any creams.
5 Seek medical attention if necessary. On the way, use a spray bottle or loose wet
dressing to keep the area wet.
Figure 1.24 A scalded hand.
WARNING

IF THERE IS A FIRE IN THE LABORATORY

1 Let the teacher know immediately. (They will turn off the main gas tap if gas is
involved.)
2 The class fire officer should take a message to the school administration as
quickly as possible.
3 Evacuate the area in an orderly manner.
4 If the fire is small, the teacher will use a fire extinguisher.
5 Check that everyone is safe.
Figure 1.25 A burnt hand.

24 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 SCIENCE
SKILLS Lighting a Bunsen burner
Lighting a Bunsen burner is done in five steps:

1 Place the Bunsen burner on 2 Connect the rubber hosing 3 Close the air hole by turning
a heating mat. firmly to the gas tap. the collar.

4 Light a match and place 5 Open the gas tap fully. After you have followed these
it just above the top of the steps, the Bunsen burner will
barrel, with your hand below have a yellow (safety) flame.
the flame.

Now that you have learned about equipment and safety, it is time to do your first
formal science experiment. After you have successfully accomplished this skill, your
teacher will give you your Bunsen burner licence.

1.2 EXPLORING SCIENCE SAFELY 25

 EXPERIMENT 1.2.1: GETTING TO KNOW YOUR BUNSEN BURNER

Aim (what you are trying to find out)

To learn how to light a Bunsen burner and explore how a Bunsen burner heats objects.

Materials (what you need)

• Bunsen burner • Coloured pencils and grey pencil
• 2 pieces of white ceramic or porcelain • Notebook
• Matches • Heatproof mat
• Metal tongs
WARNING

> Wear safety goggles and a lab coat.

> Keep your hand below the flame.
> You will be drawing in your notebook during this experiment. Keep it well away
from the Bunsen burner (on a nearby bench or further up the bench).
> The porcelain you heat will remain very hot for a long time. Do not pick it up with
your fingers; use tongs.

Method (clear step-by-step instructions of how to do the experiment)

A question is to be answered or a diagram is to be drawn for each step. Put these in
your notebook as you go. They will be the results of your experiment.

1 Draw a picture of the gas tap in the ‘off’ position (90 degrees to the outlet). Follow
steps 1–5 of the Science Skills activity carefully to light the Bunsen burner.
2 Write down the colour of the flame. Change the flame to a blue flame by opening
the air hole on the collar.
3 Write down the three changes that have just occurred. Keeping the blue flame,
slowly turn the gas tap towards the ‘off’ position.
4 Relight the Bunsen burner safely. Observe and record what happens when the
collar is in the following positions: fully closed, half opened, fully opened.
5 Draw the coloured flame when the air hole is closed, half open and fully open.
Return to the safety flame by adjusting the air hole.
6 Using tongs, hold a piece of porcelain in the top of the yellow flame for a minute.
Place the hot porcelain on the heatproof mat when you have finished. Describe
what happens to the porcelain and draw it.
7 Hold the other piece of porcelain with the tongs. Change the flame to blue and heat
for 1 minute. Describe what happens to this piece of porcelain and draw it.

Figure 1.26 Which of these

pieces of porcelain was
heated in the yellow flame
of a Bunsen burner?

26 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

Results (diagrams, tables, graphs and statements about what happened)
Include diagrams of the:
• gas tap in the ‘off’ position
• Bunsen burner with flame colour labelled when the air hole is open
• Bunsen burner with flame colour labelled when the air hole is closed.
Include descriptions of:
• changes to the flame when the gas tap was slowly turned off
• how the flame was different when the air hole was half open
• changes to the porcelain when placed in the yellow and blue flames.
Discussion (questions to help you analyse and explain your results)
1 Why do you think the yellow flame is called the safety flame? Give at least two reasons.
2 Which flame is the noisiest: blue or yellow? Why is this helpful to know?
3 Which flame leaves a sooty carbon black deposit on whatever object it heats?
4 Which flame is the ‘clean’ flame for heating?
5 Give as many reasons as you can for using a blue flame for heating in an experiment.
6 When is the best time to use a safety flame?

Conclusion (a statement to sum up your experiment and explain what you have
learnt/discovered)
• What are the main differences between a yellow and blue flame?
• Why do you think a Bunsen burner has two flames?
• Write a sentence that refers back to the aim.

QUESTIONS 1.2.3: USING A BUNSEN BURNER

Remember
1 Identify the colour of a Bunsen burner’s safety flame.
2 Identify the colour of the heating flame.
3 Describe how you get a heating flame with your Bunsen burner.
4 Summarise the steps of how to safely light a Bunsen burner.
5 Identify at least three differences between the safety and the heating flame of a
Bunsen burner.

Apply
6 Outline the three safety tips to remember when lighting a Bunsen burner.
7 Outline how you should you treat a scald.
8 Justify how the safety flame got its name.

1.2 EXPLORING SCIENCE SAFELY 27

1.2CHECKPOINT
EXPLORING SCIENCE SAFELY
Remember and understand
1 Draw a diagram of a:
a conical flask [1 mark]
b tripod stand [1 mark]
c test tube [1 mark]
2 Explain what this safety sign
means. [1 mark]
3 When using a Bunsen burner, the air
hole is sometimes open and sometimes
closed. Complete Table 1.3. [3 marks]
Table 1.3 Using a Bunsen burner.
Use Should air hole be
open or closed?
Being lit
Heating
Turned on but not heating
4 Write a poem to help you remember
that an open air hole results in a hot,
blue flame and a closed air hole results
in a cooler, yellow flame. [1 mark]
5 Outline the steps you would take if:
a there is a fire [1 mark]
b you burn yourself. [1 mark]
6 Explain how a science classroom is
different from another classroom by
making a list of the things that are the
same in both classrooms and the things
that are unique to a science classroom.
[2 marks]
7 Outline the difference between the
terms ‘equipment’ and ‘apparatus’.
[1 mark]
8 Explain why symbols are sometimes
used instead of words to warn people of
danger in the laboratory. [1 mark]
9 Identify why the Bunsen safety flame is
important. [1 mark]
10 Explain how you get a safety flame with
your Bunsen burner. [1 mark]
11 The safety flame is not good for
heating. Outline two reasons for this.
TOTAL MARKS [1 mark]
[ /35]
28 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4
12 Identify which part of the blue flame is
best for heating. [1 mark]
13 There are five steps to lighting a
Bunsen burner. Put these words that
summarise the process in the correct
order: open, connect, light, place, close,
gas. [2 mark]
Apply
14 Design your own safety symbols for
the following: no dogs allowed, wear
sunscreen, no bikes allowed inside,
walking only, slippery floor, poison.
[3 marks]
Analyse and evaluate
15 Burn injuries are not the only type of
laboratory injury. Eye injuries can also
occur in a science classroom. Construct
a list of some ways that your eyes could
be injured. Next to each, write a safety
tip to help avoid the injury. [3 marks]
Critical and creative thinking
16 Design an improvement for the lab coat
you wear in your science classroom.
Make sure you think about fabric,
materials, function and comfort. Use
your imagination to make your coat
unique.
a Draw a labelled diagram of the new
coat. [1 mark]
b Identify three reasons why your
design is an improvement. [3 marks]
c If you were to produce this new lab
coat, how might you go about testing
it to see if it was successful? Outline
in a paragraph what you would do.
[2 marks]
17 How would you design a sign to warn
students in 500 years’ time of a danger
that is still present? Think about how
you could possibly interpret danger
signs now. Would those representations
be relevant in 500 years’ time?
[3 marks]
SCIENCE SKILLS AND ACCURACY
So far, you have seen that science involves asking questions and working
safely in a laboratory. Laboratory safety is only one part of doing
experiments. Scientists collect information during their experiments
and they record what they did and what they found out. They follow
an experimental method, use all of their senses to make observations,
1.3
collect information and display their findings in reports, set out in a
standard scientific way. They think about and try to control things that
might affect their results. Effective science relies on properly collecting
and recording information.

INVESTIGATING SCIENCE
Science is about finding answers to questions
and solutions to problems. In this section,
you are going to be an active scientist and
collect scientific information. You will do
a number of simple activities in which
you investigate questions you probably
don’t know the answers to. You need to
make predictions or hypotheses before
each experiment to improve and test your
scientific knowledge and understanding.

ACTIVITY 1.3.1: SCIENTISTS PREPARING FOR SCIENCE

Look carefully at the photo of the scientist with gorillas and write down your opinion
for the following questions:
What is the scientist trying to find out about the gorillas? Does he need to be
this close to get his answers? Is this the first and only time he would spend with the
gorillas? Does he have some idea of the answers he is likely to get? Would he have
done any special research or training before getting so close to these wild animals?
Was his clothing chosen carefully for his investigation?
Discuss your opinions with a small group and then share them with the class.

Variables and fair tests same so that it cannot influence the results
Figure 1.27

When doing an experiment, factors or
variables should all be kept the same, except
for the one that is being tested. A variable
is anything that can change and something
that can affect the results of an experiment.
Controlling these variables ensures that the
experiment is fair.
The factor or variable we change
intentionally to test how it affects the
results is called the experimental variable
or independent variable. The independent
variable will affect the results, which are
known as the dependent variables. Every
other variable should be kept exactly the
in any way. These are called controlled
variables or controls.
It may be easier to think of variables as
causes and effects.
A hypothesis may be stated as ‘If salt was
added to boiling water, then the temperature
at which the water boils will increase’. There
is a cause and effect relationship in the
statement, i.e., the salt will cause the effect
of increased temperature of boiling.
In this case, the salt is the independent
variable (or the cause) whilst the boiling
temperature of the water is the dependent
variable (or the effect).

1.3 SCIENCE SKILLS AND ACCURACY 29

 Figure 1.28 Microbiologists
need to control several
variables in their
experimental environment.
They must be very careful
not to contaminate their
samples.

Fair tests ensure that experimental results can be used to make the right decisions.
When we consider the results of an experiment and try to draw some conclusions, we need
to consider the following questions:

• Did we control every variable, except the one we were changing on purpose, so that the
conditions of the different trials were exactly the same?

• Were there any variables in the environment that we couldn’t control?

• If we did exactly the same experiment again, would we expect the results to be exactly
the same?

• Did we estimate any measurements during the experiment?

Repetition of experiments is very important. If you perform an experiment and achieve

certain results, you would conclude that the results are correct. But what if you did the
experiment a second time and the results were slightly different? Did you do something
slightly differently? Were the conditions slightly different? Did you use the same materials
from the same source? Earlier in the chapter you learned about pseudoscience. One of the
biggest differences between science and pseudoscience is that scientists control and repeat
their experiments.
When similar results are collected when an experiment is repeated, the results are said
to be reliable. Performing an experiment several times will give you greater confidence in
your results. If other people repeat your experiment and achieve the same results, then your
results are supported even more.

ACTIVITY 1.3.2: GETTING RELIABLE RESULTS

What you need: crushed ice, large ice blocks, plastic bowl, metal bowl, lamp or light
source (optional), stopwatch
1 Tip the crushed ice into the plastic bowl.
2 Tip the large ice blocks into the metal bowl.
3 Place each of the bowls on the window ledge in the sun and begin the stopwatch.
(A lamp can be used in place of sunlight if necessary.)
4 Check the bowls every 2 minutes and record any changes you notice.
• Which ice mixture melted the fastest?
• Did both bowls provide the same conditions for the ice?
• Did both bowls contain the same ingredients?
• Did everyone in the class obtain the same results?
• Would someone else be able to reproduce this experiment
exactly and achieve the same results?
• Are these results reliable? Why? Why not?

Figure 1.29
• Do you think this activity represents a fair test? Why? Why not?

30 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

ACTIVITY 1.3.3: CONTROLLED AND EXPERIMENTAL VARIABLES

Read the following experiment descriptions and, for each one, identify all the controlled
variables and the dependent and independent variables.

Experiment 1
Blocks of milk, dark and white chocolate (250 g each) were broken into pieces and
placed in three glass bowls of the same size. All bowls were covered with cling
film and placed on a windowsill in direct sunlight. They were observed at 5-minute
intervals to determine how long the chocolate would take to melt. Results were
recorded in words and with photographs.

Experiment 2
A skateboard was released from the top of a 3 m ramp mp and
the total distance it travelled was recorded. The skateboard
eboard
then had a 1 kg weight attached to it and the experiment
ent was
repeated. Weights of 2 kg, 5 kg and 10 kg were also tested
ested to
determine whether they affected the distance travelleded by
the skateboard.

QUESTIONS 1.3.1: INVESTIGATING SCIENCE

Remember
1 Describe a ‘variable’ in your own words.
2 Explain why most variables need to be controlled.
3 Identify the name given to the factor that is being tested, and therefore changed
on purpose.
4 Suggest some synonyms for the word ‘reliable’. Why would you want your results
to be reliable?

Apply
5 Justin decided to conduct an experiment to find out whether his cats preferred
full-cream or low-fat milk. He gave one cat a small bowl of full-cream milk and the
other a saucer of low-fat milk. He then left them alone because they were fussy
cats that didn’t like to be watched while they were feeding. When he returned an
hour later, the low-fat milk was gone and there was a small amount of full-cream
milk in the bowl. Justin concluded that his cats preferred low-fat milk.
a Do you agree with Justin’s conclusion?
b Do you think he conducted a fair test?
c What was the experimental variable in this experiment?
d What were the variables that needed to be controlled? Were they controlled?
How might they have affected the results?
e Explain how you would improve Justin’s experimental method so that his results
were more reliable. Write this as a numbered, step-by-step set of instructions.

1.3 SCIENCE SKILLS AND ACCURACY 31

 OBSERVATION AND INFERENCE
To be good at investigating and solving
problems, you need to be observant and
notice things around you. All of your
senses—sight, taste, hearing, smell and
touch—send information to your brain.
Most of the results of experiments are
collected by making observations. Good
observers make accurate observations and
achieve accurate results.
Observations can be either quantitative
or qualitative.
Quantitative observations use
measurement—they are quantities or
‘amounts’ and are normally written using
numbers. Specialised equipment is often
used to make quantitative observations,
like scales, stopwatches and light meters.
The numerical measurements are
usually accompanied by units, for example
2.7 metres or 23.4°C. Metres are a measure
of distance and Celsius is a measure of
temperature, so they are both quantitative.
The units of measurements are very
important. If they are not included it
can be very difficult to understand what
the scientist is trying to say. Imagine an
experiment that looked at plant growth. If
the results simply said ‘The plant grew 3’, you
wouldn’t really know what happened.
3 what? 3 leaves? 3 cm? 3 cm per day? It is
the units that tell us exactly what was being
measured. Units also allow us to compare
results easily. Comparing Plant A, that grew
3 cm with Plant B that grew 5 cm, it is easy
to see that that Plant B grew more than
the first. But if the results were recorded in
different units, Plant A grew 30 mm and
Plant B grew 5 cm it can be a little confusing.
A good experiment will use the same unit
for all the trials.
Qualitative observations use words to
describe anything that is not an ‘amount’.
The sense organs of the human body are
essential for qualitative observations.
What you see, hear, smell, taste or feel are
generally qualitative observations. ‘Rough’,
‘sour’ and ‘yellow’ are all words describing
qualitative observations.
The more detail provided in qualitative
observations, the better. Photographs and
videos can also be used to record qualitative
observations.
Scientists need to be good at inference
as well as observation. An inference is a
likely explanation of an observation. It
is how you explain your observation. An
inference doesn’t necessarily guarantee that
something is true, but it is likely to be true.
Before a scientist can infer anything
about their results, they must ensure that
the results are reliable. Good experiments
should repeated to make sure they always
achieve similar results. The more similar
the results and more repeats or trials of an
experiment, the greater the reliability of the
results and the more confident a scientist
can be about their inference.
Table 1.4 contains examples of
observations, paired with possible
inferences.

Table 1.4 Some observations and inferences.

Observation Inference

Your house smells like cooked onions when you get home from school You are probably having cooked onions with dinner

A fabric feels like satin The fabric is either satin or something that feels very much like satin

You see a man running down the street The man is running either away from something or to something

You hear a house alarm ringing Someone has entered the house

Lemon juice tastes sour Lemons contain an acid

32 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

ACTIVITY 1.3.4: TESTING YOUR SENSES

The secret to being observant is to use your senses. These activities will make you more
aware of your senses. In some of these activities you will need a blindfold. It is best to
use safety glasses that have been painted black or covered with dark paper. You will not
test your fifth sense, taste, because it is not good safety practice to eat in the laboratory.

Smell
Your teacher has some test tubes (wrapped
in paper) lined up in a test tube rack.
Gently smell each one by wafting the smell
towards your nose with your hand. See if
you can name the smell. They might be the
odour of paint, banana peel, a piece of cake,
leaves from a lemon tree or something else.

WARNING
Try to recognise each substance by its smell. > Never smell things in a
science laboratory unless
Touch your teacher instructs you to
Wearing your blindfold, feel some common
objects. They might be fruit, fabric,
sandpaper, plastic or something else.
Describe the feel of each one and try to
recognise each substance.

Sight
We have binocular vision, which means that
we have two eyes that function together.
Cover one eye and then ask your partner to
hold a pencil within the reach of your arm.
Stretch out your arm and touch the top of
the pencil with your finger. Most times you
will judge the correct direction but not the
correct distance. This is because you need
two eyes to judge distance.

Hearing
Sit at your desk and put on your blindfold.
As your partner taps on the desk or clicks
their fingers, point to where you think the
noise is coming from. How good are you at
finding the direction of a sound?

Questions
• Based on this activity, which is your
strongest sense?
• Based on this activity, which is your
weakest sense?
• Did you discover anything surprising
while doing this activity? If so, what
was it?
• Write one thing that you have learned
about your senses of smell, touch, sight
and hearing.

1.3 SCIENCE SKILLS AND ACCURACY 33

 ACTIVITY 1.3.5: OBSERVATION VERSUS INFERENCE

How good are you at making observations? Do you confuse observations with
inferences? There are many things that you can observe.
1 Draw a table with two columns, one for observations and one for inferences.
2 Light a candle and list six observations of the burning candle.
3 Write down three inferences you can make from your observations.

QUESTIONS 1.3.2: OBSERVATION AND INFERENCE

Remember
1 Identify the senses that you would use to observe in the laboratory.
2 Explain why scientists don't use the sense of taste in a laboratory.
3 Define the term ‘observation’. Provide an example.
4 Define the term ‘inference’. Provide an example.
5 Outline the difference between a quantitative and a qualitative observation.
6 Explain why it is important to include units in all your qualitative observations.

Apply
7 Identify which of the following are observations. Identify which are inferences.
a You smell a strong odour from a garbage bin.
b Coffee stays hotter if you add the milk before the hot water.
c The temperature today was 37°C.
d It is so hot that the temperature must be 37°C.
e There is a person in a Santa suit. It must be Christmas.
f I can smell fish cooking.
g This candle has a greasy feel.
h I believe that this candle is made of special wax.
i This soup is so hot that it hurts my teeth.
j Shh! I can hear an animal on the roof. It must be a possum.
8 Identify which of the observations in question 7 are quantitative and which are
qualitative. Explain your answer.
9 Observation and inference are very important tools for scientists. Outline why
you think they are important.

Critical and creative thinking

10 You have designed an experiment to test the effectiveness of different fertilisers
(A, B and C) on plant growth.
a Make a list of at least five qualitative observations you would make during the
experiment.
b Make a list of at least five quantitative observations you would make and the
units you would use.
c If the plants fertilised with Fertiliser B grew 5 cm taller on average than all the
other plants, what could you infer about Fertiliser B?
d If most of the plants fertilised with Fertiliser C died, what could you infer about
Fertiliser C?

34 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 MEASURING AND RECORDING
Whether you are always aware of it or
not, you use measurements every day. You
Measurement and units
might buy milk in a 1 litre carton and ask The idea of having standard units for
for 200 grams of ham at the supermarket. measurement soon spread, so that all types
You might walk 800 metres to school each of measurement were included. The metric
day. If you are ill, a doctor will measure system is now used by scientists worldwide.
your body temperature to see if it varies A measurement of 2.45 metres has to
from the normal 37ºC. Each time you look be the same in Sydney as in New York.
at your watch, you are measuring time. A temperature of 37ºC is just as hot in
Measurements are, and have always been, Calcutta as in Dubbo. Scientists often check Figure 1.30 Measurements
an important part of life and of science. each other’s work by repeating experiments, of mass are made at home
when cooking.
When you do experiments, you will perform to see if they get the same results. To do this,
measurements and record your results. they need to be able to use measurements
that are the same as those of the original
experiment. Using a standard system
Old ways of measuring of measurement, scientists everywhere can
Gulliver is the main character in the book understand and build on each other’s work.
Gulliver’s Travels. During his adventures, he Measurements of five different quantities
is shipwrecked on the island of Lilliput. The are important when you are exploring science:
people of Lilliput are tiny and think that volume, mass, temperature, time and length.
Gulliver is a giant. After they overcome their
Table 1.5 Measurements used in ancient civilisations.
fear of the big man and become his friends,
Old unit Civilisation Estimated
the people decide to make Gulliver a new set equivalent
of clothes. today (cm)
But measuring this giant for a suit Royal foot Ancient Egypt 25.4
of clothes is a real problem, because the
Royal cubit Ancient Egypt 52.4
Lilliputians are so tiny. So, after checking
Finger Ancient 1.9
out as many dimensions of Gulliver as they
Mesopotamia
can, they decide that the distance around
Palm Ancient 7.5
Gulliver’s waist is probably equal to twice Mesopotamia
the distance around his neck. It is easier
Fathom Ancient 180
to measure around his neck than his large Mesopotamia
waist.
Knuckle Ancient Greece 3.9
Is the distance around a waist equal to
Lick Ancient Greece 15.4
twice the distance around a neck? Use a
piece of string and ruler to check. Compare
your answer with those of other students.
For thousands of years, distances have
been measured by comparing them to parts
of the human body. The height of a horse,
for instance, is still measured in hands. Some
countries, such as the United States, measure
distance in feet. A standard system is now
used, instead of human hands and feet.
Figure 1.31 These cubits and a leather case are relics of ancient Egypt.

1.3 SCIENCE SKILLS AND ACCURACY 35

 Place the measuring
cylinder on a level surface.
Look in line with the top
of the water.
Meniscus
40
Figure 1.33 The International
Prototype Kilogram.
MASS
Mass is the amount of matter or substance in an object. Mass is measured in units called grams (g),
kilograms (kg) and tonnes (t). Smaller masses are measured in milligrams (mg). Mass-measuring devices
Read level are called scales or balances. You are likely to use an electronic balance or a triple beam balance, similar
here
to the one shown, to measure mass.

30

20

Read the water level at the bottom

of the meniscus. (Here the correct
measurement is 34 mL.)
TEMPERATURE TIME
Figure 1.32 Measuring volume.
Temperature is measured using a thermometer. Some Time is measured with a watch or clock.
VOLUME thermometers have a digital scale. Measurements of A watch or clock set to the correct time
temperature have the unit called degrees Celsius. Its tells you the time of day. A stopwatch
Volume is how much space something takes up. symbol is °C. measures how much time has passed. In your
Measurements of liquid volumes can be shown using experiments, measurements of time will
units called litres (L) or millilitres (mL). In science, often have the unit called seconds (s) or
measuring cylinders are used to measure the volume minutes (min).
of liquids. Some beakers have a measuring scale
on them, but measuring cylinders are more accurate
than beakers. Beakers are only used as a basic
estimation of volume. When the volume of water or
any other liquid is measured in a measuring cylinder,
the liquid will ‘stick’ to the side of the glass or plastic
container and it forms a meniscus. To obtain an
accurate measurement of volume, the reading must
be made from the bottom of the meniscus (refer to the
diagram). Measurements of the volume of solid objects
have units such as centimetres cubed (cm3).

LENGTH
Measurements of length can be shown using a unit called metres, using the symbol ‘m’. For long distances,
kilometres (km) are used. For small distances, centimetres (cm) or millimetres (mm) can be used. In
school science, the devices we use to measure length and distance are the trundle wheel, metre rule and
tape measure.

36 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

Recording measurements
All measurements have two parts: a number and a unit. For example, 5 metres is written as
‘5 m’. Notice that the unit does not have an ‘s’ after it, even though it stands for ‘metres’.
Measurements are usually recorded in a table or a graph so that they can be easily read,
compared or used for further calculations.

Table 1.6 Some metric units of measurement.

Measurement Unit Symbol Typical instrument used

Distance/length Kilometre km Trundle wheel

Metre m Metre rule

Centimetre cm Tape measure

Millimetre mm Tape measure

Volume Litre L Volumetric flask

Millilitre mL Measuring cylinder

Mass Tonne t Weighbridge

Kilogram kg Beam balance

Gram g Spring balance

Milligram mg Electronic balance

Time Hour h Clock

Minute min Stopwatch

Second s Stopwatch

Temperature Degrees Celsius °C Thermometer

a b

Figure 1.34 A temperature of 37°C is the same in (a) Calcutta in India and (b) Dubbo in central New South Wales.

1.3 SCIENCE SKILLS AND ACCURACY 37

 N U M E R AC Y
BU I L D E R A Converting units of length B Measuring volumes
To compare two measurements, their units of regular solids
must be the same. It is difficult to compare The volume of solid objects is often
10 000 metres to 13 kilometres—which one measured in centimetres cubed (cm3). The
is longer? Comparing 10 kilometres with volume of a rectangular prism can be found
13 kilometres is much easier. The metric by multiplying length by width by height:
system works in multiples of 10, so we can V=l×w×h
convert using a formula.
Example
x 1000 x 100 x 10 A rectangular prism has the
dimensions shown:
km m cm mm

l = 5 cm
÷ 1000 ÷ 100 ÷ 10

1 kilometre = 1000 metres

1 metre = 100 centimetres
h = 3 cm
1 centimetre = 10 millimetres
To change a larger unit (e.g. km) into
a smaller unit (e.g. m) you need to multiply.
To change a smaller unit (e.g. mm) into a
larger unit (e.g. cm) you need to divide. w = 4 cm
Example
Which is longer: 150 metres or Calculate its volume.
12 000 centimetres?
V=l×w×h
150 m × 100 = 15 000 cm =5×4×3
150 metres is longer than = 60 cm3
12 000 centimetres. The volume is 60 cm3.
Your turn Your turn
1 Identify which is longer: 10 000 1 Calculate the volume of a rectangular
millimetres or 500 metres. prism of length 10 cm, width 8 cm and
2 Identify which is shorter: 3 kilometres height 6 cm.
or 1000 metres. 2 A box has a volume of 400 cm3. It has
3 Convert 1 kilometre into metres, a length of 10 cm and width of 5 cm.
centimetres and millimetres. What is its height?

ACTIVITY 1.3.6: MEASURING OBJECTS

Your teacher will give you some objects to measure. You will have to select the best
measuring device for an accurate measurement. Record your results in a table in your
notebook. Don’t forget to write the units of your measurement.
Some examples are:
• volume and mass of a cup of water
• mass of a small plastic container partly filled with sand
• distance from your laboratory to where you sit at lunchtime
• thickness of a page in this book
• time a ball is in the air after it is thrown.

38 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4


Measuring accurately
Accurate measurement in science is
important so that your results are a
true record of something. Comparing
measurements with other scientists is useful
only if your results are accurate.
You can do several things to improve
your accuracy in the science laboratory.
Always take your time when measuring and
make sure that you write down the result
straight away. When reading a scale, line up
your eye directly in front of the object and
the scale. Looking from above or from the
side can produce different readings. This
kind of error is called a parallax error.
Sometimes, errors in measurement are
unavoidable. An error is different from a
mistake—it can happen for various reasons,
no matter how careful you are. Errors can
occur if the object you are measuring falls
between two markings on a scale—this
will mean that you have to estimate the
exact measurement. Sometimes scales can
be calibrated (set up) incorrectly, which
means that, no matter what you measure,
you will get a slightly inaccurate result.
You can minimise the effect of this kind of
error by always using the same measuring
device.
Whilst errors may not be eliminated,
they should be minimised.

a
QUESTIONS 1.3.3: MEASURING AND RECORDING

Remember
1 Construct a list of everything you have measured today. Think carefully—you have
probably measured more things than you realise. Try to list at least five things.
2 When you measure volume of a liquid, identify what part of the meniscus is used.
3 Outline what tools you would use to measure the following things:
a distance around a cricket ground e volume of a square block
b time it takes a sprinter to run 100 m f temperature of a swimming pool
c mass of a carrot g your mass
d volume of water in a fish tank h thickness of this book

Apply
4 Outline why it is a problem to use body parts as a measuring tool.
5 In the United States, people use imperial units of measurement (foot, pound, mile)
but scientists in the United States use metric units. Explain:
a why the scientists use metric units
b what problems might arise if scientists in the US used imperial units.
6 Would you prefer to walk 14 900 centimetres or 3 kilometres? Explain why.
b
7 Suggest a reason why the unit for minutes is (min) and not (m).

Analyse and evaluate Figure 1.35 Which

angle would you use
8 In Australia, we measure temperature in degrees Celsius, however there are other (a) or (b) to get an
temperature scales which are used around the world. Investigate the different accurate reading of the
scales used for temperature and explain how to convert between them. If a recipe measuring cylinder?
How could a reading
called for an oven to be heated to 356 Fahrenheit, how hot would it be in degrees error occur here?
Celsius?

Research
9 What causes the water meniscus to form? Mercury has an inverted meniscus.
What does this mean? Draw how you would accurately measure 25 mL of mercury.

1.3 SCIENCE SKILLS AND ACCURACY 39

 SCIENTIFIC REPORTS
When you do an experiment, you need to
keep two things in mind: the doing and the
reporting. A scientific report is an essential
part of any experiment—it is where you
record and present your findings. Reports
usually contain two parts: a record of the
equipment and method you have used, and
a statement of what you observed and/or
measured and what you conclude based on
your observations.
Scientists use scientific reports to
communicate with other scientists so that
they can learn from each other. So that
their reports are easy to follow, scientists
write reports in a certain format, using
similar language.
What is in a scientific
report?
A report is a written account of what you
did in an experiment. It usually has eight
parts:
1 Title, date and partners (if you are
working in a group). Don’t forget to
write your own name!
SCIENCE
SKILLS Writing in the third person
The best type of scientific report lays out
the facts in clear, plain English. Writing
impersonally is called writing in the third
person. This is when we use words such
as they, he, she, it and not I, we and you.
If an experiment has been controlled to
make it a fair test, then it shouldn’t matter
whether Einstein or your 15-year-old
brother conducted the experiment. This
is one reason that personal pronouns
(‘I’, ‘me’, ‘our’) are usually left out of
scientific reports. When you use personal
pronouns, it’s tempting to put in a lot of
information that isn’t relevant.
Read the following paragraph from
the discussion section of an experiment:
40 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4
2 Aim or question—what you are trying
to find out or why you are doing the
experiment.
3 Hypothesis—your initial theory or
prediction about the outcome of the
experiment. (Note: Not all experiments
contain a hypothesis.)
4 Materials or equipment—a detailed list
of the equipment used.
5 Method—numbered, step-by-step
description of how you did the
experiment, including diagrams of
apparatus.
6 Results—measurements and
observations you took during the
experiment. They are usually presented
in a table, graph and/or diagram.
7 Discussion—your opportunity to
discuss the findings, any problems that
were encountered and suggestions for
improvement or further investigation.
8 Conclusion—the answer to the aim or
question. It should be clear, reasoned
and relate very closely to the starting aim
or question.
Well, I think that our experiment went really well.
We got it all done in the time we had and the
teacher was happy with how we cleaned up. Xavier
helped me a lot in my experiment but he was a
bit clumsy. Our results showed that vinegar and
bicarbonate soda make a really good volcano.
They fizz and froth up to about 10 times the size
before all the bubbles pop and it becomes a runny
liquid again. I think that if I did this experiment
again I would make sure that the measurements
were all done by me or I would find a different
partner to work with. This would reduce the
number of errors and maybe we wouldn’t smash
so many pieces of glassware.
Your turn
Re-write the paragraph in the third person,
leaving out any sentences you think are
unnecessary.
 ACTIVITY 1.3.7: TESTING MATERIALS FOR FLAMMABILITY

Tests ordered on clothes after formaldehyde scare

21 AUGUST 2007, NEW ZEALAND
Authorities are to test a wide range of imported
clothing to see if it meets New Zealand safety
standards after children’s clothes imported from
China were found to pose a health risk.
A TV3 Target programme to air this week has
found dangerously high levels of formaldehyde
in Chinese-made children’s clothes. The gas is
commonly used in clothing manufacture, but
the programme found levels up to 900 times
higher than considered safe by the World
Health Organization in garments it tested.
Last month, two boys suffered minor burns
when their TWL pyjamas ignited.
Commonly employed as a preservative,
formaldehyde is used in many industries and
has been used on clothing to combat mildew
and give a permanent press effect. Exposure
to excess levels can create breathing problems
and cause headaches.
Clinical adviser Alison Hussey said both issues
showed safe clothing standards should be
enforced, and that manufacturers’ instructions
to wash clothes before wearing should be
followed.
‘We advise that people choose natural fibres
and that clothes, particularly sleepwear,
are close fitting and that it should be
washed before use. That children should be
supervised around heaters is probably the
most important thing.’

Imagine you have just been appointed as a scientist to the Choice group, who test
many different products. Reading the article above will prepare you to write your first
scientific report.
As a Choice scientist, your job is to investigate four different materials for
flammability—describing how they burn—and to recommend the best one for making
children’s pyjamas.
None of the materials you will be testing have had formaldehyde added to them,
nor have they been treated with fire-retardant chemicals.
The following model for this experiment includes a step-by-step guide to writing
the report.
You will be working in pairs to conduct and assess the flammability experiment.
1 Before doing the experiment, copy the aim, materials, method and results table
into your notebook.
2 Complete the experiment with a partner and fill in your results table.
WARNING

> Do this experiment in a fume cupboard if possible. Otherwise, make sure the
room is well ventilated and do not breathe in any fumes from burning material.
Have a large beaker of cold water next to you. If the fabric is still smoking when
the flame goes out, immerse it in the water using tongs.

3 Answer the discussion questions.

4 Check back to the aim to remind you what your conclusion is about. Copy the
conclusion from the example and fill in the gaps according to what you found.
5 Evaluate the design of this experiment. Do you think it is valid to draw a conclusion
from only four cases? Explain.

1.3 SCIENCE SKILLS AND ACCURACY 41

 Gives step-by-step
instructions and
Testing materials METHOD often a diagram of
for flammability Sets out 1. Light the Bunsen burner.
equipment.

DATE: 14 February 2014 what you are trying 2. Change to a blue flame.
to discover. It is the
NAME: Beaker Bunsen
‘question’ you are asking,
3. Use tongs to hold a piece of material.
PARTNER: Tripod Test Tube and will be different for Put the corner of the material in the burner
each experiment. until it catches alight.
AIM 4. Remove the material from the flame and
immediately place it on the tile.
To compare the flammability of four materials
and recommend one for making children’s 5. Time how long the flame takes to
pyjamas. (Note: This experiment does not contain go out.
a hypothesis.) 6. Write a careful Material
Contains a description of how
list of what the material burns
you need. (e.g. colour changes, Tongs
MATERIALS melting, charring).
• Bunsen burner • 2 cm square piece of 7. Repeat with the other Bunsen burner
• Ceramic tile four different types pieces of material.
• Large beaker of material (e.g.
• Metal tongs nylon, wool, cotton
• 2 heatproof mats drill, polyester/
• Stopwatch or clock cotton mix)
Figure 1.36
Experimental set-up.

(Hint: give
the table an
RESULTS appropriate
Often includes TABLE 1.7 ............................................................ name)
a table to fill in
the results. MATERIAL TIME TO BURN (S) DESCRIPTION OF BURNING
< material 1 name >
< material 2 name >
< material 3 name >
< material 4 name >

Where any set

questions are answered
and where you describe any
unusual or interesting results.
This is also where you can
suggest improvements for
an experiment.
DISCUSSION
1 Which materials became runny during burning? Would this be good for a
material worn close to the skin?
2 Which material burned the quickest?
3 Which material burned the slowest?
4 Why is knowing the length of time needed to burn helpful when considering
materials for children’s clothing?

42 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

5 One variable that could affect the results is the size of the piece of material.
Why were all the pieces of material cut to the same size? If they had not been,
how would this have affected the results?
6 Identify one other variable that could have affected the results. Was this variable
controlled? Discuss.
7 Which materials could be suitable for making a lab coat and why?
8 What safety recommendations would apply to anyone trying this experiment?

CONCLUSION
Of the four materials tested, the best material to make children’s pyjamas from a fire
safety point of view would be _________________ because _________________.

An answer to
the question you set out to
investigate. Look back at
the aim before writing the
conclusion. Try to use one or
two sentences and to write
in the third person.

QUESTIONS 1.3.4: SCIENTIFIC REPORTS

Remember
1 What is a prediction called in science? In what form is it usually written?
2 Explain why results are usually presented in a table or graph format.
3 Identify the eight sections in the order they are used when writing a scientific
report.
4 What is a conclusion? Why is it written at the end of an experiment?

Apply
5 Explain why it is important that scientists complete scientific reports.
6 How would a common format for all scientific reports make it easier for scientists
to communicate with each other?
7 Identify a reason why personal pronouns are not used in scientific reports.
8 If you wanted to test how well different laundry powders worked, what variables
would you have to keep the same? Why is this important?

Critical and creative thinking

9 An agricultural company has developed a new breed of grass that they claim
increases milk production in cows that eat it. You have been asked to test this
claim.
a Write an aim for your experiment.
b Make a hypothesis.
c Identify the experimental variable and the dependent variable for your
experiment.
d Identify the other variables that would need to be controlled.
e Write an appropriate method for your experiment, making sure to explain how
to test the dependent variable and to control all the other variables you listed in
part d.

1.3 SCIENCE SKILLS AND ACCURACY 43

 1.3
CHECKPOINT
SCIENCE SKILLS AND ACCURACY
Remember and understand
1 Identify what a fair test is. [1 mark]
2 Explain why a standard unit of length is
needed. [1 mark]
Analyse and evaluate
12 There are many unusual measurements.
Outline the answers to these
measurement questions.
a How would you find the temperature
3 Identify an appropriate metric unit for:
inside a furnace? [1 mark]
a volume [1 mark]
b How can you measure the thickness
b temperature [1 mark]
of a sheet of paper? [1 mark]
c mass. [1 mark]
c How fast do your fingernails grow?
4 Explain the purpose of controlling How could you measure this?
variables in an experiment. [1 mark] [1 mark]
5 Identify if the following observations
Critical and creative thinking
are quantitative or qualitative.
13 Design the following experiments.
a The bus is red. [1 mark]
Write the aim, the hypothesis and
b I am older than 12 years old. the method. Identify the variables
[1 mark] and make sure you control all but the
c The line to the tuckshop is 4 metres experimental variable. Make note of any
long. [1 mark] safety issues. Set it out like one of the
experiments in this book.
6 Explain why a measurement is not very
useful if you don’t include the correct • An experiment to test if three types
units. Give an example in your answer. of material are waterproof or not.
[2 marks] [4 marks]

7 Which is best for measuring volume, • An experiment to see how high a

a measuring cylinder or a beaker? rubber ‘bouncy-ball’ can bounce on
Explain why. [2 marks] different surfaces. [4 marks]

8 Identify which section of a Making connections

scientific report would contain the
14 Reflect on all the new things that you
measurements collected. [1 mark]
have learned about exploring science.
Apply Draw up a PMI chart. In column 1
write the ‘pluses’ (good things that
9 Have you ever heard the expression
you have learned), in column 2 write
‘Close enough is good enough’? Identify
the ‘minuses’ (negative things that you
one situation where this is true and one
have learned) and in column 3 write
where the expression does not apply.
some interesting things that you have
[2 marks]
learned. One example has been done
10 Make three observations and three for you. [3 marks]
inferences about:
Plus Minus Interesting
a this textbook [2 marks] In science The Yangtze Fire-
I get to River dolphin breathing
b your own hand [2 marks] explore a lot is extinct requires a lot
of amazing of scientific
11 If the units for measurements questions knowledge
were different between Sydney and
TOTAL MARKS Melbourne, explain some problems
[ /35] that would be likely to arise. [1 mark]

44 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

01_ZHA_IS7_77549_SI.indd 44 1/09/2017 1:18 PM

 1
1 Fill in the gaps using the Word Bank below:

Science involves questioning and research based on first-hand and second-hand

information. Questioning is an _____________________________ part of science as it
can lead to further understanding and knowledge. _____________________________
questions are better to ask than small questions as they are more open and allow for
more _____________________________ to be determined.

Scientists were originally natural _____________________________ who considered the

world and determined logical explanations about how the world worked. The biggest
difference between _____________________________ nowadays and philosophers in
the past is that scientists complete experiments and then repeat them to determine
a _____________________________ result.

There are many _____________________________ of science. The study of living

organisms is called _____________________________. The study of chemicals is
called _____________________________ , the study of motion and movement is called
_____________________________ and the study of the Earth and rocks is called
CHAPTER
_____________________________. REVIEW
When studying science, the concept of measurement is very important. It is crucial
to have uniform _____________________________ so that scientists all over the world
know that there are no miscommunications. The measurements used in science are
based on the _____________________________ system.

Specific scientific equipment can be found in science _____________________________,

which is why there are different rules in science laboratories compared to regular
classrooms. Some of these rules govern _____________________________ safety, such
as the most protective type of clothes to wear, whilst other rules govern class safety,
such as listening to the teacher’s instructions.

It is also important to use appropriate _____________________________ equipment.

For example, plastic beakers should _____________________________ be used when
heating as they will melt.

Designing an appropriate scientific experiment and reporting back the

_____________________________ of the experiment is also an important part of
science. Experiments should include the _____________________________ variable
and the _____________________________ variable as well as controls to ensure that
the experiment is a fair test.

Big Biology Branches Chemistry

WORD BANK

Dependent Geology Independent Important

Information Laboratories Metric Not
Personal Philosophers Physics Reliable
Results Scientific Scientists Units

1 CHAPTER REVIEW 45
 Identify questions that can be
1
tested or researched and make
predictions based on existing
knowledge
2 Change the question ‘Where do koalas
live?’ into a bigger question. [1 mark]
3 Explain why pseudoscience isn’t ‘real’
science. [1 mark]
4 Propose an example of a big question
that each of the following scientists
might ask:
a Meteorologist [1 mark]
b Geneticist [1 mark]
c Pharmacologist [1 mark]
d Marine biologist [1 mark]
CHAPTER 5 Are modern scientists any different
REVIEW from the natural philosophers of the
past? Explain your answer. [1 mark]
6 ‘The blue Bunsen burner flame will
heat the water faster than the yellow
flame.’ Is this statement a prediction
or a hypothesis? Justify your answer.
[1 mark]
Collaboratively and individually
plan to investigate questions and
problems
7 Define the following terms:
a ‘hypothesis’ [1 mark]
b ‘variable’ [1 mark]
c ‘fair test’ [1 mark]
8 Explain why scientists perform
experiments. [1 mark]
Collaboratively and individually
follow instructions to safely
undertake investigations
9 Each of the following statements
contains false information. Rewrite
them to make them true:
a If the rubber hose of a Bunsen
burner has a split in it, push it firmly
onto the gas tap so gas won’t leak
from the split. [1 mark]
b To light a Bunsen burner, open the
air hole, light a match and place it
TOTAL MARKS just above the air hole. [1 mark]
[ /35] c If you are not using the Bunsen
burner for a while, open the air hole
46 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4
to change the flame to the blue
safety flame. [1 mark]
10 Science safety is not a fashion
statement. Recommend four good tips
for maintaining personal safety in the
science laboratory. [2 marks]
11 A science laboratory needs to have
specific rules.
a Why are these rules necessary?
[1 mark]
b State four rules that apply in a
science laboratory but not in your
usual classroom. [4 marks]
Process and analyse data
to identify trends, patterns
and relationships and draw
conclusions
12 Explain why scientists repeat
experiments. [2 marks]
13 Determine if each of the following
statements is qualitative or
quantitative:
a The temperature is 26°C. [1 mark]
b The water is warm. [1 mark]
c The surface is rough. [1 mark]
d The sun is bright. [1 mark]
e The lemon juice tastes sour.
[1 mark]
f Our table is about 2 metres long.
[1 mark]
g The ball reached me in 5.4 seconds.
[1 mark]
Present scientific ideas and
information in appropriate
scientific language, text and
representations
14 Explain the purpose of writing in the
third person when writing scientific
reports. [1 mark]
15 Draw a neat and labelled scientific
diagram of a beaker on top of a tripod
and gauze mat. Explain what features
of your diagram make it a scientific
diagram. [3 marks]
RESEARCH KEY WORDS
Choose one of the following topics for Schmidt, Nancy Millis, William McBride,
a research project. Your job is to plan Struan Sutherland, Howard Florey, Barry aim
the project, rather than actually do the Marshall, Peter Doherty or Suzanne Corey. apparatus
research. Planning is a very important tool. Bunsen burner
Place the topic in the centre of a bubble
Famous scientists in history Celsius
map and fill the surrounding bubbles with What big questions do you want to explore conclusion
big questions. Make sure your questions about a scientist who lived long ago? You controlled variable
are big enough to give you an insight into could consider Archimedes of Syracuse, controls (in terms of
the topic and into broader issues as well. Hero of Alexandria, Galileo Galilei or Isaac experiments)
An example has been done for you in Newton. dependent variable
Figure 1.37. discussion
Depending on variables equipment
Famous Australian scientists Variables are sometimes described as error
What big questions do you want to explore ‘dependent’ instead of ‘controlled’ and experiment
about a notable Australian scientist? You ‘independent’ instead of ‘experimental’. experimental variable
could consider Frank Macfarlane Burnet, How are these terms similar? How are fair test
Gustav Nossal, Mark Oliphant, Brian they different? When would each be used? hypothesis
independent variable
inference
Big
question 3: meniscus
How has his method
Big Big
question 2: research changed question 4: metres
our lives? metric system
How did he manage What are some of
the risks of venomous his biggest observation
creatures? achievements? parallax error
Big
Big question 5: philosopher
question 1: Research
topic: pseudoscience
How long did it take him
What did he Struan to develop funnel-web qualitative
investigate? Sutherland spider antivenom? quantitative
reliable
results
Figure 1.37 A mind map of research project planning.
scientific diagram
scientist
REFLECT

Me
1 What new science laboratory
skills have you learned in this chapter?
2 What was the most surprising thing you
found out about questioning?
3 What were the most difficult aspects of
this topic?
4 How has your group work improved?
5 What could be done to improve your
cooperative skills?
My world title
unit
6 Why is it important to ask questions?
variable
7 Why is it important to make
observations and inferences?
My future
8 Have you learned about any science
careers that you are interested in?
9 What do you think are some of the most
important issues that scientists face in
the next few years?

1 CHAPTER REVIEW 47
1
Working like a scientist
Not all experiments are a success.
In fact, most scientists would agree
that one success requires tens or even
hundreds of ‘failures’ along the way. But
the saying ‘learn from your mistakes’
is so true in the world of scientific
exploration. If all scientists gave up
when an experiment didn’t work out, we
would know very little about our world.
Careful analysis of what went right and
wrong, and what could be improved, is
the key to successful science.

AIM
MAKING To use a selection of materials to design and construct a device
that will carry a fresh egg safely to the ground when dropped from
CONNECTIONS
a second-storey window.

MATERIALS
1 egg
1 large plastic garbage bag
8 icy pole sticks
10 matchsticks
sticky tape (2 lengths of 40 cm)
2 large paperclips
2 large pipecleaners
1 cardboard square (20 cm × 20 cm)
3 felt markers
1 piece of dishcloth (25 cm × 15 cm)
2 elastic bands

METHOD
1 Design and construct an egg-carrying device within 30 minutes
and following these rules:
• The egg must be fresh.
• No materials other than those provided are to be used.
2 Place a fresh egg in the device and drop from a second-storey
window onto the ground according to the following rules:
• The egg and its device must be dropped by simply releasing
the device to ‘free fall’.
• The device must not be interfered with during or at the end
of its fall.
3 Inspect the egg for damage.

48 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 1 Read through the experimental report carefully and analyse
the strengths and weaknesses of the experimental design.
2 Using the same constraints as listed in the materials
and method, design your own egg-carrying device to
demonstrate how scientists can learn from others’ mistakes.
Present your experiment in a formal report.

RESULTS

rrying device was

Figure 1.38 The egg-ca
the fall and protect the
designed to slow Figure 1.39 The egg-carrying device
egg on imp act.
failed to protect the egg.

DISCUSSION
The egg-carrying device remained mostly intact upon impact with
the ground; however, the egg was completely smashed within it.
During the design phase, consideration was given to the speed at
which the egg would descend because a faster descent was likely to
result in a harder hit. For this reason, the device had a wide, flat base
but the extra material used may have increased the overall weight.
Additionally, protective layers for the egg would have increased the
overall weight and may have increased the speed of the descent.
Future tests might vary the amount of material used, the shape
and texture of the base and the position of the egg within the device.
A parachute may be incorporated into the design also.

CONCLUSION
The egg-carrying device did not carry the egg safely to the ground.
Alternative designs should be considered.Are the questions different
for each job, or do some jobs have questions in common?

1 MAKING CONNECTIONS 49
2
CLASSIFICATION
The Earth is teeming with life. Approximately 1.8 million known types of organism (living thing) on
the Earth have been described and named. Scientists estimate there are 10–30 million other kinds
of living things that haven’t even been discovered yet. Scientists use classification to organise this
diversity of life forms (biodiversity) in a logical fashion. Classification is an example of a system
that scientists have created, and continue to develop, to help us better understand the world.
 CLASSIFYING LIVING THINGS 2.1
Classifying is a tool that is not restricted to the study of science. You probably classify things
every day without really being aware of it. Classification is the process of separating items
based on similarities and differences.
Students:
» Identify the purpose of classification
» Classify living things based on structural similarities and differences
» Explain how features of some Australian plants and animals are adaptations for survival
and reproduction

USING KEYS AS TOOLS FOR

CLASSIFICATION 2.2
Once items have been classified, we can work backwards using what we already know to
identify unknown items or organisms.
Students:
» Use the Linnaean classification system to name organisms (additional)
» Use keys to identify plants and animals
» Construct simple identification keys (additional)

CLASSIFICATION TODAY 2.3

All known living things have already been classified. Using this information, new species that
are discovered can also be classified based on the key features they have in common with
known species. How life is classified can change as new scientific discoveries are made.
Students:
» Outline the features used to group plants, animals, fungi and bacteria
» Identify groups of microorganisms
» Identify where classification has changed because of
new evidence (additional)

51
 2.1 CLASSIFYING LIVING THINGS
Every year, scientists are discovering plants and animals that have never
been seen before. What if you were to find a new organism at your school?
How would you know that no one else had discovered it? Could you describe
it so that people on the other side of the world understood what it looked
like and how it behaved? How would you know if it was alive?

THE PURPOSE OF CLASSIFICATION

Classification is the process of organising
objects or living things based on their
similarities or differences in characteristics.
Classification allows us to better understand
the living world by helping us to:
• identify living things
• understand the history of living things
on Earth
• show what is similar and different
among living things
• communicate precisely, accurately and
more easily.
The features, or criteria, we use to
group living things are very important to
the usefulness of a classification system.
Biologists study the structures and functions
of organisms. They also investigate how
organisms reproduce. These features are used
in classification.
For example, botanists, scientists who
study plants, use the structure of flowers to
group them—this feature is important to
the reproduction and distribution of many
land plants. Zoologists, scientists who
study animals, describe a group of mammals
that give birth to live young in a relatively
developed state as placental mammals.
Humans are one example of a placental
mammal.

ACTIVITY 2.1.1: WHO AM I?

Choose a partner to work with. Describe an animal to your partner—make sure you
don’t use the animal’s name. Your partner should try to draw the animal you describe.
How accurate are they? Now your partner draws an animal while you try to guess what
it is. How quickly did they guess your animal?
• How effective are word descriptions and drawings for communicating specific
information about new species?
• What are the problems you can identify?
• How might some of these problems have been overcome in more recent times?

Figure 2.1 Early scientists
used illustrations to help
them communicate.
Early classification
Early scientists didn’t have the technologies to make or send exact images of their discoveries.
Most of their communication was written as papers or letters, sent around the world to other
scientists. They had to make illustrations and written descriptions of the plants and animals
that they saw, and not all of them were great artists. Often, without knowing it, two scientists
described the same organism that was at different stages of its life. Imagine finding a tadpole
and a frog for the first time—how would you know they were the same animal?

52 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 a b

Figure 2.2 The 25–30 mm juvenile Eastern Blue Groper (a) could easily have been originally classified as
a different type of fish to the 1.2 m adult (b).

To devise a useful classification system, and arranged in order of importance,

scientists had to find a way to communicate
that would make misunderstandings less
likely. They needed to agree on common
words they could use to describe certain
characteristics, common languages for
scientific papers and common processes
for finding, describing and communicating
their work.
The Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–
322 BC) is considered by many to be the
grandfather of classification. He found that
each small township near his home had its
own list of favourite plants and animals,
described and ordered for its own purposes.
He decided that this information should
be shared and he set about finding a logical
way to collect it. He sent his students out to
gather local samples and stories. More than
500 types of plant and animal were collected
according to where they lived and their
shapes. Aristotle ordered them from what he
thought was least important (rocks) to the
most important (wild animals, men, kings,
fallen angels, angels and God). He divided
animals into those with blood (cats and
dogs) and those that he thought had no
blood (insects, worms and shelled animals).
For many years, other scientists used
Aristotle’s classification system. Nearly
2000 years later, early explorers travelling
to new lands found more new and different
species—too many to fit into Aristotle’s 500
classification groups. They also questioned
some of the groupings—were rocks alive
and should angels and God be included in
this system? Over the next hundred years a
number of scientists developed new ways of
describing and grouping living things.

Table 2.1 Scientists’ contributions to the classification system throughout history.

Scientist Improvement to classification

Andrea Cesalpino Classified plants into groups according to their trunks and fruits.
(1519–1603)

John Ray (1627–1705) Suggested that each scientist needed to observe an organism over the whole of
its lifespan.

Augustus Quirinus Suggested using a hierarchy of names. This meant starting with large general
Rivinus (1652–1723) groups (like plants and animals) and then making each group smaller and
and Joseph Pitton de smaller depending on its characteristics. Each organism had a long Latin name
Tournefort (1656–1708) that described the characteristics of each level of the hierarchy. For example,
a human would be described as an animal that breathes air, lives on land, has
two legs and two arms, can give birth (if female) to live young that drink milk
from their mother, has body hair, stands upright, uses tools and can speak.

Carolus Linnaeus Changed the descriptions to single words and reduced the number of
(1707–1778) classification groups to seven. His system is still used today. It is occasionally
modified as new organisms are discovered and as we learn more about the
organisms we already know.

2.1 CLASSIFYING LIVING THINGS 53

 ACTIVITY 2.1.2: CLASSIFYING CLOTHES

Brainstorm a list of clothes that you have in your wardrobe. You only need to include
one type of each so if you have five pairs of jeans just include ‘jeans’ as a type of
clothing. Work in a group to classify the items based on their structures (material type,
e.g. cotton, silk) and functions (to be worn on the upper part of the body, or the lower
part of the body).
• What criteria did you use to place the items into groups?
• Discuss how classification of clothes helps us to understand and communicate
about these types of objects.

about. But mixed in among the globules

Discovery of microworlds
After the invention of the first crude
microscopes in the 17th and 18th centuries,
science took off in a new direction.
Fascinating tiny creatures that nobody had
ever seen before were being discovered all
over the world. New classification systems
were needed to make room for these
organisms.
The first person to discover microscopic
organisms was a Dutch scientist named
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (pronounced
Lay-ven-hock) in the late 17th century. His
first discoveries gave him quite a shock.
One day, van Leeuwenhoek noticed that
his local water supply looked greenish and
had begun to smell. He decided to look at
a drop of the water with the microscope he
had just made. At first, he saw plant-like
things containing long strands and
a
tiny green globules floating gently
were a host of tiny creatures (that he named
‘animalcules’) darting to and fro. No doubt
he began to wonder what he had been
drinking every day!
‘If these tiny creatures lived in water’,
he thought, ‘I wonder if they live inside us?’
He then examined the plaque between his
own teeth. He also collected plaque from
some other people (including one man
who had never cleaned his teeth in his
life). If the water-borne organisms looked
frightening, imagine how van Leeuwenhoek
felt when he saw enormous numbers of tiny
organisms swimming around in the material
taken from his own mouth.
Van Leeuwenhoek is thought to be the
first person ever to see bacteria.
The development of the microscope also
led to another important discovery—all
living things are made up of cells. You
will learn more about cells in chapter 3.

Figure 2.3 (a) Dental plaque contains

bacteria. (b) What van Leeuwenhoek
saw that gave him nightmares: bacteria
like these were living in his own mouth
(as they do in yours).

54 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 ACTIVITY 2.1.3: DIFFERENT CELLS

Use a light microscope set up by your teacher and prepared slides to look at a range
of microorganisms such as yeast and algae. Observe the differences between cells.
Draw at least two different types of cells as accurately as you can, including any
key structural differences. Label your diagrams. If you do not know the name of
a particular structure, make one up for this exercise. Your teacher will give you its
correct name later.
Write a brief description of each type of cell that you drew next to the appropriate
diagram.
Compare your diagram and your written description with others in your class.
Can you tell if you have drawn and described the same type of cells?
• What are some of the difficulties of using drawings and written descriptions to
classify living things?
• Did you and your classmates use the same names for the cell structures? How
does this affect communication between scientists?
• How could modern technology improve communication about classification?

Discovering new living pharmaceutical companies from other

things
You might think that scientists have
identified all living things by now. They’ve
been actively finding and classifying new
organisms for hundreds of years. In fact, we
will possibly never stop finding new types
of organism, which is wonderful when you
consider the benefits of such biodiversity.
Small groups of scientists are trying
to find undiscovered plants in Brazilian
rainforests before they are destroyed
by logging and farming. Often large
countries support them. Why would
companies on the other side of the world
be interested in saving plants and animals
in the rainforest? One reason is that we
may one day need these undiscovered
organisms. Many of the medications we
currently use come from organisms. The
antibiotic penicillin was discovered from
a type of mould; aspirin comes from a
substance in the bark of willow trees. The
next painkiller could come from a small
fungus in a rainforest, or from an insect
that relies on the fungus for food.

QUESTIONS 2.1.1: THE PURPOSE OF CLASSIFICATION

Remember
1 Define the term ‘classification’.
2 Aristotle was one of the first scientists to try to gather information from wide regions.
Describe what method he used to organise all the observations from his observers.
3 Describe what an ‘animalcule’ is, based on van Leeuwenhoek’s observations.

Apply
4 The earliest scientists did not have pens or paper. Hypothesise how they might
have passed on the information they received. How accurate would it have been?
5 Investigate why Carolus Linnaeus simplified the classification system used by
previous scientists.
6 Outline two reasons why scientists still classify organisms today.
7 Describe places where you see everyday examples of classification. Figure 2.4 The rainforests
of Brazil contain many
8 Explain why classification is useful.
undiscovered plant species.

2.1 CLASSIFYING LIVING THINGS 55

 CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS
One of the first decisions most scientists have to make when classifying something for the
first time is if it is alive. What does it mean to be alive? What is the difference between us and
the chairs we sit on? Both plants and animals are considered to be alive. What do we have in
common that makes us alive? Living things are more properly called organisms.

Characteristics of living things

It has taken many years of observation and discussion for scientists to develop eight
characteristics that all organisms—plants, animals and even microorganisms like bacteria—
have in common. To remember all eight characteristics, just remember the mnemonic
(a memory trick to help you remember information) MR N GREWW.
Non-living things may have some of the characteristics of organisms, but will not have
all eight, or will not be able to do some of them by themselves. For example, a steam train
can move on its own and requires coal for its energy, but trains do not grow over time or
make baby trains! So a train is a non-living thing.

M ORGANISMS CAN MOVE BY THEMSELVES N ORGANISMS NEED

Cats chase mice, birds flap their wings
NUTRITION
as they fly and fish swish their tails as Organisms need
they swim. Animal movements are easy nutrients to survive.
to see. But do plants move? Look at Animals obtain most
the leaves on an indoor plant—they of their nutrients
usually face the window (a source of by eating food and
Figure 2.7
light). Turn the plant around so that drinking. Plants absorb
the leaves face into a darker part of nutrients through their roots
the room. In a few days, the leaves and fungi feed on decaying organisms.
will again be facing the window. The Plants are autotrophs, which means
leaves have moved by themselves. The that they make their own food using the
sunflowers in Figure 2.5 turn their heads energy from sunlight in a process called
Figure 2.5 to follow the sun as it moves across the photosynthesis. Animals and fungi are
sky each day and carnivorous plants such heterotrophs—they rely on other
as Venus flytraps will move to trap insects. living things for food like the
snake in Figure 2.7.
R ORGANISMS CAN REPRODUCE
Organisms can make new individuals
G ORGANISMS GROW AS
that grow up to look like them. Animals THEY GET OLDER
like the elephants in Figure 2.6 mate
All organisms grow
and produce offspring, plants produce
during their lives. Figure 2.8
seeds that grow into new plants, and
Mushrooms start off as
bacteria divide to produce more bacteria.
tiny spores. Humans are
Reproduction is the process by which
born as babies, developing into children,
living things make new life.
teenagers and then adults. The tadpoles
in Figure 2.8, will hatch from their eggs
Figure 2.6 then metamorphose into adult frogs. In
every case, living things, when fully grown,
resemble those adults who produced them.

56 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

R ORGANISMS RESPOND TO STIMULI
When an animal realises it is being
chased, like the antelope in Figure 2.9, it
runs. It is responding to stimuli (the sight
and sound of a charging predator) or to
changes in its environment (the sudden
brush of leaves or movement of shadows).
The sunflowers shown in Figure 2.5 are
responding to the changing stimulus of
light and warmth. When you accidentally
brush your finger against something hot,
like an iron, you pull back—your body is Figure 2.9
responding to the stimulus of heat.

E ORGANISMS EXCHANGE GASES WITH W ORGANISMS REQUIRE WATER

THEIR ENVIRONMENTS
Plants and animals have organs and
structures that allow them to exchange
oxygen and other gases. Some animals,
like humans, use their lungs to inhale and
then exhale. Other animals, like fish and
axolotls (Figure 2.10), have gills. Some
animals, like worms, breathe through
their skin. Bacteria are different to plants
and animals: they do not have organs, but
they still exchange gases. Some types of
bacteria die in the presence of oxygen but
use and produce other gases.
All organisms need water; it is required for
many functions. For example, it transports
substances in our bodies to where they
are needed and it is involved in many
important chemical reactions. In animals
such as humans, it helps maintain
body temperature. No wonder a large
proportion of our body is water!

Figure 2.11

W ORGANISMS PRODUCE WASTES

We, like other animals, take in food,
water and air to fuel our bodies.
Chemical reactions occur in our
bodies and wastes are produced
as a result. We get rid of these by
exhaling, sweating (Figure 2.12),
urinating and defecating (emptying
our bowels). Plants get rid of their
wastes through their leaves.
If an organism could not get rid of its Figure 2.12

wastes, they would build up, become toxic

Figure 2.10
and eventually cause the organism to die.

2.1 CLASSIFYING LIVING THINGS 57

 ACTIVITY 2.1.4: THE FIRE

Is a bushfire alive or not?

1 Work in a group of four, divided into pairs. One pair has to argue in favour of a fire
being alive. The other pair has to argue that it is not alive.
2 Each pair has 5 minutes to come up with a list of characteristics that support
whether a fire is living or not.
3 When the time is up, have a class discussion about whether a fire is alive or not,
and perhaps whether other characteristics for classifying ‘alive’ may be required.

living, such as a computer or your watch,

Non-living or dead?
Something classified as living needs
nutrition and water, and is able to move
by itself, reproduce, exchange gases, grow,
respond to stimuli and produce wastes. If
something doesn’t have these characteristics
it would seem logical to assume that the
thing is non-living.
What about something that is dead?
Something dead, such as a dried flower or
an Egyptian mummy, was once living; when
it was alive it did have the characteristics
of a living thing. Something that is non-
never had these characteristics.
All living things are made up of cells.
Once that living thing dies, the cells remain,
but they are no longer functioning. Dead
things are usually distinguished from non-
living things in that they are still made up of
cells. The wood of a desk, for example, was
once a living tree. If you were to examine
the wood under a microscope, you would
see that it is still made up of cells. A plastic
chair contains no cells; it is made up of
molecules of plastic. It is a non-living object.
You will learn more about cells in chapter 3.

ACTIVITY 2.1.5: DEAD OR ALIVE?

Bakers use yeast (a type of
microorganism) to help their bread to
rise. The yeast cells use the sugar in the
dough as nutrients and produce carbon
dioxide, which causes the dough to rise.
Yeast can also be bought as a dry powder.
Design an experiment to determine
whether or not dried yeast is still alive.
• What key features of living things can
you test for?
• What variables should you keep the
same (controlled variables) to ensure
you have designed a fair test?
• Discuss your method and results.
• Is dried yeast a living thing? How do
you know?
• When you have finished, your teacher
may give you a few research questions
to complete.

DEEPER
U N D E R S TA N D I N G Encyclopedia of Life
Edward O. Wilson, one of the world’s most
well-known biologists, has taken on the
seemingly impossible task of compiling a
list of the nearly 2 million known species
on our planet. He is developing an online
database of all life on the Earth. The
Encyclopedia of Life (EOL) aims to make all
knowledge of the world’s known species
freely available to all. The initiative was
launched on 9 May 2007. As new species
are discovered they will be added to the
database. Every species will have its own
page, with links to all known information
about that species.
The EOL will be a tool not only
for scientists but also for students,
teachers and the public to gain a better
understanding of all life on the Earth.

58 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 QUESTIONS 2.1.2: CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS

Remember
1 The system scientists use to group things divides them first into two groups.
Identify these two groups.
2 Apart from the eight characteristics of life, identify one other thing that all
living things have in common.
3 Explain how to distinguish a non-living object from something that is dead,
and how to distinguish a living thing from a dead thing.

Apply
4 Consider Table 2.2.
Table 2.2 Living or non-living?

Eucalypt Water Paper Robot Leather Wombat Roast puter

Computer
tree belt chicken virus

Moves by itself

Reproduces itself

Requires nutrition

Grows as it gets
older

Responds to changes
in its environment

Exchanges gas
(e.g. oxygen)

Produces wastes

Requires water

Living or non-living?

a With a partner or by yourself, decide if each of the items meets the requirement
to be classified as a living thing.
b Decide if each should be classified as living or non-living.
5 Are any of the items in Table 2.2 dead? Explain your answer.
6 A mnemonic (pronounced nem-on-ic) is a memory aid. It is an especially good way
to remember a list. A mnemonic takes the first letter of each word in a list and
uses the letters to start words in a phrase. For example, the colours of the rainbow
(red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet) could be remembered using the
phrase Rich Old Yankees Go Bowling In Vienna. Construct a new mnemonic to help
you remember the eight characteristics of living things. You may change the order
of the characteristics to help you make a phrase.
7 Apply the characteristics of a living thing to describe a bushfire.
8 Is a bushfire alive? Justify your answer.
9 Which characteristic is the most essential for an organism to be classified as living?
Justify your answer.
10 Is there another characteristic you would include in determining alive versus
non-alive? Explain your answer.

2.1 CLASSIFYING LIVING THINGS 59

 ADAPTATIONS FOR SURVIVAL
AND REPRODUCTION
Plants and animals need to be suited to the area where they live if they are to have the
best chance of survival. The survival of a species relies not only on the individuals of the
population living healthy lives, but also their ability to reproduce healthy offspring. We say
that they are adapted to live in these areas. The features that help them survive are called
adaptations. Adaptations are key features of an organism and are often used to classify and
identify them.
Adaptations can be physical, like the thick fur on a platypus’s body to keep it warm, or
behavioural, such as foraging for food at night to avoid predators. Adaptations can be to do
with successful mating or rearing of offspring. Most adaptations help an organism to function
more effectively or efficiently in some way.

ACTIVITY 2.1.6: DESIGNING AN ANIMAL

Design an animal that fits the following description. Try not to base your animal on any
that you already know—consider this an alien. Present a labelled diagram to the class,
explaining how the various features of your animal make it suited to its lifestyle.

Figure 2.13 Echidnas are
adapted to eating ants and
termites.
Waking as the sun goes down, this small animal climbs nimbly through the trees,
trying to avoid detection by making sure it doesn’t rustle leaves. It cleverly taps the
bark of tree trunks, checking for hollow spots where it is most likely to find insect
nests hidden beneath the surface. With skill and agility, it creates an opening and
sucks the insects out, feasting for several minutes before moving on. As the sun
begins to return, this animal becomes invisible to the predators of the day.

echidnas’ chance of survival in their

Animal adaptations
The echidna has strong claws, which it uses
to dig for termites and ants. Its snout can
smell and feel for its prey, and its sticky
tongue catches the termites and ants inside
Figure 2.14 The water- their nests. Having no teeth, the echidna
holding frog can survive instead crushes its food between the roof
without rain for up to
of its mouth and the base of its tongue.
seven years.
The soil drawn in with the termites and
ants also helps with the crushing.
Echidnas have two types of hair: the
obvious type being sharp spines for
defence against predators, the other is
fur-like hair for insulation. The echidna
lays eggs like birds and reptiles but carries
them in a pouch like a marsupial. This
adaptation allows the female echidna to
continue foraging for food while incubating
eggs and caring for the immature young.
The long snouts, sticky tongues,
toothless mouths, claws for digging,
Figure 2.15 Emperor
penguins huddle together
spines for defence and egg laying are all
to stay warm. physical adaptations that increase the
environment.
The water-holding frog of central
Australia lives in an environment where
rainfall is unpredictable and the climate
is harsh. It wraps itself in a cocoon of dead
skin cells and buries itself underground.
Water is stored in the bladder or in pockets
under the skin. The frog can spend up to
seven years underground without water.
After heavy rain, the frog comes to the
surface, refills its water supplies, mates,
feeds and then burrows again until the
next rains.
Several animals demonstrate very
interesting behavioural adaptations. Male
emperor penguins huddle in large groups to
protect themselves from the extremely cold
winds in Antarctica. They take turns being
on the outside to give everyone the best
chance of survival. Many of these penguins
hold an egg on top of their feet at the
same time, protecting it from the freezing
temperature of the ice below.

60 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4


Plant adaptations
Plants also have many adaptations.
Many rainforest plants have shiny,
waxy leaves with a ‘drip tip’ on the end to
drain the rainwater quickly. The rainforest
soil is usually shallow, so the bigger trees
have buttress roots to help prevent them
from being blown over in a strong wind.
Desert plants need to lose as little water
as possible during the hot days but gain
as much water as possible when it rains.
Some desert plants have small, rolled-up
leaves, which do not get as hot as large, flat
leaves. Other desert plants have spiky leaves
or leaves covered with small hairs. These
physical adaptations prevent the leaves
from getting too hot and from losing too
much water.
Perhaps the most spectacular adaptation
is that of Australian plants to the dry
conditions in Australia. Plants can neither
run nor hide from fire as it comes sweeping
through the bush. Their ability to handle fire
sets them apart from plants of other regions
in the world. Not only are some of our
plants adapted to fire, some plants cannot
exist without it.
Many eucalypt trees can reshoot after
damage by fire. The trees shoot from buds
that are found just below
the bark called epicormic
buds. They can also shoot
from large underground
rootstock called
lignotubers. Other
Australian plants, like
the woollybush of
Western Australia, have
fire resistant seeds. While
the adult trees burn, the
seeds are protected. They
sprout after the next heavy
rains and germinate in soil that
is very fertile thanks to the ashes
of the previous generation. Banksia Figure 2.16 The blue
seeds often cannot germinate (sprout) quandong has buttress
unless they have been exposed to the roots to help prevent it
from being blown over.
extreme heat of a bushfire. However, these
plants often take many years
to mature. So if there is
another fire before they
are old enough to
produce their own
seeds, that species
may be wiped out in
that area.
Figure 2.17 Cactus plants have
spikes or hairy leaves to prevent
them from losing too much water.

ACTIVITY 2.1.7: EUCALYPT ADAPTATIONS

What you need: nuts, leaves and bark of a eucalypt

1 Place the nuts in a 40ºC oven for 24 hours to open and shed their seeds. Each of
these thick woody capsules contains hundreds of tiny seeds.
• Why is the seed of the gumnut protected with such a thick external capsule?
• What might trigger the release of the seed from the gumnut?
2 Feel the leaves of the eucalypt. They have a thick cuticle that is effective in
preventing water loss.
Figure 2.18 These
• Why would this be an advantage to the plant? eucalypts have resprouted
after fire from epicormic
3 Hold a leaf up to the light or under a binocular microscope. Notice the numerous
buds under their bark.
small dots. These are oil glands in the leaf.
• What is the function of the oil glands in a eucalypt leaf?
4 Have a close look at the bark of the tree. In a lot of eucalypt trees it is thick and fibrous.
• What are some of the functions of bark?
• Explain how all of these adaptations you have examined help the eucalypt to
survive in Australian climates.

2.1 CLASSIFYING LIVING THINGS 61

 DEEPER
U N D E R S TA N D I N G
Figure 2.19 A Wollemi
pine in the Wollemi
National Park.
Different heights = variation
Favourable variations
survive to reproduce
Only favourable variation left
Figure 2.20 Variations
provide options
for species when
environments change.
62 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4
Living fossils During 1994, material was collected
from a strange-looking tree growing in
Environments can change naturally, and
a deep gorge within Wollemi National
they can be changed by humans. This
Park in the Blue Mountains in New South
places new environmental conditions
Wales. The total population of 40 adult
on existing adaptations. Changing
trees and 130 seedlings all existed in this
environmental conditions may no longer
one gorge. The tree turned out to be a
suit the adaptations of an organism,
very old species, which was named the
which may cause the organism to die. If
Wollemi pine. It is one of the oldest and
no members of the population or species
rarest plants, dating back to the time of
are suited to their new environments then
the dinosaurs. The Wollemi pine shows
the whole species might become extinct.
that some isolated animals and plants can
However, some isolated habitats might
survive almost unchanged if the conditions
remain favourable so that some organisms
they are living in don’t change.
of a species can survive, even though
everywhere else around has changed.
the population. Over time, if the food
How adaptations arise availability stays the same, the population is
Physical adaptations rely on variation likely to become taller because only the tall
already existing in a population. If food was members of the species are reproducing.
running out and there was the possibility Physical adaptations may take a long
of getting food from the top of a tree, an time to happen and so many species face
animal might be able to teach itself to climb extinction if their population doesn’t adapt
but it certainly couldn’t just grow longer legs fast enough.
or a longer neck.
You might have heard of the phrase
‘survival of the fittest’. This has very little
to do with being able to run a race. In this
phrase, being ‘fit’ means ‘suited to the
environmental conditions’. Looking around
your classroom, you will notice that even
though you’re all human and about the
same age, you’re all slightly different. This is
a really good thing because it means you all
have strengths and weaknesses in different
ways. The same applies to all organisms.
In a population of animals that are all of
slightly different heights, perhaps some will
be able to reach the food at the top of a tree.
This might mean that everyone gets to eat or
it might mean that only those that are tall
enough to reach this food get to eat. Either
way, if you eat, you live long enough to
reproduce, passing your features to the next
generation. If you don’t eat, you probably
won’t live long enough to reproduce and Figure 2.21 No two individuals within a species are
your particular features may be lost from exactly the same.
 DEEPER
Thinkers’ keys The combination key U N D E R S TA N D I N G

Thinkers’ Keys (by Tom Ryan) are
strategies that challenge us to think in
different ways. Try using the Thinkers’
Keys approach to think differently about
life on the Earth.
The reverse listing key
Name ten things that a non-living thing
could never do.
The ‘what if’ key
What if living things did not exist? What
would the Earth be like?
The question key
The answer is ‘single-celled organism’.
Think of five questions that give only that
answer.
Make a list of all of the attributes of plants
and animals. Combine the attributes of
these two things to create a new and
better type of organism.
The disadvantages key
Make a list of the possible disadvantages
of classifying things into groups. Suggest
ways to correct or eliminate each
disadvantage.
The prediction key
Predict what types of organism might be
discovered in the next 20 years.
The alphabet key
Prepare a list of words from A to Z that
describe things that a living thing can do.

The construction key The commonality key

Use materials from around your What do living things and non-living things
classroom to construct your own type of have in common?
classification key.

QUESTIONS 2.1.3: ADAPTATIONS FOR SURVIVAL AND REPRODUCTION

Remember
1 Explain what ‘adaptation’ means.
2 Identify some features of desert plants that are adaptations.
3 Identify the differences between behaviour adaptations and physical adaptations.
4 Define the term ‘lignotubers’.

Apply
5 Explain how adaptations help an animal to survive.
6 Investigate how these adaptations of a bilby are useful:
a nocturnal
b lives in a burrow
c large ears
d very concentrated urine.
7 Suggest reasons to explain why a species or population with a long life cycle is
likely to take much longer to physically adapt to an environmental change than the
same one with a short life cycle.
8 Tabulate all the adaptations mentioned in this section, ensuring that you identify
each adaptation as either chemical, behavioural, structural or otherwise.

Research
9 Research some other examples of living fossils. Present your research in the form
of a pamphlet.

2.1 CLASSIFYING LIVING THINGS 63

 2.1
CHECKPOINT
CLASSIFYING LIVING THINGS
Remember and understand
1 Identify the eight characteristics of
living things. [1 mark]
2 Define organism. [1 mark]
3 Outline the key differences between
something that is dead (i.e. once living)
and something that is non-living.
[1 mark]
4 Describe an example of plant
movement. [1 mark]
5 Recall what a living plant needs to
survive. [1 mark]
6 Explain why it is important for Figure 2.22
scientists to use a common system to
group all living things on the Earth. Apply
[1 mark]
9 Plants are autotrophs (i.e. they make
7 Recall some adaptations that eucalypts their own food), so why do they need
have to help them survive fires. other nutrients? Explain your answer.
[1 mark] [2 marks]
8 Copy the table shown. Classify the 10 Possums (Figure 2.22) come out at
items in the following list by placing night and move around in trees. Identify
them in the correct columns: stewed what type of adaptation this is. Examine
apple, iPod, daffodil bulb, DVD, hairs in what other examples of adaptation they
your brush, your teacher, shark’s tooth, might have to support their survival.
germs, soft drink bottle, your pet, silver [2 marks]
chain, dinosaur skeleton [3 marks]
11 Imagine that an unknown organism was
Living discovered during a space mission and
Non-living
Currently living Dead brought back to Earth. Briefly outline
two different methods that scientists
could use to decide if it was living or
non-living. [2 marks]
12 Drawing accurate scientific diagrams of
plants and animals is time consuming
and difficult. Describe what method
scientists would use today to show
what an organism looks like. [1 mark]
13 A tapeworm (Figure 2.23) has many
unusual adaptations. Suggest a reason
for the following adaptations:
a hooks around its ‘head’ [1 mark]
b suckers [1 mark]
c its flat body [1 mark]
Figure 2.23

64 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

Analyse and evaluate a Identify how many species of plant
are estimated to be on the Earth.
14 Suggest at least two reasons why we
[1 mark]
need to classify living things. [2 marks]
b Compare the number of known plant
15 Explain how adapting to the
species with the total number of
environment helps a species reproduce
known animal species (add animals
and survive. [2 marks]
without a backbone and animals with
16 Look at Table 2.3, showing the number a backbone together). Why do you
of living things on the Earth. think this might be the case? Explain
your reasoning. [2 marks]
Table 2.3 Types and numbers of living things on the Earth.
Group Number of species Number of species Percentage of total
described estimated to exist estimated number
of living things (%)
Animals with internal backbones
64 788 80 500 0.7
(vertebrates)
Animals without backbones
1 359 365 6 755 830 61.8
(invertebrates)

Plants 297 857 390 800 3.6

Fungi 98 998 1 500 000 13.7

Bacteria (monerans) 35 351 >1 200 500 11

Algae and protozoa (protists) 28 871 >1 000 000 9.2

Total number of species 1 885 230 >10 927 630 100

Source: Chapman, A.D., Numbers of Living Species in Australia and the World, 2nd ed., September 2009

Research (such as reaction to light or to lack of

17 Do an Internet search for an image of
a recently discovered species. Can you
use the Internet to find how scientists
classified the species (i.e. its scientific
name)? [1 mark]
18 One of the main contributors to the
Encyclopedia of Life is the Atlas of Living
Australia. Do an Internet search for
the Atlas of Living Australia and click
on ‘Explore’. From this page you can
construct a species list and map for the
area in which you live.
a Investigate the most frequently seen
animal in your area. [1 mark]
b Identify the most frequently seen
plant in your area. [1 mark]
Critical and creative thinking
19 Design an experiment to show that
plants are living things that respond
to stimuli. Choose one stimulus only
water) to investigate. This stimulus
is the experimental variable, so you
will need to change the variable in
some way and control the rest of the
variables in the experiment. Make a
list of the equipment you would need.
Describe any safety guidelines you
need to follow. [5 marks]
20 Write a short story of 500 words to
describe the chaos in a large library
that operated with no system of
classification. Try to make it humorous.
[5 marks]
Making connections
21 Investigate why the invention of the
microscope was important to the
development of the classification
system. How did it change the number
of organisms for identification,
classification and communication? TOTAL MARKS
[5 mark] [ /45]

2.1 CLASSIFYING LIVING THINGS 65

 2.2 USING KEYS AS TOOLS
FOR CLASSIFICATION
Scientists group or classify the millions of living things on the Earth so
that they can see similarities and differences between organisms. This
system helps scientists to communicate with each other when describing
the characteristics and behaviour of living things. Once these levels of
classification have been described, they can be used to identify an unknown
organism.

THE LINNAEAN CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

When you were younger, did you ever send You may start with the whole country, but
a letter to a friend with your address on each country has states, then towns, suburbs
the back of the envelope written like and, finally, streets and buildings.
Figure 2.24?
If you read this address
from the bottom up—from Giving organisms
23 D e
er w en t Stre et ‘The Universe’ to the house a precise name
Gleb number—each line is like
Sydney While many taxonomists developed
uth W al es a level of classification. As
New So
Australia you go up each level, the different methods of classifying living
here
Southern Hemisp things, it is the work of Swedish scientist
Ea rt h classification becomes more
Solar System specific and the recipient Carolus Linnaeus from the mid-1700s
alaxy
Milky Way G that is still used today. The Linnaean
The U nive rs e becomes easier to locate.
It is a bit like focusing in on Classification Hierarchy works in a similar
your house on Google Earth. way to the address in Figure 2.24. While
Figure 2.24 Did you ever
address a letter like this?
the levels of the Linnaean Classification
Hierarchy are relatively unchanged, the
numbers of groups within each level and
their defining characteristics have been
and continue to be refined as research and
technology improves.
The Linnaean system for classifying all
living things starts with large groups called
kingdoms, and then divides into smaller
groups called phyla (singular: phylum).
Each phylum has several classes. The classes
have orders, and so on. There are seven
different levels to get to the final name of
each organism. They are kingdom, phylum,
class, order, family, genus and species, with
each level having fewer types of organisms
that belong in them.

Figure 2.25 Carolus Linnaeus

66 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 ACTIVITY 2.2.1: GROUPING ANIMALS

Locate, print and cut out the images of 20 very different animals.
Decide on the most appropriate features for grouping these animals. For example,
fat and thin tends to be related to lifestyle rather than the type of animal, so it is not
a good feature to use in classification.
Use these groupings to come up with a key for your animals.
Did anyone in the class use similar characteristics to you when grouping their
animals? How do you think this is similar or different to the way scientists would work?
Do you think your levels of classification match Linnaeus’ classification hierarchy?

Linnaeus’s double-name KINGDOM: ANIMALIA

system e.g. insect, fish, bird, lizard, kangaroo, fox, lion,
jungle cat, domestic cat
Have you eaten a Musa sapientum lately?
PHYLUM: CHORDATA
And did you pat your Canis familiaris this
morning? These are the kinds of double e.g. fish, bird, lizard, kangaroo, fox, lion,
name given to every living thing using the jungle cat, domestic cat
Linnaean classification system. CLASS: MAMMALIA
Our homes can easily be found by e.g. kangaroo, fox, lion, jungle cat,
using only the two smallest groups in the domestic cat
address (the street and the suburb). The
ORDER: CARNIVORA
information about the bigger groups, like
the Earth and the Universe, is not really e.g. fox, lion, jungle cat,
necessary. In much the same way, an
domestic cat
organism can also be named from the two FAMILY: FELIDAE
last groupings on the Linnaean dichotomous e.g. lion, jungle cat,
key—the genus and the species. domestic cat
In the double-name system, the genus
GENUS: FELIS
group name always starts with a capital
letter. The second word is the species name e.g. jungle cat,
domestic cat
and it does not have a capital letter. The
double name is always written using italics SPECIES: CATUS
(sloping letters), or underlined when e.g. domestic cat
written by hand. Figure 2.26 The Linnaean classification
A species is a group of organisms that system uses seven different levels. It is used to
have similar characteristics to each other. give scientific names to living things such as the
domestic cat, Felis catus.
When they breed in natural conditions,
their offspring are fertile (they can also
breed). All domestic dogs belong to the one
species because, even though they look very
different, they can breed together and have
puppies.
More than 500 000 organisms have
already been given a double name (also
Figure 2.28 Canis familiaris
called a binomial name) and can be easily Figure 2.27 Musa sapientum is the Linnaean is the scientific name for
found in the Linnaean classification system. binomial name for a banana. the domestic dog.

2.2 USING KEYS AS TOOLS FOR CLASSIFICATION 67

 Table 2.4 Some scientific words and their meanings.
Understanding scientific
Latin/Greek root word English meaning
names
Aculeat Spiny
The scientific names of most living things
Ornitho Bird
usually come from Latin (and sometimes
Arctus Bear
Greek) words. Why use Latin? The language
Phascol Pouch
of science for many centuries was Latin.
This enabled scientists who lived in different Anatinus Duck-like

countries and spoke different languages to Pus Foot

use a common language to communicate Cinereus Grey
their work and discoveries. Rufus Red
The words used describe physical Gloss Tongue
features, behaviours and even colours of Tachy Fast
organisms. Some basic understanding of Rhynchus Snout
1 Greek and Latin will help you to interpret
Chlamy Caped
scientific names. Table 2.4 contains some
Macro Large
examples.
Saurus Lizard

QUESTIONS 2.2.1: THE LINNAEAN CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

Remember
1 Identify who invented the naming system that is still used today to name living
2 things.
2 Identify the first level of the Linnaean classification system under ‘All living things’.
3 Mnemonics are often used to help you remember things. Create your own to
remember the seven levels of classification.
4 Define the term ‘species’.

Apply
5 Apply the information in Table 2.4 to match the scientific
names of these Australian animals with their pictures in
3 Figure 2.29.
a Macropus rufus
b Tachyglossus aculeatus
c Phascolarctus cinereus 5
d Ornithorhynchus anatinus
e Chlamydosaurus kingie
6 What do you think a Macroglossus aculeatus might look like? Sketch this imaginary
animal, using Table 2.4 to help.
7 Explain why giving your address as ‘John Campbell, Southern Hemisphere, The
4 Earth’ would not be a good way to get many letters.
8 With the same idea from question 7, explain why taxonomists need a very detailed
system like the Linnaean classification system to group living things.
9 Research the scientific names for three different animals. For each:
a Work out their full classification
b Describe their appearance
c Determine what their scientific name means (some are more obvious than others)
and whether this suits.
Figure 2.29

68 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 USING KEYS FOR IDENTIFICATION
When you visit an outdoor market, you may wander around for some time before you find
what you want. An online store is more organised, with similar items grouped together
in a menu. If you were looking for the latest movie to buy, you would first locate the
entertainment section. In that section you will often find all the games, music and movies
together. There might be several submenus of movies and the one you want might be in a
section for latest releases. Scientists use classification systems to group objects or organisms
together based on similar characteristics. Classification makes the names and descriptions of
organisms easier to find.

Circular keys
Circular keys can also be used to separate and classify different things. With a circular key,
you start off in the centre of the circle and follow the path that correctly identifies the
features that you can see. Rather than the branches seen in dichotomous keys, circular keys
contain everything within the circle. Each level of a circular key determines the next step
that you will follow.

lion
Indian fish bream
tiger
elephant
African shark
large whale
– elephant striped small shark
nel fins eats
fun web r fins
people doe
s jawless fish
de e n’t
spi peo at
hou ck

bony ple
bla

small
spi se

lethal
der

big ears fish

non cartilaginous
lethal ears fish hydra
black
tarantula
body elephant fish sea fan
hairy box
flower body coral jellyfish
mainly medusa
spider nly liv
green spider do cnidarian sea
jellyfish
lan

es

multi– polyp anenome

in
lives on

water only

redback mainly coloured

ANIMALS
spider black
venomous blue–ringed
octopus
tiger can live on both octopus
extinct
land and water
sabre–toothed tiger not
not extinct commonly not commonly venomous
found in found in
Australia Australia common octopus
Indian tiger

frog salamander

Figure 2.30 A circular key is another tool for classification.

2.2 USING KEYS AS TOOLS FOR CLASSIFICATION 69


Dichotomous keys
A key is a visual tool used in the
identification of organisms. A key is often
more useful than a list of characteristics and
similarities of each group. One common
type of key is called the dichotomous key
(pronounced dye-COT-o-muss), named
because the branches always split into two
(di means two). Scientists use this type of
key to make simple ‘yes’ or ‘no’ decisions.
For example, does the animal have fur
(yes/no)? Does it have scales (yes/no)?
Each answer leads to another branch and
another question. This key only works if
someone else has already classified the
animal. A newly discovered organism would
need to be studied first and then new
branches added to the key if appropriate
branches do not already exist.
Dichotomous keys can be presented in
various ways. A branched key (like a tree)
helps us to see how a particular member
of a group fits in with all the rest. The
yes/no decision is made at the junction of
the branches, and the endpoint is the name
of the organism. Tabular keys contain the
same information as branched keys but they
are set out in a table or numbered list where
you read through the numbered options
in order. Each item presents two options,
and more information is given at each step.
Eventually the organism can be identified.

ACTIVITY 2.2.2: DR REDBACK’S FAMILY

Dr Redback loves to send out Christmas cards with the family photo on the front. One
year, just for fun, he included a dichotomous key to help everyone identify all his family
and pets. Use the picture of Dr Redback’s family and the dichotomous key provided to
work out who is who.
Long ears Bugs
Hair all
over body Long tail Moggie
Short ears
No feathers Short tail Buddy
covering body
Unable to walk Scott

Hair covering No facial hair Peter

parts of body Male
REDBACK Facial hair Richard
FAMILY
Able to walk
Red hair Vanessa
Female
Not red hair Stephanie

Feathers Flying animals Charlie

covering body

Figure 2.32 Dichotomous key for Dr Redback’s family.

Figure 2.31 Dr Redback’s

family.

70 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 a

ACTIVITY 2.2.3: MAKING A TABULAR DICHOTOMOUS KEY

Scientists often use tabular dichotomous keys to determine the group to which an
animal or plant belongs.
1 Use the following tabular key to identify the class of each of the animals shown.

Feathers present Birds

1
No feathers present Go to 2

Hair or fur present Mammals

2
No hair or fur Go to 3
b
Fins present Fish
3
No fins present Go to 4

Has moist skin, no scales Amphibians

4
Has scales Reptiles

2 Use the information given about Dr Redback’s family in Activity 2.2.2 to create your
own tabular dichotomous key.

STUDENT DESIGN TASK c

Dichotomous keys
Challenge
Using what you have discovered about the characteristics of living things, design your
own dichotomous key.

Questioning and predicting

Think about objects that could be sorted into two groups. For example, you might like
to use snack foods such as corn chips, flavoured chips or plain chips.

Planning
What similarities or differences can you find to separate the objects into two groups?

Conducting d
What other similarities or differences can you find to separate the objects further?
Keep dividing into two groups until each item is on its own.

Processing, analysing and evaluating

1 Draw a dichotomous key to show how you grouped the objects.
2 How hard was it to divide your objects into different groups? Could you have used
a better group of objects?

Communicating
e
1 Swap your dichotomous key with another group.
2 How effectively have they constructed a dichotomous key? Ask them to evaluate
your key.
3 Which was the best dichotomous key designed in your class?
4 What features made it the best key?
5 Groups may have come up with different keys to separate the same objects.
Explain how this might have occurred.

2.2 USING KEYS AS TOOLS FOR CLASSIFICATION 71

 QUESTIONS 2.2.2: USING KEYS FOR IDENTIFICATION

Remember
1 Recall the definition of a dichotomous key.
2 Explain what ‘dichotomous’ refers to.
3 Suggest a reason why dichotomous keys may be presented as a table.

Apply
4 Which of the following descriptions would be good to use to identify a group of
birds in a dichotomous key? Justify why each one is or is not a good method
of classification:
a is eating bird seed
b has a blue stripe above the eye
c has a wingspan of 32 cm
d has a broken leg
e is sitting on the ground
f has a high-pitched, bell-like song
g has brown tail feathers
5 Draw a circular key that could be used to identify laboratory equipment. Include
these items: tripod stand, Bunsen burner, gauze mat, 50 mL beaker, 150 mL
beaker, 100 mL measuring cylinder, 10 mL measuring cylinder, 500 mL beaker,
500 mL measuring cylinder, retort stand, clamp.
6 Design a dichotomous key to identify dinosaurs. You should research at least ten
dinosaurs of the Jurassic period (find out when this was), find drawings of them
and identify characteristics that could be used to classify them. Construct a table
of their common characteristics and look for common ones you could use to build
a dichotomous key for identifying them. Include the names and pictures of the
dinosaurs on the key.
1 Wings Fring
7 Use the dichotomous Stripes
key in Figure 2.34 to No wings Frong
Antennae
help with the following Wings Frap
tasks: Spots
No wings Frip
a Identify and name Round
2 Wings Fripe
the four beetles in Stripes
Figure 2.33. No wings Frope
No antennae
b Draw a simple Wings Frot
Spots
sketch of the Frit
ALL BEETLES No wings
following:
3 Wings Gring
i frope beetle Stripes
No wings Grong
ii gring beetle Antennae
Wings Grip
iii gripe beetle Spots
No wings Grop
iv frong beetle Oval
4 Wings Gripe
Stripes
No wings Grope
No antennae
Wings Grot
Spots
Figure 2.33 Figure 2.34 No wings Grit

72 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

USING KEYS AS TOOLS FOR
CLASSIFICATION
Remember and understand
1 You have a family name and a given
name. Compare the way people are
named with Linnaeus’s double-name
system. [1 mark]
2 Explain why most keys are dichotomous.
[1 mark]
3 Identify why classification is important.
[1 mark]
4 Explain why some features are not
appropriate to use as features to use
in a dichotomous key. Use at least two
examples in your answer. [2 marks]
5 Explain why scientific names are often
in Latin or Greek. [1 mark]
6 Outline the advantages of using a
dichotomous key. [1 mark]
Apply
7 Arrange these terms in order from the
level that contains the most number
of organisms to the level that contains
the least number of organisms: family,
kingdom, species, class, phylum, genus,
order. [1 mark]
8 Refer back to Activity 2.2.2 about
Dr Redback’s family. Demonstrate
how you might adjust the dichotomous
key if: his ‘family’ included his sister,
Melinda, and mother, Frances; he had
two daughters, Stef and Gemma (Stef
wears glasses); and he had a pet lizard
named Stealth and not a bird named
Charlie. [3 marks]
9 Empty your school bag or pencil case
and design a dichotomous key of its
contents. [3 marks]
Analyse and evaluate
10 Identify some of the difficulties of using
2.2
CHECKPOINT
your dichotomous key on the contents
of someone else’s bag or pencil case.
[1 mark]
11 Download a copy of the collection of
insects in Figure 2.35 from your obook,
or photocopy and enlarge the figure
from your book.
a Cut out the pictures of the insects
so you can move them around on
your desk.
b Working on your own, sort the
insects into groups based on some
aspect of their appearance. Justify
your system of classification.
[1 mark]
c Compare your groupings with those
of a partner. Between the two of
you, can you think of other ways to
classify the insects? [1 mark]
d With your partner, construct a
dichotomous key for this group of
insects. [3 marks]
12 Discuss the limitations of a dichotomous
key. [2 marks]
13 Discuss why the invention of the
dichotomous key was important to
the development of the classification
system. [1 mark]
Figure 2.35
Critical and creative thinking
14 Propose a new system of classification
for organising life on the Earth. Which
kingdom would you be in? [2 marks]
TOTAL MARKS
[ /25]
2.2 USING KEYS AS TOOLS FOR CLASSIFICATION 73
 2.3 CLASSIFICATION TODAY
The animal kingdom contains a large range of organisms: from the tiniest
fairy fly, where 50 could fit within 1 millimetre, to the giant blue whale,
which is up to 33 metres long—about the size of a house. Size is not a very
suitable characteristic for classifying animals, especially because most
grow over time. So what characteristics are chosen to group animals? And
where do humans fit in this system?

KINGDOMS
The earliest taxonomists (scientists who
classify living things) divided all living
Animalia
things into two groups: plants and animals. All organisms in this kingdom are
As new technology such as microscopes multicellular, that is, they are made up
developed, very small organisms were of many cells. Each cell stores its genetic
discovered that did not fit into either of material (DNA) in a small internal
these groups. Scientists began to question structure called the nucleus. Animal cells
the classification of other organisms such do not have a cell wall. Animals gain energy
as mushrooms: did they really belong to the from other living things. We belong in this
plant group? After all, they looked different kingdom. Scientists who study animals are
under the microscope and they didn’t generally called zoologists.
produce their own food.
These days, scientists generally agree
on classifying living things into five large
kingdoms based on:

Figure 2.36 Animal • the features of their cells (small

kingdom: (a) The proboscis structures that make up the organism)
monkey (Nasalis larvatus)
has the biggest nose. • how they obtain nutrients
(b) Port Jackson shark.
(c) Pangolin. (d) Damselfly. • their general appearance.
(e) Goanna.
d
a b

74 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4


Plantae
Plants include trees, vines, bushes, ferns,
mosses, weeds and grasses. They are
autotrophs, that is, they make their own
food from sunlight. Plants are multicellular
and their cells contain DNA in a nucleus,
but their cells have a cell wall around the
outside of the cell. Scientists who study
plants are called botanists.
Figure 2.37 Plant kingdom: (a) Flowering
gum. (b) Moss. (c) The smelliest plant, a
the Rafflesia, is found in South-East
Asia. Its flower can measure up to
90 centimetres across and weigh about
11 kilograms. To attract insects when it
blooms it gives off a rotten meat odour.
(d) Cactus. (e) Wheat.
b

Fungi
Fungi include mushrooms, toadstools,
yeasts, puffballs, moulds and truffles. Some
fungi grow in wood and in soil, and develop
from tiny spores. Fungi do not make their c
own food. Instead they feed on the remains
of dead animals and plants. Some fungi
can cause diseases, such as tinea (athlete’s
foot). Scientists who study fungi are called
mycologists.
Fungi and the following two kingdoms
consist of many organisms that are
unicellular (only have one cell). They
are usually so small they cannot be seen
without a microscope and as such are also
called microorganisms. There are three d e
main types of fungi: mushrooms, yeasts and
moulds. The types of fungi are classified
based on the way in which they reproduce.
The visible part of most fungi,
mushrooms in particular, is really just the
part that produces spores for reproduction.
Much of the fungus is not visible to the
naked eye but consists of very fine hair-like
projections that spread throughout the soil
or host organism. Some fungi, monerans
and protists also become visible to the naked
eye when they grow in large colonies, which
are made up of large groups of individual,
self-sufficient cells living together.

a b c

Figure 2.38 Fungi

kingdom: (a) The
hair-like filaments
of the yeast Candida
albicans as seen
under a microscope.
(b) Mould.
(c) Mushrooms.

2.3 CLASSIFICATION TODAY 75


a
b
c Bacteria are the most common
Figure 2.39 Bacteria as
seen under a microscope:
(a) Spirillum volutans.
(b) Lactobacillus casei.
(c) Streptococcus pyogenes.
Monera
This kingdom is made up of the smallest
living things. There are about 75 000 named
different types of organism in the Monera
kingdom and they are all unicellular.
They have a cell wall, but it is made from
a different chemical to plant cell walls.
Bacteria do have DNA, but no nucleus.
This is the key feature of this kingdom,
and cells without a nucleus or membrane-
bound organelles are called prokaryotes.
Organisms from all other kingdoms are
made from cells that have a true nucleus
and membrane bound organelles, like
mitochondria, which you will learn about
in chapter 3. These types of cells are called
eukaryotes.
organisms in this kingdom. Many people
think of bacteria as harmful to humans, but
this is not always true. Bacteria in the soil
break down rubbish and wastes produced by
animals (especially us). Without bacteria,
mountains of smelly rubbish would
surround us. Bacteria have been put to use
by humans to make foods, such as cheese
and yoghurt.
Bacteria are classified based on a number
of different characteristics such as shape,
organisation and the stain patterns from
particular dyes. Bacterial cells can be round
(cocci), rod-shaped (bacilli) or spiral shaped
(spirilla).
The cells are then classified based on
how they are organised; individuals, in pairs
(diplo), in chains (strepto) and
in clusters (staphylo) are some examples.
The shape and organisation of the cells
often helps name the species. Looking
at Figure 2.39, what does the name
Streptococcus pyogenes say about the shape
and organisation of the bacteria cells?
Protista
There are about 55 000 known species of
Protista. Their cell structure is more complex
than Monera. Often, organisms that don’t
fit into any other kingdom will belong in
the Protista kingdom. Scientists still debate
whether some groups of algae belong here
or with plants. Protists range in size from
single-celled organisms to much larger
ones like kelp (seaweed). Plankton, the
tiny sea creatures eaten in their millions by
whales, are part of this kingdom. Amoebas,
microscopic organisms that change their
shape to trap their food, also belong to
this group.
Scientists who study microorganisms
in the Monera and Protista kingdoms are
called microbiologists.
The Protista kingdom is one of the most
difficult to classify because of the huge
range of diverse organisms. Taxonomists
are still arguing about how to classify the
organisms within this varied group. Many
believe the kingdom should be classified
further based on cellular structures, like
the presence of chloroplasts, flagella and
their methods of gathering nutrition.
Research continues in this area and the
classification of this kingdom will continue
to change as more information and
evidence is found.

a b c d

Figure 2.40 Protists as seen under a microscope: (a) Giardia lamblia.

(b) Paramecium. (c) Amoeba. (d) Ophiocytium arbuscula.

76 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

ACTIVITY 2.3.1: CLASSIFYING INTO KINGDOMS

The scientist whose main role is to classify living things is known as a taxonomist.
In this activity, you become the taxonomist.
What you need: ‘Classifying into Kingdoms’ worksheet from your obook or A3 card/
paper, scissors, glue.
1 Download the ‘Classifying into Kingdoms’ worksheet from your obook. (Alternatively,
this activity can be done online.)
2 Use a double-page spread of your workbook (or a sheet of A3 card or paper) to
draw up a table with four columns.
3 Label the columns ‘Animal’, ‘Plant’, ‘Fungi’ and ‘Other (Monera and Protista)’.
(You don’t need to distinguish between the Monera and Protista kingdoms.)
4 Cut out each organism from the worksheet and paste it into the correct column.

QUESTIONS 2.3.1: KINGDOMS

Remember
1 Recall the five kingdoms.
2 Recall four features of animals.
3 Recall four features of the Monera kingdom.
4 Define the characteristics that make up a protist.
5 Draw a table to identify the names of scientists who study organisms
within each kingdom.

Apply
6 Explain how a protist is different from a bacterium.
7 Describe the difference between cells in the Plantae and Fungi kingdoms.
8 A bacterial species was classified as Staphylobacillus. What would you expect the
cells to look like under a microscope?
9 A new organism was found to contain a cell wall but no nucleus. It photosynthesised
and was microscopic. Suggest which kingdom it best fits in and explain your answer.
10 Describe the key structural features you would look for to distinguish between
prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms.

Research
11 The five-kingdom system has a few problems, especially with the classification
of Protista. There are now suggestions that three domains should be used over
the five-kingdom system. Research the current use of these domains (Archaea,
Prokarya and Eukarya). See the section on the Changing face of classification on
page 91 for more information.

2.3 CLASSIFICATION TODAY 77

 CLASSIFYING ANIMALS
Vertebrate or invertebrate?
In the same way as creating any kind of
dichotomous key, classifying the animal
kingdom first requires a question. The
system scientists use to classify animals
is based on their structure. The question
is: ‘Does this animal have an internal
backbone or not?’
Animals such as cats, humans and birds,
with an internal skeleton (endoskeleton)
are put in a group called vertebrates.
Because these animals often have a spinal
cord that usually threads its way between
the vertebrate bones, the phylum is called
Chordata. Other animals with an external
skeleton (exoskeleton), such as beetles
and crabs, and those with no skeleton at all,
such as slugs, are known as invertebrates.
The kingdom Animalia is divided into
up to 36 different phyla (plural of phylum)
depending on which taxonomist you speak
to. However, nine of these phyla contain
the vast majority of all animal species. Only
one of these, Chordata, contains vertebrate
animals.
All the rest of the phyla contain
invertebrate animals.

DEEPER
U N D E R S TA N D I N G Giant squid dissection released on the web
By Matthew Moore, 5:19PM BST, 18 Jul 2008

A giant squid has been in an unsuccessful attempt to discover her

dissected live on the final meal.
Internet for the first Many people in the audience held
time—and the gory handkerchiefs in front of their faces
90-minute clip has been because of the revolting smell.
released for public The rare creature was caught up in
download. fishing nets in May, but this was the first
The 39 st [nearly detailed inspection of its body. The corpse
250 kilogram] creature took three days to thaw.
was carved up by Stretching to 40 ft [over 12 metres] in
biologists in front of length, it was the longest giant squid ever
hundreds of onlookers captured in Australian waters.
and thousands of web But calamari connoisseurs hoping for
viewers at Melbourne a feast will be disappointed; female squids
Museum in Victoria, are not fit for human consumption because
Australia. of the amount of ammonia in their bodies.
The team of scientists After tests on the squid are complete
provided a running it will be sewn back together and put
commentary as they on display in an ethanol solution at the
revealed the squid’s museum.
internal organs, including The full video of the dissection is
its three hearts and available to view and download from the
doughnut-shaped brain. Melbourne Museum website.
They also established Source: www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/
the squid was a female, earthnews/3347540/Giant-squid-dissection-
and cut into her stomach released-on-the-web.html
Figure 2.41 The giant squid is an invertebrate.

78 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 EXPERIMENT 2.3.1: EXAMINING SKELETONS

Aim
To examine the skeletal structures of three marine organisms. a

Materials
• 1 fish (whole)
• 1 prawn
• 1 squid
• Newspaper
• Dissecting board
• Dissecting kit
• Vinyl or latex gloves
• Always wear gloves when handling the animals.
• The animals must always be on the dissecting board when handling b
and dissecting.
WARNING

> Scalpels are extremely sharp. Use with great care.

> If cut, remove gloves and wash the cut under clean water. Apply
antiseptic to the cut and cover with dressing. Tell your teacher.

Method
1 Observe the external features of the fish.
2 Carefully cut the fish in half lengthways so you can see the internal
skeleton. c
3 Observe the skeleton of the fish.
4 Feel the outside of the prawn and then peel it.
5 Cut the prawn in half and observe the inside.
6 Feel the outside of the squid and then cut it in half.
7 Observe the inside of the squid.

Results
• Draw labelled diagrams of each specimen’s skeleton.
Discussion
1 Consider the fish. d
a Where is the skeleton of the fish located?
b What is this type of skeleton called?
2 Consider the prawn.
a Where is the skeleton of the prawn located?
b What is this type of skeleton called?
3 Does the squid have a skeleton?
4 In which group of animals (vertebrate or invertebrate) would you
place each of the organisms observed? Why? Figure 2.42 (a) Observe
5 What are you: a vertebrate or an invertebrate? external features of the fish.
(b) Observe the skeleton of
Conclusion the fish. (c) Cut the prawn in
half. (d) Observe the outside
What types of skeleton are possible? Write a sentence to address the aim.
of the squid.

2.3 CLASSIFICATION TODAY 79

 QUESTIONS 2.3.2: CLASSIFYING ANIMALS

Remember
1 Animals are divided into two main groups.
a Identify the names of the groups.
b Explain what the names of these two groups mean.
2 Identify two examples of animals with an exoskeleton.
3 Identify two examples of animals with no skeleton at all.

Apply
4 Explain why invertebrates are such a dominant group among animals.
5 Draw a diagram of the world’s biggest invertebrate and write down its dimensions,
for example, its length and weight.
6 Why do you think dissecting a giant squid live on the Internet was so interesting to
so many people? Do you find it interesting? Explain.
7 Classify the following animals as vertebrates or invertebrates and copy and
complete the table.
Invertebrate
Vertebrate (endoskeleton)
Exoskeleton No skeleton

Lizard Galah
Sea sponge

Cow

Sting ray
Praying mantis

Snail
Sea star

Sea anemone Lobster

Bumblebee

Redback spider
Earth worm

Research
8 Use the Internet to determine the nine biggest animal phyla. Record their scientific
and common names and list at least three animals from each phylum.
9 There are some animals included in the Chordata phylum that are very strange,
including tunicates and hagfish. Find out a little more about them and explain why
they have been placed in the Chordata phylum.

80 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 CLASSIFYING VERTEBRATES
Vertebrates are animals with a spine or
backbone. Vertebrates as a group can
be broken down into further subgroups
called classes. Scientists group vertebrates
according to:
• their body covering
• how they obtain oxygen (gills/lungs)
• how their young are born
• how they control their body temperature.
Vertebrates can either generate their own
body heat or rely on absorbing heat from
their environment. Those that generate
their own heat are called endotherms and
tend to have a constant body temperature.
Those that rely on absorbing heat from their
surroundings are called ectotherms. They
often have behaviours such as ‘sunning’
themselves to raise their body temperature
sufficiently so they can become active.
to have a blend of mammal, reptile and
bird characteristics. For a long time it was
believed that platypuses could not maintain
their body temperature as did endothermic
mammals. Studies by an Australian scientist,
Tom Grant, have shown that even when
platypuses are feeding in icy water, their body
temperature remains within a small fixed
range. Other scientists have done genetic
studies to clarify the links that the platypus
has with mammals, reptiles and birds.
MONOTREMES
⋅ Young partially develop in leathery-shelled eggs
⋅ Young hatch underdeveloped from the egg and
require intensive nurturing in either a shallow
pouch or burrow
⋅ Young suckle from milk patches on mother’s
abdomen
⋅ E.g. Platypus and echidna

Class Mammalia
Mammalia is a class of vertebrates well MARSUPIALS
known to many people. Many of our pets
⋅ Young are born at a very early stage of
belong to this class: horses, dogs, cats, development
rabbits, guinea pigs and mice. We belong
⋅ Further development occurs in a pouch
to this class too. Mammals are animals
⋅ Young receive milk from a teat located in the pouch
with hair or fur and they have a relatively
⋅ E.g. Wallaby
constant body temperature. But this class
gets its name from mammary glands, which
produce milk. It is usually the females that
produce the milk to feed their young,
but all mammals have mammary glands.
The class Mammalia can be further
broken down into three subgroups (Figure PLACENTAL MAMMALS
2.43). The main feature used to separate
⋅ Young develops inside mother’s womb
mammals is the way in which their young
⋅ Young are well developed when born
develop. Placental mammals give birth to
⋅ Mother produces milk from mammary glands
relatively well-developed young, marsupial
young develop mostly in the pouch rather
⋅ E.g. Dingo
than in the womb and monotremes
lay eggs. However, no matter the type of
mammal, they all feed their young milk.
One type of monotreme, the platypus,
caused considerable controversy when it was
first scientifically studied because it seemed Figure 2.43 The three subgroups of mammal.

2.3 CLASSIFICATION TODAY 81

 L I T E R AC Y
BU I L D E R Enigma of the echidna
By Doug Stewart
One of the most remarkable sights that
biologist Peggy Rismiller has seen in
her years exploring the Australian bush
is that of an echidna sunbathing. The
short-beaked echidna, or spiny anteater,
ordinarily resembles a spiky ball, like some
kind of terrestrial sea urchin. To warm up
on a cool morning, however, it will stretch
out on the ground ... and lift its spines to let
in sunlight. ‘It’s amazing to see,’ Rismiller
says. ‘It looks like a rug with spines.’
On a continent teeming with weird
mammals, the echidna is one of the
weirdest. It has a beak like a bird, spines
like a hedgehog, eggs like a reptile, the
pouch of a marsupial and the lifespan of
an elephant. Elusive and unpredictable,
echidnas continue to perplex the scientific
world with their oddities.
Along with the platypus, the echidna
is the world’s only living monotreme, an
order of egg-laying mammals found solely
in Australasia. ... ‘Echidna’ commonly
refers to the short-beaked echidna, which
is found across Australia. A second genus,
the long-beaked echidna, lives in Papua
New Guinea.
Figure 2.44 The short-beaked echidna.
82 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4
The first detailed description of the
echidna was published in England in 1792.
A decade later, another account included
a drawing by Captain William Bligh, who
had feasted on roast echidna years earlier
during a stopover in Australia. Bligh had
the foresight to sketch the strange
animal before eating it. Not until 1884
did the scientific world learn, to its
amazement, that both platypuses and
echidnas laid eggs.
... After mating, an adult female lays
a single egg about the size of a five-
cent coin directly into her pouch. The
newborn puggle (baby echidna) that
hatches about ten days later stays in the
pouch for several weeks to suckle from the
milk its mother secretes.
... Australians have adopted the short-
beaked echidna as a national mascot of
sorts ... The echidna’s total numbers are
unknown ... Concerned that their future
welfare is not assured, Australia has
officially listed them as a protected species.
Source: www.nwf.org/News-and-Magazines/
National-Wildlife/Animals/Archives/2003/
Questions
1 Two different types of echidna exist
today. Where does each live and how
are they different?
2 Do you consider the echidna to be weird?
Explain.
3 Why do you think that scientists who had
not seen echidnas for themselves might
have believed pictures to be false?
4 Identify the two monotremes and where
they can be found.
Class Aves a b

All birds in the phylum Chordata belong

in this class. Like mammals, they are
endotherms (having constant body
temperatures). Some of their main
distinguishing characteristics (the way they
differ from the other classes) include their
covering of feathers and their scaly legs.
All animals in this class lay eggs with a
hard shell.

Class Reptilia Figure 2.45 Class Aves: (a) Cockatoo. (b) Vulture.

The skin of reptiles, such as snakes and

lizards, is usually covered in a layer of fine a b
scales. Reptiles use lungs to breathe, even
if they live under water (for example, sea
snakes). These animals are also ectotherms—
scientists do not use the term ‘cold-blooded’
to describe these animals because a lizard
that has been lying in the sun has very warm
blood, even though at night its blood is cool.
Figure 2.46 Class Reptilia: (a) Bearded dragon. (b) Gecko.

Class Amphibia
Like reptiles, amphibians are ectotherms; a b
however, their skin is usually soft and slimy
to touch. They lay their eggs, without shells,
in water. For the first part of their life they
have gills and live in the water. As they get
older, lungs develop and they become able
to live on the land. The only remaining
group of amphibians in Australia is frogs.
In other parts of the world, caecilians and
salamanders may be found. Figure 2.47 Class Amphibia: (a) Chinese giant
salamander. (b) Growling grass frog.

Class Pisces
Most fish are ectotherms. They are a b
covered in a layer of scales and most
have fins. They spend all their life
in water and so need gills for
breathing. Fish are further grouped
according to their skeleton. Sharks,
rays and skates have a skeleton
made entirely of cartilage, while all
other fish have bony skeletons.

Figure 2.48 Class Pisces: (a) Reef shark.

(b) Weedy sea dragon.

2.3 CLASSIFICATION TODAY 83

 Example ACTIVITY 2.3.2: WHO ARE THE VERTEBRATES?

Amphibians Vertebrate alphabet graffiti

This task could be completed as a webpage, with images and links to further
information about each animal.

Example 1 You will be placed into one of five groups, each of which will be allocated one class
of vertebrate.
Reptiles

2 Label an A3 sheet of paper with the name of your class of vertebrate.

3 Write the letters of the alphabet down the left-hand side of the page.
4 For each letter, write the name of an animal that fits this category.
Example 5 When finished, you will have the names of up to 26 different vertebrates. Some
Vertebrates

categories will be harder to fill than others.

Fish

6 Put up the finished sheets around the room.

Jellyfish organiser for vertebrates

Example A jellyfish graphic organiser is a good way to show how subgroups make up a whole.
It can also be used to list specific examples at the same time.
Mammals

1 Individually, go around to each of the five sheets of vertebrates and select six
animals from each class.
2 On a full page, draw five ‘jellyfish’ connected to the main group (vertebrates), as
Magpie shown in Figure 2.49.
Sparrow 3 Label each jellyfish with the class names (fish, reptiles, amphibians, mammals
Eagle
Birds

and birds).
4 Write a description of the characteristics of each class in the appropriate body of
each jellyfish.
Figure 2.49 A jellyfish
organiser for vertebrates.
5 Place the six animals you selected along six tentacles on each jellyfish.

QUESTIONS 2.3.3: CLASSIFYING VERTEBRATES

Remember
1 Describe the main characteristics of mammals.
2 Describe how a baby echidna is born and develops before it comes out of the
mother’s pouch.
3 Identify the defining characteristics of each class of mammal.

Apply
4 Seals have fins like fish and live on the land and in the water like amphibians.
a Investigate how a seal’s young are born.
b Given that a seal has long whiskers, to which class of vertebrate do seals
belong?
5 A dolphin lives in the ocean and has fins. To which class does it belong? Explain.
6 A flying fox can fly through the air like a bird but is covered in fur. To which class
does it belong? Why? Explain.
7 Draw a dichotomous key to separate out the different classes of vertebrates.

84 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 CLASSIFYING INVERTEBRATES
There are many more invertebrates on the
Earth than vertebrates: 96% of all animals
are invertebrates. Invertebrates have
either an external skeleton (exoskeleton)
or no skeleton at all. The giant squid,
huge as it is, has no backbone. As well as
enormous animals like this, thousands of
tiny insects and other creatures belong to
the invertebrates group. Invertebrates are
classified into several main groups or phyla.
Table 2.5 A tabular dichotomous key for classifying invertebrates.
Body spongy, with many holes
1
Body not spongy
Soft body, no shell
2
Outside shell or hard cover
Many tentacles or arms
3
Long body without tentacles
Tentacles around the mouth of a sac-like body
4
Arms with suction discs
Soft body, large foot
5
Worm-like or leaf-like
Proper shell or smooth, hard covering
6
Spiny skin with rough covering
Limbs in pairs
7
Shell, no segments, large foot
ARTHROPODS
⋅ Segmented bodies
⋅ Paired and jointed legs
⋅ Exoskeleton
⋅ Examples: insect, spider, centipede, scorpion
Invertebrates are grouped by their
characteristics (in the same way that
vertebrates are classified). Characteristics used
to classify invertebrates include the presence of
a shell or hard cover, tentacles and spiny skin.
Organisms with similar features are placed in
the same group. The tabular dichotomous key
in Table 2.5 can be used to place an organism
in a particular phylum. Not all phyla of
invertebrates are shown on the key.
Porifera
Go to 2
Go to 3
Go to 6
Go to 4
Go to 5
Cnidaria
Mollusca
Mollusca
Nematodata, Platyhelminthes or Annelida
Go to 7
Echinodermata
Arthropoda
Mollusca
MOLLUSCS PORIFERANS
⋅ Soft body ⋅ Spongy body with holes
⋅ Usually have a protective shell ⋅ Found in water, attached to rocks
⋅ Examples: snail, octopus, oyster, slug ⋅ Examples: breadcrumb sponge, glass sponges
2.3 CLASSIFICATION TODAY 85
 Invertebrates can be found in just about every different environment on the planet. They
have adapted to survive in some of the most extreme conditions from the freezing depths
of the ocean to the scorching heat of deserts. Most of the invertebrates we think of tend to
be the small bugs, insects and the creepy crawlies. But as you saw earlier, the giant quid is
one of the largest invertebrates in the world. Invertebrate Japanese spider crabs can grow to
around 3.8 metres from claw to claw. Most of the larger invertebrates live in the ocean or
other aquatic environments because the buoyancy of the water means there is less need for
body support than is required when living on land.

NEMATODES ANNELIDS PLATYHELMINTHES

⋅ Also called round worms
⋅ Long smooth cylindrical body
⋅ Often microscopic
⋅ Examples: round worm,
threadworm, heartworm
⋅ Also called segmented worms ⋅ Also called flat worms
⋅ Long cylindrical body that is separated into segments ⋅ Mostly parasitic
⋅ Examples: leeches, earthworms ⋅ Have a blind gut (mouth but no anus)
⋅ Examples: tapeworm, blood and liver flukes

CNIDARIANS ECHINODERMS
⋅ Soft, hollow body ⋅ Rough, spiny skin
⋅ Live in water ⋅ Arms radiate from centre of body
⋅ Tentacles ⋅ Found in sea
⋅ Examples: coral, sea jelly, anemone ⋅ Examples: sea urchin, sea cucumber, brittle star

86 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 ACTIVITY 2.3.3: IDENTIFYING INVERTEBRATES

What you need: magnifying glass or stereo microscope, Petri dishes, jars with lids,
tweezers, vinyl or latex gloves, newspaper
Alternatively, your teacher may provide prepared samples for you to look at.
Complete this classification exercise for each prepared sample.
WARNING

> Do not touch any animal that might bite or sting. Check with your teacher if you
are unsure.
> Use tweezers to pick up animals.
> Place any animal immediately in a jar and put on the lid.

1 Visit a local natural environment (e.g. a garden, beach, park or pond) and observe
invertebrate specimens.
2 While wearing gloves, use tweezers to collect up to ten invertebrate specimens in
separate jars.
3 Use the tabular key in Table 2.5 to identify the invertebrates to their particular
phylum.
4 Use a magnifying glass or stereo microscope to help you sketch each animal. Put
in the common name for the animal (if you can) and write its classification group
under the drawing.
5 Return the invertebrates to their natural environment after you have finished.

QUESTIONS 2.3.4: CLASSIFYING INVERTEBRATES

Remember
1 Recall what percentage of animals are vertebrates.
2 Describe an exoskeleton. Give three examples of organisms with an exoskeleton.
3 Beetles have segmented bodies and jointed legs. Identify the phylum to which
they belong.

Apply
4 Eighty per cent of animals on the Earth are arthropods.
a Explain which characteristic their name refers to. (Hint: ‘arthritis’ and
‘podiatrist’)
b Draw three different arthropods and label the features that make them part of
this phylum.
5 In Activity 2.3.3, which phylum of invertebrates did you find in the greatest quantity?
Can you explain why?
6 Transform the tabular key in Table 2.5 into a branching dichotomous key.

Research
7 The phyla classifications in invertebrates are always changing. Research about an
organism called a brachiopod.
a Which phylum does it belong in?
b Why is it classified in that way?
c How does it obtain its food?
d What type of habitats does it live in?
e How is it different from a mollusc such as a clam or scallop?

2.3 CLASSIFICATION TODAY 87

 CLASSIFYING PLANTS
Plants are living things that are essential to the survival of all life on the Earth. Like animals,
plants grow and need to reproduce to ensure their survival. These multicellular organisms
can make their own food—they are autotrophs.
Plants can be classified in a number of different ways, based on different characteristics.
When classifying according to stature (height and shape), plants are divided into mosses,
herbs, ferns, shrubs, trees and vines. These groups are defined by the height of the plant and
the number and type of stem (woody or herbaceous).

VINES
⋅ Very long stems that can
remain flexible or become
woody
⋅ Tend to use other plants
or structures for support
⋅ Greatly varied in height

TREES
⋅ Typically one main woody
stem (trunk)
⋅ Over 5 m

SHRUBS
⋅ Usually multiple woody
stems branching
form the base of the plant
⋅ Between 1–5 m

FERNS
⋅ Fronds are grown directly
from and evenly around
fibrous stem
⋅ Most between 0.5–5 m,
but can grow over 30 m

HERBS
⋅ Fleshy stems
⋅ Usually less than 1 m
Figure 2.51 The mountain ash (Eucalyptus regnans) is a vascular plant.

MOSSES
⋅ No true stems
⋅ Usually less than 10 cm
Figure 2.50 The stature Figure 2.52 Moss is a non-vascular plant.
classification of plants.

88 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 Plants are also classified based on whether or not they have veins for efficiently conducting
water and nutrients around the plants.
• Vascular plants, such as ferns, conifers and flowering plants, contain vein-like
structures. Xylem carry water and minerals up from the roots and phloem carry food
(a sugar called glucose) around the plant.

• Non-vascular plants, such as liverworts and mosses, do not have these veins and so
must absorb their water and nutrients through the surface of their leaves. This is much
more difficult and is why non-vascular plants tend to be very small and are restricted to
damp environments.

Plants can also be classified into phyla using their reproductive characteristics and
structural features to distinguish them. Four of the most common phyla are Bryophyta
(mosses and liverworts), Pteridophyta (ferns), Coniferophyta (conifers) and Anthophyta
(flowering plants).

BRYOPHYTES
⋅ Small, non-vascular
⋅ Need a constant supply of water to live and reproduce
⋅ Reproduce by spores in capsules
⋅ Thin leaf-like structures, attach to soil by thread-like
structures called rhizoids
⋅ Examples: peat moss, Marchantia
PTERIDOPHYTES
⋅ Small- to medium-sized, vascular
⋅ Need water for fertilisation and a complete life cycle
⋅ Reproduce by spores on back of leaves
⋅ Have stems, roots, leaves
⋅ Young rolled-up leaves unroll into a feathery frond
⋅ Examples: tree fern, fishbone fern, maidenhair fern

CONIFEROPHYTES ANTHOPHYTES
⋅ Large, vascular ⋅ Small to large, vascular
⋅ Reproduce by naked seeds, often carried by the wind from ⋅ Reproduce by flowers containing seeds that develop in
a woody cone the ovary after fertilisation
⋅ Needle-like leaves ⋅ Fertilised flower produces seeds and fruit
⋅ Examples: Wollemi pine, Radiata pine, White Cypress pine, ⋅ Examples: grevillea, waratah, rose
cycad

2.3 CLASSIFICATION TODAY 89

 ACTIVITY 2.3.4: IDENTIFYING PLANTS

1 Observe and collect small specimens of at least five types of plant from local
bushland (not a national park or flora reserve) or your garden. Make pressed,
dried specimens. Include notes about where each plant specimen was collected.
2 Make detailed observations of each plant including:
• height and width
• type of plant (tree, shrub, herbaceous, grass, perennial, annual)
• type of bark, if present (smooth, fibrous, hard, furrowed)
• shape, smell, texture, size and edge shape of the leaf
• evidence of reproduction (spores on leaf, flowers, fruit, nuts, cones).
3 Identify the features the plants have in common.
4 List some differences between your plants.

QUESTIONS 2.3.5: CLASSIFYING PLANTS

Remember
1 Compare the function of xylem and phloem in vascular plants.
2 Describe the key features that would help identify a plant as being an anthophyte.
3 Are you likely to find mosses or liverworts growing in the desert? Explain your
answer.

Apply
4 Using your specimens from Activity 2.3.4, classify your plants as vascular or
non-vascular.
5 Some coniferophytes produce seeds with ‘wings’. Suggest a possible advantage
for this adaptation.
6 Apply your knowledge from this chapter to construct a dichotomous key for the five
different plant samples you collected in Activity 2.3.4. Remember to only include
one variable at each step, such as:
• has flowers or seed pods OR does not have flowers or seed pods
• is a wood plant OR is a soft, fleshy plant
• has long, needle-like leaves OR does not have long, needle-like leaves.
7 Evaluate the advantages of vascular plants over non-vascular plants.

Research
8 Pollen from anthophytes can often be used for identification purposes. Observe
some pictures of pollens from plants and compare them. Make a dichotomous key
to separate them.
9 Tree rings can often be used to determine the ages of the plants. Investigate:
a what a scientist who studies tree rings is called
b how tree rings form
c what can be learnt from studying tree rings.

90 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 THE CHANGING FACE OF CLASSIFICATION
Scientists are still testing and modifying the
Linnaean classification system after 250
years. The development of microscopes led
to the discovery of single-celled organisms
(bacteria). This led to the number of
kingdoms increasing from three (plants,
animals and minerals) to the current five
(Plantae, Animalia, Fungi, Protista and
Monera).
In the 1970s a group of organisms
previously thought to be bacteria was
discovered to be something else: single-
celled organisms that could live in extreme
conditions, such as very salty or hot waters.
This led to the suggestion that a sixth Figure 2.53 Biologists collecting Archaea samples in the hot springs of the Obsidian
Pool in the Yellowstone National Park, United States.
kingdom, Archaea (ancient bacteria), was
needed. Scientists are currently testing
this idea and comparing it to a whole new
system that comes before kingdoms.
The Three-Domain system was first
suggested in 1990 and inserts a new level
of classification before kingdom. This
system suggests one domain, Eukarya, for
the plants, animals, protists and fungi. The
single-celled, prokaryotic organisms in the
Monera kingdom would then be split into
two domains according to their DNA.
Figure 2.54 A magnified view of a clump of Archaean organisms.
The comparison of DNA may cause even
greater changes to the classification system KINGDOM
in the future. Species that were previously cyanobacteria
DOMAIN
thought to be related because they looked
similar have now been found to have very bacteria gram–negative bacteria
different genetic material. That is the very gram–positive bacteria
nature of science—to change and develop
as new evidence becomes available. This is methanogens
why scientists collaborate and share ideas,
to make sure we have the best possible ALL LIFE archaea halophiles
explanation for every scientific discovery. thermoacidophiles
The Internet allows more sophisticated
ways of organising, storing and protista
communicating scientific information.
Massive online databases are possible, fungi
eukarya
complete with photographs and video
plantae
footage of organisms. Links to related
information can also be included and many animalia
scientists are using the Internet to confirm Figure 2.55 The Three-Domain system of classification as
their identifications. proposed by Carl Woese.

2.3 CLASSIFICATION TODAY 91

 Museums and herbaria currently hold most ‘holotype’ specimens, the organism(s) used
when the description for classification was decided. These specimens are chosen because
they represent the majority of organisms of the same type. Museums are likely to continue
to do this, but most will need to put their data online in the future.

QUESTIONS 2.3.6: THE CHANGING FACE OF CLASSIFICATION

Remember
1 Fill in the gaps, using the words in the Word Bank below:
Classification of organisms is continually changing as new __________ is
discovered. New __________ allows more of the planet to be explored and new
__________ are being found. Advances in __________ research means that
DNA is now being used to __________ how closely related species are. This
new information sometimes requires a change in the way we __________ those
organisms. Through the Internet and easily accessible photographic and video
technology, __________ information can be shared more quickly and more
Figure 2.56 Holotype frequently so __________ around the world can work together.
specimens such as this
one are held in museums.
WORD
BANK

Classify Evidence Genetic Species

Identify Technology Accurate Scientists

2 A ‘three-kingdom’ system became five and then six kingdoms.

a Identify the names of these kingdoms.
b Do you agree with the changes? Explain.
3 Describe how an understanding of DNA and genetics has changed classification.
4 Describe a holotype specimen.

Apply
5 Explain why you think scientists might choose a single organism to represent its
species, instead of trying to find a description that fits every single organism in
the species.
6 Examine the problems a paper system for classification would encounter. How is
this being addressed today?
7 Use the Internet to research and describe an example of an organism where
classification has changed as a result of scientific developments such as genetics.
8 Research the definitions of halophile, thermoacidophile and methanogen.
9 Research the terms cyanobacteria, gram-negative and gram-positive. What are the
key features that are used to classify these different types of bacteria?

Create
10 Using the information in this chapter and a large piece of paper, construct a
branching diagram showing the five Kingdoms and the major groups or phyla
within each Kingdom. Add pictures to show examples of organisms within each
group. Include brief descriptions of the key characteristics that are used to classify
each group.

92 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

CLASSIFICATION TODAY
Remember and understand
1 Identify the difference between
vertebrates and invertebrates. Write a
definition for each. [2 marks]
10 Construct a Venn diagram to show the
similarities and differences between
birds, reptiles and amphibians.
[2 marks]
11 Discuss why it is important that
2.3
CHECKPOINT

2 Recall the five main classes of vertebrate

and give an example of each. [5 marks]
3 Recall who first developed the naming
system used by scientists today.
[1 mark]
4 Identify and list at least six phyla of
invertebrates and give an example of
each. [6 marks]
Critical and creative thinking
5 Explain the difference between an
12 Using a digital camera, take
endoskeleton and an exoskeleton.
[1 mark]
6 How are placental mammals
differentiated from monotremes and
marsupials? [1 mark]
7 Outline why scientists need to classify
living things. [1 mark]
scientists keep reviewing and
evaluating the systems they use
for classifying and naming living
organisms, and modifying them if
necessary. What problems might arise
if scientists were not able to modify the
systems? [2 marks]
photographs of living things around
your house—from very big to very
small. Construct a multimedia
presentation of your living things.
Use a separate slide for each organism.
On each slide include:
• the photograph

Apply • the common name and scientific

name (if you can find it) or major
8 Copy and complete the table below.
group to which it belongs
[4 marks]
• three or more interesting facts.
Vertebrate/
Animal Class
invertebrate [5 marks]
Octopus
Making connections
Spider
13 Write a paragraph about how our
Human knowledge of life on the Earth has
Crab changed over time to bring us to
the understanding we have today.
Elephant
Include some specific examples of
Frog understandings that have changed.
Lizard [3 marks]

Snail

Analyse and evaluate

9 Convert the tabular dichotomous
key (Table 2.5) to a circular key for
TOTAL MARKS
invertebrates. [2 marks]
[ /35]

2.3 CLASSIFICATION TODAY 93

 1 Fill in the gaps, using the words in the Word Bank below:

2
________________ is
the process of grouping organisms based on similarities and
differences in ________________ features. Classification helps ensure there are no errors
in communication between scientists ________________ the same organism.

The features used to classify organism are also ________________ which increase
the likelihood of survival and reproduction. Australia has three different types of
mammals; placentals, ________________ and monotremes, which are classified according
to the way they ________________.

The ________________ Classification System classifies all life into increasingly specific
levels from Kingdom, ________________, Class, ________________, Family, ________________ to
Species. Each level contains less organisms than the one before it.

Keys are used to identify organisms that have already been classified. ________________
keys work as a series of steps, with only two options at each step, while ________________
keys give more choices per step.
CHAPTER There are five different kingdoms: ________________, Plantae, Fungi, ________________ and
REVIEW Protista. Microorganisms can be found in the kingdoms ________________, Monera and
Protista. Cellular structures are used to classify microorganisms. For example,
organisms from Monera do not store their DNA in a nucleus and plants have a
________________ while animals do not.
WORD BANK

Animalia Cell wall Genus Order

Adaptations Describing Marsupials Phylum
Circular Dichotomous Monera Reproduce
Classification Fungi Linnaean Structural

The purpose of classification you demonstrate at least four of the

2 Identify three reasons why classifying characteristics of living things.
living things is important. [3 marks] [4 marks]

3 Outline one technological advance that 6 Research why the Three-Domain

has changed the classification of living system of classification was suggested.
things. [1 mark] (Hint: what do organisms within each
domain have in common, and what
Classifying based on structural makes them different from each
similarities and differences other?) [2 marks]
4 Explain how the water-holding frog
Use keys to identify plants
meets the eight criteria of living things.
and animals
[3 marks]
7 Construct a jellyfish diagram to
5 Imagine you are one animal from
summarise the classification of the
a phylum of invertebrates (such as
four main phyla of plants. Which group
molluscs, arthropods, annelids,
is best adapted to living in a range of
nematodes, echinoderms, etc.).
Australian environments? Explain your
Write a diary entry explaining the key
answer. [3 marks]
events in your day, explaining how

94 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

8 Use the following tabular dichotomous a
CHAPTER
key to identify the animals shown in
Figure 2.57. [2 marks] 2 REVIEW
Gills present Go to 2
1
Blow hole present Go to 3

Scales present Tuna

2 b
Rough skin Shark

Less than 3 m long Dolphin

3
Longer than 3 m Go to 4

Teeth present Toothed whale

4
No teeth present Baleen whale
c
Identify groups of microorganisms
9 Draw a table to help identify the
different names used to identify the
different shapes of bacteria. [2 marks]
10 Identify the names of the five kingdoms
of classification of living things.
[2 marks]
11 Imagine you were van Leeuwenhoek,
d e
seeing bacteria for the first time.
He asked the question ‘If these tiny Figure 2.57 Identify these animals using the tabular dichotomous key.
creatures live in water, I wonder if they
live inside us?’ Propose three other Explain Australian plant and
questions he could have asked and then animal adaptations
investigated. [3 marks]
15 Identify one ectothermic and one
12 Suggest a reason why bacteria are endothermic Australian animal and
classified by their appearance and not, describe one adaptation of each animal.
say for example, by how they produce [2 marks]
young. [1 mark]
16 Use information in this chapter to
Outline features used to group construct a comprehensive table that
plants, animals, fungi and bacteria includes the physical and behavioural
adaptations of the echidna and how
13 For each of the five main classes of
they help it survive and reproduce
vertebrates, explain the advantages and
successfully. Which of these features
disadvantages of their different body
(and any others) are useful for
coverings, i.e. moist skin (amphibians),
classifying the echidna? [3 marks]
scales (fish and reptiles), feathers
(birds), hair and fur (mammals). 17 Design a plant that is well suited to
[4 marks] living in an area that is exposed to
frequent droughts and bushfires.
14 Construct a table to summarise the
Explain how its adaptations help it
key features that help to classify and
survive in its environment. [3 marks]
identify plants, animals, fungi and
bacteria. [2 marks] 18 Evaluate whether or not the Wollemi
pine is well adapted to Australian
conditions. Explain your answer.
[2 marks]

2 CHAPTER REVIEW 95
 Identify where classification has
changed (additional)
19 Identify the reasons why organisms
belonging to the group the Archaea are
classified differently to bacteria.
[2 marks]
Constructing simple
identification keys (additional)
20 Construct a ‘What am I?’ list of clues
to a phylum or other major group of
organisms. See how many clues your
TOTAL MARKS classmates need before they guess the
[ /55] name of the group. [2 marks]
RESEARCH
Choose one of the following topics to
present a report in a format of your own
choice. Some ideas have been included to
get you started. Your report must include
a key of some description (you have seen
many in this chapter).
Newspaper article
Write a newspaper article about how life
on the Earth is organised. It needs to be
about two pages long (no more than 500
words) and you should explain how living
things are classified for an audience that is
not familiar with science. Make a list of the
living things whose photographs you would
like to use to illustrate the article. Try to
find their scientific names as well as their
common names. Your newspaper article
must contain a key of some description.
Trip to the Kimberley
You have just returned from a trip to a
remote mountain area of the Kimberley, in
Western Australia. While there, you took
your portable microscope and examined
water from a previously unknown lake.
To your surprise you found some new
organisms in the water that looked a bit
like bacteria. They were single-celled and
either square or oval; some were hairy
(had hairs either on the end of the cell or
along the edge of the whole cell).
96 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4
21 Using the link provided by your teacher
(or in your obook), view the slide show,
made in Canada, of 35 slides of living
things. Construct your own version
to emphasise the classification and
diversity of Australian species.
[5 marks]
Use the Linnaean classification
system (additional)
22 Research the Wollemi pine. What is its
full scientific name (from kingdom to
species)? To what group of plants does
it belongs (vascular or non-vascular)?
How does it reproduce? [4 marks]
1 Draw six different versions of these
organisms.
2 Create a dichotomous key for these
six new organisms so that you can
describe them to other scientists.
3 Name each of the groups at the bottom
of your key (you might like to name
some of them after yourself).
4 Assuming they are a type of bacteria, to
which kingdom will they belong?
Research on fascinating organisms
Choose a fascinating organism to
research from each kingdom. As you do
your research, create a table using the
following headings for each organism:
‘Habitat’, ‘Diet’, ‘Classification’ and ‘Special
features’. Choose one of the graphic
organisers used in this chapter to display
the information about each one. Keep a list
of the sources of your information.
 CHAPTER
2 REVIEW
REFLECT
Me My future
1 What new graphic organisers have you 8 What Australian animals are unique in
learned to use? the world? How are we going to protect
2 How could dichotomous keys be useful them in the future?
in other subjects? Give examples.
3 What were the most difficult aspects
of this topic?

My world
4 What was the most surprising
organism you discovered?
5 What else would you like to find out
about classification?
6 What else would you like to find out
about organisms?
7 Why is it important to organise life on
the Earth?

KEY WORDS
adaptations dead living phylum
amoeba dichotomous key marsupial placental
Archaea DNA microbiologist plankton
autotroph ectotherm microorganism prokaryote
bacteria endoskeleton monotreme species
binomial name endotherm multicellular taxonomist
biodiversity eukaryote mycologist unicellular
botanist exoskeleton non-living vascular
branched key genus non-vascular vertebrate
cell heterotroph nucleus xylem
cell wall invertebrate order zoologist
Chordata key organism
classification kingdom phloem

2 CHAPTER REVIEW 97
2
Extreme communities
Black smokers Pressure
In 1977, two scientists and a pilot crammed We all experience the ‘popping’ of our ears
into an extreme submarine, ALVIN, and with a change of pressure. This is nothing
headed nearly 3000 metres under the sea, compared to the changes in pressure
near the Galapagos Islands. They predicted involved in travelling to the ocean depths.
that the chains of underwater volcanoes, The pressure experienced is about 300 times
called mid-ocean ridges, would have hot the air pressure experienced at sea level.
springs a lot like deep undersea versions This would feel like having a mass of 300
of the hot springs of Yellowstone National kilograms resting on your fingernail.
Park. Until then, no deep-sea volcanic vents
MAKING had ever been found.
Temperature
The high-pressure environment increases
The scientists found the first hot water
CONNECTIONS the boiling point of the water. Superheated
deep-sea vent, just as they predicted, but
water at these depths can reach temperatures
they were surprised to also find diverse
of 400ºC. In contrast, the water temperature
communities of living organisms. Hot water
away from the vent is 2ºC.
rich in minerals gushed out of the chimney-
Apart from the darkness, pressure and
like vents and mixed with the cold ocean
temperature variations, there are other
water, reacting to form dense clouds of tiny
reasons why the waters here are not ideal
black minerals. These chimneys are called
for most life. These include high salinity
‘black smokers’.
and acidity. The water is about as acidic as
New research vinegar.
This discovery opened up a whole new area
of research. Oceanographers had to develop
Communities
The basis of these deep-sea communities is
new technologies to explore these deep-
the bacteria that feed off hydrogen sulfide or
sea environments. Biologists discovered,
methane. These bacteria have been described
classified and investigated a whole new
as ‘extremophiles’ because they survive the
range of microorganisms, invertebrates and
extremes of these deep parts of the ocean.
vertebrates. Geologists studied the rock
Amphipods and copepods feed off thick
formations and composition of the minerals
mats of bacteria. Snails, shrimp, mussels,
and vented water. So far, only 1% of the
clams, anemones, crabs, tube worms, eels
ocean floor has been mapped, so there is
and octopuses can also be found in this
much more to learn. There is still more to
environment. Life down in the deep sea does
understand about the impact of these vents
not depend on the sun.
on the chemistry of the whole ocean.
Some of the interesting animals that live
Exploitation at these depths include the Pompeii worm,
Deep-sea vents are rich in valuable mineral Alvinella pompejana, which withstands
ores. Mineral exploration companies are at temperatures up to 80ºC, and the scaly-
work and mining operations similar to offshore foot gastropod, Crysomallon squamiferum,
oil and gas rigs have already been trialled. which has a reinforcing of iron and organic
materials on its foot. Others are giant tube
Darkness worms, Riftia pachyptila, which grow up to
There is no natural sunlight in the deep-sea
2 metres in length but lack a mouth and
environment, and only a few places where
digestive system.
there is the red glow from lava oozing out of
cracks in the rocks.

98 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4


The mysterious giant tube worm
How the giant tube worm obtained food
greatly puzzled biologists until a graduate
student, Colleen Cavanaugh, was observing
a dissection of a giant tube worm and
observed an organ, called a trophosome,
being sliced up. This organ was the main
internal organ and it was noted that it
sometimes contained crystals of sulfur. The
possible functions of this strange organ
were being discussed. Cavanaugh jumped
up to share her inspiration. She thought
the tissues in the organ contain sulfur-
eating bacteria that provide food for the
tube worm. The tube worm extracts the
sulfur substances from the water to keep
the bacteria on the job. Research has since
proved her inspiration to be correct.
8 Is advancement in science based on
inspiration or perspiration? Use the
example of the discovery of how the
giant tube worm gets its nutrition to
explain your answer.
9 Photosynthesis is the term given to
organisms that use light to produce
their nutrients and energy. The
organisms found on deep sea ocean
vents do not use light but instead use
chemicals. Suggest an appropriate
name to describe how these organisms
obtain their nutrients and energy.
10 Design a dichotomous key to distinguish
and identify five ‘black smoker’
species. For each species, identify one
adaptation that helps it to survive in its
environment.

1 Explain why plants don’t live in the

communities around deep-sea vents.
2 How has the discovery of deep-
sea vent communities changed our
understanding of the diversity of living
things?
3 Many of the animals found near deep-
sea vents are blind. Explain why you
think this might be.
4 Examine how the discovery of the deep-
sea vent communities has changed the
classification of living things.
5 Construct a paragraph arguing why
ongoing research into deep-sea vents is
worthwhile.
6 Science is often divided into the areas of
biology, chemistry, physics and geology.
a Explain why you think the two
scientists that went on the
initial exploration in ALVIN were
geologists.
b Why do you think that scientific
research like the exploration
of deep-sea vents depends on
collaboration?
7 Write an advertisement for a scientist to
join a team to explore the deep-sea
hydrothermal vents.

Figure 2.58 A black smoker.

2 MAKING CONNECTIONS 99
3
CELLS
Living things are all around us. We can see them grow and change, get sick and die, or even
reproduce. Scientists have made many observations of living things over many thousands of
years. However, it was not until the development of the microscope that scientists observed the
tiny building blocks called cells that make up living things. We now know that cells make up
every living thing, from a blue whale to a mushroom.
 LOOKING AT CELLS 3.1
Our understanding of living things, how they are structured and how they function
changed dramatically with the invention of the microscope. Now, as this technology
continues to develop, we are discovering more and more about cells and the
organisms they make up. The use of microscopes and the preparation of specimen
slides is a valuable fundamental skill for all biologists.
Students:
» Identify that all living things are made of cells

CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 3.2

While cells are the building blocks of all life, they themselves are made up of many
structures and organelles, each with their own specific function. The presence of specific
cell components and organelles can help identify the type of cell and its function within a
multicellular organism. Every cell has the ability to survive and reproduce thanks to their
organelles and other cell components.
Students:
» Identify cell structures and components and describe their functions
» Outline the role of mitochondria in respiration and providing energy for cells
» Identify that new cells are produced from existing cells

DIFFERENT TYPES OF CELLS 3.3

Multicellular organisms use lots of cells working together to survive. Different cells have
different jobs, and have different structures to help them carry out this role. Similar cells
working together form tissues, groups of tissues form organs, and groups of organs form
systems that carry out major processes that ensure the organism as a whole survives.
Students:
» Distinguish between unicellular and multicellular organisms
» Identify the cell organisation within multicellular organisms as tissues, organs and systems

101
 3.1 LOOKING AT CELLS
Scientists haven’t always known that living things are made up of cells.
The invention of the microscope in the mid-17th century helped scientists
work out a reliable way of distinguishing a living thing from a non-living
one. The microscope has allowed us to see the cells—the tiny units that
form every living thing, from the smallest microscopic bacteria to the
tallest eucalypt tree. Microscopes showed that each and every living thing
is made up of cells.

DISCOVERING CELLS
In 1665, Robert Hooke became the first
person to discover and describe cells.
Using one of the first microscopes ever
made, Hooke observed many types of
living things and made accurate drawings
of what he saw. One of Hooke’s most
famous scientific achievements was his
Figure 3.1 Robert Hooke’s
drawing of cork. diagram of very thin slices of cork. He
was surprised to see that, under the
microscope, the cork looked like a piece
of honeycomb. He described the ‘holes’
and their boundaries in the ‘honeycomb’
as cells because they reminded him of
the rooms in a monastery. Hooke had
discovered plant cells.
Hooke also examined animals under
Figure 3.2 Robert Hooke’s the microscope, including a flea. His
drawing of a flea.
detailed picture of his observations
can be seen in Figure 3.2. Anton van
Leeuwenhoek improved the microscope
and saw many more cells than Hooke.
It was because of Hooke and
Leeuwenhoek’s important contributions to
microbiology that other scientists went on
to develop a further understanding of cells.
Cell theory
Cell theory describes the main ideas
about the importance of cells and their
role in living things. It was first proposed
in 1839 by two German biologists, Theodor
Schwann and Matthias Schleiden. In 1858,
German scientist Rudolf Virchow completed
the classic cell theory.
The combined cell theory includes the
following three principles:
• All organisms are composed of one
or more cells.
• Cells are the basic unit of life and
structure.
• New cells are created from existing cells.

QUESTIONS 3.1.1: DISCOVERING CELLS

Remember
1 Define the term ‘cell’.
2 Explain whether cells can be seen without a microscope.
3 Identify who invented the first microscope.
4 Explain why cells are called ‘cells’.
5 Recall the three principles of the combined cell theory.

Apply
6 Explain why the invention of the microscope was important to our understanding
of living things.

102 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 MICROSCOPES AND MICROSCOPY
Historically, the first microscopes were very
a a
basic. Over time their magnifying ability has
improved and continues to do so. Scientists
can now look at images that have been
magnified thousands of times using various
systems of lenses. This makes it possible to
study the structure of cells.
You have probably seen people use
magnifying glasses either to read or to
enlarge a viewed object. The glass or plastic
lenses magnify the object viewed. In the
same way, microscopes magnify the size
of the object placed under them.

Light microscopes
As a science student you will probably
use two types of light microscopes: the b b
stereo microscope and the compound light
microscope. As the name suggests, they use Figure 3.3 (a) Stereo microscope (SM). Figure 3.4 (a) Compound light
(b) SM image of a wasp. microscope (LM). (b) LM stained
light to assist viewing. image of a hair root.
The compound light microscope is used
to observe thin slices of specimens, such as
Light travels through the microscope to the eye.
blood cells. It can magnify up to 1500 times.
Its view is flat—that is, two dimensional. The The coarse focus
knob brings the Eyepiece lens (ocular)
specimen must be thin enough to allow light
object into view.
to pass through it. Major structures within
individual cells can be seen with a compound Microscope tube
light microscope (see Figure 3.4). Revolving nosepiece
The stereo microscope is used for viewing The fine focus The objective lens is
larger objects, such as insects. It can magnify knob is used to the one closest to the
up to 200 times and shows the surface of sharpen the image. object. Usually there is a
the object viewed, giving the object a three- choice of three different
magnifications that can
dimensional view. It cannot be used to see
Stage slide clip be selected by turning the
inside or through an object, making it difficult
nosepiece around. The
to see individual cells (see Figure 3.3). combined magnification of
The stereo microscope has two eyepieces the objective lens and the
to look through, whereas the compound light The stage is eyepiece determines the
microscope can have one or two eyepieces. the platform on total magnification.
The word ‘monocular’ is used to describe which the object
a microscope with one eyepiece (mono to be viewed is
placed.
meaning one). Microscopes with two lenses
are called binocular (bi meaning two). The
compound light microscope uses the effect Light
of two lenses (the lens in the eyepiece Base
and the objective lens further down the Mirror
column) combined with light to give a
Figure 3.5 Parts of a compound light microscope. This example
greater magnification. is monocular because it has only one eyepiece.

3.1 LOOKING AT CELLS 103

 N U M E R AC Y
BU I L D E R Working out magnification Your turn:
1 You need a total magnification of ×100.
To calculate the total magnification of a
What magnification should you use
compound light microscope, multiply the
for your objective lens if your eyepiece
magnification of the eyepiece lens by the
magnification is ×5?
magnification of the objective lens. These
2 To view a slide at a magnification of
figures are marked on each lens.
×100, what combinations of lenses
Example: are possible if you have two eyepieces
(×5 and ×10) and three objective lenses
Eyepiece Objective lens Total
magnification magnification magnification (×4, ×10 and ×20)?
3 A photo of a slide under a microscope
×5 ×10 ×50
says it has been taken at a magnification
×10 ×20 ×200 of ×200 using the lenses described in
question 2. What combination of eyepiece
and objective lens magnifications
was used?

DEEPER
U N D E R S TA NDI N G Different microscopes,
different images
Images from microscopes will vary quite
dramatically. Different microscopes
produce different types of images due to
the magnification, the way a specimen
must be prepared, the way the specimen
is treated by the microscope and the
equipment used in the process of viewing
the specimen. The two main types of
microscope are light microscopes and
electron microscopes.
Electron microscopes are much
more powerful than light microscopes.
This is because light microscopes use
light, but electron microscopes use small
particles called electrons. As we can’t see
electrons, computers are used to detect
and construct the image. The transmission
electron microscope (TEM) fires a stream
of electrons through thin slices of the
specimen to produce a detailed 2D image,
like the compound light microscope. The
scanning electron microscope (SEM)
bounces the electron stream off the surface
of the specimen and produces 3D images,
like the stereo microscope. Both types of
images can be coloured by the computer
to make the detail even more apparent.

a a

Figure 3.7 (a) Scanning electron microscope (SEM).

Figure 3.6 (a) Transmission electron microscope (b) SEM image of a nerve cell. An image taken from
(TEM). (b) TEM image of a leaf. an electron microscope is called a micrograph.

104 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4


Preparing cells
for microscopy
To look at cells clearly through a compound
microscope, very thin layers of a specimen
must be used. The light must be able to pass
through the specimen (the object you are
looking at), otherwise all you will see is a
dark shadow.
Specimens are prepared by taking a
very thin slice of the object, using a very
sharp blade or even a laser. Most cells are
clear, which makes them difficult to see, so
a stain such as iodine or methylene blue
is used to help make them more visible.
Different stains are used to highlight
different components of the cells.
Placing a cover slip over the top of
the stained specimen helps keep the
sample in place and helps to protect
the specimen itself. The coverslip can be
sealed onto the slide creating a preserved
and reusable specimen. You may use a
number of these prepared slides during the
experiments in this book. You may also have
to hone your skills and prepare some of your Figure 3.8 Cells can be
viewed more easily under
own slides to examine. a microscope if they have
been stained.

SCIENCE
Ten tips for working with microscopes SKILLS

Microscopes are expensive, fragile
instruments. They need to be handled
carefully and used properly if they are
going to help you see the microscopic
world.
1 Always use two hands to carry a
microscope—one hand should be
around the main part of the instrument
and the other underneath it.
2 Some microscopes have a built-in
lamp. Others have separate lamps that
need to be set up so they shine onto
the mirror. Adjust the mirror to project
the light through the stage onto the
specimen. Do not allow sunlight to
shine directly up the column.
3 Place the slide on the stage then select
the objective lens with the lowest
magnification first.
4 Look from the side and adjust the
coarse focus knob so that the objective
lens is just above—and not touching—
the slide. Check which way you must
turn the knob to move the objective
lens away from the slide.
5 Use the coarse focus knob to bring
the specimen into view. Then use the
fine focus knob to help you see it more
clearly.
6 If you want a higher magnification,
rotate the objective lens to a higher
magnification.
7 Draw what you see (as a record) using
a pencil.
8 Work out the total magnification.
9 Write the magnification next to your
diagram.
10 Label and date the diagram.

ACTIVITY 3.1.1: UNDER THE MICROSCOPE

Collect a few small objects from around the classroom or outside such as insect
wings, a piece of hair, small leaves or flower petals. Carefully examine the object using
a hand-held magnifying glass, a stereo microscope and a light microscope. You may
need your teacher’s help to focus the microscopes.
1 What do these three pieces of equipment have in common?
2 In what ways are they different?
3 Which piece of equipment was best to view your chosen object, and why do you
think this?
4 If you see something interesting, draw it and try to explain what it may be.

3.1 LOOKING AT CELLS 105

 EXPERIMENT 3.1.1: GETTING TO KNOW YOUR MICROSCOPE

Aim
To prepare microscope slides and observe them with a compound light microscope.

Materials
a • Compound light microscope
• Microscope slide
• Cover slip
• Small piece of newspaper
• Small piece of tissue paper
• Hair (use your own)
• 1 cm sticky tape (transparent)
• Eyedropper
• Small beaker of water
Method

b 1 Cut out a word containing the letter ‘e’ from the newspaper.
2 Place the ‘specimen’ on the microscope slide and add two drops of water to help it
‘stick’ to the slide. Place a cover slip on top. This is called a wet mount.
3 Follow the Science Skills instructions for using a microscope. On the lowest
magnification, focus on the letter ‘e’.
4 Move the slide slightly towards your body and observe what happens.
5 Move the slide slightly to the left and observe what happens.
6 Change the magnification and observe what happens.
7 Draw a diagram of what you see (see more about drawing specimen diagrams in
Science Skills Specimen diagrams on page 111).
c 8 Take the ‘specimen’ out and prepare another slide using the tissue paper. Make
sure the drop of water is added and the cover slip is placed over the top carefully.
9 Draw what you see.
10 Repeat steps 2–7 with sticky tape and then a hair from your head.

Results
Include your diagrams here.

Discussion
1 Describe what the letter ‘e’ looked like through the microscope.
d 2 Is the newspaper smooth when you look at it with the naked CAUSE
What did you do to
eye? Compare this to what the newspaper looked like through
cause the change
the microscope. you observed?
3 Use a series of cause-and-effect graphic organisers, similar
to that shown in Figure 3.10, to record the results of your
experiment when you moved the slide in different directions.
For example, the cause link may be ‘move the slide to the
left’, and then write what happened in the effect link. EFFECT
What effect
4 What features could you see on the tissue paper and sticky did it have?
tape that you could not see with the naked eye?
Figure 3.9 (a) Cut out a
word. (b) Add two drops Conclusion Figure 3.10 Cause-and-
of water to the specimen.
What is the purpose of a light microscope and how does it work? effect graphic organiser.
(c) Place a coverslip on
top of the specimen. Write a sentence that answers the aim.
(d) Focus the microscope.

106 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

ACTIVITY 3.1.2: LOOKING AT DIFFERENT CELLS

In this activity, you will be using microscopes to examine a number of prepared slides
of different types of cells.
Look carefully at each specimen. Write down its name and a sentence that describes
what you see.
1 Make a very simple pencil drawing of a few of the cells you see. For example, if
there are many rows of cells, just draw three or four rows.
2 If you can see anything inside a cell (it may only be a dark dot), mark this on your
sketch.
3 In your opinion, which cells were the most unusual?
4 Which cells had very obvious walls around them?
5 Which cells were the smallest? Which were the largest?
6 Describe some of the difficulties of drawing cells seen through a microscope.

Homework
Write up this activity as an appropriate practical. Use the structure of Experiment 3.1.1
as an example.

QUESTIONS 3.1.2: MICROSCOPES AND MICROSCOPY

Remember
1 Identify the types of microscopes you have used in your science class.
2 Write a short description of each type of microscope you have used including
whether it is monocular or binocular, its maximum magnification and what it is
used to view.
3 Explain why very thin samples must be placed under a compound microscope.
4 Outline the purpose of a wet mount. Describe how is one prepared.

Apply
5 Explain why you look from the side
when you adjust the course focus knob. Objective lens Total
Eyepiece
magnification magnification
6 Explain why it is important to label and
×5 ×100
date your specimen diagrams.
Give three different reasons. ×20 ×300

7 Complete the magnification table ×10 ×50

for a compound light microscope by ×30 ×450
calculating the missing values. (Hint:
×5 ×100
Look back at the Numeracy Builder
Working out magnification for help.)

Analyse
8 Choose the most appropriate microscope to be used to examine a muscle cell.
Justify your choice.

Create
9 Prepare a microscope safety postcard that you could mail to a science student
at another school.
10 Draw a flow chart or other graphic organiser to help distinguish the following
microscopes: SEM, TEM, stereo microscope and compound microscope.

3.1 LOOKING AT CELLS 107

 3.1
CHECKPOINT
LOOKING AT CELLS
Remember and understand
1 Identify the first person to describe
cells. [1 mark]
2 Recall what type of cell was the first to
be drawn. [1 mark]
3 Explain when you would use a stereo
microscope instead of a compound light
microscope. [2 marks]
4 Label the compound light microscope
in Figure 3.11. [7 marks]
a b
c d
Figure 3.11 Figure 3.12
5 Explain why a specimen needs to
be very thin to be viewed under a
compound light microscope. [1 mark]
Apply
6 Identify the names of the different
lenses on a compound light
microscope. Explain why there are
different lenses. [3 marks]
Analyse and evaluate
7 Compare the four main types of
microscopes (stereo microscope,
compound light microscope, SEM
TOTAL MARKS and TEM) by identifying their
[ /35] similarities and differences. [4 marks]
108 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4
8 Investigate why the image you see
through a compound light microscope,
but not a stereo microscope, is upside
down and back to front. [2 marks]
9 Light microscopes allow you to view
living cells. In what situations would this
be an advantage? Explain your answer.
[2 marks]
10 Identify the microscope most likely to
have created each of the images in Figure
3.12. Justify your answers. [4 marks]
Critical and creative thinking
11 Use the lenses from an old pair of
reading glasses or lenses found in
the science laboratory to construct a
model of a light microscope. Describe
how your model is similar and different
to Hooke’s microscope and modern
compound light microscopes. [4 marks]
Making connections
12 Outline how our understanding of how
living things are structured has changed
with the development of the microscope.
[2 marks]
13 Is living matter different from non-living
matter? Explain your answer in detail.
[2 marks]
CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
One of the characteristics of an organism is that it is composed of one or
more cells. A cell is the basic unit of life as it is the smallest unit of an
organism that is considered living. In scientific terms, however, a cell is
actually quite big and is made up of a lot of smaller parts that help it do
its job. Cells are made up of organelles (mini organs), cytoplasm, DNA,
3.2
nutrients, wastes and many other substances.

CELL COMPONENTS
The cell theory states that all organisms a
are composed of one or more cells. Ribosomes
Organisms like bacteria and amoebas, are Nucleus
Nucleolus
often single celled. These tiny unicellular Rough endoplasmic
(uni meaning one) organisms are also recticulum Chroroplast
called microorganisms because they are
Nuclear pore Golgi apparatus
often only visible through a microscope.
Multicellular (multi meaning lots) Mitochondrion Vacuole
organisms are made up of many cells
Smooth endoplasmic Cell wall
joined together. All cells share the same recticulum
basic structure regardless of the type Cell membrane
of organism they are in. This structure
includes three key components:
• cell membrane—the ‘skin’ of a cell,
forming a double-layered barrier
b DNA Mitochondrion
around it. It controls the entry and
Nucleolus Nucleus
exit of things into and out of the cell.
• cytoplasm—the ‘jelly-like’ fluid inside Cytoplasm Ribosome
the cell between the membrane and
the nucleus. It contains all the cell Cell membrane
organelles (mini organs), dissolved
nutrients and wastes, and helps
provide structure for the cell.
• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)—a plasma membrane
cytoplasm
complex chemical that provides the
instructions for every job cells need to chromosomal DNA
do, and is passed from one generation c plasmid DNA
to the next. The code for half of your
DNA came from your mother in the
egg, and the other half came from
your father in the sperm. The same
complete set of DNA is found in each h cell wall
of your cells.
Figure 3.13 Artist’s
ribosomes impression of typical
cells. (a) Plant cell.
(b) Animal cell.
flagella (c) Bacterial cell.

3.2 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 109

 Different types of cells have different cell structure and function of cells can be used
components to enable them to carry out to classify them, as you saw in chapter 2.
their specific roles. These differences in the Table 3.1 summarises these components.

Table 3.1 Cell components.

Part of cell Function

Cell membrane Controls the entry and exit of things into and out of the cell and is covered in substances
that help cells identify each other.

Cell wall Layer surrounding the cell membrane that provides strength and structure to the cell.
Animal cells do not have a cell wall. Cell walls are very important structures in plant
cells, especially small plants that don’t have a woody stem.

Nucleus Control centre of the cell. It is surrounded by a nuclear membrane to separate the
contents of the nucleus from the rest of the cell. The nucleus contains codes and
instructions in the form of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).

Cytoplasm Fluid-like part of the cell inside the cell membrane but outside the nucleus. It contains
the cell’s mini-organs, or organelles, and many dissolved substances that may be
involved in chemical reactions or as food storage for the cell.

Vacuoles Separate storage compartments within the cytoplasm that contain a watery fluid. They
are very important in plant cells because they help provide support and structure to the
cell, which assists the plants in growing upright and displaying their leaves to the sun.

Ribosomes Site of protein production in the cell. There are many different types of proteins:
structural proteins (e.g. hair and nails), globular proteins (e.g. haemoglobin, which is
found in red blood cells and helps transport oxygen through the bloodstream). Other
proteins are involved in chemical reactions and the cell’s own structure.

Mitochondria The ‘powerhouse’ of the cell, supplying the cell with energy through a process called
cellular respiration.

Chloroplasts Found in plant cells and in some micro-organisms. These organelles are like
microscopic solar panels that transform solar energy into chemical energy. Inside a
chloroplast, light energy from the Sun is used to react carbon dioxide and water to form
glucose (chemical energy) and oxygen. This process is called photosynthesis. Cells
containing chloroplasts are mostly found on the tops of leaves.

ACTIVITY 3.2.1: STAYING ALIVE

Working in small groups, brainstorm the different jobs a living organism would
undertake to stay alive and be successful.
1 Do you think the jobs you’ve listed apply to all organisms?
2 Do you think the jobs of a cell will be similar or different to your list for an organism?
Explain your answer.
3 Share your thoughts with the rest of the class.

QUESTIONS 3.2.1: CELL COMPONENTS

Remember
1 Explain the function of the cell membrane.
2 In which organelle does respiration occur?

Apply
3 In a multicellular organism, which of the following cells would you expect to have
the most mitochondria: bone cells, muscle cells or hair cells? Justify your reasons.
4 Chloroplasts are only found in plant cells. Would you expect to find chloroplasts in
every plant cell? Justify your answer.

110 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 DIFFERENT CELLS
By looking at the characteristics of different
living things, it’s fairly easy to see that
they are different types of organisms.
It’s not hard to tell an apple from an
elephant! As more powerful microscopes
were developed, scientists could see there
were basic differences between plant and
animal cells. This made sense—if cells are
the basic building blocks and the basic units
differ then the final living things will have
different characteristics.
We can classify cells based on whether
they have organelles or not, as well as the
types of organelles they have. For example,
bacteria do not have any true organelles but
still contain DNA. Their DNA floats around
inside the cytoplasm rather than being held
within a nucleus. Many of these bacterial
cells also have a cell wall, but it is made of
a different chemical to the cell walls found
in plant cells. Plant cells and animal cells all
Specimen diagrams
What you see through a microscope is
not always easy to represent in a sketch.
Compare the diagram of an animal cell in
Figure 3.15 (a) with the image shown in
Figure 3.15 (b).
The diagram is, in many ways, like a
summary or simplification of what you see
through the microscope. It is impossible to
draw all the cells you see, so select those
that seem to be typical and try to show
how they fit together.
a b
Figure 3.15 (a) A diagram of an animal cell. (b) A stained image of an animal cell as seen through a light microscope.
contain organelles, however, plant cells tend
to have one large vacuole while animal cells
often have many smaller vacuoles. Plant
cells also contain chloroplasts whereas
animal cells do not. Look back at Figure
3.13 and see if you can identify the other
differences between typical plant, animal
and bacterial cells. S C I E N C E
SKILLS
a b
Figure 3.14 (a) Amoeba are unicellular organisms. (b) Humans are made of lots
of cells of many types, such as these skin cells.
SCIENCE
Tips for specimen diagrams SKILLS
• Always use a sharp pencil so you can
erase and modify your diagram. Never
colour or shade areas; if absolutely
necessary, use dots or lines instead.
• All diagrams should be large enough
to view the details. Try to use about
a quarter of a page for each diagram.
• Draw a circle to represent your viewing
area.
• Use clear labels and appropriate
scientific language.
• Write the specimen name, date and
magnification outside the circle.
3.2 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 111

a •
b a bit like cling film.
c 2 Add a drop of methylene blue stain or iodine instead of the water before lowering
Figure 3.16 (a) Add a drop of
stain to the specimen.
(b) Gently lower the cover slip.
(c) Focus the microscope.
112 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4
EXPERIMENT 3.2.1 COMPARING PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS
Aim
To prepare slides to view the organelles in the cells of an onion, Spirogyra plant and to
compare plant and animal cells. You may wish to review Experiment 3.1.1 regarding
microscope use and slide preparation.
Materials
• Onion wedge
• 3 glass slides
• Methylene blue stain or iodine
WARNING
> Methylene blue and iodine are very difficult to remove
from skin and clothes.
> Wear a lab coat and disposable gloves.
• Spirogyra (or any other filamentous algae)
3 glass cover slips
• Light microscope
• Blotting paper
• Prepared slide of animal cells
Method
Onion skin cells—unstained
1 Between the fleshy layers of an onion are some thin, transparent layers. These
layers are one cell thick. Peel off a layer of this skin and put it onto a microscope
slide. Remember that the specimen should be as thin as possible—it should look
2 Add one drop of water and then gently lower the cover slip so no air bubbles are
trapped.
3 Draw and label what you see. Try to identify the nucleus, which contains the DNA,
the cell membrane and cytoplasm.
Onion skin cells—stained
Stains are often used on specimens because they add contrast to the image.
Some highlight a particular feature of the cell.
1 Use another thin layer of onion skin to prepare a second slide.
the cover slip carefully so no air bubbles are trapped.
3 Draw and label what you see. How does the use of the methylene blue stain or
iodine change the appearance of the onion cells?
Spirogyra cells
1 Select a strand of Spirogyra and put it onto a microscope slide.
2 Add one drop of water and then gently lower the cover slip so no air bubbles are
trapped.
3 Draw and label what you see. Try to identify the cell membrane and cytoplasm.
4 What other organelle is clearly visible in these cells?
Animal cells
1 Place a prepared animal cell slide under the microscope and carefully focus using
a low power.
2 Draw the cells that you can see.
3 Increase the magnification of the microscope and refocus.
4 Draw the cells again, including as much detail as you can see.
5 Write down the total magnification for each diagram and label the diagrams.

Results
Include your labelled diagrams in this section.

Discussion
1 What is the name given to the type of specimen preparation you have performed in
step 2 of the onion skin cells method?
2 How did the use of a stain change the image of the onion cells?
3 The first two types of cells viewed are from plants. Propose a reason for the
differences between each of the cell types. (Hint: Consider which part of the plant
the cells come from.)
4 It is often difficult to identify the nucleus in the Spirogyra cells. Why?
5 The Spirogyra cells contain another structure that is very prominent. What could
be the role of this structure within the cell?
6 Suggest a reason why the onion cells did not contain the other organelle referred
to in question 5.
7 Why wasn’t it necessary to stain the Spirogyra cells?
8 Were the cells in the prepared animal cells slide stained? How could you tell?
9 In what ways were the animal cells you drew different from the onion and
Spirogyra cells?
10 Compare your diagrams of the three types of cells with the plant and animal cells
in Figure 3.13. List any differences and similarities.
11 Use the Venn diagram in Figure
3.17 to show how plant and
animal cells are similar and how
they are different. Animal cells What features Plant cells
What features do the two What features
12 Comment on the method section are only found cells have are only found
in this experiment. Did you in animal cells? in common? in plant cells?
have difficulty with any parts
of it? How could it have been
improved? Figure 3.17

Conclusion
What are the key similarities and differences between plant and animal cells?
Suggest reasons why these similarities and differences occur. Write a couple of
sentences to answer the aim.

3.2 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 113

 Micrometres (μm)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Measuring cells and their
organelles
Human egg
cell (ovum) Can you imagine measuring the distance
with nucleus between Melbourne and Sydney in
millimetres? Selecting appropriate units of
measurement means you do not need to deal
with really large or really small numbers.
Because cells are microscopic, we need an
appropriate unit of measurement to measure
them and their parts.
Look at 1 millimetre on your ruler. Now
White blood cell imagine this 1 millimetre is divided into a
thousand parts. One of those tiny parts is
equal to 1 micrometre (μm). Cells and
Human sperm their parts are measured in micrometres
(sometimes called microns). Cells vary in
Red blood cell Human hair size depending on their function. A bacterial
cross-section cell usually measures approximately 1 μm,
Cell from inside cheek
whereas a plant cell may be up to 100 μm in
Figure 3.18 A comparison of cell sizes. size (equivalent to one-tenth of a millimetre).

ACTIVITY 3.2.2: COMPARING THE SIZE OF CELLS AND THEIR PARTS

What you need: sheet of poster paper, pencil, 30-cm ruler, eraser.
1 Using the scale of 1 cm = 1 μm, draw a series of circles to represent the average size
of various cells and microorganisms according to the measurements given below.
Table 3.2 Average cell diameters.

Cell type Average diameter (μm)

Human cheek cell 30

Human red blood cell 7

Human white blood cell 25

Epidermal plant cell 50

Staphylococcus bacterium (spherical) 1

Escherichia coli bacterium (rod-shaped) 3

2 Rank the different types of cells from smallest to largest.

3 Some organelles, such as chloroplasts,
are large enough to be visible under a light Table 3.3 Average organelle sizes.
microscope. Others, such as mitochondria,
are usually too small to be visible. Use the Cell organelle Average size
measurements given in Table 3.3 to add a Chloroplast 5 μm long × 1.5 μm wide
chloroplast and mitochondrion (singular of Mitochondrion 2 μm long × 1 μm wide
‘mitochondria’) to your set of diagrams.
4 Which of the cell organelles in Table 3.3 are not visible under a light microscope?
5 Viruses are much smaller than bacterial cells. For example, the influenza virus,
which causes the flu, is 0.1 μm in diameter. Add influenza virus to your diagrams.
6 Do you think it is possible to see viruses under a microscope? Explain your answer.

114 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

EXPERIMENT 3.2.2: MEASURING CELLS

Aim
To measure the size of various plant and animal cells using a mini grid.

Materials
• Onion cell slide (prepared in Experiment 3.2.1)
• Other various prepared slides such as human blood, nerve cells or leaf epidermis
• Light microscope
• Mini-grid slide or small piece of graph paper printed on a transparency
Method
1 Focus the onion cells under the light microscope.
2 Once in focus, estimate the average length and width of one cell as a percentage
of the field of view.
3 Gently remove the slide and insert the mini-grid slide (or use the graph
aph paper
transparency).
e
4 Determine the length of the field of view and use this to calculate the
average length and width of one onion cell.
5 Repeat this process for each of the other prepared slides.

Results
Rank the cells viewed from smallest to largest. You may choose
to present your results in a graph.

Discussion
Does your ranking match the ranking in Table 3.2?

Conclusion
What do you know about the relative sizes of plant and animal cells?
Write a sentence to answer the aim.

QUESTIONS 3.2.2: DIFFERENT CELLS

Remember
1 Identify the unit (both name and symbol) used to measure the size of cells.
2 What are some features of cells that characterises them as living?

Apply
3 Propose a reason why plant cells, fungi cells and some bacterial cells have a cell
wall but animal cells do not.
4 Look closely at the plant and animal cell diagrams in Figure 3.12. Notice that two
layers of ‘balls with double tails’ represent the cell membrane for the plant and
animal cells. These shapes represent the particles making up the membrane.
Are the other parts of the cell also made of smaller particles? Suggest a reason
why they aren’t represented by their particles in the diagram.
5 When looking through a microscope, Renee noticed that under 40× magnification
her field of view was 4.5 mm. What would be her field of view when she uses 400×
magnification? Explain your answer.

3.2 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 115

 A CLOSER LOOK AT RESPIRATION
Mitochondria (singular mitochondrion) oxygen to your exercising muscle cells so
are the powerhouse of cells as it is the place they can make fuel, and you are ‘puffing’
where a cell’s energy is produced. There out the waste carbon dioxide.
may be several thousand mitochondria It is important not to confuse respiration
in a cell, depending on what the cell does. with breathing. Respiration is a chemical
For example, muscle cells contain a lot of reaction that occurs in the mitochondria
mitochondria to make sure we have enough inside cells. Breathing is a process
energy to run and jump when we need to. performed by multicellular organisms that
Mitochondria are rod-shaped organelles have lungs or gills to exchange gases with
with an inner and outer membrane. the environment. Breathing usually involves
Mitochondria have their own DNA, make taking oxygen into the body and expelling
some of their own proteins, and are able to carbon dioxide back into the environment.
grow and divide when a cell needs more of
them. They are usually too small to see with
a compound light microscope.
Cellular respiration occurs inside
mitochondria. In this process, glucose
(from the food we eat) and oxygen react
to form water, carbon dioxide and energy.
This energy is used by our bodies to help
us function.
Whenever you burn a fuel, such as
wood or oil, you release energy that has
been stored in that fuel. Burning is a
very rapid process that requires oxygen,
and produces a lot of heat energy, carbon
dioxide and water. Cellular respiration is
similar to burning. Pay attention to your
breathing the next time you walk up a
hill. Your body is working harder to deliver

a b Outer
membrane
Inner
membrane Matrix
Cristae

DNA

Enzyme
complexes

Figure 3.19 (a) Coloured Transmission Electron Micrograph (TEM)

image of a mitochondrion. (b) Structure of a mitochondrion.

116 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

EXPERIMENT 3.2.3: THE PRODUCTS OF RESPIRATION (DEMONSTRATION)

Aim
To determine what is produced in cellular respiration.

Materials
• 3 bottles fitted with rubber stoppers
• Delivery tubes
• Soda lime
• U-shaped tube fitted with rubber stopper
• Connection to tap to withdraw air
• Several small animals (e.g. snails, slaters, maggots)
• Limewater
Method
1 Your teacher will set up the demonstration as shown in Figure 3.20.
2 Turn on the tap to start the air flowing and leave it running for several hours,
then make your observations.
To tap
Results and discussion
1 What did you observe in bottles B, C and D?
Write your results in a table.
2 What happened to the limewater in bottles B
and D when the air first started to flow?
3 What happened to the limewater in bottles B
and D at the end of the investigation?
Soda lime Limewater Small animals Limewater
4 Why was limewater used?
A B C D
5 Why did the limewater in bottle B remain clear?
6 Was there any evidence of water being produced? Explain your answer. Figure 3.20 Experiment set-up.

7 Explain why the limewater in bottle D turned milky.

8 What process was happening in the cells of the animals?

Conclusion
Write a brief statement describing the products of respiration and the evidence to
support your claim.

QUESTIONS 3.2.3: A CLOSER LOOK AT RESPIRATION

Remember

1 Identify where cellular respiration takes place in cells.

2 Explain why cellular respiration constantly happens in cells.
3 Identify the source of energy for cellular respiration.
4 Contrast cellular respiration and breathing.

Apply
5 Predict which cells in your body would have the most mitochondria in them.
Predict which cells would have the least. Justify your choices.
6 Fill in the following equation to show the process of cellular respiration. With
equations, the left-hand side indicates the chemicals or substances used, while
the right-hand side indicates the chemicals or substances formed.
______________ + ______________ | ______________ + ______________
3.2 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 117
 CELL DIVISION
Cells, like organisms, need to carry out
many functions to survive. They need to Parent cell
process many substances, harness energy
and, ultimately, reproduce. Cells can also
become damaged, grow old and die. New
cells are made to replace old or damaged
cells. The instructions for all these jobs are
in the form of DNA — lengths of codes
that can be ‘read’ when required to make DNA replicates
sure jobs are done correctly. The DNA is
usually stored in the nucleus, which is often
referred to as the control centre of the cell.
When cells are ready to reproduce they
divide into two identical daughter cells. If it
were this simple though, each cell division
would result in daughter cells with only Two daughter cells
half the required amount of DNA. So what
must happen inside the parent cell before Figure 3.21 The process of mitosis.
it divides? The amount of DNA in the cell
doubles in a process called DNA replication. When this type of cell division occurs in
This produces two exact copies of the multicellular organisms it is for growth and
DNA so each daughter cell can have its repair, and is called mitosis. Unicellular
own copy. Many of the organelles are also organisms reproduce (produce new
replicated and divided evenly between the organisms) with a very similar type of cell
daughter cells. division called binary fission.

DEEPER
U N D E R S TA N D I N G Cancer: cell division out
of control
Cells do not survive indefinitely within an
organism. They have a use-by date after
which they self-destruct. The process of
cell death is a very normal and important
part of the development and functioning
of an organism. Programmed cell death is
known as apoptosis.
If a cell is damaged, the genetic
material it contains may be damaged or Figure 3.22 The yellow cells are undergoing
altered. Things that cause this damage, apoptosis, or programmed cell death.
such as radiation, viruses or chemicals,
are called mutagens. Mutagens often a group of diseases that result from
cause cancer, and then they are also uncontrolled cell division.
called carcinogens. Not all tumours are cancerous. Benign
Damage to DNA can result in a change tumours do not spread and they are not
in the instructions for the cell. Sometimes usually fatal (causing death) unless they
the damage may prevent apoptosis. grow in the brain or other major organs.
When cell division gets out of control a Malignant tumour cells can spread to
lot of cells grow. This is called a growth different parts of the body and can be fatal
or tumour. The term cancer describes if their growth is not stopped.

118 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4


Using similes in science
Scientists use models to explain concepts
or ideas. Another tool is the use of similes.
Similes are used to compare two things
using the words ‘like’ or ‘as’. Have you ever
heard someone say that a sprinter moves
as fast as lightning? Or that their little
sister sticks to them like glue? These are
both similes.
A scientific concept can sometimes be
explained by comparing it to something
more familiar. When learning about cells,
similes can help because the structures
are far too small to see. Similes should
not be used in formal science reports but
they can be used in chapter summaries or
homework tasks.
Here are some similes that relate to
this chapter:
• Cells are like building blocks.
• The cells in your body are like bricks in
a house.
• The nucleus is like a control centre.
L I T E R AC Y
• The mitochondrion is like a power BUILDER
station.
• Cytoplasm is like a jelly that holds
a cell’s organelles in place.
• Your body is like a zoo because it
contains so many microbes.
Simile challenge
Working in a small group, come up with
a list of similes for animal and plant cell
organelles (but don’t copy the above
ideas!) Present your similes to the class.
1 Were your similes the same or different
from those of the other groups?
2 Why do you think using similes is
useful?
3 Why shouldn’t similes be used in
formal reports?
4 In what other subjects could you use
similes?
5 Did you find it difficult to come up with
similes? Come up with a strategy for
practising simile use.

QUESTIONS 3.2.4: CELL DIVISION

Remember

1 Identify three reasons why new cells need to be made.

2 Identify the name of the substance that provides instructions for the cell and
where is it found.
3 Explain why a cell needs to copy its DNA before dividing.
4 Recall the name of the process described in question 3.
5 Define the term apoptosis. When does it occur?
6 Identify the two types of tumours and describe how they are different. Which type
of tumour is also called ‘cancerous’?

Apply
7 With your understanding, explain how the nucleus and DNA interact during
cell division.
8 Suggest a reason why multicellular organisms are unable to reproduce through
binary fission.
9 Investigate the different stages involved in mitosis. Construct a detailed flow chart
to show each step.
10 Identify the chemical in cells that could be described as the blueprint for the cell.

3.2 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 119

 3.2CHECKPOINT
CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Remember and understand
1 Identify the process used by
multicellular organisms to grow and
to replace damage cells. [1 mark]
2 Describe the role of the cell membrane.
[1 mark]
3 List three features that could be used
to distinguish typical plant and animal
cells. [3 marks]
4 Identify the role of the mitochondria
in a cell. [1 mark]
Apply
5 A cell membrane is partially
permeable. This means only certain
substances are able to cross the
membrane. Think about and identify
some substances required for a cell
to survive that it must obtain from the
external environment. Then identify
some substances found in the external
environment that a cell might want to
exclude. [2 marks]
6 Predict the number of mitochondria
(low, medium or high) in the following
cell types: heart muscle cell, skin cell,
bone cell. Justify your decisions.
[4 marks]
part of the plant but does not identify
any chloroplasts. Suggest why James
identified many chloroplasts within
each cell but they appeared to be
absent from the cells viewed by Emily.
[2 marks]
Making connections
9 Research the cell division process
called meiosis. How is it different to
the normal cell division process of
mitosis? When does meiosis occur?
Construct a table that summarises the
similarities and differences between
the two processes. Use a recognised
method to acknowledge your sources of
information. [6 marks]
10 Figure 3.23 shows human nerve cells,
white blood cells and a muscle cell.
Identify each cell type and explain how
the shape and features of each cell
enable it to perform a certain function
within the human body. [4 marks]

Analyse and evaluate a

7 Mutagens are substances that can
change the genetic material within
cells, which can sometimes result
in cancer. Find out about three
substances that have been described as
mutagens. Where are these substances
found? How do scientists think they
b
cause cancer? How can their effects be
minimised? [6 marks]
8 Two students prepare slides from
different sections of a spring onion
under a light microscope in their school
laboratory. James views a section
of the green leafy part and observes c
TOTAL MARKS
many chloroplasts within each cell.
[ /30]
Emily views a section of the white stem Figure 3.23 Which cells are which?

120 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

DIFFERENT TYPES OF CELLS
The human body can be described as a complex living system, which
itself contains many separate living systems joined in a grand network by
thousands of connections. It is a bit like the Internet, which also has a whole
lot of separate systems (computers) joined by thousands of connections in
a huge network.
3.3
HOW ORGANISMS FUNCTION
Cells are often called ‘the building blocks unicellular and multicellular organisms have
of life’. Think of the way bricks are used to in common and how are they different?
build a house. Cells build living things in a Unicellular organisms can survive on
similar way, however, there are usually many their own without the help of other cells.
more cells in living things than bricks in a Many people think of them as just simple
house—an adult human body is made up creatures but there is nothing simple
of about ten trillion (10 000 000 000 000) about them. Their single cell is complex,
cells. Elephants have even more. Any making the organism itself complex. These sperm cell
living thing that has more than one cell is unicellular organisms have the mechanisms
referred to as multicellular (multi meaning to move, reproduce and sense the
many), but there are many living things, environment, all contained in one cell!
such as bacteria, that consist of only A multicellular organism has many
one cell. These are called single-celled or different cells that are more specialised than
unicellular organisms. Figure 3.24 shows the single cell of a unicellular organism. The
two unicellular organisms. cells in a multicellular organism have lost
red blood cell
Cells come in lots of different shapes their independence and cannot survive on
and sizes. Some have branches like trees. their own outside the organism. The entire
Others are more like saucers, or rods. organism depends upon the health of all its
These differences are usually a result of the cells to survive. Each cell has a separate job
different jobs the cells need to do. to do; nerve cells cannot do what muscle bone cell
smooth muscle cell
Unicellular organisms were introduced cells do.
in Section 3.2 on page 61, but what do
smooth muscle cell
a b

nerve cell

ovum cell

red b

Figure 3.24 (a) Amoeba

and (b) some algae are
unicellular organisms.
Figure 3.25 Cells are specialised in multicellular organisms.
Each cell type looks different and has a different job.

3.3 DIFFERENT TYPES OF CELLS 121

 ACTIVITY 3.3.1: INPUTS AND OUTPUTS

In a small group, brainstorm as many inputs to your own body you can think of. An input
is something that your body takes in, but not just food. Do the same for outputs, again
thinking wider than food waste.
1 How does your body process your inputs and turn them into outputs?
2 Is only one type of cell required to perform these tasks?
3 How would a unicellular organism achieve this? Is its one cell more simple,
the same, or more complex than your cells?

DEEPER
U N D E R S TA N D I N G Structure matters
Protists are an extremely diverse group
of organisms that are mostly unicellular.
Many live in water, some are photosynthetic
(make their own food, like plants), some
Paramecium swim along slowly, using lots of tiny hairs
are herbivores (eat plants) and some
called cilia that act like miniature oars.
are parasites (steal nutrients from other
organisms). Each type of protist cell has
a structure and behaviour adapted to its Chlamydomonas have an
particular environment. eyespot that can detect
light for photosynthesis,
Questions
and two flagella to
1 Propose a theory to explain why the help swim along in
ability of an amoeba to change cell a breaststroke-like
shape might be of benefit. motion.
2 All the protists shown in the diagrams
above have some form of locomotion An amoeba can change
(that is, they can move). For each protist, the shape of its body,
identify the structure that allows them creating foot shapes
to move. Are they the same structure? for movement and
mouth shapes for
3 Protists are microscopic organisms.
ingesting food.
Suggest a method you would use to
see protists.
4 Chlamydomonas requires light to
photosynthesise, thereby producing
its own food. Would you expect
Chlamydomonas to move towards light
or away from light? Justify your answer. Euglena move really quickly when necessary, with a
bullet-shaped body and a long tail (called a flagellum)
5 Propose a method you would use to try
to whip it into action.
and test your theory in question 4.
Figure 3.26 Examples of common unicellular
organisms.

Input and output systems
All living things take in materials from the
environment that enable them to live, grow
and reproduce. Waste products are excreted
back into the environment.
In unicellular organisms, such as
amoebas, the materials simply pass across
into and out of the cell across the cell
membrane.
In multicellular organisms, most of
the cells are not in direct contact with
the environment so they need to pass
the materials onto other cells in order to
function correctly.

122 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 kidney
Multicellular organisms have systems swim bladder
spinal chord dorsal fin caudal fin
within their structure that take nutrients brain adipose fin
and oxygen to every cell and remove
nostril
waste products, such as carbon dioxide,
and transport them back out to the
environment.

anal fin
Cells, tissues and organs anus
All cells in our body are very similar as they gills liver gonad urinary
heart bladder
are all animal cells, but each different type stomach
pelvic fin
has a special role and is different from the intestine Figure 3.27 A fish
others. Cheek cells are not the same as is a multicellular
stomach cells. Hair cells are not the same than skin cells because they need more energy. organism. Different
systems have different
as muscle cells. But all these different types These specialist cells work together in jobs and work together
of cells have a cell membrane, nucleus, teams. Groups of cells that do a similar task to keep the fish alive.
mitochondria and other organelles that are called tissues. We have skin tissue (also
enable the cell itself to survive. Even though called epithelial tissue), muscle tissue, nerve
they might have the same organelles, each tissue, bone tissue and so on. Groups of
cell type is specialised and necessary to do tissues that work together are called organs.
a specific job to keep you alive. For example, The liver, heart, eyes, brain and intestines
muscle cells have many more mitochondria are all examples of organs.

Skeletal system Digestive system Respiratory system Excretory system Circulatory system
All bones, including Mouth, stomach, Lungs, windpipe, Kidneys, liver, bladder, Heart, veins, arteries
spine, skull, pelvis small intestine, large diaphragm urethra, skin, lungs Carries oxygen and
and ribs intestine, rectum, anus Filters oxygen from the Processes and filters nutrients to cells and
Gives body structure Breaks down food air and transfers it to out wastes and waste materials away
and supports and into substances the blood so that it is controls the amount from cells via the
protects other organs; small enough to taken to all other parts and content of body blood
provides attachment be absorbed into of the body; removes fluids
for muscles the bloodstream; carbon dioxide from
separates some waste cells via blood back to
the lungs

Figure 3.28 Some examples

of human body systems that
work together.

3.3 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 123

 Nerve cell
Red and white
Major body systems Each organ has a specific role but the organs
blood cells When groups of different organs work work together for a greater purpose. All the
together they are called a body system. systems then connect to ensure the survival of
In humans, the brain, spinal cord and a the whole organism (us!). Each body system
network of nerves make up the nervous has a particular role in keeping the body alive.
Muscle Table 3.4 lists some of the different systems
cells system. Our mouth, oesophagus, stomach
and intestines make up the digestive system. of the body and what they do.
CELLS
Table 3.4 The human body systems and their functions.
Skin tissue System Organs and parts What the system does
involved
Circulatory Heart, veins, arteries Carries oxygen and nutrients to cells and waste materials away
from cells via blood
Digestive Mouth, stomach, Breaks down food into substances small enough to be absorbed
small intestine, large into the bloodstream; separates some waste
intestine, rectum, anus
Integumentary Skin, hair, nails Covers and protects the body; helps maintain body temperature
TISSUES
Respiratory Lungs, windpipe, Takes in oxygen and transfers it to the blood, so that it is taken
diaphragm to all other parts of the body; removes carbon dioxide from cells
Heart Kidney via blood
Muscular Muscles, ligaments, Attached to the skeleton; allows body to move
tendons
Skeletal All bones, including Gives body shape, holds it upright, supports and protects other
spine, skull, pelvis, ribs organs, attached to muscles for movement
Nervous Nerves, spinal cord, Central nervous system (CNS) includes brain and spinal cord.
brain Electrical messages are sent to and from all parts of the body by
the nerves
ORGANS Urinary Kidneys, bladder, Kidneys filter out wastes and control the amount and content of
urethra body fluids

Respiratory Digestive
system system
ACTIVITY 3.3.2: BROWN PAPER BRAINSTORM

What you need: large pieces of brown drawing paper, several markers in different
colours.
1 Working in groups of three or four, spend five minutes brainstorming all the parts
of the body you can think of. Write them down in your book as you brainstorm.
2 Unravel a couple of metres of brown paper along the floor.
3 Have one student lie down on the paper and trace around them.
SYSTEMS
4 Spend a minute discussing the best way to illustrate the body shape with all the
body parts from your brainstorming list. What is the best way to make use of the
different-coloured markers?
Note: You can create a number of brown paper bodies if you don’t think you can fit all
the body parts into a single drawing.
5 Using the list of body parts you brainstormed and any other body parts you think
of as you work, make a drawing of the inside of a human body.
6 Try to make connections between body parts where you can. For example, you
might want to connect the throat to the stomach.
ORGANISM 7 Was it as easy as you thought it would be? Which parts were easy and which
Figure 3.29 The different
were difficult?
levels of organisation in 8 Do you think you placed most of your body parts in the right places? Which ones
the body.
might not be quite right?
9 Were you able to draw in many connections between body parts? How did you know
what those connections were?

124 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 10 How many body parts did you think of? Less than 10, 10–20, 20–50, 50–75, more than 75?
11 How did you use colour to help you draw your body?
12 Which body parts did you group together?
13 If you had to describe to an alien how the human body worked, what would you say?

DEEPER
Early anatomy Perhaps because of this fear of UNDERSTANDING
illness the Egyptians made many
Anatomy is the study of the structure
medical advances and learned much
of living things. It examines how cells
about the human body. Much of this
work together in tissues and organs, how
knowledge about human body systems
organs work together in systems and how
and organs most likely came about
body systems work together to keep the
from observations made during the
organism alive.
mummification process. As part
The very first anatomists in the ancient
of this process, the Egyptians
Egyptian city of Alexandria performed
removed key organs from
dissections in the 3rd century BC to
the body because they
investigate how the human body worked.
contained so much liquid
The Egyptians were very clean and
that they interfered with
quite fearful of illness. They believed that
mummification. These organs
illness was caused partly by evil spirits
were subsequently placed
and so doctors were also part shaman
in canopic jars to journey
(spiritualists).
separately into the afterlife.
Fig 3.30 The process of
mummification required
organs to be removed.
They were sealed in
QUESTIONS 3.3.1: HOW ORGANISMS FUNCTION canopic jars (left).

Remember
1 Identify two things that unicellular and multicellular organisms have in common.
2 Rank, in order of increasing complexity, the ways the cells in our body are organised.
3 Identify three of each of the following:
a types of cells
b types of tissue
c organs
d body systems
4 Is your tongue a tissue, an organ or an organ system? Justify your answer.
5 Match each of the following systems with their main organ and function:
System Main organ Function
Circulatory Brain To filter wastes from the blood and maintain fluid balance within the body
Nervous Lungs To transport nutrients to and wastes away from all cells in the body
Urinary Heart To exchanges gases (oxygen in and carbon dioxide out) between the body
and the external environment
Respiratory Kidneys To detect and respond to changes both within the body and the external
environment

Apply
6 Our body is like a sporting team—different systems do different jobs.
a Explain why it is important that different systems in our body do different jobs.
b Outline some consequences if one system stopped doing its job.

3.3 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 125

 a ANATOMY OF SKIN
The skin as a body system doesn’t always
get a lot of attention. It is something we
see every day and perhaps does not seem
as hidden or mysterious as our other body
systems. But it has a crucial role to play in
our survival. It does a lot more for us than
just keeping our insides in!
It seems incredible that the average
human adult has about 1.5–2 square metres
of skin. If you spread out this skin it would
be enough skin to cover a double bed!
b Figure 3.31 Skin thickness varies over the
body. It is (a) 1.5 mm thick on the feet but only
(b) 0.05 mm thick on the eyelids.
Your skin is the body system sometimes
called the covering system, but known
medically as the integumentary system
(pronounced integ-you-ment-ar-i). The
Latin word integumentum means ‘covering’.
The integumentary system also includes
your fingernails and hair.
As well as being a body system in itself,
the skin is also the human body’s largest
and most sensitive organ. Skin accounts for
about 16% of our body weight; it weighs
approximately 11 kg in the average person.

L I T E R AC Y
BU I L D E R A tan to die for
CLARE OLIVER
I am at peace. Young girls need to go out and educate
themselves about solariums … I think they should
But if I could go back and talk to myself when I
be banned. But now that you know my story and
was 19 I would tell that girl not to use a solarium
the resulting risks involved, hopefully you will
– that melanoma is not a small cancer that you
realise it is not worth having a golden tan …
just have cut out and you will be fine.
I was 22 when diagnosed. I had just finished
I may pass in another week or it could be two.
a Bachelor of Media and Communication and a
If I really fight it out, I may even have six weeks
Master of Cinema at the University of Melbourne
left. It’s scary, because I feel myself getting more
and started work as a sports journalist at SBS.
tired, and each time I feel sleepy it worries me
I was on top of the world.
that I might not wake up.
But I only got to work for three weeks and then
So far I have lived 25 years. If I am lucky I will
I found out about my cancer …
reach 26 because my birthday is on Saturday.
It was 2004 when they found a tumour under
It is a short life, but I have lived it.
my left armpit, which they treated with
Subconsciously I did know that cancer was immunotherapy.
involved with solariums because I was aware of
In July 2005, it came back and this time they
UV A and UV B rays. But when I was 19, I saw
treated me with radiotherapy.
a cheap offer of ‘buy 10 sessions and get 20’.
I was cancer-free for a year and seven months,
The girl working at the tanning salon told me
and then in April I found a lump in my neck.
the fastest way to get a tan was to come in every
I thought they could just cut it out, but it turns
second day and use speed cream.
out there were seven tumours in my chest and
My mum told me it was abnormal to get in a box one in my lung.
and fry myself, but I told her it was cool and
Now they have stopped counting how many
everyone was doing it.
there are …
After the 10th session I was starting to burn
I have always lived my life with compassion
and it hurt, so I stopped. But I guess I stopped
and passion. I have never been one to keep my
too late.
silence about anything I have felt passionate
It would be irresponsible of me to blame it just about.
on solariums, because I grew up in St Kilda and
Melanoma is no joke. And I will keep championing
went to the beach a lot …
this cause [to ban solariums] till the day I take my
last breath.

126 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

Questions
1 What caused Clare Oliver’s death at
26 years of age?
2 This is a sad story. Identify the things
in the story that add to the feeling that
this girl’s death is a tragedy.
3 The type of cancer Clare Oliver had is
called melanoma. Even though this
cancer started in her skin, identify the
places where tumours eventually grew.
4 What were two different medical
treatments she had for the tumours?
Skin as an organ
Skin serves various functions in the body
(Figure 3.32).
Human skin consists of three layers:
• epidermis
• dermis
• subcutaneous fat layer.
Epidermis
The epidermis is the outer layer of the skin—
the part you can see. The main purpose of the
epidermis is to protect the inner layers from
external things getting into your body and to
help control body temperature. The epidermis
also contains melanin, which is a pigment
that gives skin its colour (and its freckles).
The epidermis is made up of a number
of layers of cells. The outer surface is
constantly being shed by everyday actions,
such as putting on clothes and washing. We
lose about 1 gram of dead skin cells each
day, which adds up to approximately 20–25
kilograms of dead skin cells over a lifetime!
No wonder about 90% of household dust is
really dead skin cells.
The bottom layer of the epidermis is
constantly making new epidermal cells to
replace the lost cells. It takes about a month
for the new cells to move up from the base
to the top of the epidermis. As old, dead skin
cells are sloughed off the surface, new ones
are pushed up to replace them. So all that
scrubbing of your skin when you wash
your face in the morning is important for
healthy skin.
5 There are two different types of
tumours which can grow: benign and
malignant. Benign tumours grow and
stay in the places where they first
occurred whereas malignant tumours
can spread. What type of tumour
did Clare Oliver have? Explain your
reasoning.
6 The state and federal governments
are intending to regulate the solarium
industry for teenagers under the
age of 18 years. What would be your
recommendations to them?
helps us grip cushions organs
waterproofs protects
the body the body
prevents germs
skin
from entering
helps regulate
the body’s temperature produces Vitamin D
Figure 3.32 Some of
the functions of skin.
Dermis
The dermis is a thicker
layer under the epidermis.
The main role of the
dermis is to support and
strengthen the skin.
The dermis contains
finger-like extensions called
papillae. The papillae join the
dermis and epidermis together and hold
Figure 3.33 The epidermis
the epidermis in place. The blood vessels is the protective layer of
found in the dermis provide the epidermis the skin.
with nutrients. The majority of the dermis
is made of collagen, which is a tough fibre.
The dermis also contains another type of
fibre, called elastic fibre, which assists the
skin to return to its original shape after it
has been stretched. Sensory nerves, which
detect heat, pain and pressure, are also
located in the dermis.
3.3 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 127
 Subcutaneous fat layer
The deepest layer of skin contains fat.
Subcutaneous means ‘under the skin’, so
subcutaneous fat refers to the layer of fat
at the bottom of the skin. This layer of fat
consists not only of fat cells but also more
blood vessels and nerves.
The three main roles of this layer of fat
are to:
• store energy
• provide the body with insulation
• cushion the skin.
Glands
The skin contains two types of glands:
• sweat glands—these glands secrete
moisture up through the pores on the
skin surface when the body becomes
overheated; the evaporation of this
moisture cools the body
• oil glands—these glands are located in
the walls of the hair follicles and produce
the oil called sebum, which lubricates
the skin and hair.

Hair

Sweat pore
Epidermis
Papillae

Dermis Nerves

Sweat gland
Subcutaneous
fat layer Blood vessel

Hair root

Figure 3.34 Cross-section of human skin.

EXPERIMENT 3.3.1: EXAMINING SKIN

Aim
To examine skin under various magnifications.

Materials
• Magnifying glass • Compound light microscope
• Stereo microscope • Prepared skin cell slide
Method
1 Draw a close-up view of the top of your forefinger (including the knuckle) without
using any magnification. Show any changes in colour, hairs or other features and
mark these on your diagram. Label this diagram ‘Skin—no magnification’.
2 Use the magnifying glass to examine the same forefinger. Draw what you can see
and label it ‘Skin viewed under magnifying glass’. Mark the various features onto
your diagram.
3 Place your forefinger under a stereo microscope. Sketch what you see and mark in
any new features on your diagram. Check the magnification and write this next to
your drawing of what you see. Label the diagram appropriately.

128 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

4 Collect a prepared skin slide and carefully place it in position on the compound light
microscope. (You may need your teacher’s help to focus the microscope.) Draw what
you can see and label the diagram and any parts of the cells that you recognise.

Results
Include your labelled diagrams here.

Discussion
1 What new things did you notice about your skin when you increased the magnification
by using a magnifying glass?
2 What new things did you notice when you changed from a magnifying glass to
a stereo microscope?
3 Describe what the surface of your skin looked like under the stereo microscope.
4 What parts of the skin cells did you recognise using the compound light microscope?

Conclusion
What features of skin cells enable it to function as a system?

QUESTIONS 3.3.2: ANATOMY OF SKIN

Remember
1 Identify the three layers of the skin in order from outside inwards.
2 Describe the role of the skin in protecting the body.
3 Define the term subcutaneous and recall the three main roles of this layer of fat.
4 Identify the substance used to lubricate the skin and hair, and name the gland that
produces it.

Apply
5 Extrapolate how many kilograms of dead skin cells we would shed over a lifetime.
(Can you think of something else that weighs the same amount to help you
envisage this?)

Analyse and evaluate

6 The epidermis of the skin is often compared to cling wrap. Do you think this is an
appropriate comparison? Why? Why not? Can you think of a better analogy?
7 Evaluate whether skin is an organ or a system. Provide evidence for your decision.
8 Research how pimples form on the skin. Using this information and your
knowledge of skin tissue, suggest three methods of reducing the likelihood of
pimples forming.

Create
9 Dr Fiona Wood is an Australian scientist who pioneered a procedure to treat
burns victims. She created artificial skin in a spray-on solution. Research her
developments and innovation, and design a pamphlet to inform a burns victim’s
family about the new technology.

3.3 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 129

 3.3
CHECKPOINT
DIFFERENT TYPES OF CELLS
Remember and understand
1 Identify two unicellular and two
multicellular organisms. [2 marks]
2 Compare and contrast body systems
with organs. [2 marks]
6 Label Figure 3.35: [10 marks]

3 Identify the layer of skin (epidermis,

dermis, subcutaneous layer): [6 marks] b
a that contains papillae
b where hair roots are located c

c that you can see

d where fat cells are located d
e that contains sensory nerves
f that contributes to household dust.
e
4 Identify the systems that carry out the
Figure 3.35
following functions: [3 marks]
a carries oxygen, nutrients and
wastes around the body Apply
b breaks down food and absorbs the 7 Label the diagrams in Figure 3.36 with
nutrients into the body the following terms: [3 marks]
c gives the body support, structure • organism
and protection • cell
5 List at least one major organ or tissue • body system
type for each of the systems you • organ
identified in the previous question.
[3 marks]

_________________ _________________ _________________

_________________

Figure 3.36 _________________ _________________ _________________

130 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

8 Describe some problems you might
experience if your skin tissue did not
contain elastic fibres. [2 marks]
9 Propose a reason why all amoeba cells
are the same while human cells are
very different from each other. [1 mark]
Analyse and evaluate
10 Wrinkles on human skin are a sign of
aging. With reference to the substances
found in skin, suggest what happens
to these substances as you get older.
[2 marks]
11 In multicellular systems, which
system do you consider to be the
most important? Justify your answer
and compare your answer with your
classmates’. [2 marks]
12 Do you consider your body to be
a machine? Make a list of all the
similarities and differences between
your body and its systems and a
complex machine (such as a car) and
its systems. [2 marks]
13 Investigate the types of body
systems that might be found in a
non-mammalian organism, such as
a caterpillar, a spider or a tadpole.
Compare these body systems to your
own. [3 marks]
14 Working in teams of four, estimate
the surface area of skin of one team
member in square metres. Make sure
you include all body parts, such as your
fingers and toes, in your calculations.
[7 marks]
a Describe the method your team
used to make the estimate.
b How many square metres of skin
did you calculate?
c How accurate do you think your
measurement was?
d Were you surprised with your
findings?
e How well did you work together
as a team?
f What was one challenge with
this task?
g If you did this task again, what
would you do differently?
15 Skin cancer is one of the most common
cancers in Australia. Conduct your
own sun-smart survey of at least five
other people who are a similar age
to you. Ask each person three to five
questions that might include: Do you
wear sunscreen every day in summer?
Do you use a solarium? Do you wear a
hat every time you go out in the sun?
Create a graph for each question to
show the results. How sun smart are
your peers? [5 marks]
Critical and creative thinking
16 Choose an animal (it could be a pet)
and compare its skin with human skin.
Examine its skin structure and compare
the anatomical parts (such as whether
they both have hair or not). Describe
the functions of the animal’s skin that
are similar to your own and ones that
are different from your own. Could
humans live with the kind of skin this
animal has? How would it affect their
lives? [4 marks]
17 Cosmetics companies often advertise
‘skin hydration’ moisturisers. With your
understanding of how the skin works,
what do you think these moisturisers
to do? Research whether the science
behind the cosmetic companies’ claims
is accurate. [4 marks]
18 ‘I’m in love with my ________________
because …’
a Choose an organ from the
integumentary, muscular, skeletal,
circulatory or respiratory systems
given in Table 3.4 to complete the
above sentence. [1 mark]
b Think of a reason you can add to this
statement so it becomes a slogan to
express appreciation for one of your
organs. [1 mark]
c Make a T-shirt design using the
slogan and illustrations (use either
the front and/or back of a T-shirt).
Present your design in a class TOTAL MARKS
fashion show. [2 marks] [ /65]
3.3 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 131
 1 Fill in the gaps using the Word Bank below:

3
When calculating the total magnification of a microscope, you
______________________ the magnification of the ______________________ by the
magnification of the ______________________.

All living things are made up of ______________________. New cells are produced by
existing cells through a process called ______________________.

Most cells contain smaller structures within them called ______________________.

Not all cells contain the same components. Plant cells contain organelles such as
______________________ and ______________________ whereas animal cells do not.
______________________ cells do not contain any organelles at all.

______________________ is a process where energy is made for the activity of cells.

This process uses ______________________ and sugar and produces a gas called
______________________ and water.

CHAPTER
WORD BANK

Bacterial Cell walls Multiply Respiration

REVIEW Carbon dioxide Eyepiece lens Objective lens Unicellular
Chloroplasts Mitosis Organelles
Cells Multicellular Oxygen

Identify that all living things are 6 Copy and complete the table by placing
made of cells ticks in the correct column(s) to
indicate if each organelle is found in
2 Recall what cells are. [1 mark]
plant cells, animal cells or both.
3 Outline how cells were discovered and [4 marks]
how they got their name. [2 marks]
4 Is plastic made of cells? Explain your Organelle Found in an Found in a
animal cell plant cell
answer. [1 mark]
Nucleus
Identify cell structures and Cell wall
describe their functions
Cell membrane
5 Match the cell components with their
Cytoplasm
descriptions: [5 marks]
Mitochondria
Component Description
Chloroplast
Found only in plants, this helps
Nucleus plant structure, particularly in Vacuole
plants that are not woody.
Ribosome
Cytoplasm The ‘control centre’ of the cell.

The ‘power house’ of the cell. Outline the role of mitochondria

Cell membrane This organelle creates and stores
energy for the cell’s use.
The jelly-like substance that helps
Cell wall
the cell to maintain its structure.
A double-walled region that keeps
Chloroplast the cell’s internal environment
from the external environment.
7 Describe the process used by cells to
obtain energy. [2 marks]
8 Identify the waste products of the
process you named in the previous
question. [1 mark]

Found only in plants. This is what

Mitochondria makes plants green and where
photosynthesis occurs.

132 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 Identify that new cells are
produced from existing cells
9 Explain why cells divide. Discuss
the similarities and differences
between unicellular and multicellular
organisms. [3 marks]
10 Produce a claymation video of cell
division by mitosis demonstrating the
stages you have studied in this chapter.
[3 marks]
Distinguish between unicellular
and multicellular organisms
11 Compare and contrast unicellular and
multicellular organisms. [2 marks]
12 Propose a reason why the cells in
a multicellular organism become
specialised while unicellular organisms
do not. [2 marks]
RESEARCH
Identify cell organisation within CHAPTER
multicellular organisms
13 Explain how multicellular organisms
3 REVIEW
are structured in terms of cells,
tissues, organs and systems. [3 marks]
14 Cancers can produce life-threatening
tumours in the body. Using a body
system of your choice, explain how
mutated cells could cause a system to
fail and the organism to die. [3 marks]
15 List as many of the different cells as TOTAL MARKS
you can that would be found in skin [ /35]
tissue. [3 marks]
KEY WORDS
apoptosis
binary fission
cancer
carcinogen
cell

cell membrane
Stem cells The first cells cell theory
Stem cells are cells in multicellular Where did cells come from? Research the cellular respiration
organisms that haven’t become history of life on Earth and the various cell wall
specialised yet—they’re like blank theories about where life might have come chloroplast
canvases. Find out what scientists have from. cytoplasm
learned about stem cells, where they find deoxyribonucleic
them and what they hope to be able to do
DNA acid (DNA)
with them. DNA is vital to all living organisms. What is dermis
it? What does it look like? Who discovered epidermis
Two types of cells it? Who worked out its structure? Why is it eyepiece
There are two main types of cells: so important to life? Research information integumentary
prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Find out about DNA and write a fact sheet to system
the main differences between them and in answer these questions and any others microbe
which organisms each type is found. you can think of. micrometre
microscope
mitochondrion
REFLECT

mitosis
Me My world multicellular
1 What new science laboratory 4 Why are cells important to your growth mutagen
skills have you learned in this chapter? and development? nucleus
2 What was the most surprising thing you 5 What do your cells look like? objective lens
found out about cells? organ
6 How do your cells work?
organelle
3 What were the most difficult aspects of
My future papillae
this topic?
stain
7 What can you do to try to keep your subcutaneous
cells as healthy as possible? tissue
unicellular
wet mount

3 CHAPTER REVIEW 133

 3
Making models
Animal and plant cells are similar in many
ways, yet fundamentally different. Making
models can be a good way to examine these
similarities and differences in more detail.
Refer back to the diagrams and information
about plant and animal cells in this chapter.
Choose either a plant cell or an animal
cell and, working in a small group, make
a model of your chosen cell. Materials you
could consider for making your model are
modelling clay, foam, polystyrene packaging,
cellophane or pipe cleaners.

MAKING
CONNECTIONS

Figure 3.37 SEM image of the surface of a leaf.

134 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 You must include the following
components in your model:
• cell membrane
• cytoplasm
• nucleus
• mitochondria
• ribosomes
• vacuole(s)
• cell wall (plant cells)
• chloroplasts (plant cells).

Other components you can research and

include in your model:
• golgi apparatus Figure 3.38 Some possible materials
for constructing a model cell.
• rough endoplasmic reticulum
• smooth endoplasmic reticulum
• spindles
• lysosomes.

Choose a different colour for each part

of the cell. Work out a good way of labelling
the parts of the cell with the correct names
and a brief description of the function of
each part. Write a report of your work that
covers each of the following points:
1 Justify your choice of materials.
2 How well did your group work together?
3 What improvements could you have
made to your method of construction?
4 What are the vital components of
your cell?
5 Is your model an accurate
representation of a cell? Why or
why not?

Figure 3.39 How well will your group work together?

3.1 CELL STRUCTURE

3 MAKINGAND
CONNECTIONS
FUNCTION 135
4
THE NATURE
OF MATTER
The substances we use every day have features or properties that make them useful to us.
Why do different substances have different properties? The particle model of matter says that all
substances, whether they are solids, liquids or gases, are made of particles. The particle model
can also be used to describe the structure of substances (matter) and explain their physical
properties, including what happens to the particles when we heat them.
 STATES OF MATTER 4.1
Matter is the substance that makes up all solids, liquids and gases around us. It has
mass and takes up volume. Throughout history, scientists have tried to explain what
matter is and why it behaves the way it does. As new information is discovered, the
models used to explain matter have been improved
Students:
» describe the behaviour of matter in terms of continuously moving particles
» identify the benefits and limitations of using models to explain the properties of matter
» outline some historical developments to the particle model of matter (additional)

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 4.2

The type, number and arrangement of particles determine the difference in properties of
different substances. The density of matter can also change the properties of the same
substance when it is in different states.
Students:
» explain density in terms of particles
» explain changes in gas pressures in terms of particle collisions (additional)

HEATING MATTER 4.3

Heat is a form of energy that alters the movement and arrangement of particles in a
substance. Changes in movement and arrangement of particles are linked to changes in
state and energy levels.
Students:
» relate changes in heat energy possessed by particles to changes in particle movement
» use a simple particle model to predict the effect of adding or removing heat on different
states of matter
» relate physical changes of states of matter to heat energy and particle movement

137
 4.1 STATES OF MATTER
Matter is the name given to all substances that have mass and volume.
Matter comes in many different shapes, sizes and forms. In science, these
forms are known as states of matter. Solid, liquid and gas are three states
you may have heard of already. There is also a fourth state—plasma.
States of matter can be described by considering the energy of particles
a substance contains.

SOLID, LIQUID OR GAS?

Different forms of matter are all around
us. Steel, concrete, wood and plastic are all
solids. Water and cooking oil are examples
of liquids. Carbon dioxide is a common
gas – you can see it as bubbles in soft drinks.
Air is a mixture of gases. The smell of food
cooking on a barbecue is caused by gases
that leave the food as it is being cooked.
Although the ocean and iceberg shown
in Figure 4.1 may look and behave very
differently, they are both different forms
of the same substance—water. The ocean
is liquid and the iceberg is solid. Water
vapour, which is a gas, is in the air. Clouds
are made of small liquid water droplets.
Water, whichever form it is in, has the
same ‘building blocks’, or water particles.
All these different forms are called states
of matter.
It is usually obvious if a substance
is a solid, liquid or gas. However, some
substances seem to be made of more
than one state of matter. Sometimes we
can see the states, such as in honeycomb
confectionery, which is a combination
of solid and gas.
Trying to compress (squash) a substance
can sometimes tell us if a substance is a
solid, liquid or gas.
If you put your finger over the end of
a plastic syringe you can compress the
air inside so that it takes up less space.
However, if you replace the air with
water you cannot compress the water
easily. If you filled the syringe with sand
you would not be able to compress it at
all. Compressibility is the ability of a
substance to be compressed.
The behaviour of the different states of
matter can be explained by looking at the
particles that matter contains.
Gas in bike pump

Normal

Compressed

Figure 4.3 When you pump up a

Figure 4.1 Water exists as a solid, a liquid and a gas. Figure 4.2 Honeycomb is a bike tyre you are compressing air so
combination of solid and gas. that it takes up less space.

138 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 EXPERIMENT 4.1.1: COMPARING STATES OF MATTER

Aim
To investigate the behaviour of solids, liquids and gases.
Materials • Food colouring
• Brass mass (50 g) • 3 different shaped containers
• Electronic balance (e.g. ice cream container, mixing
• Plastic syringe (100 mL or similar) bowl, saucepan)
• Stopper to fit syringe • Balloon
• Beakers (250 mL and 100 mL)
Method
1 Copy the Results table and complete it as you work through the method.
2 Measure and record the exact mass of the brass weight. Place it in the ice cream
a
container or other plastic container and see if it takes the shape of the container.
Remove the mass from the container and press on it with the palm of your hand.
Is it able to be compressed? Record your observations in your table.
3 One-third fill the 250 mL beaker with water. Add two drops of food colouring.
4 Pour the coloured water, in turn, into the three containers. Record what happens to
the shape of the water in each of the containers.
5 Half-fill the syringe with water and turn it upside down onto the stopper on the
bench. Make sure that the syringe is well sealed before compressing it. Record
whether water can be compressed.
6 Set the empty 100 mL beaker on the electronic balance and press the ‘tare’ button.
Add the water from the syringe and measure the mass of the water.
7 Draw air into the syringe, turn it upside down onto the stopper and compress it.
b
Record whether air is compressible and whether it takes the shape of the syringe.
8 Record the mass of the empty balloon and then blow it up. Tie off the end and weigh
it again. Find the differences between the two measurements to calculate the mass
of the air inside the balloon. Record whether the air takes the shape of the balloon.

Results
Matter State of Mass (g) Able to take shape Able to be Other characteristics
matter of container? compressed? observed
Brass mass Solid
Water Liquid
Air Gas

Figure 4.4 Testing the

Discussion compressibility of air
1 Which substances had a measurable mass? (a) before and (b) after
depressing the plunger
2 Did each substance take up space? on the syringe.
3 For which states did the particles take on the shape of their containers?
4 For which state of matter can particles be compressed into a smaller space?
Describe what happened.
5 The particle model of matter states that all matter is made up of particles. Suggest
how the particles in each of the three states may be arranged to explain your
observations in this experiment.

Conclusion
Write a short paragraph to describe what you know about the properties of the three
states of matter.

4.1 STATES OF MATTER 139

04_ZHA_IS7_77549_SI.indd 139 1/09/2017 1:21 PM

 EXPERIMENT 4.1.2: MAKING SLIME

> Wear a lab coat or apron, safety glasses and disposable gloves.

WARNING
> Do not remove slime from the science laboratory.
> Write a risk assessment, including safety advice from Material Safety Data Sheets,
for each chemical. You can download a risk assessment sheet from your obook.

Aim
To investigate the state of ‘slime’.

Prediction
Figure 4.5 Slime:
solid or liquid? In your opinion, what is the state of slime? Give some reasons for your prediction.
Come back to your prediction and see if you have changed your opinion on the state of
slime after the experiment.

Materials
• 4% borax solution (10 mL) • Beaker (100 mL)
• 6% polyvinyl alcohol polymer solution • Glass stirring rod or icy pole stick
(50 mL) • Zip-lock bag
• Food colouring • White tile
Method
1 Put the polyvinyl alcohol polymer solution into the beaker.
2 Add one drop of food colouring.
3 Add the borax solution and mix well.
4 While wearing gloves, place the slime on a white tile and explore its state.
5 Place the slime in the zip-lock bag and refrigerate overnight.
Explore the slime’s state again.

Results
Write several statements to describe the substance that was produced.

Discussion
1 Can you pour slime?
2 Does slime have a fixed shape?
3 Will slime stretch and return to its original shape?
4 Can slime be compressed into a smaller size?
5 What can slime do that a liquid cannot?
6 When does slime seem more like a solid and when is it more like a liquid?
7 Does the texture of slime change after it has been handled? Why?
8 Would you classify slime as a solid, liquid or gas? Give reasons for your answer.
9 How effective was this method for determining the state of slime?

Conclusion
What is the state of slime? Use the evidence of your results to support your decision.
Write a sentence to reflect your prediction and your aim.

140 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 ACTIVITY 4.1.1: EXPLAINING ‘NOTHING’

1 In an obstacle-free area, try running with an open plastic bag held above your head.
What do you notice?
2 If you seal a plastic bag with ‘nothing’ in it, why does it behave like a cushion?
3 What happens when you put a sealed plastic bag or balloon in the freezer? How can
you explain this?
These activities can provide ‘evidence’ for improving our understanding of matter.
Scientists observe, they try to explain what they observe and they gather evidence
from experiments to see if it supports their explanation. Over time, this increases our
scientific understanding of the world.

Plasma: the fourth state
of matter
Although scientists long believed that
there were three states of matter—solid,
liquid and gas—they started to rethink
this during the 20th century. Using new
technologies and by studying the stars,
scientists have realised there is a fourth
state of matter—plasma.
If gases are heated to extremely high
temperatures, such as those that occur in
stars such as our sun, they change state
beyond a gas to become plasma. Plasma
only exists at very high temperatures, so it
is rarely found on the Earth itself. However,
plasma is a very common state of matter
DEEPER
in our universe. On the Earth, plasma is U N D E R S TA N D I N G
found near lightning and in flames and
fires. It is not the same type of plasma
as that found in our blood.
Scientists can produce ‘cool’
plasma, such as that used in plasma
screen televisions, neon signs and
fluorescent lights. In industry,
specialised tools called plasma
cutters use the high temperatures
of plasma to cut metals precisely.
Figure 4.6 Plasma is the fourth state of matter.
The plasma ball pictured is full of gas. The centre
of the plasma ball conducts electricity out to where
a hand is placed. This increase in temperature
causes plasma to form.

QUESTIONS 4.1.1: SOLID, LIQUID OR GAS?

Remember
1 Define the term ‘particle’.
2 Explain what ‘matter’ is.
3 Group the following substances according to their state of matter as a solid, liquid
or gas, or even a combination of states: ice cream, chocolate bar, clouds, thick smoke,
glass, honey, cake or bread, mashed potato, paper, peanut butter (smooth), cling wrap,
modelling dough, sand, steam
4 Identify whether these substances are found in two or more different states:
computer ink, contents of a bug spray in an aerosol can, fog on a rainy day

Apply
5 Identify a good name for a substance that is in between a solid and a liquid. Do some
research and see if a name already exists for these substances. (Hint: Do some
research on glass.)
6 Explain whether you think it is useful to group things using the ‘solid, liquid, gas’
model. Give an example of something that is between a solid and a liquid. Do you
think the model is still useful in this case?
7 Draw a dichotomous key to separate the three main states of matter.

4.1 STATES OF MATTER 141


Figure 4.7 Democritus
(c. 460–370 BC) proposed that
all matter is made of atoms.
Figure 4.8 John Dalton (1766–
1844) developed Democritus’s
ideas about particles.
oxygen atom
neutron
– –
+ proton
– electron
+ +
– –
+ + +
– –
THE PARTICLE MODEL OF MATTER
More than 2400 years ago, Democritus, a
Greek philosopher, put forward the idea
that all matter is made up of particles. He
proposed that if you were to cut up these
particles into smaller and smaller pieces,
you would eventually have tiny particles that
could not be cut up any more. Democritus
called these particles atomos, which is Greek
for ‘indivisible’. This is the origin of the
word atom.
It was not until 2000 years later, in the
early 19th century, that the English scientist
John Dalton developed Democritus’s idea
further. Dalton’s ideas were based on the
results of experiments performed by many
earlier chemists. Dalton studied these results
and proposed a model to explain them. His
model was that matter is made of particles
or atoms.
Dalton’s model included several ideas:
• All matter consists of tiny particles
called atoms.
• Atoms cannot be created or destroyed,
and are indivisible.
• All atoms of the same element are
identical, but different from atoms of
other elements.
• When atoms combine to form
compounds, each atom keeps its identity.
• Atoms combine to form compounds
in simple whole-number ratios. For
example, hydrogen and oxygen combine
in a ratio of 2:1 to form water, now
written as H2O.
electrons are found
in electron shells
– in layered electron shells.
++
+
protons and neutrons
are found in the nucleus
–
This new understanding encouraged
scientists to find out more about these tiny
particles, eventually leading to the branch of
science now called chemistry.
We can add some new ideas to Dalton’s
list to help us explain matter.
• Atoms are too small to be seen.
• Atoms have mass.
• Atoms can join to make larger particles.
When they combine, their masses add
together.
• Particles are always moving, faster when
heated and slower when cooled.
• Forces hold the particles together to stop
them from separating. This force is called
the ‘force of attraction’.
All these ideas make up the particle
model of matter. They explain how
particles act in real substances. As you have
already observed and tested, the behaviour
of particles is different in solids, liquids
and gases.
Basic atomic structure
While Democritus and Dalton started
the research, many other scientists have
contributed to our current understanding
of atoms. Models explaining atomic
structure have changed over time as more
information has been discovered through
experimentation and research.
We now know that atoms are made
up of three different types of subatomic
particles. Positively charged protons and
neutral neutrons make up the central
nucleus of the atom while negatively
charged electrons spin around the nucleus
Different atoms can join together to
form larger particles like O2 gas (oxygen),
or compounds like CO2 (carbon dioxide).
Atoms will be explored in detail in
Oxford Insight Science 9.

Figure 4.9 Structure of an oxygen atom.

142 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

How do different particles behave?
Particles in a solid
Have you ever had to sit in a full hall
or cinema? People may move around
a bit in their seats, and bump the
person next to them, but usually
they don’t move to another seat. In
a similar way, the particles in a solid
are held in a regular arrangement,
close together and held strongly by
forces of attraction. They are not
able to move around but vibrate
about a fixed position. Solids have
a constant shape and can only
be changed by cutting, hitting or
perhaps heating. Solids have particles
that are tightly packed and touching.
They cannot be compressed
(squashed) into a smaller space.
However, depending on the size of
the particles, there may be small
spaces between them. Imagine
stacking bowling balls in a crate. You
can’t squish the bowling bowls into a
smaller space, but you could fit some
golf balls in between them. Solids do
not flow unless they are made of tiny
pieces, such as sand or salt.
Particles in a liquid
Particles in a liquid are like people
standing in a crowd. Everyone is
close together but can move through
the crowd. The people are not in a
regular pattern—they are mixed at
random. As people move around
they become separated from the
people beside them and come into
contact with different people. The
particles of liquids are close together
but they are not held as strongly as
they are in solids. This is because
the forces between the particles are
weaker. Liquids can flow, so they
take on the shape of the container
they are in. The top surface of a
liquid, no matter what the shape
of the container, is always flat.
Thicker liquids, such as tomato
sauce or honey, are said to be highly
viscous. Highly viscous liquids flow
more slowly than water. At room
temperature, liquids cannot be
easily compressed. Although there
are spaces between the particles
of a liquid, the forces between the
particles resist compression.
Particles in a gas
Imagine 100 bouncy balls being
thrown at high speed into your
classroom (don’t try this!). The
balls would bounce off the walls,
desks and chairs, in all directions
and at high speed. Each ball is like a
particle of gas, except that particles
of gas do not eventually come to
a stop. The particles of gases are
far apart. They are not arranged in
any particular pattern because they
move around too much. They move
quickly on their own and fill all the
space available to them. The forces
of attraction between gas particles
are very weak. Gases do not have a
constant shape – they take on the
shape of the container they are in
and they always fill it completely
without forming a top surface like
liquid. Gases are easily compressed
because the particles are spread out –
there is a lot of space between them.
Figure 4.10 Small balls are often used to model
particles, but you can use anything—even people!
4.1 STATES OF MATTER 143
 ACTIVITY 4.1.2: MODELLING MATTER

Make a model of the three states of matter using objects to represent the particles.
Suitable items include ping pong balls, coins, lollies, marbles and pieces of modelling
clay. Alternatively, you can use objects from home.
• How well do your particles represent the characteristics of real particles?
• How well does your model represent the position and arrangement of real particles?
• Can your model represent the movement of real particles?
• Is there a better material (or different objects) that you could use to represent the
particles? How would this improve the model?

Why do we use models explain how matter behaves and the

to explain matter?
Models are often used in science to explain
something that cannot be directly observed.
The individual particles of matter are too
small to be easily seen (although the newly
developed cryo-electron microscope is
powerful enough to see atoms). Therefore
we use the particle model of matter to
differences between the states of matter.
Democritus, Dalton and many other
scientists have contributed to the particle
model of matter. As research continues
and scientific technologies improve, we
discover more information about the
structure and properties of matter and we
can improve the detail and the accuracy of
the model.

QUESTIONS 4.1.2: THE PARTICLE MODEL OF MATTER

Remember
1 Recall the origins of the word ‘atom’.
2 Identify the first scientist who performed experiments to determine the particle
nature of matter.
3 Compare a philosopher to a scientist.
4 Explain the difference between a particle and an atom.

Apply
5 Some people use models to compare the states of matter. Identify what states the
following
fo situations most closely represent. How useful are they in understanding
solids,
so liquids and gases?
a A swarm of bees crawling over each other.
b 1000 tennis balls tidily arranged in a large cardboard box.
c Eggs in trays in a large egg container.
d A shoal of fish darting in all directions as they avoid a predator.
6 Outline
O the major difference between the ideas proposed by Democritus and Dalton.
7 Consider
C a school assembly. Everyone is sitting quietly in their seats in rows. When
t assembly finishes, there is a crowd pushing to leave through the doors. When
the
o
outside, the students run off in all directions as fast as they can. Explain which
p
parts of this analogy may represent a solid, a liquid or a gas.

144 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 PARTICLE ENERGY AND DIFFUSION
The particle model of matter is also a b
known as the kinetic theory of matter.
The word ‘kinetic’ refers to anything that
is moving. The movement of particles
is related to their kinetic energy
(movement energy). In solids, particles
have little kinetic energy and only vibrate.
Particles in liquids have more kinetic
energy than those in solids and so the
particles can move around and shift their Figure 4.11 (a) Before and (b) after diffusion in a gas.

positions. The particles in gas have a higher

kinetic energy again and can move freely in
any direction.
When the lid is taken off a bottle of
perfume, the smell of the perfume spreads
throughout the room. This occurs without
any breeze or wind and is called diffusion.
Other examples of diffusion are dye
spreading out in water and tea spreading
out from a tea bag in a cup of hot water. Figure 4.12 Diffusion is slow in liquids.
Diffusion occurs because the particles are
moving. As the particles move, they push
against each other, spreading further and
further.
Diffusion occurs fastest in gases. This
is because the particles in gases have
high kinetic energy, are moving freely
and quickly and there is plenty of space
between them. The particles in a gas will
spread out quickly and take up all the space
they can. Figure 4.13 Solids do not diffuse.

In liquids, the particles jostle against

each other. They do not move far before
colliding with another particle. As a result,
particles in a liquid do not move very far
or very fast. Diffusion in liquids is slow
compared to in gases.
In solids, the particles are held tightly
in position. The particles vibrate but cannot
move to a new location. The particles in
a solid cannot spread out and so diffusion
does not occur in solids.

4.1 STATES OF MATTER 145

 ACTIVITY 4.1.3: DIFFUSING DYES

What you need: A handful of M&M’s (red ones are best), 250 mL beaker, stirring rod
1 Put 100 mL of water into the beaker.
2 Add the M&M’s and stir.
3 Allow the water and the M&M’s to settle.
• Describe your observations as the dye coating of the M&M’s mixed with the water.
• How did the appearance of the water change after you stirred it?
• Consider that the original dye was made up of lots of smaller particles.
• What do you think has happened to these particles?
• What does this tell you about the number of particles that must have been in
the dye?
• What does this tell you about the size of these particles?
• Is the rate (speed) of diffusion always the same? Think of some things you can
change about this experiment (variables) to either increase or decrease the rate
of diffusion.
4 Write a hypothesis about the effect your variable will have on the rate of diffusion.
5 Carry out your experiment and record the results.
6 Write a conclusion about the effect your variable has on the rate of diffusion.

QUESTIONS 4.1.3: PARTICLE ENERGY AND DIFFUSION

Remember
1 Explain the meaning of ‘kinetic’ in the kinetic theory of matter.
2 Give an example of diffusion other than those already given. (Hint: Think of how
something might spread around a room or in a liquid.)
3 Explain why solids can’t diffuse.
4 Demonstrate how the particle model of matter explains diffusion in:
a liquids
b gases

Apply
5 Rank the states of solid, liquid and gas in decreasing order of the energy content
of their particles.
6 Set up a diffusion role-play using people as the particles, showing how a substance
might spread around a room.

Critical and creative thinking

7 Design an experiment to compare the rates of diffusion in solids, liquids and gases.
Write an aim for your experiment, a list of materials and a clear method. If you can,
carry out your experiment and record the results. What can you conclude about the
rate of diffusion in the different states of matter?

146 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

STATES OF MATTER
Remember and understand
1 Identify the scientific term each of the
following phrases is describing:
a tiny particles that cannot be cut up
any more [1 mark]
4.1
CHECKPOINT

b substance in which the particles are

close together but not held together
particularly strongly [1 mark]
c substance in which the particles are
far apart and move quickly on their
own [1 mark]
d movement energy [1 mark]
e the spreading out of a substance,
such as a dye or smell [1 mark]
2 Write a description for the following
words: matter, solid, liquid, gas, states
[5 marks]
3 Identify the three common states of
Figure 4.14 What form of
matter and the fourth state (found at water is dew? Where did this
very high temperatures). [2 marks] water come from?

4 Identify three substances commonly Analyse and evaluate

found as solids, liquids, and gases.
[3 marks]
Apply
5 Identify the reason why we use the
particle model of matter to explain
the differences between the states of
matter. [1 mark]
6 Identify the state of each of these forms
of water: frost, rain, snow, dew, steam,
vapour, condensation [3 marks]
7 Explain the properties of solid, liquid
and gas using a model, as if to a
primary school student. How useful is
the model in helping understanding?
[2 marks]
8 In which of the states of matter do
particles have the most energy? Explain
your reasoning. [2 marks]
9 Identify the state of matter that has:
a definite shape and volume [1 mark]
b definite volume but takes the shape
of its container [1 mark]
c definite volume but always fills any
container completely [1 mark]
Critical and creative thinking
10 A student was investigating the particle
nature of matter. She added 10 mL of
salt to 100 mL of water but only got
103 mL of salty water. Examine why
she didn’t get 110 mL. [2 marks]
Making connections
11 ‘The idea of particles is both 2000 years
old and 200 years old.’ Use the ideas of
Democritus and Dalton to explain this TOTAL MARKS
statement. [2 marks] [ /30]

4.1 STATES OF MATTER 147

 4.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
OF MATTER
The properties of a substance are the features or characteristics that
make it unique. Specific properties are a result of the particles that make
up that substance and how they are arranged and held together. Knowing
and understanding the physical properties of substances is important as
they help us decide which substances to use in different situations.

a DENSITY: A PHYSICAL PROPERTY

One way of comparing two substances
is to compare their densities. Density is
the mass (amount of matter) of a certain
volume of a substance. It depends on
b the mass of the individual particles and
how closely they are packed together. The
density of a substance will affect some of its
properties such as its ability to float.
Density is an example of a physical
property of a substance. We can observe
and measure it without changing the
substance into a new substance. All physical
properties of a substance depend on the
c behaviour of particles.
Figure 4.15 (a) Solids
and (b) liquids have a
high density compared
to (c) gases.
ease
e greater mass than a piece of aluminium of
her>
Figure 4.16 The particles of a solid are in a regular
arrangement (such as rows, columns and layers). A
three-dimensional arrangement of particles in a regular
pattern is called a lattice. The diagram shows the lattice
that forms when water molecules are frozen into ice.
Solids and liquids are usually much
denser than gases. A particular volume
of solid or liquid has a greater mass than
the same volume of gas because the solid
or liquid has more particles in it. Gases
always have a low density because there is
a lot of empty space between the particles.
Solids normally have the highest density
because there is very little space between the
particles.
Water is an exception to this rule. When
you freeze ice blocks, the ice often expands
up out of the tray. The mass of water does
not change when it becomes ice, the solid
form of water, but its volume increases.
This is because the water particles rearrange
themselves into a set 3D formation called
a lattice. This solid lattice has more space
between the particles than in liquid form.
It is the space between the particles that
causes ice to expand and become less dense
than liquid water, allowing it to float on the
surface.
Substances don’t need to be in different
states to have different densities. For
example, lead has a higher density than
aluminium so a piece of lead has a much
the same size. While both metals have their
particles arranged in a tightly packed lattice,
the individual lead particles have a greater
mass than the aluminium particles.

148 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

04_ZHA_IS7_77549_SI.indd 148 1/09/2017 1:24 PM

 This is easier to imagine when thinking The helium gas inside the balloon is less
about liquids or gases. Vinegar and oil are dense than air around it.
both liquids but oil is less dense than vinegar. The densities of some common substances
Even though the particles are similarly are given in Table 4.1.
spaced, the oil particles have less mass than
Table 4.1 Densities of some common substances.
the vinegar particles so the oil floats on the
surface of the vinegar. When two substances Substance Density (g/cm3)
of different densities are mixed, the less Air 0.001
dense substance will rise to the top of the
Foam rubber 0.05
other. This is also why helium balloons float.
Wood 0.3

Oil 0.75

Water 1.0

Glass 2.6

Aluminium 2.7

Steel 7.8

Iron 7.8

Copper 8.9

Lead 11.3

Mercury 13.6

Gold 19.3

1 litre air 1 litre water 1 litre sand 1 litre lead

Figure 4.17 When mixing oil and vinegar, the oil rises = 0.003 g = 1.0 kg = 2.5 kg = 8.7 kg
to the top because it is less dense than the vinegar,
even though they are both liquids. Figure 4.18 One litre of air has a different mass to the same volume of other substances.

N U M E R AC Y
Calculating density BUILDER

To calculate the density of a substance To calculate density, use the following

you first need to know its mass and formula:
volume. Mass is the amount of matter in density = mass ÷ volume
a substance and volume is the amount Thus, the density of the rock
of space a substance takes up. The most = (10 ÷ 2)
appropriate units for the substances you = 5 g/cm3
will be working with are grams (g) for
This means that each cubic centimetre of
mass and cubic centimetres (cm3) for
rock weighs 5 g.
volume of solids. Millilitres (mL) is the
unit usually used for the volume of liquids. Your turn
Note that 1 mL is the same as 1 cm3. 1 What is the density of a certain type of oil,
Example given that 10 mL has a mass of 7.5 g?
A rock has a mass of 10 g and a volume 2 Ice has a density of 0.9 g/cm3. What
of 2 cm3. What is its density? volume of ice has a mass of 20 g?

4.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 149

 EXPERIMENT 4.2.1: MEASURING DENSITY

Three experiment stations are set up around the laboratory. You will measure the
densities of water, regular-shaped objects and irregular-shaped objects.

Station A
Aim
To measure the density of liquid water.

Materials
• Measuring cylinders (10 mL and 50 mL)
• Electronic balance
• Calculator
Method
1 Copy the table into the Results section and use it to record your measurements.

Volume of Mass of Volume of Mass of Mass of Density

measuring measuring water (cm3) measuring water (g) of water
cylinder (mL) cylinder (g) cylinder and (g/cm3)
water (g)

10 6

50 20

Average =

2 Measure the mass of the 10 mL measuring cylinder. Record its mass in grams.
3 Remove the measuring cylinder from the balance and add 6.0 mL of water to it.
Measure the 6.0 mL as accurately as you can.
4 Measure the mass of the cylinder and water. Calculate the mass of the water by
subtracting the mass of the cylinder from the mass of the cylinder and water.
5 Calculate the density of the water (see the Numeracy Builder on calculating
density) and record your answer.
6 Repeat steps 2–5 with the 50 mL measuring cylinder and 20 mL of water. Calculate
the density of the water.
7 To obtain a third measurement of the density of water, choose one of the two
measuring cylinders and any amount of water. Measure the mass of the water and
its volume. Calculate the density of the water.

Results
List the three results you obtained for the density of water. Calculate an average value.

Discussion
1 The standard value for the density of water is 1.00 g/cm3 at 25°C. How does your
average value compare with this?
2 Suggest reasons why your results may differ from the standard value.
3 When you calculate the density of water, does the amount of water used make any
difference? Explain the reasons for your answer.
4 Explain why experiments need to be repeated.

150 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

Station B
Aim
To measure the density of regular-shaped blocks made from different materials.

Materials
• Several blocks made from different substances (e.g. wood, polystyrene, glass, zinc)
• Ruler
• Electronic balance
• Calculator
Method
1 Copy the table and measure and record the mass of each of the blocks. (An example
has been completed for you.)

Substance Length Width Height Volume Mass (g) Density (g/cm3)

(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm3)

Glass 4 3 2 4 × 3 × 2 = 24 48 48 ÷ 24 = 2

2 Calculate the volume of each block. (See Figure 4.20.)

3 Calculate the density of each block. 1 cm

Results
Rank the blocks in order from least dense to most dense. 3 cm
2 cm
Discussion
Figure 4.19 Calculating
Compare your results with standard results (which can be found on the Internet). the volume of a regular-
Explain why your results may not have been exactly the same as the published results. shaped block.

Station C
Aim
To measure the density of irregular-shaped objects.

Materials
• 4 different objects (e.g. spatula, small rock, lump of plasticine and an object of your
choice) that each fit into the measuring cylinder
• Electronic balance
• Measuring cylinder (100 mL)
Method
1 Copy the table and measure and record the mass of each of the objects.

Object Mass (g) Volume before Volume after (mL) Volume after – Density (g/cm3)
(mL) volume before

2 Measure the mass of the first object. Record the mass, in grams, in your table.
3 Use the displacement method to work out the volume of the object. Approximately
half-fill the measuring cylinder. To calculate the volume of the object, subtract the
volume of water in the cylinder before the object was added from the volume after
the object was added.
4 Calculate the density of the object. (Remember that mL and cm3 are the same.)
5 Repeat the experiment with the remaining objects.

4.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 151

 Results
Include your table here.

Discussion
1 What were some of the difficulties you had using the displacement method for
calculating density?
2 What were the advantages of the displacement method for measuring volume?
3 How does the density of water compare with the densities of the other objects you
measured? Use the results from all the experiments to rank the objects.
4 How would our world be different if the density of water was five times as much
(i.e. 5 g/cm3)? How would this affect your mass, your life and the world generally?

Conclusion
What do you know about how density affects the behaviour of objects? Write a short
paragraph that answers all three aims.

DEEPER
U N D E R S TA N D I N G Archimedes in his bath
More than 2000 years ago, the king
of Syracuse (in Greece) asked the
Greek philosopher and mathematician
Archimedes how he could find out whether
his crown was made of pure gold.
One day, Archimedes noticed that when
he filled a bath, the water overflowed
when he got in. Archimedes realised that
a crown of pure gold would displace (push
aside) the same volume of water as a pure
gold lump of the same mass would, no
matter what its shape.
Two pieces of pure gold always have the
same density. If the crown and the lump of
gold displaced the same volume of water,
then the crown must be made of pure
gold. Legend has it that Archimedes was
so excited by this discovery that he leapt
out of his bath and ran naked through the
streets shouting ‘Eureka!’ (‘I have found
it!’). Archimedes had used one of the
properties of gold, its density, to compare
it with a different substance.
It turned out that the crown weighed
less than the same volume of pure gold.
The craftsman who made the crown
had stolen some of the king’s gold and
replaced it with a less dense metal.

Figure 4.20 When

Archimedes got into the
bath, the amount of water
that overflowed was the
same as his volume.

152 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

STUDENT DESIGN TASK

Galileo’s thermometer
A Galilean thermometer consists of a sealed tube containing liquid and a number of
sealed floats of another liquid that rise and fall inside the tube as the temperature
changes. Research how a Galilean thermometer works.

Challenge
Your task is to design an experiment that determines how the density of a liquid, like
methylated spirits, changes as the temperature changes.

Planning
Use your knowledge of the kinetic theory of matter and density to write the aim, the
hypothesis, equipment needed and suitable method for your experiment. Identify the
variables of your experiment and make sure they are all controlled in the method
except for the experimental variable. Write a list of safety concerns.

Conducting
If possible, conduct your experiment. Was your hypothesis correct? How could you
improve your experiment?

QUESTIONS 4.2.1: DENSITY: A PHYSICAL PROPERTY

Remember
1 Explain what is meant by ‘mass’.
2 Outline how the particle model of matter explains the different masses of different
substances.
3 Identify which two properties you need to measure to calculate the density of
an object.
4 Recall the equation for density.
5 Describe what happens when you slowly place something heavy, such as a rock,
into a glass of water. How does this relate to density?

Apply
6 Explain what is meant by a physical property of a substance.
7 Why are physical properties of substances important to us?
8 Explain why a lump of lead has a greater mass than a lump of wood of the
same size.
9 From your experiments, how does density affect an object’s ability to float? Do less
dense objects float on top of more dense objects, or do more dense objects float
on top of less dense objects? Suggest a reason for this.
10 You have two different liquids. 10 cm3 of Liquid A has a mass of 5 g. 15 cm3 of
Liquid B has a mass of 10 g.
a Calculate the density of the two different liquids.
b If the two liquids were poured into the same container and left to stand, which
liquid would rise to the top? Justify your decision.

4.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 153


Figure 4.21 Reinforced
concrete combines the
tensile strength of steel
with the compressional
strength of concrete.
OTHER PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
You have already learned about density
as an important physical property. Other
examples of physical properties are how
readily a substance can dissolve other
substances or be dissolved itself (explained
further in chapter 5), strength, hardness,
pressure and boiling point.
Strength and hardness
The idea of strength and hardness is
usually reserved for solids. Strength can be
considered in different ways. A rubber band
is easily stretched, but what about a piece of
wire? If a paper clip is bent backwards and
forwards it will eventually break.
The tensile strength of a substance is
a measure of the force needed to break it
when being stretched. Metals tend to have
high tensile strength and are ductile (easily
drawn or stretched into wires).
The opposite of tensile strength
is compressional strength. Substances
that can withstand large forces without
being crushed, such as concrete, have a high
compressional strength. How well the
particles in a substance withstand forces
affects that substance’s strength.
Hardness is the ability of a substance
to scratch another substance. An iron nail
will scratch a plastic ruler because the iron
is harder than plastic. However, the iron
nail will not scratch glass because the iron
is softer than glass. The order of hardness is
glass (hardest), iron, plastic (softest).
Hardness is not the same as strength.
A very hard substance may shatter easily.
If this happens, the material would be
described as brittle and therefore not very
strong.
The particles in hard substances, such
as glass and iron, are held together very
strongly and it is difficult to separate them.
In plastic, which is not a hard substance, the
particles are not held together as strongly.
They can be removed or scraped off.

ACTIVITY 4.2.1: NOT SO HARD!

All solids have some properties in

common, like they cannot be compressed
and they do not take on the shape of
their container. But not all solids are
the same. Some are softer or harder
than others.
1 Collect a number of different types
of solids (such as wooden pencils,
plastic pens, erasers, chalk, coins
or paper clips).
2 List the features that all the objects
Figure 4.22 Glass is a have in common that help classify
hard but brittle substance.
them as solids.
3 Rank the objects in increasing order
of hardness.
• How did you decide if one solid Figure 4.23 The object used to scratch the ice
was harder than another? must be harder than the ice itself.

• Why some solids are harder than

others?

154 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

Particle pressure
When you blow into a balloon you fill the Figure 4.25 Car tyres
balloon with air from your lungs. The air need to be filled to a
certain air pressure as
particles inside an inflated balloon are cold gas has less energy
denser than the air particles outside the than hot gas. What do you
Cold gas, fewer and less Hot gas, more and more think this means to the air
balloon. The force of the air particles inside
energetic collisions energetic collisions pressure inside a tyre?
the balloon pushes the balloon outwards.
The force of the air particles pushing against
a surface is called air pressure.
The air particles inside the balloon are
moving quickly in all directions. Some of
the particles hit the balloon skin and push
against it. One particle does not have much
force but billions of particles produce a
measurable force. We are measuring this
force when we measure air pressure.
When you pump up a tyre the pump
pushes more air into the tyre. More air
contains more particles to collide with the
tyre, increasing the air pressure.
On a hot day, the air particles inside a
car tyre have more energy and move around
faster. They collide with the tyre more often
and with a greater force than on a cold day.
This is why the air pressure inside the tyre
increases on a hot day without having to
pump in more air.
The pressure that exists when swimming
Figure 4.26 Bubbles get bigger as they rise because
underwater is created by the weight of the water pressure decreases.
water particles pushing down. The deeper
you go the more water particles there are
on top of you so the greater the force of
Melting point and
a
pressure. This is why your ears tend to hurt boiling point
when you dive deep down in the sea or
The melting point of a substance is the
swimming pool.
temperature at which it melts. This is a
change in state of matter from solid to
liquid. The boiling point is the temperature
at which a substance boils. This is a change
in state of matter from liquid to gas. Pure
water melts at 0°C and boils at 100°C.
There is a connection between hardness
and melting. Both the hardness and b
melting point of a substance is related to
the strength of the bonds that are holding
the particles together. The stronger these Figure 4.27 (a) The
temperature at which ice
bonds, the harder the substance and the melts into water is the
more heat energy needed to melt it. This is melting point. (b) The
temperature at which
Figure 4.24 The air particles inside a balloon are why hard substances generally have high water becomes steam is
closer together than on the outside. melting points. the boiling point.

4.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 155

 N U M E R AC Y
BU I L D E R Tiny measurements
Although the particles we have been talking
about are extremely small they still have
mass, they take up space (volume) and they
can be measured. So how small are they?
The metre (m) is the standard unit of
length. One centimetre (1 cm) equals 0.01 m
and one millimetre (1 mm) equals 0.001 m.
We can use scientific notation to show
small numbers:
• 0.01 can be written as 10–1
• 0.01 can be written as10–2
• 0.001 can be written as 10–3.
With each step, the measurement is
getting ten times smaller.

Table 4.2 Measurements and their units for some ‘tiny’ objects.

Object Size (approximate) Object Size (approximate)

Baked bean 10–2 m A large virus 10–7 m

(1 centimetre) long

Eye of a needle 10–3 m Haemoglobin 10–8 m

(1 millimetre) wide molecule

Human hair 10–4 m wide Sucrose (sugar) 10–9 m

molecule (1 nanometre)

Red blood cell 10–5 m Water molecule 10–10 m

Bacterium 10–6 m (1
micrometre) long

Your turn
1 Write 0.0001 in scientific notation.
2 Convert 100 millimetres to metres.

156 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

ACTIVITY 4.2.2: ICE CUBE NECKLACE

What you need: ice cubes, 250 mL beaker, piece of cotton string, salt
1 Float a few ice cubes in a beaker of water.
2 Wet a piece of cotton string with water and lay the string on top of the ice cubes.
3 Sprinkle salt all over the string and wait for approximately 10 seconds.
4 Lift the string, and the ice cubes will be stuck to it. You’ve just made a very cool
necklace!
• Research what happens to the melting point of ice if you add salt, and see if you
can explain why this activity works.

QUESTIONS 4.2.2: OTHER PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Remember
1 Identify some examples of physical properties.
2 Select a common substance such as cling wrap or vinegar. Name some of the
physical properties of this substance.
3 Would you describe glass as:
a strong or brittle?
b hard or soft?
c Explain your reasoning.
4 Explain, in terms of particles, the two factors that cause air pressure.
5 Explain the cause of water pressure. Why does the pressure increase as you go
deeper under the ocean?
6 A substance has a boiling point of 25°C and a melting point of –46°C. Identify:
a the temperature above which it is a gas
b the temperature below which it is a solid.

Apply
7 What would happen to a polished wooden table if you rubbed it with sand? Explain
by using the idea of hardness.
8 Outline why reinforced concrete can withstand large compressional and tensile
forces.
9 A plastic pump container is used to squirt out liquid from a soap dispenser.
These types of pumps always work best when they are nearly full. With your
understanding of pressure, propose how these pump containers work.
10 Salt is often added to boiling water to cook food faster. Explain why this works.
11 Salt is often spread on the roads in alpine areas to stop ice forming on the surface
and making the road slippery. Explain the science behind this action.

4.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 157

 4.2CHECKPOINT
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Remember and understand
1 Identify the scientific term that each of
the following phrases is describing:
a ability of one substance to scratch
another substance [1 mark]
b substance that shatters easily
[1 mark]
c mass of a certain volume of
substance [1 mark]
2 Recall the formula used to calculate
density and identify each symbol used
in the equation. [1 mark]
3 Identify the units used to measure
density. [1 mark]
4 Describe two ways to increase
pressure and explain what happens to
the particles when you do. [2 marks]
Apply
5 Sand, stones and bricks have a
low tensile strength but a high
compressional strength. Explain what
this means. [1 mark]
6 The order of hardness of some
common materials is: sand (hardest),
tooth enamel, chalk, dental plaque
(softest).
a Use this information to explain why
chalk is used in toothpaste as a
cleaning agent. [1 mark]
b Explain why sand grains would be
inappropriate to use as a cleaning
agent for teeth. [1 mark]
TOTAL MARKS
[ /30]
158 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4
Analyse and evaluate
7 Liquid water is unusual in that it has a
higher density than solid water (ice). Ice
water expands as it freezes. Evaluate
what this tells you about the packing
of particles in liquid water compared
with that in ice. How do ice and water
behave when they are put together, for
example, in the ocean? [1 mark]
Critical and creative thinking
8 Construct an experimental procedure
(Aim, Materials, Method) for
Archimedes’ famous crown experiment.
What could the wording of his results
and conclusion have been? [6 marks]
9 How could you test the hardness of
a range of substances? Explain your
procedure. [3 marks]
10 How could you investigate the effect of
adding salt to water on the boiling point
and melting point of water? Explain
your procedure. [3 marks]
Making connections
11 Carbon dioxide is normally described
as a gas, however, carbon dioxide can
also be in the form of a solid. In this
state, carbon dioxide is called dry ice.
The appearances of the two different
states of the same substance are vastly
different.
a Describe three major differences
between the properties of carbon
dioxide gas and solid carbon dioxide
(dry ice). [3 marks]
b Suggest one way to convert carbon
dioxide gas into dry ice. Explain why
you think this will work. [2 marks]
12 Normally we cannot see the structure
of substances because the parts are
too tiny. Thinking about the properties
of carbon dioxide as a solid and as a
gas, what differences do you think there
are between the structures of the two
forms of the substance? [2 marks]
HEATING MATTER
The physical properties of a substance can be altered by changing the
temperature. Heating and cooling affect the behaviour of particles by
changing their kinetic (movement) energy. Matter is made of extremely
small particles called atoms, which we can think of as being tiny balls.
By imagining what these tiny balls would do when the substance is being
4.3
heated, for example, we are building a model that helps explain why
substances behave as they do. If the temperature is changed enough a
substance will change its state.

HEATING SUBSTANCES
Expanding and contracting
Have you noticed that concreters often
make grooves in concrete paths? Have you
seen the soft material between parts of
buildings and also on some footpaths and
roads? Has your bike wheel got stuck in the
gap between a bridge and the road?
All objects and substances expand
(increase in size) as their temperature
increases. These objects contract (decrease
in size) back to their original size when they
cool again. The expansion is only small –
approximately 10 millimetres in a 30 metre
bridge – but it is very important for the
strength of objects such as bridges, railway
tracks and large buildings.
Expansion and contraction have many
important applications, such as liquid-in-
glass thermometers. When a thermometer
is placed in a beaker of hot water, the heat
from the water causes the liquid inside
the thermometer to expand and move up
the tube.

Figure 4.28 An expansion joint in a bridge. Figure 4.29 Train tracks buckle in the heat without
tiny gaps between the pieces.

4.3 HEATING MATTER 159

 Heating and the kinetic theory of matter
Considering the effect of heating and cooling on substances is very important. Heat is a
form of energy that particles convert into kinetic energy. The amount of kinetic energy of the
particles in a substance changes the physical properties of that substance.
In all states of matter, adding heat energy increases the kinetic energy of the particles.
This means that as a substance is heated, the particles vibrate faster and move further apart.
This is what causes a solid to expand when it is heated. If a substance is cooled (heat energy
removed), the kinetic energy of the particles decreases.
How do heating and cooling fit in with the kinetic theory (particle model) of matter?
You learned earlier that an example of diffusion is a tea bag in hot water. When the
water is hot the particles move faster, so diffusion is faster.

Cold solid Cold liquid Cold gas

Hot solid Hot liquid Hot gas

Figure 4.30 Diffusion
occurs faster in hot water
(right beaker) than in cold
water (left beaker).
Figure 4.31 In a hot solid
the particles vibrate
harder, faster and wider
than in a cold solid.
Figure 4.32 In a hot liquid
the particles jostle around
faster and take up more
space than in a cold liquid.
Figure 4.33 In a hot gas
the particles move faster
and collide with each other
harder than in a cold gas.
Hotter gases exert more
pressure than cold gases.

ACTIVITY 4.3.1: HEATING AND COOLING AIR

Use a clean 1-litre plastic milk or juice

WARNING

> Handle the boiling water

container. When the container is ‘empty’,
carefully to avoid splashes,
it contains air. Air consists of many air spills and scalds.
particles travelling at high speed.
1 Screw the lid tightly onto the container
and place it in the refrigerator. Describe
what happens and explain it in terms of the kinetic theory of matter.
2 Carefully pour a small amount of boiling water into the container and screw on
the lid as quickly as you can. Describe what happens and explain it in terms of the
kinetic theory of matter.

160 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

EXPERIMENT 4.3.1: HEATING SOLIDS, LIQUIDS AND GASES

Three activities are set up to determine the effect of heat on solids, liquids and gases.

STATION A: Heating and cooling a solid

Aim

WARNING
> Wear safety glasses and a lab coat, and tie long
To see the effect of heating hair back. Take great care when heating the ball
and cooling a metal solid. – the metal will become extremely hot.

Materials
• Ball and ring apparatus • Heating mat
• Tongs • Matches
• Bunsen burner • Beaker of cold water
Method
1 Look at your ball and ring. Try passing the ball through the ring before
heating and cooling. Record your observations. Before reading any further,
predict how the ball might be made to fit through the ring.
2 Use the tongs to hold the ball over a blue Bunsen burner flame for a minute or two.
Be careful not to heat the chain or ring. Figure 4.34 A ball and
ring apparatus.
3 Use the tongs to carefully place the ball in the ring. Record your observations.
4 Let the ball cool by placing it in a beaker of cold water for a few minutes and then
try to pass it through the ring again.

Results
Record your observations.

Discussion
1 What happened to change the size of the metal ball?
2 Use the kinetic theory of matter to explain what was happening to the particles in
the solid when heat was applied.
3 Do objects return to their original size when they cool to their original temperature?

STATION B: Heating and cooling a liquid

Aim
To see the effect of heating
> Make sure the apparatus is not left unattended.
WARNING

and cooling a liquid.

The dye and water may spurt out of the glass tube.
> The flask and its contents may be hot. Give the
equipment time to cool before handling it.

Materials
• Conical flask (100 mL) • Gauze mat
• Bunsen burner and heating mat • Rubber stopper to fit tubing
• Narrow glass tubing • Food colouring
• Tripod • Felt-tipped pen
Method
1 Put two drops of food colouring in the flask and fill it right to the top with water.
Figure 4.35 Experimental
2 Place the tube fitted with the stopper in the flask. Some water will rise up the tube. setup for Station B.
Using the felt-tipped pen, mark this first level on the tube.
3 Place the flask on the gauze mat on the tripod and heat gently.

4.3 HEATING MATTER 161

 4 After a few minutes of heating turn off the Bunsen burner. Mark the level of the
water in the tube again.
5 Watch what happens to the level of the water in the tube as it cools.

Results
Record your observations.

Discussion
1 Use the kinetic theory of matter to explain what happened when the liquid was heated.
2 Use the kinetic theory of matter to explain what happened when the liquid was
cooled down again.

STATION C: Heating and cooling a gas

Aim
To see the effect of heating and cooling a gas.

Materials
• Conical flask (100 mL) • Ice bath (large beaker of water and ice)
• Beaker (400 mL or large enough • Balloon
to fit flask) • String
• Kettle (to boil water) • Ruler
Hot water Method
1 Blow up the balloon to help stretch the rubber. Let the air out again until it is about
the size of an apple.
2 Place the balloon over the neck of the flask.
3 Use the string and ruler to measure Temperature Balloon circumference (cm)
the circumference of the balloon at Room temperature
room temperature. Copy the table Hot water
Ice bath and record this measurement.
Ice bath

4 Place the flask with the balloon in a beaker of hot water. Wait a few minutes.
Figure 4.36 Experimental 5 Measure and record the balloon’s circumference.
setup for Station C.
6 Place the flask with the balloon in an ice bath. Wait a few minutes and then
measure and record the balloon’s circumference.

Results
Record your observations, including your table.

Discussion
1 What happened to the size of the balloon as the temperature increased?
2 Was any air added or removed to change the size of the balloon?
3 Use the ideas of the kinetic theory of matter to explain how the balloon expanded
and contracted with the changes in temperature.

Conclusion
What do you know about how to explain the effects of heat on solids, liquids and gases?
Write a short paragraph that answers the aims for all three experiments. Can you see
any trends or patterns between the three experiments?

162 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 Conductivity and
heat capacity
Heat conductivity is a measure of how
easily heat moves through a substance. It is
another physical property of matter. Metals
have a high heat conductivity, which means
that they conduct heat easily, and so they
are commonly called heat conductors.
Materials such as rubber and plastic have
low heat conductivity and do not conduct
heat very well.
The plastic handles of saucepans have
low heat conductivity and these sorts of
materials are commonly called insulators.
When a solid substance is heated, the
particles begin to vibrate more and more.
If only one end of a substance is heated
then only the particles at that end
vibrate more. If these particles can pass
on their kinetic energy easily to their
neighbouring particles then the substance
is a good conductor of heat. If they can’t,
the substance is an insulator and not a
very good heat conductor.
Heat capacity is a physical
property that is a measure of the
amount of heat energy needed
to increase the temperature of a
substance. Different substances
have different heat capacities, so Figure 4.37 Tomatoes
have a lower heat capacity
some will heat up more quickly than others.
than cheese – be careful
For example, different substances in food not to burn your mouth!
will heat at different rates in an oven. If
you bite into the food some parts of it could
burn your mouth while other parts are only
warm. Metals need only a small quantity of
heat energy to increase their temperature
whereas water requires much more heat
energy to increase by the same temperature.

ACTIVITY 4.3.2: MELTING WAX

1 Attach some wax 10 cm from the end of a steel or copper rod. Push a drawing pin
into the wax.
2 Position the end of the rod in the yellow flame of a Bunsen burner using a clamp.
How long does the drawing pin take to fall out of the melting wax?
3 Repeat the activity using a glass rod.
• What property of matter were you investigating here?
• What other substances might behave like the steel or copper rod?
• What other substances might behave like the glass rod?
4 Write up your activity as an experimental report. Ensure that you use the
appropriate layout for a scientific report and include a diagram to demonstrate the
experimental set up you used.

QUESTIONS 4.3.1: HEATING SUBSTANCES

Remember
1 Compare and contrast the terms ‘expand’ and ‘contract’.
2 When hot objects cool do they return to their original size? Explain your answer in
terms of particles.
3 Describe the precautions taken with railway tracks and bridges to ensure that they
do not buckle and bend on a very hot day.
4 Describe the movement of particles when something is being heated.

Apply
5 Explain how you can be sure that when a solid is heated and expands the increase
in size is not caused by more atoms being added.
6 Explain why the conductivity of materials would be important in designing a new
style of saucepan.

4.3 HEATING MATTER 163

04_ZHA_IS7_77549_SI.indd 163 1/09/2017 1:26 PM

 CHANGING STATE
Many substances, such as water, can be Even gases such as nitrogen can become
found in more than one form. In the freezer liquids at very low temperatures (–195°C).
at home, liquid water solidifies into ice. Remember that the main difference
On a cold night, frost (solid) forms from between a hot and cold substance is the
water vapour (gas) in the air. On a warm energy of the particles.
sunny day, puddles (liquid) will evaporate to
become water vapour. Boiling,
Melting
Me vaporisation
Substances can change between
the three states of solid, liquid and
gas. In theory, all substances can VAPOUR
SOLID LIQUID
be changed into different states OR GAS
if the temperature is hot (or cold)
enough. For example, iron can Freezing,
Freezing Condensation
exist as a liquid but only at a solidification
solidificat
very high temperature (1535°C). Figure 4.38 Changing states.

ACTIVITY 4.3.3: ‘DISAPPEARING’ WATER

A glass of water on a table does not look as though it is changing. However, over time,
the amount of water in the glass may change even if nothing is done to the water.
Discuss the following questions with other students and/or your teacher.
• What would cause the level of water in the glass to drop?
• How long would it take for you to notice a difference in the level of water?
• How could you tell if the level is dropping when the change is only very small?
• What would make the level of water change more quickly?
• Would there be any situation that would result in an increase in the level of water in
the glass?

State changes and the

kinetic theory of matter
Melting
When heat energy is added to ice, the
solid particles vibrate faster and take up
more space. However, the particles are still
held in place in the lattice by the forces of
attraction to all the particles around them.
As the ice becomes hotter the particles gain
more energy and vibrate faster. Eventually
the ice particles have so much energy that
they break free of the particles around them.
The particles are still vibrating or jostling
but they are not held in place any more.
The ice has melted to become liquid water.

164 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

Boiling
Vaporisation is the process of liquids
turning into gases. The particles in a liquid
jostle around and between each other.
As the water in Figure 4.39 is heated the
particles gain more energy, move faster and
take up more space. If there is enough heat
energy the particles are able to break free
of the forces that hold them together. At
100ºC, the boiling point of water, all of the
liquid water particles will be changing state
to become gas—this is called boiling.
Figure 4.39 The water vapour is between the kettle
spout and the steam cloud.
Evaporation
In Activity 4.3.3 you discussed how the
water level in a glass would become lower
over time. Why does this happen when the
temperature is less than 100ºC? The water
will gradually evaporate (turn from a liquid
to a gas) because the particles at the surface
are not held in the substance as strongly
as those in the middle and can pull loose
without having to add extra heat energy.
Both evaporation and boiling are types of
vaporisation.
Condensation
The process of vaporisation can happen
in reverse. If the temperature is reduced
the particles will move more slowly. The
attraction to other particles will now keep
the particles close together. When a gas
changes state to become a liquid, normally
by cooling, we say it condenses. The most
common condensation that you can
observe is when water vapour in the air
(or in your breath) condenses on a cold
surface to form liquid water. This happens
on the windows at home overnight or on a
cold glass of liquid when it is taken out of
the fridge.
Figure 4.40 Fog is a cloud at ground level.
Figure 4.41 A puddle
evaporates because the
particles on the surface
are not held very strongly.
4.3 HEATING MATTER 165
 Freezing Steam = Tiny droplets of
condensed water
As the particles in a liquid lose energy, their
movement slows further. Eventually they are Water vapor = colourless gas
held in place by other surrounding particles
and do not have enough energy to move on
their own—they become particles locked into
a lattice. The liquid has solidified or frozen Water (liquid) is
to become a solid. slowly vaporising

Water in the air

Many people think that steam is a gas.
However, steam is really a liquid. It is made
of tiny droplets of water that are so small
they float in the air. Clouds in the sky
are also made of droplets of water. Fog is
a liquid too, and is just a cloud of water Figure 4.43 Water vapour is invisible. What we see
droplets at ground level. Water vapour is an above boiling water is steam, which is made up of
condensed droplets of water.
invisible gas (see Figure 4.43).

Figure 4.42 From a
distance clouds appear to
be solid but, like fog, they
are just droplets of water
in the air and aircraft can
easily fly through them.
Latent heat
When you heat a substance it may change
state. When a substance is melting or
boiling the temperature does not change. So
where does the energy go? The heat energy
is absorbed by each particle as it changes to
a new state of matter with a higher energy
(for example, solid to liquid or liquid to
gas). The heat you have added is ‘hidden’,
because it did not raise the temperature.
This ‘hidden heat’ is called latent heat.
EXPERIMENT 4.3.2: FROM ICE TO STEAM
Aim
To observe the changes in the state of water and to investigate the melting and boiling
points of water.

Materials
• Beaker (250 mL) • Retort stand, clamp and boss head
• Watch or clock • Thermometer (0–110°C) or thermistor
• Bunsen burner and heatproof mat probe
• Tripod stand • Stirring rod
• Gauze mat • Crushed ice

> Steam and boiling water can both scald. Take great care when measuring the higher
WARNING

temperatures. If scalded, place the area of skin under cold running water for at least
2 minutes and show your teacher.
> Wear safety glasses and a lab coat, and tie long hair back.

166 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

Method
1 Place approximately 200 mL of ice and water into the beaker.
2 While you are waiting for the ice to melt, prepare a tripod stand, Bunsen burner,
heating mat and other equipment so you can heat the water in the beaker.
Set up a clamp to hold a thermometer or a thermistor probe that is connected to
a data logger.
3 Copy the table into your workbook. Time (minutes) Temperature (°C)
0
1
2
3
4

4 Stir the ice and water with the stirring rod for approximately 1 minute.
5 Measure and record the temperature of the water and ice mixture. This is the
melting point of water. Record the temperature
in your table at time 0.
6 Set up the equipment as shown in Figure 4.44, Thermometer Stir gently with
checking to make sure the thermometer is held in clamp
stirring rod
not touching the bottom of the beaker and that
it is secure in the clamp. Do not stir with the
thermometer.
7 Light the Bunsen burner and start heating the
ice and water.
8 Measure and record the temperature of the Figure 4.44 Experimental setup.
mixture in the beaker every minute until the
water starts to boil and produce steam.
9 Continue heating and record the temperature for another 4 minutes, unless most of
the water has evaporated.
10 Using graph paper, or a suitable computer program, draw a graph with
temperature on the vertical axis and time on the horizontal axis.

Results
Record your observations, including your table and graphs.

Discussion
1 At what temperature did you measure the melting point of ice? How does your
measured melting point of ice compare with the standard measurement of 0°C?
2 At what temperature did you measure the boiling point of water? How does your
measured boiling point of water compare with the standard measurement of 100°C?
3 Were there times when it was difficult to read the thermometer? Why?
4 Why was the thermometer not allowed to touch the bottom of the beaker?
5 Compare your results with those of the rest of the class. Suggest why there might
be a variation in the answers.
6 Examine the shape of your graph. Can you identify where a change of state was
occurring and when normal heating was occurring?
7 Relate the different parts of the graph to what is happening to the particles in
terms of the kinetic theory of matter.

Conclusion
What have you learned about the changes of state of a substance as it heated? What do
you know about the melting and boiling points of water?
4.3 HEATING MATTER 167
 QUESTIONS 4.3.2: CHANGING STATE

Remember
1 Define the following terms:
a ‘vaporisation’
b ‘condensation’
2 Explain what the term ‘states of matter’ means. Use examples in your answer.
3 Construct a diagram showing the names of the states of matter and the names of
the changes between these states.
4 Draw a diagram similar to that shown in Figure 4.45. Add labels to indicate if heat
energy is added or taken away between states. Describe how the movement of
particles changes as they get hotter.

Figure 4.45

5 Outline the main difference between a hot and cold substance.

6 Define the term ‘latent heat’ and explain how it occurs.

Apply
7 Some people place camphor in their wardrobes to kill moths and silverfish.
However, the camphor disappears within a few weeks. Explain what you think may
happen to it.
8 Identify which has the greater heat energy – liquid water at 100°C or water vapour
at 100°C. Explain your answer.
9 Dry ice is the common name for the solid form of carbon dioxide.
a Describe how dry ice would be the same as carbon dioxide in the air.
b Describe how dry ice would be different from carbon dioxide in the air in terms
of density, temperature and energy levels.

Research
10 There is another change of state known as sublimation. Research what this term
means and identify a few substances which will sublime.
11 Nitrogen exists naturally as a gas at room temperature. However, we are able to
produce liquid nitrogen. Research the following facts about nitrogen:
a Identify the temperature of liquid nitrogen.
b List some common uses of liquid nitrogen.
c Describe how liquid nitrogen is produced and how it must be stored.

168 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

HEATING MATTER
Remember and understand
1 Describe the general relationship
between the amount of heat energy, the
amount of particle movement and the
states of matter. [3 marks]
Analyse and evaluate
10 When you breathe out on a cold
morning your breath appears white and
foggy. This only occurs when it is very
cold. Explain what the white fog is that
4.3
CHECKPOINT

2 Explain why the liquid rises and you see. [1 mark]

falls in a thermometer at different
temperatures. [1 mark]
3 Outline the difference between steam
and water vapour. [1 mark]
4 On some mornings dew will form
on cars and grass. Explain where
dew comes from. How does it form?
[2 marks]
5 Apply these words in a sentence about
state changes:
a liquid, melting, solid [1 mark]
Figure 4.46 Exhaling clouds!
b gas, liquid, condensation [1 mark]

Apply 11 Using your knowledge of matter, write BEFORE HEATING

6 In your own words define the term
‘latent heat’. [1 mark]
7 Complete the following sentences by
deleting one word from every pair.
a When heated/cooled, a solid metal
object will contract. [1 mark]
b When heated/cooled, liquid will
expand. [1 mark]
c When heated/cooled, gas will exert
greater pressure. [1 mark]
8 Outline a reason why railway tracks
have small gaps between them at the
joints. [1 mark]
9 Explain the difference in meaning
between:
a ‘boil’ and ‘evaporate’ [1 mark]
b ‘condense’ and ‘vaporise’ [1 mark]
a short story about the changes of
metal A
states of water from the perspective of
a water molecule. [5 marks]
12 At the beach, the sand and the water metal B
are both exposed to the heat energy
from the sun. With reference to heat
capacity, explain why the sand gets so
much hotter than the water. [2 marks]
Critical and creative thinking
13 Bimetallic strips use the idea of the
expansion of metals. As the name
suggests, they are made up of two
different metals (usually iron and
AFTER HEATING
copper), one on top of another. As
the strip is heated, the difference
in expansion rate of the two metals
causes the strip to bend. In Figure 4.47
does Metal B expand more than Metal
A, or does Metal A expand more than
Metal B? Justify your answer. [2 marks]

Figure 4.47 Bimetallic strips show the difference

in expansion between different metals.

4.3 HEATING MATTER 169

 14 What do you think will happen if the
bimetallic strip in Figure 4.47 is flipped
upside down then heated? Design an
experiment to test your hypothesis.
[3 marks]
15 The phase change diagram in Figure
4.48 shows the temperatures at which
changes in phases occur in matter.
With your understanding of latent heat
as well as how heat affects kinetic
energy, describe what is happening at
each stage labelled A–E. [5 marks]
180
160
140
Temperature (°C)
Making connections
16 The structure and properties of a
substance can be explained by the
particles that make up the substance.
Explain the following observations by
referring to the arrangement and/or
the movement of the particles within
a substance. You can use labelled
diagrams to improve your answers.
a Water left in an open bottle will
gradually evaporate, and if the
temperature of the water increases
the water will evaporate more
quickly. [2 marks]
b Mercury is a unique substance
because it is the only metal that is

liquid at room temperature, and

120
D E it even gives off a vapour (which
100 makes it very dangerous because
B C
80 this vapour can be breathed in).
60 [2 marks]

40 c We can see steam but we cannot

A see water vapour. [2 marks]
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Time (minutes)
Figure 4.48 The phase change diagram.

TOTAL MARKS
[ /40]

170 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

1 Fill in the gaps, using the Word Bank below:

4
Matter is anything that takes up volume and has ____________. It is made up of
small particles known as ____________. The particles that make up matter move
____________ and how they move determines the state of the matter (either
____________, liquid or gas).

Heating matter will increase the amount of ____________ energy that particles
have. Changing the amount of heat in a substance will also change its state. By
____________ heat you increase the energy of the particles. ____________ have more
kinetic energy than solids, and gases have more energy than liquids.

Increasing the kinetic energy of solids causes them to melt into liquids and then
____________ into gases. Decreasing the heat and kinetic energy of gases causes
them to condense back into liquids and then to ____________ into solids.

Density is another physical property of matter. ____________ is based on how much

____________ there is (mass) in the ____________ that the matter takes up.
CHAPTER
Because atoms and particles are so small, it is often easier to use ____________
or analogies to explain the properties of matter. REVIEW
WORD BANK

Atoms Continuously Density Evaporate

Freeze Liquids Mass Matter
Models Particles Solid Volume
Increasing Kinetic

Describe the behaviour of matter Relate changes in heat energy

in terms of continuously moving
particles
2 Define matter. [1 mark]
3 Describe what is meant by each of the
following terms:
a ‘matter’ [1 mark]
b ‘particles’ [1 mark]
c ‘property’ [1 mark]
d ‘model’ [1 mark]
e ‘state’ [1 mark]
4 In terms of the particle theory of
matter, outline how a solid differs from
a liquid. [1 mark]
5 What tests you would perform on an
unknown substance to confirm if it is a
solid, liquid or gas? Write your answer
in the form of a table. [2 marks]
possessed by particles to changes
in particle movement
6 Compete the following sentence
about the relationship between heat
energy and particle movement: As the
amount of heat energy of a substance
__________, the amount of kinetic
energy __________. [1 mark]
7 In terms of particle movement, outline
what heat does to the particles in a
solid. What happens to the particles if
the heating is continued? [2 marks]
8 In a group of about 10 students, role-
play the behaviour of the particles in a
solid. Then, as heat is applied, model
the behaviour of the particles in a
liquid. As the heating continues, model
the behaviour of the particles in a gas.
[3 marks]

4 CHAPTER REVIEW 171

 CHAPTER Use a simple particle model to
4 REVIEW predict the effect of adding or
removing heat on different states
of matter.
9 Describe three main ideas of the
particle model of matter. [3 marks]
10 Identify which state water will change
to if enough:
a heat is added to liquid water
[1 mark]
b kinetic energy is removed from
water vapour [1 mark]
c heat is removed from liquid water
[1 mark]
d kinetic energy is added to ice
[1 mark]
Relate physical changes of states
of matter to heat energy and
particle movement
11 Identify the opposite process of:
a melting [1 mark]
b condensation [1 mark]
12 Describe what happens to the water
particles in a puddle over time.
[1 mark]
13 Explain how we know that air contains
water vapour. [1 mark]
14 In terms of heat energy and particle
movement, describe conditions that
are required to change the state of a
substance from a high energy state to
a lower energy state. [2 marks]
Explain density in terms of
particles
15 Explain why most solids have a much
higher density than liquids and gases.
[2 marks]
16 If you could manipulate particles,
describe how would you go about
making a substance with a very high
density. [1 mark]
17 The density of glass is 2.6 g/cm3 and
the density of lead is 11.3 g/cm3. Does
this mean there are more particles of
lead in 1 cm3 or that the lead particles
TOTAL MARKS
are heavier than the glass particles?
[ /50] Give reasons for your answer. [2 marks]
172 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4
18 When you are boiling water, the volume
of water is reduced as it evaporates.
Analyse if this means that the density
of water changes. [2 marks]
19 Justify whether you would rather lift
1 kg of concrete or 1 kg of rose petals.
In your answer, consider the mass and
volume of each. [2 marks]
Identify the benefits and
limitations of using models to
explain the properties of matter
20 Analyse how your behaviour during
your role-play from question 8 is
different to that of real particles, that
is, what things can’t you show properly
in your role-play? [2 marks]
21 Evaluate ways in which the particle
model of matter helps us to understand
why gases can be compressed.
[1 mark]
22 Examine the ways in which the particle
model of matter helps us to explain
why gases exert pressure. [1 mark]
23 Identify some limitations of using a
model to explain the properties of
matter. [2 marks]
Outline some historical
developments to the particle
model of matter (additional)
24 Draw a timeline of the development of
the particle model of matter. Include
the key contributors to the model
and the key ideas that each scientist
contributed to the model. [4 marks]
Explain changes in gas pressures
in terms of particle collisions
(additional)
25 Explain what happens to the particles
in a gas if they gain extra energy.
[1 mark]
26 Car and bike tyre pressures are best
measured when the tyres are cold.
Explain why this is. How would the
readings be different if the tyres were
hot? [2 marks]

RESEARCH
Choose one of the following topics for a
research project. A few guiding questions
have been provided for you but you should
add more questions that you want to
investigate. Present your research in a
format of your own choosing, giving careful
consideration to the information you are
presenting. Appropriately list your sources
of information.
Universal matter
The matter in the universe is thought to
be mostly gas, with hydrogen the most
common gas. However, there are also
different types of matter in planets, stars,
quasars, black holes, neutron stars, dark
matter, and so on. What types of matter
exist in the universe? Where are these
types of matter found? Are there any
types of matter that are not found in the
universe?
States of matter around us
The changes between the states of matter
have many uses. Research some of these
REFLECT
CHAPTER
4 REVIEW
uses and their impact on our society.
Some ideas are: how refrigeration and
air conditioning work; making moulds
and casts, such as chocolate, iron and
aluminium castings; obtaining medical-
grade oxygen and nitrogen from the air;
how the energy changes that occur during
evaporation of water and the condensation
of water vapour into rain is involved in
thunderstorms and cyclones; and why
the evaporation of sweat from our bodies
helps to cool us.
Discovery of air pressure
The discovery of air pressure is a long and
interesting story. Research the background
of Evangelista Torricelli, Blaise Pascal and
Otto von Guericke. Otto von Guericke built
a large water thermometer in the front
of his house and made the Magdeburg
hemispheres. Two opposing teams of eight
horses, working like a tug-of-war, could
not pull the hemispheres apart—such is
the strength of air pressure!

Me 4 How has knowledge of the properties of

1 Can you use models and diagrams to
represent and explain things that are
impossible to see?
2 What was the most challenging aspect
of this chapter and why?
My world
3 How does knowledge of particles
improve our understanding of the
world?
substances allowed us to use different
substances for different jobs?
My future
5 What properties do you think scientists
find desirable in developing materials
for the future?

KEY WORDS density kinetic energy physical property

air pressure diffusion latent heat plasma
atom electrons lattice protons
boiling evaporating mass solidification
compressibility expand matter states of matter
compressional strength freezing melting strength
condensation hardness neutrons tensile strength
conductor heat capacity particle vaporisation
contract insulator particle model of matter

4 CHAPTER REVIEW 173

 4
The nature of matter
Throughout history, a number of stories
have been used to explain the nature of
matter. Before the particle model of matter
was suggested, people used mythology and
creative interpretations of observations to
try and understand how the world worked.
Up in the air: the legend of Icarus
‘Don’t fly too close to the Sun,’ said
Daedalus to his son, Icarus. The story
in Greek mythology tells the tale of the
MAKING
attempted escape of Daedalus and Icarus
CONNECTIONS from Crete. Daedalus was a master
craftsman who had somehow managed to
make wings from feathers that were held
together by wax. It was these wings that were
taking the father and son away from their
captor to potential freedom.
However, Icarus ignored his father’s
warnings and, overcome with the excitement
174 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4
of being able to fly, soared higher and higher.
As Icarus flew higher, the temperature
increased and the wax melted, so that one by
one the feathers fell off until all Icarus had
left to flap were his bare arms. Icarus fell into
the sea—now called the Icarian Sea.
This story is purely a myth but it lives on
in popular culture, including a long list of
songs, as a metaphor for aiming for targets
beyond reach, which results in failure.
1 In the story, why do you think Daedalus
would have chosen wax to join the
feathers together?
2 What would happen to the molecules in
the wax as the temperature increased?
3 The story says that the temperature
increased as Icarus flew higher. Does
this really happen? If not, why not?
The Montgolfier brothers
In 1783, two French brothers were the first
people to successfully produce flight. Joseph-
Michel and Jacques-Étienne Montgolfier
invented a hot air balloon in which
air was heated by a fire. The first
‘pilots’ were a duck, a sheep and a
rooster. Later in the same year,
Étienne Montgolfier became
the first person to take to the
air—the balloon was tied
to the ground to prevent
it rising too high. The first
free-flight was piloted by
a young scientist, Jean-
Françoise Pilâtre de Rozier,
and the marquis Françoise
Laurent d’Arlandes, and
after a few trials the balloon
travelled 9 kilometres. The air
in the balloon was heated by
burning wood that was contained
in an iron basket attached beneath
the neck of the balloon.
Figure 4.49 An artist’s depiction
of the legend of Icarus.
1 How would heating the air change the
behaviour of air particles inside the
balloon?
2 What effect would this have on the
density of the air inside the balloon?
3 Why do you think that animals were
used before humans in trials of the
balloons?
4 What properties of iron made it suitable
for use as the fire basket attached
below the balloon?

The Hindenburg disaster

Airships do not contain hot air; they
contain gases that are less dense than air, Figure 4.50 An illustration of the Montgolfiers’ flight.
which enables them to fly.
If you fill a balloon with hydrogen it
will rise even faster than a helium-filled
balloon. For this reason airships were once
filled with hydrogen—until the Hindenburg
disaster in 1937. The Hindenburg airship
caught fire and exploded in the air, killing
many of the people on board.
No one is certain about the initial cause
of the explosion, but when a mixture of
hydrogen and oxygen is exposed to a spark
or flame there is usually an explosion.
Interestingly, the only product of the
reaction is water. Water is a compound of
hydrogen and oxygen. Because hydrogen
is explosive, modern airships use helium,
not hydrogen, to give them lift. Helium is
almost as light as hydrogen but cannot burn
or explode—it is not known to react with
any other element.

1 Watch an Internet video to see for

yourself the original footage of the
disaster. Where might the spark have
come from that caused the Hindenburg
disaster?
2 Consider the recent development of
cars that run on hydrogen fuel cells.
What are the advantages of using
hydrogen as an alternative fuel?
Figure 4.51 The Hindenburg explosion
What are some of the dangers
associated with its use?
3 Helium is a very unreactive gas. Find
another gas that has similar properties
to helium.

4 MAKING CONNECTIONS 175

5
MIXTURES
Every day we use a wide range of substances. A substance is
referred to as ‘pure’ if it is not mixed with anything else, and when
different substances are put together they are said to be a mixture. Most of the
substances we use daily are mixtures, which have the properties of the different substances
they contain. Mixtures can be separated into their components using a variety of techniques.
 TYPES OF MIXTURES 5.1
Many of the substances we use on a daily basis are mixtures. The type of mixture and its
components determine the uses of that mixture. Water is used in many different mixtures
because it has the physical property of being able to dissolve many other substances.
Students:
» describe the importance of water as a solvent
» describe aqueous mixtures in terms of solute, solvent and solution

SEPARATING MIXTURES 5.2

While mixtures are important in our daily lives, many of the substances we use are pure.
These substances are often found in nature as mixtures. It is important that we can
separate mixtures into their components so we can extract the pure substance
and possibly turn them into different mixtures.
Students:
» relate a range of physical properties of components to the separation
of mixtures: magnetism and decantation
» investigate the application of physical separation techniques:
centrifuging, filtration and electrostatics
» research how people in different occupations use science skills to separate mixtures

SEPARATING SOLUTIONS 5.3

Water is the universal solvent and many substances we require exist as a solution.
Being able to separate the water from the substances dissolved in it means we
can extract the substances and produce pure drinking water as well.
Students:
» relate a range of physical properties of components to the separation
of mixtures: evaporation, crystallisation, distillation
» investigate the application of physical separation techniques: chromatography

177
 5.1 TYPES OF MIXTURES
Products for sale are often labelled as ‘pure’ or ‘natural’. But what does
‘pure’ mean? Many of us think that a ‘pure’ product is somehow better
than the others. For scientists the meaning is different: a pure substance
is one that is not combined with anything else. Most substances, however,
are combined with others as mixtures.

PURE SUBSTANCES
It is very important to be able to identify
substances as pure or part of a mixture.
Identifying the ingredients in mixtures
is also important. If you have a food or
skin allergy, knowing the substances in
a mixture is essential as even traces of a
particular substance might be enough to
trigger a reaction.
In science, every substance in a mixture
can make a difference. Small amounts of
different substances that should not be
present (contaminants) can drastically
affect the way chemicals behave in
experiments and chemical reactions. The
proportion of the different components in
the mixture can also change the properties
of the mixture and how it reacts with other
substances.
A substance is considered to be pure
if all the particles that make it up are the
same. There are two different types of pure
substances. An element is a pure substance
because every atom within the substance is
the same. Gold is considered pure when every
atom is a gold atom. 24-carat gold is pure,
while 18-carat gold is a mixture of gold with
other metals.
Compounds can be pure as well. A
compound is formed when different atoms
are chemically bonded together, like water.
Two Hydrogen atoms bond with an Oxygen
atom to form H2O. Water is considered
pure when every particle in the liquid is an
H2O particle. But if there are other dissolved
chemicals or grains of dirt combined with
the water particles, then the substance is no
longer pure and is considered a mixture.
A mixture is different from a compound
because the different components are not
chemically bonded together, they can be
physically separated without the need for
a chemical reaction.

soil

H2O

H2O

dissolved
chemicals
Figure 5.1 Distilled or pure water
is only made up of water particles
(a). A mixture contains lots of a b
different particles (b).

178 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

ACTIVITY 5.1.1: PURE OR NOT?

What you need: range of items from the supermarket or the pantry at home (with
ingredients listed on the packet), at least one fruit or vegetable
1 Draw up a table like the one shown and classify each of your items, writing its
name in the appropriate column.

Pure substance Mixture Not sure

2 Look at all the substances you classified as pure. What do they all have in common?
3 Look at all the substances you classified as mixtures. What do they all have in common?
4 For any of the substances in the ‘not sure’ column, write down what additional
information would help you to decide whether the substance is pure or not.
5 Identify each of the following items as a pure substance or a mixture. If you
can, discuss your answers with another student. For the ones that you are not
sure about or disagree with, you can find out more information to help in your
decision.

gold water soil coffee

methylated spirits carbon dioxide helium gas blood
iron charcoal flat cola rocky road ice cream
Italian salad dressing sugar aluminium foil sugar water
gasoline beach sand copper spaghetti sauce

QUESTIONS 5.1.1: PURE SUBSTANCES

Remember
1 Write a sentence in your own words to describe a pure substance.
2 Identify the name given to a substance that is not pure.
3 Compare and contrast elements and compounds. In what ways are they similar,
in what ways are they different?

Apply
4 Identify the following as pure or not pure:
a cup of tea
b soft drink
c table salt
d soap
e olive oil
5 For any of the substances in the previous question that you think are not pure,
identify what pure substances you think they may contain.
6 Gold is not always a pure substance.
a Define a carat. How are carats used to describe the purity of gold?
b What other metals are commonly mixed with low-carat gold?
c What are the differences between yellow gold, white gold and rose gold?

5.1 TYPES OF MIXTURES 179

 TYPES OF MIXTURE
Most of the substances we use regularly are
mixtures. Mixtures are combinations of two
or more substances. Most mixtures look like
just one substance because the particles they
are made from are so small.
It is important to remember that the
different components in mixtures are not
chemically bonded together. They can be
separated using physical techniques, not
chemical reactions.
There are so many possible combinations
of mixtures, each with different properties
and purposes. For this reason scientists have
grouped mixtures according to what they are
made from and their properties. Knowing
the type of mixture helps us to work out
ways that the mixture can be separated into
pure substances.

ACTIVITY 5.1.2: ADDING SUGAR TO WATER

What you need: water, table sugar, teaspoon, beaker or glass

1 Add a small amount of sugar to water in a glass and stir.
2 Describe what has happened to the sugar.
• How could you separate the water from this mixture?

Solutions
In some places in Australia the water from
the local water supply has an unpleasant
taste. Washing with soap is difficult because
the water forms a scum instead of a foamy
lather. The water contains salts that affect
its taste and behaviour.
Figure 5.2 Mixtures come
This type of water is an example of a
in many different forms.
mixture that doesn’t separate by itself—a
solution. A solution contains tiny particles Figure 5.3 Sugar dissolves easily in a hot cup of tea.

spread evenly throughout the solution so

that it looks transparent (see through).
In Activity 5.1.2 it could be said that
the sugar has ‘disappeared’ because it is
no longer visible. The sugar particles have
become so small that they cannot be seen.
Because they are so small they will neither
fall to the bottom nor float on the top,
but will remain evenly spread through the
liquid. The resulting mixture will be clear—
light will shine through it. We say that the
sugar has dissolved in the water to form
a solution.
A substance that is able to dissolve in
a liquid (such as sugar) is considered to
be soluble, while one that cannot (such
as sand) is insoluble. The substance that
dissolves is called the solute, while the
liquid into which it dissolves is called the
solvent. Water is a good solvent because
it dissolves many substances, but many
other liquids are solvents too. Sometimes
it is necessary to help a solute to dissolve.
Warming and stirring are the most common
way of making a solute dissolve faster.
Most solutions are formed with a liquid
solvent and a solid solute. However, this
is not always the case. Alcoholic drinks
are example of liquid-liquid solutions. The
alcohol (ethanol) is dissolved in water.
Gases can also dissolve in liquids. The
bubbles in soft drinks are evidence of the
gases coming out of solution.

180 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 ACTIVITY 5.1.3: MAKING PERFUME: ANOTHER SOLUTION

What you need: lavender flowers, methylated spirits, scissors, jar with lid
1 Cut the lavender flowers into tiny pieces and place them in the jar.
2 Cover the lavender flowers with methylated spirits.
3 Seal the jar and leave overnight.
4 The following day, dip your finger in the methylated spirits and dab it on a piece
of paper or your wrist.
5 Allow the methylated spirits to evaporate, and then smell the paper or your wrist.
• Why is this mixture considered to be a solution? Identify the solute and solvent.
• Would this experiment work if you put the lavender flowers in a jar of water?
• Why is it handy that the methylated spirits evaporates easily?

Suspensions
When soil is mixed with water in a glass or
beaker it does not dissolve but forms a type
of mixture called a suspension. When a
suspension is left undisturbed on a bench
the solid particles will eventually settle
at the bottom of the glass. Suspensions
usually need to be shaken or stirred before
use to spread the sediment through the
liquid again.
The mixture in a snow dome can be
described as a suspension, with the ‘snow’
being suspended in the water for a short
time before it falls to the bottom of the
dome to form sediment.
Colloids
a
When two or more substances are mixed
they don’t always separate out over time.
Suspensions that don’t separate easily
are referred to as colloids. These can be
formed by a solid in a liquid but can also
involve only liquids, only gases or even a
solid suspended in a gas. The word ‘colloid’
comes from the Greek word kolla, which
means ‘glue’. You can think of a colloid
as a substance being ‘stuck’—suspended in
b
another substance.
The benefit of colloids is that they don’t Figure 5.5 A malted milk
need to be mixed before use. Hair gel and drink after (a) stirring and
(b) settling. Particles that
hand cream are examples of colloids. float are known as ‘cream’.

Figure 5.4
A shaken snow
dome contains a
suspension.
Figure 5.6 Fog is a
ACTIVITY 5.1.4: MAKING A FOAM colloid because it is air
containing suspended
liquid particles.
Foam is a colloid of gas particles suspended in a liquid.
What you need: cream or egg white, hand or electric whisk, large metal bowl. Whip
the cream or egg white until it increases significantly in size and holds its shape.
• Explain why the foam that you have created is classified as a colloid.

5.1 TYPES OF MIXTURES 181

 Emulsions
An emulsion is a colloid of two or more
liquids. Usually one liquid is the ‘base’ and
the other is broken into tiny droplets spread
throughout the base liquid. Milk is an
example of an emulsion, with tiny droplets
of fats and oils spread throughout the base,
which is water.
In some cases, when mixtures like this
are left to settle, the tiny droplets float
above the base liquid. (This is different to
what happens in a suspension, where the
solid particles tend to fall to the bottom
of the liquid.) A substance called an
emulsifier can be added to these mixtures
to allow the liquids to remain completely
mixed.
The most common emulsions are
mixtures that include different types of oil
mixed with water and an emulsifier. These
include food and drinks, and emulsion
paints for walls and ceilings.

Figure 5.7 Milk is a type of

colloid called an emulsion.
ACTIVITY 5.1.5: MIXING OLIVE OIL AND WATER

What you need: olive oil, water, jar with screw-top lid, detergent
1 Two-thirds fill a jar with equal parts of water and oil. Observe what happens.
2 Put on the lid tightly and shake the mixture vigorously. Observe what happens
immediately and over time.
3 Add a couple of drops of detergent to the mixture and shake the jar again.
How does the mixture change?
a 4 Explain what is happening using the terms ‘colloid’, ‘mixture’, ‘emulsion’
and ‘emulsifier’.

QUESTIONS 5.1.2: TYPES OF MIXTURE

Remember
1 Define the following terms:
b a solvent
b solute
Figure 5.8 Salad dressing c suspension
(a) before and (b) after
adding an emulsifier. d solution
2 List two common solutions and identify which component is the solute and solvent.
3 Identify mixture(s) in which you would find sediment.
4 Recall the difference between a colloid and a solution.

Apply
5 Explain what type of mixture is in a muddy river. How do you know?
6 Explain why some mixtures appear cloudy when light shines through them.
7 Are the particles in a suspension, colloid or emulsion soluble? Explain your answer.
8 Complete the following table for mixtures.
Type of Substances Appearance when light Separates on Example
mixture involved shines through standing?

Suspension Solid + liquid Cloudy Yes, slowly

Emulsion
Colloid
Solution

182 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 WORKING WITH SOLUTIONS
You have seen that a solution is a solute
dissolved in a solvent. Solutions can be
compared in terms of their concentration—
how much solute is in a solvent. If just a little
solute is dissolved the solution is described
as dilute (low concentration). If a lot of
solute is dissolved the solution is described as
concentrated (high concentration).
It is only possible to dissolve a certain
amount of a particular solute in a solvent.
If no more solute can dissolve into a solution
then the solution is described as saturated—
it cannot dissolve any more. If you add
too much sugar to a cup of tea it won’t all
dissolve and the excess sugar will settle to
the bottom of the cup.
We often work with solutions. By adding
solutes to pure liquids the properties of the
pure liquids may be changed. An example
is adding bath crystals to a bath to give
a pleasant smell. Adding salt to water
increases the boiling temperature of the
water, increasing the speed at which food
will cook in it.

STUDENT DESIGN TASK

Making it dissolve
Many solutes dissolve only in certain solvents. Some dissolve very slowly, and when they
do only a certain amount of solute dissolves before the solution becomes saturated.

Challenge
To investigate ways to alter the rate (speed) of a solute dissolving and/or the amount
of solute that will dissolve.

Questioning and predicting

Questions to ask yourself as you design your experiment include:
• What substances will work well as the solute and solvent?
• Which variables will be kept the same when testing how quickly a substance will
dissolve or how much will dissolve?
• Which variable is the one that is changed in each scenario?
• How will I know if something has dissolved or not?
• What glassware will I need?
• What sort of table and/or graph should I draw up to show my results?
Planning and conducting
• Make a list of the materials you will need and your method.
• Show these to your teacher for approval.
• Complete one or both of the investigations, filling in your table of results.
Processing, analysing and evaluating
1 Which substances did you use in your investigation?
2 How did you affect the rate at which the solute dissolved?
3 How did you affect the amount of solute that was able to dissolve?
4 What do your results show?
5 Can you think of any situations in everyday life that would benefit from
understanding the results of your investigation?
6 How would you change this experiment to find out more about dissolving?

Communicating
• Present your investigation using the headings of a formal experimental report.

5.1 TYPES OF MIXTURES 183


Figure 5.9 Oxygen dissolved
in water is essential for
aquatic organisms. What
would happen if the oxygen
could not dissolve in the
water?
Water as a solvent
Water is a good solvent. This is one
of its most important properties.
Our digestive system uses water
to dissolve solid and liquid food.
The digestive system breaks up
the food into nutrients that
bodies need for energy, growth
and repair.
Our bodies contain more
than 70% water. Our blood, which
is mainly water, transports oxygen to
every cell and carries dissolved carbon
dioxide gas (a waste product) to our lungs
where it is breathed out.
STUDENT DESIGN TASK
Humans are not the only living things
that depend on water as a solvent. Without
water’s ability to dissolve gases, much of
the underwater life in our oceans, lakes and
rivers would not survive. Organisms such
as fish rely on the oxygen dissolved in water.
Water is used in many industries to
manufacture chemicals and mixtures, such
as detergents for cleaning. Detergent (the
solute) is added to water (the solvent) in an
amount that makes the solution safe and
effective to use. Farmers spray chemicals
dissolved in water on crops to help them
grow, and on weeds to kill them. They also
use chemical solutions to protect livestock
and plants from disease.

Is water a good solvent?

Challenge
To test copper carbonate powder, bath salts, talcum powder, flour, cooking salt and
brown sugar for solubility in water.

Questioning and predicting

Questions to ask yourself as you design your experiment include:
• Which variable will be kept the same (controlled variable) when testing the six
substances to see if they dissolve?
• Which variable will be changed (independent variable)?
• What variable will I be measuring (dependent variable)?
• How will I know if something has dissolved or not?
• What glassware will I need for six tests?
• What sort of table should I draw up to show my results?
• Which substances do I predict will be soluble?
Planning and conducting
• Decide on the safety equipment you will need to use.
• Make a list of the materials you will need and your method.
• Consider how you will dispose of the wastes produced by the experiment.
• Show your plans to your teacher for approval.
• Complete the experiment, filling in your table of results.
Processing and analysing
1 How many substances were soluble in water? List them.
2 Did any of the substances that did not dissolve form a suspension? Which ones?
3 Which substances took the longest to dissolve? Why do you think this happened?
4 Were any of your results unexpected?
5 Name three other substances that you know dissolve in water.
6 Do you think water is a good solvent? Give reasons from your experiment.

184 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 Evaluating
Discuss this experiment with your classmates. Outline how you would improve your
experimental method to find out more about dissolving. Did you find that any other
students used a different strategy to solve the problem?

Communicating
Think of a question about variables that could be included in the planning section of
the report. Add this question to your report and present it to your teacher or class.

DEEPER
Desalination and water recycling U N D E R S TA N D I N G

In a dry country such as Australia we are justifiably concerned about a safe,

accessible water supply. In 2010 the Kurnell Desalination Plant was completed,
to help ensure that water will be available to people in Sydney during times of
drought. Five large desalination plants in Australia produce drinkable water, with
more to be built in the future. a
Desalination is the process of removing dissolved minerals such as salt from
salty water or treated wastewater. Removing the minerals from salt water is an
expensive process that uses a lot of energy.
Large businesses that need water, such as those in the mining industry,
sometimes recycle their water. The main method used for recycling is the same
as for desalination, but the water to be recycled may contain different types of
minerals at different concentrations. The water is recycled to a quality that is
suitable for its purpose. For example, there is no need to use energy for extra b
treatment to make it drinkable if it is only being used for cooling machinery parts.
Figure 5.10 (a) These
filters are part of the
EXPERIMENT 5.1.1: SALTY OR FRESH? desalination process.
(b) The Kurnell
Desalination Plant.
Imagine if you were really thirsty and you found a colourless and see-through liquid. Is
it water? There are many other colourless and clear liquids, and you don’t know what
substances might be dissolved in them. Tasting might be dangerous. There are more
scientific ways of working out whether a liquid is pure.
You will be testing three samples of water—A, B and C. A is salt water, B is fresh
water and C is unknown. Complete the tests on each of the three samples and record
your observations in a table. After completing the three tests you will be able to
determine if water sample C is salt water or fresh water.
Test 1
Aim
To test for the presence of salt in water.

Materials
• 3 test tubes
• Silver nitrate solution, in a dropper bottle
• Water samples A, B, C
WARNING

> Silver nitrate is colourless so it is difficult to see if spilt. However, after a few
minutes, silver nitrate will stain clothing and/or your skin dark brown. Be careful
not to spill it, and always wear a lab coat and gloves. At the end of the experiment
make sure you check with a teacher about how to dispose of samples containing
silver nitrate.

5.1 TYPES OF MIXTURES 185


Clean water on wire
(no change to flame)
ire Salt water on wire
me) (flame turns yellow–orange)
Figure 5.11 The flame
test for salt.
186 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4
Method
1 Add water sample A to a test tube to a depth of about 2 cm.
2 Your teacher will test for the presence of salt by adding five drops of silver nitrate.
Salt causes silver nitrate to go milky.
3 Your teacher will repeat the test with silver nitrate on water samples B and C.
4 Record the results in your table.
Test 2
Aim
To compare the results of the flame test for fresh water and salt water.
Materials
• Wire loop • Watch glass • Water samples
• Bunsen burner • Heatproof mat A, B, C
Method
When some substances are heated they produce particular colours. The sodium atoms
in salt (which has the chemical name sodium chloride) produce a yellow/orange-
coloured flame when heated over a Bunsen burner.
1 Pour a small amount of water sample A into a watch glass. Dip the wire loop in the
water and heat it over a blue Bunsen burner flame.
2 Repeat the flame test on water samples B and C.
3 Record the results in your table.
Test 3
Aim
To compare the electrical conductivity of fresh water and salt water.
Materials
• 3 beakers • Power source (battery or power pack)
• Carbon rods • Digital conductivity meter or electrical
• Water samples A, B, C meter (Figure 5.12)
WARNING
> Pure water does not conduct electricity but salt water does. Even the tiniest
amount of salt allows the water to conduct electricity. This is why you should
never use an electric appliance when the floor you are standing on or your
clothing and body are wet.
Method
Electrical
1 Place some carbon rods in a beaker Carbon rods meter
containing water sample A. Battery
2 Connect the rods to an electrical
meter or digital conductivity meter
and a battery.
3 Check the meter to see if electricity
is being conducted.
4 Repeat for water samples B and C.
Figure 5.12 Testing for salt with electrodes.
5 Record the results in your table.
For all three tests
Results
Complete the following table.

Water sample Silver nitrate test (teacher only) Flame test Electrical conductivity test
A (salt water)
B (fresh water)
C (unknown)

Discussion
Was the unknown water sample C fresh water or salt water? Justify your answer.

Conclusion
What do you know about the properties of salt water? Write a short paragraph to
answer the aims for all three tests.

QUESTIONS 5.1.3: WORKING WITH SOLUTIONS

Remember
1 If someone asked for a dilute glass of cordial, explain if you would use a lot of cordial
or only a little before adding the water to fill the rest of the glass.
2 Identify the name for a solution that cannot dissolve any more solute.
3 Identify if this statement is true or false: You can see the particles of a solute in
a solution.
4 Identify a method to determine whether a clear, colourless solution is fresh water
or salt water.

Apply
5 Describe two examples of our dependence on water as a good solvent.

Critical and creative thinking

6 Refer back to the Student Design Task: Making it dissolve.
a Identify two techniques that can be used to increase the rate at which a solute
dissolves in a solvent.
b Identify at least technique that can be used to increase the amount of solute that
will dissolve in a solvent.
c Evaluate whether a single change to conditions will increase both the rate and
the amount of solute that will dissolve in the solute at the same time. Identify all
the variables that would need to be controlled and write a step-by-step method
of how to carry out your experiment.

5.1 TYPES OF MIXTURES 187

 5.1
CHECKPOINT
TYPES OF MIXTURES
Remember and understand
1 Examine Figure 5.13 and identify the
suspension, solution and colloid.
[3 marks]
2 If you shone a light through a solution,
what would happen? Compare this to
shining a light through a suspension.
[2 marks]
3 Identify the following substances as
pure or not pure:
a aluminium foil [1 mark]
a
b polystyrene [1 mark]
c wine [1 mark]
d freshly squeezed orange juice
[1 mark]
e banana [1 mark]
f raw sugar [1 mark]
g eraser [1 mark]
b desalination plants.
4 Identify three examples of common
household solutes. [3 marks]
5 Outline what sedimentation is. In what
type of mixture does it occur? [2 marks]
Apply
6 If the instructions on the side of a bottle
state ‘Shake well before use’, what
type of mixture do you think the bottle
c contains? Explain. [2 marks]
Figure 5.13 7 Mayonnaise is made by combining egg
yolks with oil and lemon juice. Explain
why you think the egg is added to this
mixture. [1 mark]
8 Nail polish remover and paint stripper
are both useful solvents.
a What is a solvent? [1 mark]
b Identify the solute for each solvent
mentioned above. [1 mark]
9 Amira was measuring the solubility of
two chemicals (A and B) in water. She
placed a spatula full of each substance
Figure 5.14 Chemical A (left),
in a separate test tube of water.
and Chemical B (right). Figure 5.14 shows what she observed.
188 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4
Use the words dissolve, solvent, solute
and suspension to explain what has
happened in each test tube. [2 marks]
Analyse and evaluate
10 Salt water, fresh water and white
vinegar are all colourless, clear
liquids. Outline how you could
quickly and safely identify each of the
solutions. [3 marks]
11 Water is often described as a universal
solvent.
a Explain why you think water is
considered universal. [1 mark]
b Identify three situations in which
water acts as an important solvent.
[1 mark]
Critical and creative thinking
12 Do some further research on water
a Describe at least two issues that
affect the use of desalination plants
in Australia. [2 marks]
b Debate the statement, ‘The use
of desalination plants is a waste
of money’ with another student in
your class. Outline the arguments
used for both sides of the debate.
[5 marks]
Making connections
13 A substance is usually described by its
physical properties, such as colour and
strength. When a substance is mixed
with other substances, what changes
occur to its physical properties? Why is
this important? Describe a household
example to support your answer.
[4 marks]
TOTAL MARKS
[ /40]
SEPARATING MIXTURES
Mixtures are everywhere, and many people deal with mixtures in some
way. Whether they create, choose, use or separate mixtures, a wide range
of people need to understand mixtures. What mixtures have you made
today? What mixtures have you used today? Perhaps you have separated
a mixture today.
MAKING MIXTURES
Not all mixtures need to be separated. In fact,
many industries make mixtures. Most of the
mixtures we use have been tested many times
to make sure they are just right for their
purpose.
Food mixtures
When you make a cake, the amount of
each ingredient you use affects the cake’s
taste and texture. Getting the balance of
ingredients or substances just right can be
the difference between a successful mixture
and a complete failure. Cooks and chefs
taste what they’re making to test the balance
of salty, sweet, sour and bitter.
Some products we eat are made in very
large amounts. Packaged foods are usually
made in bulk and often by machines rather
than people. The machines are programmed
to add ingredients in exact quantities and to
mix all ingredients extremely well so that
they are evenly distributed in the mixture.
Figure 5.15 Large amounts of dry ingredients are
used to manufacture soup.
5.2
Figure 5.16 Mixtures of food
are tasted during cooking to
test for the balance of parts
of a mixture.
Pharmacy mixtures
Sometimes we need a pharmacy mixture
to help us recover from an illness, or
to prevent an illness. It might be an
ointment for a skin rash, an antibiotic
tablet for an infection or a solution for a
vaccination. Each mixture contains an
active ingredient (the medically active
particles) and other substances that
make the mixture stable and able
to be used in a particular way such
as being rubbed in, swallowed or
injected. Sometimes these mixtures
are manufactured and delivered to
a pharmacy, and sometimes a
pharmacist has to prepare them.
Tiny changes to the component in
the mixture or the proportions of the Figure 5.17 Getting the
components can change the way the right mixture of chemicals
in medication is important
pharmacy mixture will work. It may make if they are to work.
the medicine more or less effective, produce
or reduce side effects. Pharmacy mixtures
are very thoroughly tested to make sure
they do the job they are supposed to. Once
the right mixture has been discovered,
they must be prepared carefully to ensure
no contaminants are introduced to the
mixture and all the components are in
the correct proportions.
5.2 SEPARATING MIXTURES 189

Mixtures for machines
Petrol stations give you more fuel options
than ever before. Unleaded petrol, diesel,
biodiesel and LPG gas are available because
they are used in different types of vehicle.
Unleaded petrol now comes in different
mixes—regular, premium and with ethanol.
Different engines are built with slightly
different needs, and technology keeps
improving.
Figure 5.18 Different fuels Old cars with smoky exhausts are
suit different vehicles.
probably burning too much petrol—their
engines aren’t getting the balance of the
mixture right. Lawn mowers and similar
small motors rely on you to make a mixture
of petrol with other additives yourself.
Get the balance wrong and you might ruin
your machine.
Machines that burn fuels such as
oil and petrol cause air pollution and
contribute to the enhanced greenhouse
effect. Some scientists are trying to find
fuels that create less pollution. The types of
substances and their amounts are crucial
to these mixtures.

ACTIVITY 5.2.1: DAILY MIXTURES

Figure 5.19 A hydrogen-
fuelled car contains a
device that converts
hydrogen to electricity.
Think carefully about some of the things you did this morning before coming to school.
List about ten of them. You might include washing your hair, brushing your teeth or
pouring milk on your cereal. Copy and complete the following table to identify mixtures
and their role in your morning routine.
Activity Mixture(s) Created, used or separated?

Brushing teeth Toothpaste Foam created by mixing with water, foam used

QUESTIONS 5.2.1: MAKING MIXTURES

Remember
1 List three professions that involve making mixtures. Identify the mixture in
each case.
2 List five mixtures that you use every day. List five pure substances you use every
day. Which list was harder to compile? Suggest a reason why this might be.

Apply
3 Explain how the balance of substances in a named mixture might affect its use.
4 Describe how the balance of substances in a named mixture is used to tempt you
to buy it.
5 Describe the changes being made to mixtures for machines of the future.
6 Suggest a reason why the components of a mixture and their amounts are usually
listed on food and pharmacy products.
7 Investigate the importance of components and their proportions in a mixture. Find
a simple recipe, for example, scones. Bake a batch using the ingredients and the
amounts specified by the recipe.
a Bake another batch substituting one ingredient for another, for example switch
self-raising flour for rice flour. In what way has changing the mixture changed
the product?
b Bake another batch, but this time halve the amount of every ingredient, so that
the proportions of components are still the same. Have you changed the mixture
this time? How has the product changed?

190 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 SIMPLE SEPARATION
For some mixtures we can pick out the
bits we want to separate. When this isn’t
possible, there are other methods that can
be used.
A mixture contains components that
can be separated due to their different
physical properties. Physical properties are
how a substance looks (size, mass, texture,
shape, volume) and how it behaves around
other substances (magnetic, soluble). A
good way of separating mixtures is to try
to identify a physical property that is very
different between the components in the
mixture. For example, one substance might
dissolve in water and another might not.
One substance might be magnetic and
another is not.

ACTIVITY 5.2.2: SEPARATION CHALLENGE

Imagine you are shown a sample bag of evidence containing a mixture of four substances:
sand, iron filings, sawdust and salt. You are given the challenge of working out how to
separate the four pure substances without damaging them in any way.
1 Think about the properties of each pure substance. This may help you to decide on
a way to separate the substances. Copy the table into your notebook and fill in what
you know about the properties of sand, iron filings, sawdust and salt.

Substance Soluble in water? Attracted to a magnet? Floats on water?

Sand

Iron filings

Sawdust

Salt

2 Discuss with a partner some possible ways to separate the four substances.
3 Draw up a flow chart showing the steps you will take to separate the four substances.
Label the flow chart ‘Separation challenge plan A’.
4 Follow the instructions of your flow chart and attempt to separate the different
substances.
5 Review your method. Did you successfully separate each of the materials? How
could you modify your flowchart to improve the separation? Write a new flowchart,
owchart,
labelled ‘Separation challenge plan B’.
parating
6 You used three physical properties to separate substances. Were the separating
techniques you used effective? Often, there are many ways to achieve the same
outcome, but perhaps one is quicker or easier.

5.2 SEPARATING MIXTURES 191

 ACTIVITY 5.2.3: SEPARATION TECHNIQUES SUMMARY

1 Using word processing software, create a table like the one shown. Make sure you
have plenty of room for descriptions and diagrams.
2 In the first column, list the six separation techniques explained throughout this
chapter. You will continue to fill in the table as you learn about each separation
technique.
Separation How it Description of method Diagram of Two mixtures that
technique separates equipment the technique
separates

Sedimentation Separates Add water to mixture and

and flotation by weight, stir. Allow heavy material
using water to settle. Scoop off
floating material. Decant
liquid to get sediment.

Centrifuging

Magnetic
separation

Filtration

Evaporation and
crystallisation

Distillation

Sorting and magnetism

Figure 5.20 At a materials
recovery facility, non-
recyclable items must be
separated from other waste.
Many different activities produce waste.
Some waste, such as paper and glass, can
be recycled. Waste materials to be recycled
must be sorted so that all items of one type
can be collected. When you use recycling
bins you are starting this process yourself.
The partially sorted waste from recycling bins
is sent to a materials recovery facility where
useable items are separated and bundled.
Magnetic separation is a method of
separating magnetic materials from non-
magnetic substances. Food cans, nails and
other metals (iron, nickel and cobalt) can
be removed from waste materials by using a
strong electromagnet. Using the property of
magnetism these materials can be separated
from other non-magnetic materials, such as
glass and paper.

ACTIVITY 5.2.4: METALLIC CEREAL (DEMONSTRATION)

What you need: breakfast cereal fortified with iron, glass beaker, magnetic stirrer with
magnetic ‘flea’
1 Crush the breakfast cereal and add a cup full of water into the glass beaker.
2 Add the magnetic ‘flea’ and place on magnetic stirrer.
3 Leave for 20 minutes and observe the ‘flea’. Look closely for black grains—these
are iron filings! Research whether these iron filings can be taken up by the body
as nutrition.

Figure 5.21 Magnets are used to

separate metals in recycling plants.

192 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 Decantation, sedimentation and flotation
Imagine you have a jar of water with
muddy sediment at the bottom of the jar.
To separate the water from the sediment
you could pour the water away. This is an
example of decantation. Decantation is
often done to remove sediment from wine
before drinking the wine.
Sedimentation and flotation are used
in sewage treatment to separate the mixture
of substances. Sewage is left in settling ponds
to allow the sediment to settle to the bottom.
Fats and oils that have floated to the top of
the ponds can be scooped off and then broken
down by bacteria. When the materials float
without help, passive flotation is possible. If
Figure 5.22 Sewage treatment
they don’t, the mixture can be separated by involves sedimentation and
adding chemicals or blowing bubbles into it to flotation.
carry particles to the surface.
In certain situations, sedimentation can
be difficult. Chemicals called flocculants
can be added to a mixture to make
suspended particles clump together. This Figure 5.23 Decanting wine
makes them heavy enough to settle to the separates the undrinkable
bottom. Flocculation is regularly used to sediment.

separate substances from water.

ACTIVITY 5.2.5: CLEANING DIRTY WATER USING FLOCCULATION

What you need: muddy water, sodium carbonate solution, aluminium sulfate solution,
2 jars, 2 test tubes
WARNING

> Handle the aluminium sulfate solution with care, wear eye protection
and avoid contact with skin. Wear a lab coat and vinyl gloves.

1 Half-fill each jar with muddy water and label as A and B.

2 Add half a test tube of aluminium sulfate solution to jar A.
3 Slowly add half a test tube of sodium carbonate solution to jar B
4 Leave both jars undisturbed for about 15 minutes.
5 Record your observations, comparing the water in jar A to that in jar B.

Differences in density However, if the substance is less dense than

Sedimentation and flotation separate
the parts of a mixture by using differences
in density. When some insoluble substances
are added to water they will quickly settle
to the bottom of the container as sediment.
water, like wood, it will float to the top.
As you saw in the previous section,
materials that float in water can be easily
separated from the water by scooping
them off.

5.2 SEPARATING MIXTURES 193

05_ZHA_IS7_77549_SI.indd 193 1/09/2017 1:29 PM

 EXPERIMENT 5.2.1: SEPARATING MIXTURES USING SEDIMENTATION
AND FLOTATION

Aim
To separate two different mixtures using sedimentation and flotation.

Materials
• Two mixtures: A (containing sand and sawdust); B (containing sand and salt)
• Water • Stirring rod
• Spatula • 2 beakers
Method
1 Place at least three heaped spatulas of mixture A into a beaker.
2 Add water and stir the mixture.
3 Wait until sedimentation has occurred.
4 Scoop off any floating material from the top of the water. Decant the water to
retrieve the sand.
5 Repeat the procedure for mixture B.

Results
Include images or observations here.

Discussion
1 How successful was the method for separating and collecting the sand from
mixture A?
2 How successful was this method for collecting sand from mixture B?
3 What are some of the difficulties with decantation?
4 List the advantages of the combined sedimentation/flotation separation system.
5 After separating the two substances from mixture B, suggest what would need to
be done to collect the salt as a solid.

Clean-up
After separating a mixture make sure that all insoluble solids go into a specially
provided container. Only throw substances in the bin if your teacher says it is okay to
do so. Never wash solids down the sink. List three reasons why disposing of solids
down the sink is not a good idea.

Conclusion
Describe the processes of sedimentation and flotation.

DEEPER
U N D E R S TA N D I N G Cleaning up oil spills Most oil spills on land usually don’t
spread very far, so removing the oil is
Although it is easy to soak up small
relatively simple. If the spill is small
oil spills in the home, larger oil spills can
enough it will be soaked up using an
create huge problems. Wildlife may be
absorbent material such as sawdust,
injured or killed, and the environment in
followed by the use of a special surfactant
which the spill occurs may be affected
(similar to dishwashing liquid) to remove
for many years. Special oil spill clean-up
any leftover stain. In other spills a
teams can help when this problem occurs.
chemical or biological agent is applied
How fast the clean-up team gets to the
directly onto the spill. Fertilisers can
site of the spill, and how far the spill has
be applied to encourage the growth of
spread, usually determines the method
microorganisms that help to break down
they will use to treat the spill.
the oil into natural substances.

194 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 Oil spills on water can travel on the surface of the
water and spread quickly due to currents, wind and wave
action. Oil pollution over large areas can significantly affect
the environment. Three clean-up methods are shown in
Figures 5.24–5.26.
Sometimes oil spills will be left alone. This is done when
there is no harm to wildlife or nearby communities. The
sun, wave action and weather all contribute to the natural
breakdown of oil in water and, eventually, the oil will evaporate. Figure 5.24 Clean-up crews may set oil on fire in a process
called in situ burning, but this produces toxic smoke.

Figure 5.25 Often oil spills in tropical areas are treated with
dispersants. These chemicals help to break an oil slick apart and
absorb it into the environment more quickly.
Figure 5.26 A spill that has occurred recently may not
have spread very far so a containment and skimming
method is used. The oil is trapped on the surface in large
floating booms, which makes it easier to use boats to
remove the oil by sucking or scooping it from the water.

Mass, gravity and

centrifuging
Sedimentation occurs in many mixtures
because of the weight of the particles. Weight
is caused by the mass of the particles and the
influence of gravity. In some cases mixtures
do not separate well by sedimentation
because the particles are not heavy
enough. In these cases centrifuging makes
sedimentation happen.
Centrifuging separates light and heavy
particles by spinning a mixture. A centrifuge
is a machine that spins very quickly. In
a laboratory, small test tubes of mixtures
are fixed to the inside of the bowl of the Figure 5.27
centrifuge. The spinning motion causes the A spinning washing
machine acts
heavier particles to move to the bottom of like a centrifuge,
the tubes. separating water
out of clothes.
This principle was used during the gold
rush when many were trying to make their
fortune panning for gold. Gold is so much
heavier than the gravel in which it is usually Figure 5.28 Gold is
heavier than the fine
mixed that the gold settles to the bottom gravel in which it is
when the pans are swirled. usually mixed.

5.2 SEPARATING MIXTURES 195

 Centrifuges are used in dairy processing
factories to separate cream from milk
(a type of colloid). The blood bank also
uses this method to separate blood into
its components—plasma, white blood cells
and platelets, and red blood cells. Medical
professionals use different parts of blood
depending on the particular medical need.
Salad spinners and washing machines also
work using this principle.

ACTIVITY 5.2.6: CENTRIFUGING MILK

Figure 5.29 When a
suspension such as blood
(left) is spun in a centrifuge,
the red blood cells, which are
heavier, sink to the bottom
of the test tube leaving the
yellowish liquid part of blood
(plasma and platelets) at the
top (right).
In this activity you will centrifuge a milk solution. It separates in a similar way to blood.
What you need: test tube, centrifuge, full-cream milk
1 Label your test tube with your name and part fill it with milk.
2 Pass your test tube to the teacher and observe how he or she sets up the centrifuge.
3 Examine the test tubes when the centrifuge completes the separation.
4 Draw one of the test tubes after centrifuging, labelling the parts of the milk you
can see.
5 Research the components of milk. Based on your findings, try to identify the
components you saw in your activity.

Figure 5.30 Tea bags are
a common household filter.
Figure 5.31 A HEPA filter is
used to filter fine particles
from the air.
Filtration: size matters the holes in the paper. Most solid particles
in suspensions are not. Different filter
Anyone who has cooked pasta will probably
papers come with different-sized holes.
have used a colander or sieve to separate the
Coffee filters and the filters found in
boiling water from the cooked pasta. The
vacuum cleaner bags are both made of
holes in the colander or sieve are designed
paper filters. Filter paper with finer holes is
to let the water flow through them, leaving
used in laboratories to separate out the fine
the pasta in the sieve.
suspensions.
Filters control what can pass through
Sometimes filters remove substances
using holes of different sizes and shapes.
using chemicals rather than by physical
Grates on stormwater drains filter water
means. Gas masks often contain a special
from leaf matter and rubbish, but the holes
type of charcoal that attracts and holds onto
need to be big enough to cope with heavy
some poisonous gases, so that the person
rains. Fly screens on windows and doors
wearing the mask doesn’t breathe them in.
filter bugs and some dust from the air, and
tea bags filter the leaves from the liquid.
Most filters separate mixtures by size.
The smaller the holes in the filter, the more
limited the substances that get through.
HEPA (high-efficiency particulate air)
filters are used in vacuum cleaners, air
conditioners and dust masks to remove
tiny dust particles.
In the process of filtration, the
filtrate passes through the filter and the
residue is left behind in the filter.
Filter paper is a paper sieve with
holes that are too small to see. Solutions
can flow through because the particles in Figure 5.32 A gas mask
solutions are small enough to fit through contains activated charcoal
that filters poisonous gases.

196 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 SCIENCE
Setting up for filtration SKILLS

1 Fold a round filter paper in half, then in 2 Unfold the filter paper and lay it flat.
half again to get quarters, then in half
again to get eighths.

3 Re-fold back and forth over the creases 4 Set up the funnel and flask as shown.
to obtain a fluted shape.

5 Place the filter paper into the funnel. 6 Dampen the filter paper with some
extra water to help it stick to the sides
of the funnel.

8 Keep adding the mixture slowly until it

is all used up.
9 Extra water can be added to the beaker
mixture to pour out the last solid
particles.
10 Wait for the filtration to finish. Remove
the filter paper carefully and allow it
to dry.
7 Slowly pour a mixture from a beaker into
the funnel. Do not overfill the funnel.

5.2 SEPARATING MIXTURES 197

 EXPERIMENT 5.2.2: FILTERING A MIXTURE OF SAND AND SALT

Aim
To separate the components of a mixture of sand and salt.

Materials
• Mixture of sand and salt • Small funnel
• Beaker • Filter paper
• Conical flask (100 mL) • Stirring rod
• Spatula
Method
1 Follow the instructions in the previous Science Skills to set up the filter paper and
conical flask.
2 Add warm water to the sand and salt mixture, then stir to dissolve the salt.
3 Filter the sand from the remainder of the mixture.

Results
Include images or observations here.

Discussion
1 What physical properties are being used to filter substances?
2 Describe at least three things you need to be careful about when filtering.

Conclusion
What do you know about using filtration to separate sand from salt?

Electrostatic charge is created

Electrostatics
Imagine a hot, dry and windy day.
Dust is blowing all around you. You
walk over to a drinking fountain—zap! You
put a jacket over your nylon school jumper—
zap! You get into your family car—zap! Even
once you are home the carpet zaps you!
These are all examples of static electricity
at work. The science of static electricity is
called electrostatics.
when certain materials are rubbed and
negative charges are removed. The materials
become a bit like a magnet, attracting some
materials and repelling others.
Electrostatics can be used to separate
certain substances from their mixtures.
Special cloths can be added to clothes
dryers to attract lint and fluff away from
your clothing. Similar materials can be
used to dust your home. Electrostatic
separators can be added to chimneys to
remove smoke and dust from exhausts.
Photocopiers use electrostatics to attract
toner onto paper in just the right places to
form the image.

Figure 5.33 Lint and dust are electrostatically

attracted to this special duster.

198 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

ACTIVITY 5.2.7: DEMONSTRATING A CHARGE

What you need: plastic comb, wool cloth, Rice Bubbles or similar cereal, large plastic
bag with tie, plastic rod or pen, small pieces of paper, balloons, markers, string

Part A
1 Rub the plastic rod with the wool and then place it near the cereal.
2 Put some of the cereal in the plastic bag. Blow air into the bag and seal it with
the tie.
3 Rub the wool over the plastic bag.
4 Rub the wool over both the plastic bag and the comb.
5 Record what happens for each step.
• Explain your observations using the idea of electrostatic charge.

Part B
1 Rub the plastic rod or pen with the wool and bring it close to some small pieces
of paper.
2 Draw a piece of paper with four positive and four negative charges on it. What
happens to these charges when the positively charged wool is brought close to it?
• Explain why the paper is attracted to the plastic rod or pen.

Part C
1 Blow up a balloon and draw a face on it. (Take care: Some markers can cause the
balloon to pop.)
2 Tie the balloon onto a string and suspend it from a doorway or ceiling, using tape
so it is level with your head.
3 Rub the balloon face with a wool cloth and walk towards it.
4 Record what happens.
• How close do you have to be before your ‘balloon face’ is attracted to you?
• What happens if you put a piece of paper between you and the balloon?
5 Blow up another balloon and draw a face on it. Tie it with a string and rub it with
a woollen cloth.
• What happens when you bring it close to your other balloon?
• Explain your observations using the idea of electrostatic charge.

Part D
1 Rub the plastic rod with wool and place it near a very thin stream of running water.
Be careful not to let the water touch the rod.
2 Record what happens.
• Explain your observations using the idea of electrostatic charge.

5.2 SEPARATING MIXTURES 199

 QUESTIONS 5.2.2: SIMPLE SEPARATION

Remember
1 Identify three filters around your home and school. What substances do these
filters allow to pass through them and what substances do they collect?
2 Write a sentence to distinguish between the terms in the following pairs:
a sedimentation/flotation
b soluble/insoluble
c residue/filtrate
3 Suspensions can be made to separate by a process of sedimentation with another
substance. Recall the name given to the substance added.
4 Describe how centrifuging a mixture can be used to separate its parts.
5 Identify two occupations where centrifuges are used.

Apply
6 Identify the types of materials that can be separated out of a mixture using
magnets.
7 Identify the physical property of substances that
allows them to be separated using sedimentation
and floatation.
8 Is a butterfly net an example of a filter?
Justify your answer.
9 Describe a situation where you might rely on
people to separate a mixture by hand.
10 Describe the separation technique you would
use to separate:
a cooking oil and water
b iron nails and grass cuttings
c polystyrene beanbag beans and pebbles
d salt and chalk
11 You have a watery mixture containing small pebbles, coarse sand and silt. You have
access to a sieve, fine mesh, filter paper and a number of containers. Suggest an
effective method of separating the water, pebbles, sand and silt using the available
equipment.

Evaluate
12 Evaluate the limitations of magnetism when separating mixtures.
13 A student tried to separate out a solution of copper sulfate (which can be dissolved
in water) using filtration. Evaluate the validity of this method.

Research
14 Research and describe how an air classifier works in a waste recycling plant.
15 Research how activated charcoal works in filtering out substances such as waste
from fish tanks, or toxic gases when used in gas masks.

200 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

SEPARATING MIXTURES
Remember and understand
1 Describe three mixtures that you make,
three that you use and three that you
separate in everyday life. [3 marks]
2 When making mixtures, explain what
can be just as important as the choice
of ingredients. [1 mark]
3 Blood contains a number of different
components: plasma, platelets, white
blood cells and red blood cells.
a Identify which separation technique
is used to separate the parts of
blood. [1 mark]
b Describe which physical property is
being used to separate this mixture.
[1 mark]
Apply
4 Identify the physical property that
is used to separate mixtures using
filtration. [1 mark]
5 Identify a job that would require you to
use each of the following separation
techniques:
a evaporation and crystallisation
[1 mark]
b filtration [1 mark]
c flotation [1 mark]
d magnetic separation [1 mark]
e electrostatic separation [1 mark]
f decantation [1 mark]
6 Describe how you could remove the
following substances:
a pepper from salt and pepper
[1 mark]
b polystyrene balls from water
[1 mark]
c iron pellets from sand [1 mark]
d dust from air [1 mark]
e dust from chimney smoke [1 mark]
f sand from sugar [1 mark]
7 Imagine you have just bought a large
factory. Due to flood damage it is filled
with tonnes of matchsticks mixed with
tonnes of iron scraps.
a Explain how you would separate the
5.2
CHECKPOINT
mixture. [2 marks]
b What equipment would you need to
make this happen on such a large
scale? [1 mark]
Analyse and evaluate
8 A washing machine is a sieve and a
centrifuge at the same time. Using
labelled diagrams, explain how it is a:
a centrifuge [1 mark]
b sieve [1 mark]
9 Water is sometimes called the
universal solvent. Evaluate how
accurate this statement is. [2 marks]
10 As you read in ‘Cleaning up oil spills’
earlier, there are a number of different
ways to manage and clean up after
an oil spill. Copy and complete the
following table to evaluate the different
methods of treating an oil spill.
[6 marks]
Management
Description Advantages Limitations
technique
Absorbent
materials
Surfactants
Biological agents
and fertilisers
Containment
and skimming
In situ burning
Dispersants
Ethical understanding
11 Discuss how mixtures can be
manipulated to make people buy them.
Do you think this is dishonest or clever?
[2 marks]
5.2 SEPARATING MIXTURES 201
 Critical and creative thinking
12 Rescue workers often wear gas masks
when working in dangerous areas. The
air they breathe is passed through a
carbon-filled cartridge that needs to be
replaced regularly. Explain:
a the role of the cartridges [1 mark]
b why they need to be replaced
[1 mark]
13 Outline why water is important as
a solvent. [2 marks]
14 In the fairytale Cinderella, she is tasked
with separating a mixture of rice and
salt. She uses pigeons to help with
this task. If Cinderella were a scientist,
how would she go about separating her
mixture? [1 mark]
Making connections
16 Dirty water is a big problem in many
developing nations where access to
clean water is limited. Water may be
contaminated with not only particles
you can see (dirt and clay) but also
microorganisms that can cause disease
(such as Vibrio cholerae, the bacteria
that causes the disease cholera).
Research into:
a how water is treated in Australia
to remove impurities to make it
drinkable [2 marks]
b methods used by developing nations
to provide clean drinking water to
remote villages [2 marks]
c what cholera is, and what other
disease-causing microorganisms
can be found in untreated water.
[2 marks]

15 Think of a profession that involves

separating mixtures and imagine you
are in that profession 10 years from
now. What techniques might you use to
separate mixtures? What interactions
are involved in these separations? How
will separating the mixtures change
the behaviour of the substances? How
might the methods used have changed
in the past ten years? [5 marks]

TOTAL MARKS
[ /50]

202 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

SEPARATING SOLUTIONS
Most of the substances we know are mixtures. People have worked out
how to separate the useful materials in a mixture. Separating mixtures is
important because there are so many uses for the individual substances
they contain. Different separation techniques need to be used when the
mixture is a solution.
5.3
USING HEAT FOR SEPARATION
Filtration, sedimentation, flotation, Evaporation and crystallisation
centrifuging and magnetic separation are techniques separate the substances in a
useful for some types of separation—when solution by removing the water (solvent),
the mixture is insoluble. But scientists leaving behind a solid (solute). Dissolved
need to use other techniques when these solids can be separated from water by
methods aren’t suitable in order to separate evaporation due to heating. Solids
components of a solution. will eventually form by the process of
Heating a solution can separate crystallisation.
substances. When the heating is controlled, If a liquid mixture is heated in an
substances can be separated without open container or apparatus, some of the
destroying their structure or properties. liquid will evaporate (change to a gas).
The substances left behind will eventually
become dry powders or crystals.
Evaporation and A similar technique is used to purify
crystallisation salt and sugar. We use both in the form
of dry crystals produced using evaporation
Did you know that evaporation is the secret
until there’s no moisture left. Some other
to a great bolognaise sauce? Evaporation is
foods are dried out to help them last longer
used in cooking to make sauces thicker. In
or make them lighter for carrying on a
this situation it is often called ‘reduction’
hiking trip.
because it is reducing the amount of liquid. Figure 5.34 Sauces become
This concentrates the flavours, which makes thicker after evaporation.
the sauce tasty.

Figure 5.35 Salt is obtained from oceans

through the process of evaporation. The
picture shows salt extraction occurring
in evaporative ponds.

5.3 SEPARATING SOLUTIONS 203

 EXPERIMENT 5.3.1: REMOVING A SALT BY EVAPORATION AND
CRYSTALLISATION (TEACHER DEMONSTRATION)

Aim
To separate a salt from a solution by evaporation and crystallisation.

Materials
• Evaporating dish • Salt solution
• Tripod • Beaker (250 mL)
• Clay triangle • Magnifying glass
• Bunsen burner and heatproof mat
Method
1 Half-fill an evaporating dish with the salt solution.
2 Place the evaporating dish on the clay triangle over the tripod.
3 Heat the evaporating dish, with the flame at full strength.
4 When the solution starts boiling, half-close the Bunsen burner collar. (Don’t change
to a yellow flame—this is not the same.)
5 Add more solution to the dish as the level drops due to evaporation. Be careful
as the evaporation nears completion because the hot salt may spit and splatter.
6 Turn off the Bunsen burner when just a little liquid remains with the salt. Leave the
dish to cool.
7 Examine the salt crystals with a magnifying glass.

Results
Draw a diagram of the crystals in your notebook.

Discussion
After the water has evaporated from the solution, salt remains in the evaporating dish.
1 If the solution contained a mixture of more than one solute, would the separation
technique used in this experiment be suitable? Explain.
2 What is wasted in this experiment? Can you think of any way this could be avoided?

Conclusion
Explain how evaporation and crystallisation can be used to separate a mixture of salt
and water.

EXPERIMENT 5.3.2: GROWING CRYSTALS

Aim
To grow crystals by evaporation and crystallisation.

Materials
• Alum (potassium aluminium sulfate) • Pencil
• 2 evaporating dishes • Cotton thread
• Water • Hot water bath
• 2 beakers • Filter paper
• Teaspoon • Bunsen burner and heatproof mat

Method
1 Dissolve 1 teaspoon of alum in 3 teaspoons of water in a beaker.
2 Gradually stir in small amounts of alum until no more will dissolve.

204 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

3 Heat the beaker over a Bunsen burner and dissolve about one-quarter of another
teaspoon of alum. You have created a super-saturated solution.
4 Leave the beaker overnight or longer until crystals form in the bottom.
5 Remove several larger crystals and dry them on some filter paper.
6 Return the beaker to a hot water bath and dissolve a little more alum.
7 Tie the cotton around one of the removed crystals and use the pencil to suspend
it in the alum solution.
8 Leave the crystal for several days, watching it grow. The solution may need to be
‘re-saturated’ every couple of days.

a b c

Figure 5.36 (a) Dissolve

the alum in water. (b)
Heat the solution and
dissolve more alum. (c)
Dry some large crystals.
(d) Dissolve more alum in
the remaining solution.
d e (e) Suspend a crystal on
a string in the solution.

Results
Record your observations here, including a diagram.

Discussion
1 What is a super-saturated solution?
2 Why was a crystal suspended in the solution for the second part of the experiment?
3 What shape was the crystal? How can this be explained?
4 Were all the crystals grown by the class the same size and shape?
How can this be explained?
5 What factors affect the size of a crystal?

Conclusion
What do you know about growing crystals?

5.3 SEPARATING SOLUTIONS 205

 ACTIVITY 5.3.1: CITRIC ACID CRYSTALS

Citric acid is a solid substance present in citrus fruits such as lemons and limes.
In this activity you will try to obtain some crystals of citric acid.
What you need: juice of one lemon, beaker, water, hotplate, filter funnel, filter paper,
evaporating dish
1 Mix the lemon juice with an equal volume of water in a beaker.
2 Heat the liquid gently on the hotplate for 15 minutes to reduce it slightly.
3 Line the filter funnel with filter paper.
4 Pour the liquid through the filter funnel into the evaporating dish.
5 Leave the dish in a sunny position until all liquid has evaporated.
• Use a diagram to illustrate the crystals formed.

Distillation The steam forces open the parts of the

plant in which the oils are stored, and the
Distillation can be used to separate a
oil evaporates into the steam. When the
solvent from a solution. In this technique,
steam is cooled it condenses and the oil,
most of the liquid solvent is evaporated
which floats on top of the water (they don’t
and the solvent vapour produced is not
mix), can be removed.
allowed to escape. Instead, it is cooled to
The discovery during the 19th century of
change it back to a liquid by a process called
a cheap way to distil kerosene from crude
condensation. This way there is no waste
oil caused an increase in demand for this
and all the various parts of the solution can
product around the world. This discovery is
be reused.
thought to have contributed to the decline
Steam distillation can be used to extract
of the whaling industry because kerosene
(remove) oils from plants. People have
was a cheaper fuel for lighting than the
used the oils in plants since ancient times.
whale oil being used at the time.
Today, we use oils from all sorts of plants
for cooking and in many manufactured
goods, such as soap. Many plants contain
oils that are used in medicines. Other plant
oils have a pleasant fragrance.

Thermometer
Water out

Flask

Solution
Water in

Heating mantle Condenser

Distillate
Figure 5.37 Distillation equipment commonly
Figure 5.38 The still is an important part
used in science laboratories.
of whisky production.

206 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 Gas
Methanol is an impurity in whisky. It
20° C
can be evaporated from whisky because it
has a lower boiling temperature than the
other liquids in the whisky, and therefore 150° C
will evaporate while the other substances Gasoline
remain liquid. The type of distillation used (Petrol)
to separate different liquids from a mixture
200° C
Crude oil
is called fractional distillation. Crude oil Kerosene
can be separated into different fuels using 300° C
this method because each boils at a different Diesel oil
temperature.
370° C
Fuel oil

400° C

Figure 5.39 The process of fractional distillation used to

Lubricating oil,
separate petroleum. Different ‘fractions’ are separated due Paraffin wax,
to the difference in boiling points. Asphalt
Furnace

STUDENT DESIGN TASK

Separation challenge
Challenge
Plan a technique that will separate a mixture of sand, salt, sawdust and iron filings.
Questioning and predicting
• Review your original plan (A) that you prepared for Activity 5.2.2.
• Modify the plan, given what you have learned about separation techniques.
Planning and conducting
• Draw up a new plan (B) to separate the substances and a new flow chart.
• Devise an aim and a materials list for your experiment.
• Write a detailed method for separating the substances. Include at least two
diagrams.
• What safety issues might arise during this experiment?
• Have your plan checked by your teacher.
• Perform your separation experiments and make relevant observations. Figure 5.40 Some of the
equipment you may need for
Processing, analysing and evaluating the separation challenge.

1 How much did you need to modify plan A to get plan B?

2 Rate plan B on a scale of 1–5, where 1 means the experiment did not work well and
5 means the experiment was a great success. If you completed this challenge as a
group, discuss your grading with others in your team.
3 How would you change plan B to improve the results on another occasion?
4 Did you manage to separate the four substances successfully? Write your answer
to this question as the conclusion in your laboratory report.

Communicating
Present your investigation in a formal experimental report.

5.3 SEPARATING SOLUTIONS 207

 QUESTIONS 5.3.1: USING HEAT FOR SEPARATION

Remember
1 What types of mixtures must be separated by evaporation, crystallisation and
distillation?
2 Explain the difference between evaporation and crystallisation.
3 Describe a situation in which you would use heat to separate a mixture at home.
4 Define the term ‘condensate’.
5 Identify the physical property used when liquid mixtures are separated through
distillation.
6 Define the term ‘saturated solution’.
7 Describe how you would produce a super-saturated solution.

Apply
8 Suggest a reason why you couldn’t use filtration to separate the salt and water in
sea water.
9 Give an example of a mixture you would separate using evaporation and
crystallisation. Explain why distillation would not be appropriate.
10 Draw the equipment setup that could produce pure water from salt water by using
distillation.
11 Identify the separation technique being conducted in Figure 5.38.
12 Examine Figure 5.39 of fractional distillation.
a Identify the fuel type with the highest evaporation temperature.
b If you had a mixture of kerosene and paraffin wax, which substance would
evaporate first?
c Suggest a reason why gas is produced at such a low temperature compared to
the other fuel types.

Research
13 Distillation was commonly used in industry to obtain pure water from salt water.
A more modern method of desalination is reverse osmosis. Use the Internet to
research this process and prepare a poster outlining the steps involved in the
process as well as evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of the process
compared to distillation.

208 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 SEPARATING SIMILAR SUBSTANCES
Separating pure substances in a mixture
by using their different properties is an
important skill. But what happens if you
have a mixture of things that all have similar
properties, such as three liquids mixed
together? How could you separate them?
How could you tell if the components were
all pure liquids or if one was really another
mixture? For example, the ink in a pen might
be a pure blue dye or perhaps it is a mixture
of coloured dyes that together appear blue.
Chromatography
Chromatography is a separation technique
that can separate mixtures of substances
that have very similar physical properties.
Paper chromatography can be used to
separate the different dyes used in ink.
Chromatography works because different
substances in a mixture flow at different
speeds over a solid surface.
The solid surface is a strip of special
paper. For a pen ink sample, tiny dots or a
line of the inks being tested are placed near
the bottom of the paper strip. The strip is
then suspended in a solvent, such as water,
with the sample dots above the solvent. The
solvent starts to creep up the paper, carrying
the ink particles with it. The different dyes
in the ink travel at different speeds, so they
separate. The dried paper is called a paper
chromatogram.
More complex and sensitive
chromatography instruments are used
to separate mixtures such as drinks and
polluted air. Instruments such as the high-
performance liquid chromatograph and the Figure 5.41 Paper
gas chromatograph can be used to detect
chromatography can be
used to separate samples
even one gram of a substance present in such as inks and dyes.
thousands of litres of solution. The mixture
separates as it travels through a tube.
Using computers, the instruments provide
information about the substances present
and their quantities.
Chromatography can be used to test the
urine of athletes for banned substances.
Coloured additives in foods can also be
analysed to identify substances that can
cause allergic reactions.

EXPERIMENT 5.3.3: WHO WROTE THE NASTY NOTE?

Your forensic laboratory is investigating a crime of extortion: one person is forcing or

frightening another into handing over money.
The police have identified that the extortion note was written with a black felt-tip
pen. They have collected a black felt-tip pen from each of the three suspects: Aunt
Aggie (a), Cousin Cranky (b) and Uncle Buncle (c). a
Other forensic scientists in your laboratory have already run a chromatography
test on the note written by the extortionist. After you have tested the three pens from
the suspects, collect the chromatogram from the original note from your teacher for
comparison.
Aim
To separate the inks from three different water-soluble black felt-tip pens. b
Materials
• 3 black water-soluble felt-tip pens (different brands, labelled a, b and c by your teacher)
(Note: Permanent pens are not suitable because they are not water-soluble.)
• Beaker (250 mL) • Scissors
• Glass rod • Pencil
• Salt solution (1%) • Ruler c
• Filter paper or chromatography paper
Figure 5.42 The suspects.

5.3 SEPARATING SOLUTIONS 209

 Method
1 Cut the filter paper or chromatography paper into three strips measuring
approximately 2 cm × 10 cm.
2 Draw a faint pencil line across the width of each paper strip, 3 cm from the bottom.
3 Label one strip ‘a’, another ‘b’ and the remaining one ‘c’. Make sure the label is at
the very top of the paper strip.
a
4 Carefully trace over the pencil line at the bottom of strip ‘a’ with the corresponding
felt-tip pen. (Do not make the line too thick.)
5 Do the same for the other two pens on their separate strips.
6 Add salt solution to the bottom of the beaker, no deeper than about 3 cm.
7 Hang the paper strips over the glass rod so that they just dip into the salt solution.
Make sure the salt solution does not touch the pen lines on the paper.
8 Leave the paper strips to soak up the salt solution until the solvent level is up to the
top of each paper strip (about 10–15 minutes).
9 While you are waiting, draw the diagram of the chromatography equipment in your
notebook, labelling all the parts.
10 When the chromatogram is finished take out the papers to dry.
b Results
Tape the dry chromatograms for suspects a, b and c in your notebook or workbook.
Collect and copy the chromatogram from the original note. Label this as the
extortionist’s chromatogram.

Discussion
1 Compare the chromatogram for the extortionist with those from the three
suspects. Do any of the suspects’ chromatograms match the one from the original
note? If so, which person is most likely to be guilty?
2 Which felt-tip pen (a, b or c) had the most colours in its black ink?

Conclusion
How can the inks from three different black felt-tip pens be separated?
c
Figure 5.43 (a) Trace
over the 3cm marker line
with the felt-tip pens. (b) QUESTIONS 5.3.2: SEPARATING SIMILAR SUBSTANCES
Hang the paper strips so
that they just dip into the
solution. (c) Remove the Remember
paper strips to dry.
1 Describe how chromatography separates inks and dyes.
2 Identify when chromatography is the best separation technique for mixtures.
3 Identify the name of the pattern produced by chromatography.

Apply
4 Propose a reason why some substances tend to travel further than others during
chromatography.

210 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

SEPARATING SOLUTIONS
Remember and understand
1 Identify a separating technique used to
detect drugs in sport. [1 mark]
2 Outline the major difference between
evaporation and distillation. [1 mark]
3 Give an example of a mixture that could
be separated into its parts by filtration.
[1 mark]
4 Explain what safety recommendations
you would give to someone using
evaporation and crystallisation.
[2 marks]
5 Imagine dropping salt in sawdust.
Describe how you would separate the
parts of this mixture. [2 marks]
Apply
6 Describe how you remove the following
impurities:
a copper sulfate from copper sulfate
solution [1 mark]
b water from copper sulfate solution
[1 mark]
Analyse and evaluate
7 Look at the results of paper
chromatography in Figure 5.44, taken
from blue pens belonging to suspects.
Compare these with the one taken from
the original forged cheque (X). Decide if
any of the suspects are likely to be the
culprit. [1 mark]
8 A particular coloured dye is being
created for Fashion Week.
a Look at the paper chromatography
of the dye mixture in Figure 5.45.
Identify how many pure dyes were
mixed to create the colour. [1 mark]
b Explain how chromatography could
help create an exact copy of the dye
for a rival manufacturer. [2 marks]
9 Different components of dye travel at
different speeds up the paper strip
in paper chromatography. Suggest
a reason why they would move at
different speeds. [1 mark]
5.3
CHECKPOINT
Critical and creative thinking
10 Which techniques, and in what order,
would you use to separate a mixture
of iron filings, sand, marbles and salt?
Present your answer as a flow chart.
[3 marks]
11 Three liquids are mixed together. Liquid
A has a boiling point of 85°C, liquid B
has a boiling point of 100°C and liquid
C has a boiling point of 115°C. Describe
the process you would use to extract a
pure form of liquid B. [3 marks]
Making connections
12 The chromatography you have
experimented with is called paper
chromatography. Use the Internet or
other research tools to find out about
thin layer chromatography. Compare
thin layer and paper chromatography.
Create a Venn diagram or other graphic
organiser to show the similarities/
differences and advantages/limitations
of the two types of chromatography.
[5 marks]
Figure 5.45
X A B C D
TOTAL MARKS
Figure 5.44
[ /25]
5.3 SEPARATING SOLUTIONS 211
 1 Fill in the blanks using the words from the Word Bank below.

5
A ______________________ is a substance that is able to dissolve a solute to form
a solution. Whilst there are many different types of solvents, water is known as a
______________________ solvent.

Filtering is like using a ______________________. The ______________________ lumps

are caught in the sieve, and the ______________________ goes through the filter
paper. The substance caught in the filter paper is called the ______________________.
The substance that passes through is called the ______________________.

The skill of separating substances is crucial in everyday life, as well as in science.

Around the house, ______________________ is made by separating the tealeaves from
the water through the use of a teabag, which acts as a ______________________.
In industry, ______________________ is separated through the use of centrifugation
CHAPTER so that different components can be obtained separately.

REVIEW Other examples of industrial separation include:

• fractional ______________________ of crude oil to obtain petrol
• distillation of plants to obtain ______________________ or pigments
• ______________________ separation to sort out recycling
• flotation to separate out ______________________
• ______________________ of stormwater to remove debris.
WORD BANK

Blood Distillation Electromagnetic Filter

Filtering Filtrate Liquid Oil
Residue Sewage Sieve Solid
Solvent Tea Universal

Physical properties can be used to separate mixtures

2 Complete the following table. [8 marks]

Name of process Physical property used to Example

separate

Flotation

Magnetic separation

Filtration

Decantation

Evaporation

Crystallisation

Chromatography

Distillation

212 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

Water is the universal solvent
3 Outline the importance of water as a
solvent. [1 mark]
4 Research the properties of water that
make it such a good solvent. [3 marks]
Solutions are composed of
solvents and solutes
5 Identify the parts of a solution. [2 marks]
6 Use a series of diagrams to explain
the differences between dilute,
concentrated and saturated solutions.
[3 marks]
Physical properties can be used
to separate mixtures
7 What is the name used for
combinations of two or more
substances? [1 mark]
8 Using examples, describe the
difference between a pure substance
and a mixture. [2 marks]
9 Define the term ‘filtration’. [1 mark]
10 Describe the separation technique you
would use to separate:
a cooking oil and water [1 mark]
b iron nails and grass cutting [1 mark]
c polystyrene beanbag beans and
gravel [1 mark]
d salt and chalk [1 mark]
11 Draw a flow chart to outline the steps
you would need to separate a mixture
of water, sand, pebbles and coffee
granules. [3 marks]
Separation techniques are used
in real life
12 Name a separation technique used
in the perfume industry to remove
aromatic oils from natural sources
such as plants. [1 mark]
13 Select one piece of equipment used
in the home to separate a mixture.
Identify the separation technique being
used and describe how the piece of
equipment works. [3 marks]
14 Compare the cost of using desalination CHAPTER
plants to their benefits. Prepare a
table to show the advantages and
disadvantages of using this method.
5 REVIEW
[4 marks]
15 Surface water run-off, litter and
sewage from houses along the
coastline can cause significant
problems for the marine life that live
close to these areas. Outline some
separation techniques you could use
to reduce the effects of pollution from
these sources. [2 marks]
Scientific skills are used
in separation techniques
16 Discuss the importance of separation
techniques used to separate the
components of blood. [1 mark]
17 Suggest some separation techniques
used in the food industry. How
important are they for quality food
production? [2 marks]
18 Some people set up home greywater
systems that don’t meet plumbing
laws. Find out what sorts of risks these
illegal systems might have. [2 marks]
19 A huge number of people in India, such
as the rag-pickers of Delhi, are involved
in recycling. Find out about these rag-
pickers and how their recycling system
is different to the one used in Australia.
[2 marks]
20 Imagine you are responsible for the
waste management of a small town.
Outline the ways you could reduce,
reuse and recycle the waste produced
in the town. [3 marks]
21 Explain why a forensic scientist
investigating a crime would want to
compare a mixture of sand and salt
found in a suspect’s car to a similar TOTAL MARKS
mixture found at the crime scene. [ /50]
[2 marks]
5 CHAPTER REVIEW 213
 RESEARCH
CHAPTER
5 REVIEW Choose one of the following topics to
research about working with mixtures.
Some questions have been included
Distillation for survival
Imagine you are hiking in central
Australia, have become separated from
to get you started. An important part your group and have run out of drinking
KEY WORDS of your report must be to include water. Research some techniques of
centrifuging observations. distilling water from gum leaves. As
chromatogram part of your report you might like to
chromatography How do we work with mixtures?
demonstrate one technique to the class.
colloid Research a separation technique used
compound in industry or in nature. Prepare a Human filtration
concentrated ‘SWOT’ analysis as part of your report, The human body needs to control
concentration listing the strengths, weaknesses, what goes into it and what comes out.
condensation opportunities and threats of the In particular, the filtering system of
crystallisation separation technique you chose to the kidneys prevents us from being
decantation research. You might choose to present poisoned by our own wastes, and tiny
dilute your report with a series of photos of hairs in our noses filter dust and germs
dissolve the technique. as we breathe. Find out more about
distillation these human filtration systems and see
Filters of the sea
electrostatics if you can identify others.
element Certain types of whales, known as
emulsifier baleen whales, have a filter in their Self-cleaning suburbs
emulsion mouth made of a bone-like substance New suburbs are being built on the
evaporation called baleen. Research what these outskirts of cities as our population
filter paper baleens do and what they filter. grows. In some of these new suburbs
filtrate Additionally, investigate how whales several features have been included to
filtration are different from other filter-feeders keep the water and air clean. Find out
flocculant such as barnacles, sponges and about strategies that are used to purify
flotation flamingos. water and air in these housing estates.
fractional distillation
insoluble
REFLECT

magnetic Me 7 How have the techniques of

mixture separating mixtures influenced
1 What new science laboratory skills
physical property industries around Australia and
have you learned in this chapter?
pure substance the world?
2 What was the most surprising thing
residue you found out about mixtures?
saturated My future
3 What were the most difficult 8 How do you think the science of
sediment
aspects of this topic? mixtures might change in the
sedimentation
4 What will you do now to help future?
soluble
improve your understanding of 9 Would you ever consider a career
solute
separation techniques? as a forensic scientist? Investigate
solution
5 What can you do to help with what you would need to study at
solvent
recycling of waste materials? university to become a forensic
suspension
scientist.
My world 10 Outline some of the problems that
6 How might your understanding would occur if the recycling of waste
of pure substances and mixtures materials was not carried out.
affect your life?

214 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 Sustainable water use at home

5
Australia’s weather can be unpredictable. c how grey water is purified
To cope with this a little better, Australians
d why more people don’t install
are encouraged to think carefully when
greywater systems in their homes
building new homes, businesses and even
e what ‘black water’ is and where
gardens.
‘black water’ goes.
Drought-tolerant plants are big sellers
in plant nurseries all over Australia. Gone 4 Certain plants can act as effective filters
are the days when ‘English’ country gardens of rainwater. When it rains, some water
were practical options, with succulents and ends up in the underground water
native species the flavour of the future. table and can be pumped up for use
We’ve reduced the watering needs of our elsewhere. Find out more about plants
gardens. In some places the government has and filters. MAKING
restricted our use of water and the price of CONNECTIONS
water is increasing.
Rainwater tanks are popping up in
backyards all over the country, more water-
saving shower heads are being used and the
use of greywater systems is increasing.

1 Investigate how rainwater tanks collect

and purify water for use on the garden
and in the home.
2 Investigate how water-saving devices
such as shower heads are able to
reduce water flow.
Figure 5.46 A water-
3 Find out more about greywater systems. saving shower head.
Investigate:
a what grey water is
b which water from the home can
be re-used
Figure 5.47 A rainwater tank.

Figure 5.48 Greywater apparatus. Figure 5.49 Reed beds act as natural filtering systems cleaning the water of many impurities and toxins.

5 MAKING CONNECTIONS 215

6
THE EARTH,
SUN AND MOON
The universe is an amazing place. When you look up at the sky at night and observe the stars
and the patterns they make, imagine a time long ago when humans looked into the same sky but
had a very limited understanding of what they saw. Many ancient civilisations saw that the stars
moved across the sky, and tracked their movements to predict the seasons. In the 15th century,
astronomer and mathematician Nicolaus Copernicus suggested that the seasons were the result
of the Earth being tilted on its axis. Today, technology is allowing us to learn more about space
than the people of ancient times could ever have imagined.
 INTERACTIONS BETWEEN THE
EARTH, THE SUN AND THE MOON 6.1
Life on the Earth experiences a number of cyclic phenomena caused by the changing positions
of the Earth, the sun and the moon relative to each other. This movement is a combination of
the rotation and orbits of the Earth around the sun and the moon around the Earth.
Students:
» Explain predictable phenomena like day and night, seasons and eclipses
by the relative positions of the sun, Earth and moon
» Describe the effect of the forces of the sun and moon on the tides (additional)

UNDERSTANDING THE SOLAR SYSTEM 6.2

People have always looked up into the sky and tried to explain the movement of the moon, the
stars and the sun. From stories of ancient gods to measured orbits and gravity,
our understanding of the solar system has changed as more information and evidence
has been discovered.
Students:
» Demonstrate how the ideas from different cultures, including ancient and indigenous,
have contributed to the current understanding of the solar system
» Compare historical and modern models of the solar system to demonstrate the
development of models due to new scientific evidence

LEARNING ABOUT SPACE 6.3

The knowledge we have gained about the solar system is a result of the development of
scientific technologies. As the technology improves, so too does the quality and amount
of information we can gather about the solar system.
Students:
» Describe examples of how technological advances have
increased scientific understanding of the solar system
» Investigate the contribution of different areas of science to space exploration (additional)

217
 6.1 INTERACTIONS BETWEEN THE
EARTH, THE SUN AND THE MOON
Looking through telescopes at the moon and stars, scientists have come
up with many theories to explain our place in space. As technologies have
developed, scientists have been able to learn more about where we fit in
our solar system and have explained many of the ways our planet interacts
with the sun and the moon.
INTERACTIONS WITH THE SUN
Our solar system consists of the sun and
eight planets, plus dwarf planets (such as
Pluto), many moons and asteroids. The sun
is at the centre of our solar system and the
planets revolve around it. The path travelled
by the planets and the moons is called an
orbit because of its oval or elliptical shape.
Our solar system is almost flat. As the
planets orbit the sun they are almost all
moving along the same imaginary surface.
218 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4
The Earth spins on its axis as it moves
around the sun. This spinning, which is
described as rotating, causes night and day.
The gravitational force between the sun and
the Earth holds the Earth, and all the other
planets in our solar system, in orbits around
the sun.
Night and day
The Earth is three dimensional and so only
half of the planet can be in the sunlight
at any given time. The rest of the Earth is
in its own shadow. The side that faces the
sun is lit up and is experiencing daytime,
while the side facing away from the sun is
experiencing the darkness of night.
Day and night are caused by the Earth
spinning on its axis, which is an imaginary
line joining the North and South Poles. It
takes the Earth 24 hours to complete one full
rotation, which is why there are 24 hours
in a day. If the Earth’s axis was straight up
and down there would be exactly 12 hours
of day and 12 hours of night, however, the
Earth’s axis is tilted at an angle of about 23°.
This means the further away a location is
from the equator, the greater the difference
between the lengths of day and night.
All parts of the Earth experience periods
of day and night because the planet rotates
on its axis, exposing each region to sunlight
and darkness at different times.
Figure 6.1 The gravitational force between the sun and
the Earth holds the Earth in its orbit around the sun.
 In Figure 6.2, it is daytime in the
countries on the right and night-time in the
countries on the left. Can you tell which
countries are experiencing sunrises or
sunsets?
Have you ever watched the New Year’s
Eve celebrations around the world on
television? You would have noticed that
New Zealand celebrates the New Year just
before Australia. The Earth rotates west to
east. We know this because, as the Earth
spins towards the sun, we see the sun rise
above the horizon in the eastern sky. Sunset
occurs when your part of the Earth rotates
away from the sun. New Zealand is east of
Australia so the sun rises in their sky before
it does in Australia each day.
When you are at the geographic North
or South Pole, the sun doesn’t rise and set
every day. It rises just once a year at the
spring equinox and sets at the autumn
equinox, giving six months of day and
six months of night. Equinox is the time
when the sun is directly over the equator.
This occurs twice a year: on 20–21
March (autumn equinox) and on 22–23
September (spring equinox) in the southern
hemisphere. During an equinox, day length
and night length are equal.
Figure 6.2 The half of the Earth facing the sun
experiences day and the half facing away from
the sun experiences night.
Figure 6.3 The midnight sun at the poles
of the planet does not set during summer.
Seasons
The tilt of the Earth on its axis causes
different regions of the Earth to
point towards or away from the
sun at different times of the year.
This causes the different parts of
the Earth to experience changing
lengths of daylight and night-
time, as well as changing climates—
which we know as the four seasons.
Australia experiences summer when
the southern hemisphere is tilted towards
Figure 6.4 Deciduous plants
the sun. Rays from the sun hit the Earth at change with the seasons.
right angles and the sun appears to be high
in the sky. More of the heat radiation from
the sun’s rays enters the atmosphere because
of the angle, producing warmer temperatures.
In Australia’s winter the southern hemisphere
is tilted away from the sun. The rays from
the sun hit at a much greater angle and are
Spring equinox
Summer solstice Sun Winter solstice
Northern summer Northern winter
Southern winter Autumn equinox Southern summer
Figure 6.5 The Earth’s rotation and orbit cause day and night, as well as the seasons.
6.1 INTERACTIONS BETWEEN THE EARTH, THE SUN AND THE MOON 219
 therefore more spread out. As a result, the
southern hemisphere experiences cooler
temperatures and the sun appears to track a
lower path through the sky.
The northern hemisphere’s seasons are
the opposite of ours. During a southern
summer the northern hemisphere is tilted
away from the sun and is experiencing
winter.
Australia does not tend to experience
the changes in seasons as drastically as a
country like England. This is because of our
location on the Earth. Countries closer to
the poles will experience greater variation in
the seasons compared with countries closer
to the equator.
A year
A year is the time a planet takes to make one
complete orbit around the sun. The Earth
does this in approximately 365.25 days. Our
calendar is set up so it has an exact number
of whole days: we usually have 365 days in
a year. An extra day is added to the month
of February every four years to make up the
difference. This is known as a leap year.
Mars takes about twice as long as the Earth
to orbit the sun. Therefore, a definition
of a year on Mars is twice as long as an
Earth year.

ACTIVITY 6.1.1: HOW DOES THE EARTH MOVE IN SPACE?

This is a whole-class activity.

A simple model can demonstrate night and day, seasons and a year.
What you need: model of the Earth (this can be a globe, an Earth ball or a balloon with
the continents drawn on it with a felt-tip pen), torch or projector, light bulb on stand

Night and day

1 Make your classroom as dark as possible and shine light from a torch or a
projector onto the model of the Earth. This shows the model Earth in night and day.
It is daytime on the part of the Earth with the light shining on it, and it is night on
the part of the Earth in shadow.
2 Rotate the globe so that dawn, then dusk, then dawn appears.
• In which direction should the Earth spin? (Hint: It is dawn in Sydney more than
two hours before sunrise in Perth.)

Seasons
1 The Earth is tilted as it orbits the sun. Hold your model Earth so it is tilted slightly.
Imagine the axis is tilted to point towards 1 and 7 on a clock face. Do not change
this tilt during the activity.
2 Walk slowly in a circle around the lamp representing the sun, at the same time
rotating the model Earth. Make sure the tilt always points in the same direction.
When it is summer in Australia the sun is almost overhead. In winter, the sunlight
arrives at an angle and is more spread out.
• When you have walked half a circle around your sun, stop and look at the model
Earth. How is it different? Which part of the Earth is having summer?

A year
1 Darken your classroom and set a single light bulb on a stand in the middle of the
room. This is a model of the sun, which shines light in all directions.
2 Hold your model of the Earth and walk in a circle around the lamp. This is the Earth
going around the sun. One circle or orbit is one year. To model the Earth accurately
you should spin the Earth as it orbits the sun.
• How many times should the Earth spin in one orbit?

220 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

QUESTIONS 6.1.1: INTERACTIONS WITH THE SUN

Remember
1 Describe the difference between the terms ‘rotation’ and ‘orbit’.
2 Define the term ‘axis’ when applied to the Earth.
3 Define the terms ‘day’, ‘night’, ‘season’ and ‘year’ using these explanations:
a is caused because the sun can be overhead or at an angle at different times
of the year
b the name for the rotation of the Earth over 24 hours
c the time for the Earth to orbit the sun once
d is experienced by the part of the Earth facing away from the sun
4 Match the four seasons experienced in Australia with the letters on Figure 6.6.

c Sun a

Figure 6.6

5 Identify how long the Earth takes to:

a spin once
b orbit the sun once
6 Define the term ‘equinox’ and identify what makes it a special time of year.

Apply
7 Identify which country experiences dawn first out of Australia and New Zealand.
Explain why this happens.
8 Explain why we experience a leap year every four years.
9 Demonstrate why January is hotter than July in Australia by using your
understanding of the motion of the Earth around the sun.
10 Explain why temperature differences between summers and winters in Canada are
more extreme than temperature differences in Fiji.
11 Draw labelled diagrams to demonstrate the different positions of the Earth and the
sun during night and day in Australia.

Research
12 Research how long a year is on another planet in the solar system. How long is
their day?
13 Based on your research of year lengths on other planets, is there a relationship
between the length of the year and the distance of the planet from the sun?

6.1 INTERACTIONS BETWEEN THE EARTH, THE SUN AND THE MOON 221

Figure 6.7 Only one side
of the moon is ever visible
from the Earth.
222 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4
THE EARTH AND THE MOON
The moon is the closest body in space to the
Earth and is the Earth’s natural satellite
(an object that orbits a planet). It is a ball
of rock about a quarter of the size of the
Earth. It slowly spins as it orbits the Earth,
while the Earth spins and orbits the sun.
The moon rotates only once during its orbit
of the Earth every 27.3 days. For this reason
only one side of the moon can ever be seen
from the Earth.
Table 6.1 compares the rotation and orbit
of the Earth and the moon.
Table 6.1 Rotation and orbit times of the Earth
and the moon.
Time for one Time for one
Body
rotation orbit
Earth 365.25 days
24 hours
(around the Sun)
Moon 27.3 days (around
29.5 days
the Earth)
The moon cannot produce its own light,
but instead reflects light from the sun to the
Earth at night. Its gravitational pull influences
our tides. Humans have investigated the
moon to study our solar system. The moon
remains the only body in space that humans
have visited.
Moonlight
Unlike the sun, the moon does not create its
own light. Instead, it reflects sunlight back
towards the Earth. The amount of reflected
light varies but even the full moon only
provides a faint light, which often appears
bluish to the human eye. We can sometimes
see the moon during the day. We always
see the same side of the moon from the
Earth because the time taken for the moon
to orbit the Earth is nearly the same as the
time taken for the moon to complete one
rotation of its axis. This process is known
as synchronous rotation. The other side
of the moon, which we cannot see from the
Earth, is often called the ‘dark side of the
moon’ even though it experiences a period
of light every day.
Phases of the moon
Sometimes only part of the moon is visible.
You might see half a moon, a crescent or
a fully round moon. Sometimes the moon
can’t be seen at all, even though it is in the
sky. These changes in the shape of the moon
are called phases of the moon (Figure 6.9).
Of course the moon does not change
shape—it is always round. What changes is
the amount of the sunlit part of the moon
we can see from the Earth. We are really
looking at the day and night parts of the
moon. The moon rises and sets, just like the
sun. The moon rises about 50 minutes later
from one day to the next. During the day,
the sky is usually so bright that the moon is
often hard to see. The moon cycles through
the phases. When the moon is in the sky but
not able to be seen it is called a new moon.
It will then appear to become larger over a
few days, which is called waxing. When we
can see the entire illuminated portion of the
moon we call this a full moon. The moon
then appears to become smaller, which is
called waning.
Figure 6.8 Moonlight is reflected light from the sun.
The moon does not produce its own light.
 ACTIVITY 6.1.2: PHASES OF THE MOON

What you need: torch or lamp with exposed light bulb, globe or basketball, tennis ball
In small groups, use a torch or light bulb in a fixed position to represent the sun. One
person should hold a globe or basketball to represent the Earth, and another should
hold a tennis ball to represent the moon.
Begin by rotating the Earth as it orbits the sun. Try to work out how the moon would
orbit the Earth as the Earth orbits the sun.
• How does this explain why we only see one side of the moon?
• When people refer to the ‘dark side of the moon’ are they always talking about
exactly the same side?

Galileo’s moon
The Italian astronomer and physicist
Galileo Galilei made the first scientific First quarter
description of the moon in 1609 based
on his observations through a telescope.
At the time it was believed that the moon Gibbous Crescent
had a smooth surface, which explained its
ability to reflect light from the sun. Galileo Full New
observed something different. He saw the
rough, mountainous terrain and vast craters
that we now know cover the surface of the
moon. He even described large flat plains
that we call ‘maria’ (pronounced mahr-ee- West East
ah; Latin for ‘seas’) because they look like
dark oceans. We now know these plains to Figure 6.9 The phases of the moon.
be solidified lava.

Exploring the moon

The moon is the only body in space (except
the Earth) on which humans have actually
stepped. It has a weak gravitational pull and
no atmosphere—there is no air to breathe.
Astronauts must wear space suits fitted with
breathing apparatus.
Neil Armstrong and Edwin ‘Buzz’ Aldrin,
in July 1969, were the first humans to walk
on the moon on the Apollo 11 mission. The
astronauts could jump higher and further
because the force of gravity on them was
only about one-sixth of the Earth’s gravity.
They found kangaroo-hopping easier than
walking on the moon.

Figure 6.10 Galileo’s observations through his telescope

showed that the moon’s surface is not smooth.

6.1 INTERACTIONS BETWEEN THE EARTH, THE SUN AND THE MOON 223
 The surface of the moon is made of fine
grains of dust that stick together like damp
sand. The footprints made by the Apollo 11
astronauts should still be visible in a million
years because there is no wind or water to
destroy them. However, the footprints may
be covered with dust from meteor impacts.
Images of the moon landing were
beamed around the world, which was
possible due to the satellite dishes located
at Honeysuckle Creek and Parkes in
New South Wales.

Figure 6.11 The first moon landing was televised

around the world and was front page news on
21 July 1969.

QUESTIONS 6.1.2: THE EARTH AND THE MOON

Remember
1 Identify these statements as true or false.
a The moon creates light.
b The moon does not supply light to the Earth.
c The moon changes shape during different phases.
d The moon is the closest body in space to the Earth.
e Craters are large indentations on the moon’s
surface.
f Galileo made the first scientific discovery about
the moon.
2 Define the following terms:
a satellite
b synchronous rotation
c waxing
d waning
3 Explain how moonlight is produced.
4 Identify the bodies in space where humans have been.

Apply
5 Distinguish between the terms ‘orbital length’ and
‘rotational length’.
6 Explain, using simple terms, why we only see one side
of the moon from the Earth.
7 Describe how the moon waxes and wanes each cycle.

Research
8 Investigate Australia’s role in the first moon landing
in 1969.
Figure 6.12 Australian
scientists at the Parkes
9 Research the common saying, ‘only once in a blue
satellite dish played a moon’. What is a blue moon, and how often does
critical role in the moon it occur?
landing.

224 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 TIDES
The Earth’s gravitational pull holds the are facing the moon, and low tides are when
moon in orbit. The moon has its own it is not.
gravity, even though it is far less than that When the sun, the moon and the Earth
of the Earth. Gravity is related to the size are aligned during a full or new moon, a
and density of an object, and its distance stronger gravitational pull causes very high
from objects on which it acts. The moon is and very low tides, known as spring tides
about one-quarter of the size of the Earth (Figure 6.13). Smaller neap tides occur
so its gravity is much weaker, but it is very during the moon’s quarter moon phases.
close to the Earth so its gravity still has At these times the sun and the moon are at
some effect. right angles to the Earth, reducing the effect
The gravitational pull of the moon causes of the gravitational forces.
the oceans to bulge out in the moon’s
direction. This causes the oceans to cover
Spring tide Neap tide
slightly more land, which we see on the
Earth as a high tide. The Earth is also being
pulled towards the moon (and away from
the water on the opposite side), so another
high tide occurs on the opposite side of the
Earth. As the moon travels around the Earth
and as both bodies travel around the sun,
the combined force of gravity causes the
world’s oceans to rise to high tides and fall
to low tides. Because the Earth is rotating
while this is happening, two high tides occur
each day, about 12 hours and 25 minutes The gravity of The gravity of
sun and moon moon and sun pull
apart. High tides happen when the moon’s pull togther at right angles
gravitational field is pulling because the seas to each other
Figure 6.13 The moon’s gravitational pull on the oceans creates spring and neap
tides. (The bulges shown here have been exaggerated so they are easier to see.)

Figure 6.14 The biggest change in the depth of water between (a) low and
(b) high tide occurs at the Bay of Fundy in Nova Scotia, Canada. The narrow,
a
funnel-shaped inlet causes changes in depth of up to 17 metres.

6.1 INTERACTIONS BETWEEN THE EARTH, THE SUN AND THE MOON 225
 N U M E R AC Y
BU I L D E R Calculating tides
Table 6.2 shows the times of high tide at Your turn
Sydney’s Bondi Beach over three days. 1 Calculate the difference between:

Example a the last high tide on Saturday and

Calculate the difference between the two
high tides on Sunday. The two high tides
are 1.9 m at 8.19 am and 1.4 m at 8.57 pm.
Subtract the value of the smaller tide from
the larger tide:
1.9 – 1.4 = 0.5 m
the next one on Sunday
b one high tide and the following low
tide on Saturday
2 Can you predict the time and height of
the first low tide on Tuesday?

Table 6.2 High tides at Bondi Beach, Sydney.

Saturday Sunday Monday

Time Height (m) Time Height (m) Time Height (m)

12.48 am 0.5 1.44 am 0.4 2.34 am 0.4

7.27 am 1.8 8.19 am 1.9 9.07 am 1.9

2.14 pm 0.3 3.01 pm 0.2 3.44 pm 0.2

8.08 pm 1.3 8.57 pm 1.4 9.41 pm 1.4

QUESTIONS 6.1.3: TIDES

Remember
1 Identify what causes the tidal changes on the Earth.
2 How many high and low tides occur each day? Explain your answer.
3 Define the term ‘neap tide’ and contrast this to a ‘spring tide’.

Apply
4 If you were at the beach, how would you identify the difference between high tide
and low tide?
5 Examine Figure 6.13. Would you experience greater tidal movements if you lived
near the equator or the poles?
6 King Sound is a large gulf in northern Western Australia near the town of Derby.
It experiences particularly extreme changes between high and low tides.
Investigate the reason for these extreme tidal changes and the feature they
form in King Sound.

226 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 ECLIPSES
Solar eclipse

WARNING
> Never look directly at a solar
eclipse because it can cause
You may have realised in Activity 6.1.2 that permanent damage to your eyes,
the moon passes between the sun and the even through sunglasses.
Earth once every 29.5 days. Occasionally
the moon will be in a position where it
blocks some of the light from the sun. Lunar eclipse
This is known as a solar eclipse. During A lunar eclipse occurs when
a total solar eclipse, the moon blocks the Earth moves between the
the maximum amount of light from the moon and the sun. The moon
sun and the sky goes dark for a short passes into the Earth’s shadow
time during the day. When was the most and appears dark.
recent total eclipse of the sun visible from A lunar eclipse can only
Australia? When will the next one occur? occur during a full moon.
When a total eclipse is visible in However, they don’t happen
Australia, people somewhere else in the every full moon because the
world may only see a partial eclipse. This angle of the moon’s orbit
is when only a section of the sun’s light is around the Earth is slightly
blocked. Because the Earth and the moon different to the Earth’s orbit Figure 6.15 The corona is
are always moving along their orbits, around the sun. An eclipse only occurs too faint to see when the sun
an eclipse takes a few minutes and then is shining. When there is a
when all three celestial bodies are lined up
total solar eclipse, the faint
gradually passes as the Earth and the moon perfectly. lines that the corona forms
continue their motion. When the moon passes completely into can be seen very clearly.
Scientists often use total solar eclipses to the Earth’s shadow it doesn’t go completely
study more about the sun. When the sun is dark like the sun does during a solar eclipse.
shining it is too bright to determine some Some light still reaches the moon from
of its details. However, when a solar eclipse around the edges of the Earth, but much
occurs, some details around the edges of of it is bent by the Earth’s atmosphere. The
the sun, known as the sun’s corona, can light that reaches and is reflected by the
be seen. moon is what causes the eclipsed moon to
appear red.
A lunar eclipse lasts a couple of
hours while a solar eclipse is
only a few minutes long. This
is because the Earth casts
a much bigger shadow on
the moon than the moon
can on the sun.

Figure 6.16 Angles explain

where a solar eclipse can be
visible from on the Earth.

Figure 6.17 A time-lapse photograph of a lunar eclipse.

6.1 INTERACTIONS BETWEEN THE EARTH, THE SUN AND THE MOON 227
 ACTIVITY 6.1.3: MODELLING SOLAR AND LUNAR ECLIPSES

Using the same items for the sun, the moon and the Earth as in Activity 6.1.2, model
a solar eclipse by positioning the moon between the sun and the Earth. You will need
to suspend the moon from a piece of string to avoid casting your own shadow onto the
Earth. Observe the Earth as the moon comes into position.
• During which phase of the moon does a solar eclipse occur?
Observe the moon as the Earth comes between it and the sun to create a lunar eclipse.
• During which phase of the moon does a lunar eclipse occur?
Ask your teacher to show footage of a solar and lunar eclipse.

DEEPER
U N D E R S TA N D I N G Eclipse myths
Many myths exist about solar and lunar
eclipses. In ancient times, eclipses were
thought to be omens of things to come.
In Ancient Greece, an eclipse during
wartime would cause the two sides to put
their weapons down and declare peace.
Knowing when an eclipse was going to
occur was important to some people.
Four thousand years ago, the Chinese
Emperor Zhong Kang supposedly had two
astronomers beheaded after they failed to
predict an eclipse.
Figure 6.18 A traditional
Aztec obsidian knife.
Several cultures have myths related
to lunar eclipses in which the moon is
swallowed by various animals: a pig in
ancient Egypt, a jaguar in Mayan culture
and a three-legged toad in China. Some
cultures thought a demon was swallowing
the moon and they tried to chase it away
by cursing it and throwing stones at it.
Some people in Mexico still believe
that if a pregnant woman sees an eclipse,
her baby will be born with a cleft lip. This
belief has been traced to the Aztecs who
drew a parallel with what they saw in an
eclipse as a bite being taken out of the
moon and a bite being taken out of the
mouth of the pregnant woman’s baby,
resulting in the cleft lip. Originally, an
obsidian knife was placed on the woman’s
stomach before going out at night to
protect her from this omen, but today a
safety pin or metal key is used instead for
protection from the eclipse.

QUESTIONS 6.1.4: ECLIPSES

Remember
1 Identify the difference between:
a a solar eclipse and a lunar eclipse
b a total solar eclipse and a partial solar eclipse
2 Explain why it is dangerous to watch a solar eclipse with your own eyes.
3 Identify a reason why scientists would want to study solar eclipses.

Apply
4 Identify what phase the moon must be in for a:
a lunar eclipse b solar eclipse
5 Explain why a person in Sydney and their friend in Darwin couldn’t see exactly the
same solar eclipse.

228 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

INTERACTIONS BETWEEN THE
EARTH, THE SUN AND THE MOON
Remember and understand
1 Identify what causes day and night.
Apply
8 Identify the force that causes the
6.1
CHECKPOINT

[1 mark] tides on the Earth. Explain why this

2 Identify the name for one revolution by force changes and the effect of these
the Earth around the sun. [1 mark] changes on the tides. [3 marks]

3 Identify the season in Norway during 9 Suggest a reason why sometimes

summer in Australia. [1 mark] you can see the moon during the day.
Relate your reason to the relative
4 Explain how the sun affects day and
positions of the sun, the Earth and the
night and seasons at the Earth’s two
moon. [2 marks]
poles. [2 marks]
10 Figure 6.20 is a model that shows how
5 Look at Figure 6.19, which shows a
the seasons occur.
total eclipse of the sun as seen in the
middle of the day from the Earth. Draw
and label a diagram of the positions
of the sun, the Earth and the moon to
demonstrate how:
a a solar eclipse may occur [1 mark]
b a lunar eclipse may occur [1 mark]

Figure 6.20

a Which gives the more spread-out

light? [1 mark]
b Which of the two drawings
represents summer? [1 mark]
c If the piece of card was the Earth, in
which case would the sun be most
overhead? [1 mark]
d If the piece of card were the Earth,
which case would give warmer
days? Explain your answer.
[2 marks]
Figure 6.19 A total solar eclipse.
Analyse and evaluate
11 Evaluate whether humans could
6 Recall how Neil Armstrong and Buzz
colonise the moon. Explain your
Aldrin moved around on the surface of
answer. [2 marks]
the moon. [1 mark]
12 Explain why animals and plants living
7 Identify how often spring tides occur
near a high tide mark would need to
throughout a year. [1 mark]
be more resilient to their environment
than those living near a low tide mark.
[3 marks]

6.1 INTERACTIONS BETWEEN THE EARTH, THE SUN AND THE MOON 229
 13 Analyse Figure 6.21 and answer the
following questions.
a In which season do we get the
longest shadows? [1 mark]
b Which season gives the least
opportunity for solar heating?
[1 mark]
c In which season does the sun travel
furthest across the sky? [1 mark]
d On which side of the house is it best
to grow plants that like sunlight?
[1 mark]
e If a plant is growing at the
eastern end of a house, will it
receive sunlight in the morning or
afternoon? [1 mark]
W the problems they are likely to face.
W
N N
S 16 The Earth is part of a solar system.
S
E E
8 am, midsummer 8 am, midwinter
W W
N N
Critical and creative thinking
14 Find data for the sunrise and sunset
times over seven days in summer and
winter. From this information, calculate
the length of the day and the length of
the night. Present your findings in a
spreadsheet, and then convert the data
to a graph of your choice. What do you
notice about the day and night length
for each season? How can you explain
the difference? [5 marks]
15 If humans were to explore the sun,
what kind of problems would we face?
Is it feasible to design and send a
satellite to study the sun? Investigate
some probes and satellites that have
already been sent to study the sun.
Suggest some ways to overcome
[3 marks]
Making connections
Describe the interactions occurring
within this system and explain how
gravity plays a major role. [3 marks]

S S
E E
Noon, midsummer Noon, midwinter

W W
N N

S
S
E E
4 pm, midsummer 4 pm, midwinter

Figure 6.21 The path of the sun across the sky in Australia’s winter and summer.

TOTAL MARKS
[ /40]

230 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

UNDERSTANDING
THE SOLAR SYSTEM
Humans have long had an association with the sun, the moon, the planets
and the stars. From cultures in the Stone Age through to Ancient Greek,
Incan and Indigenous Australian cultures (just to name a few), humans
6.2
have developed their own explanations and myths about astronomy. While
the myths have been proven incorrect, our fascination with the sky has
lead to increased knowledge about our own solar system and the universe.

ANCIENT CULTURES
Archaeoastronomy is the name given to
the study of how humans have interacted
Mayan
with astronomical bodies in ancient The Mayas documented the movements of
civilisations. It is a cross between astronomy the moon and the planets and were able
and archaeology. Many ancient cultures to predict eclipses. They created a solar-
had beliefs in sun or moon gods. The based calendar that was more accurate than
observations made by some cultures have any other culture prior to the Gregorian
furthered our understanding of our solar calendar. While the length of a solar year
system. Many astronomical terms also have was measured to a very high degree of
their roots in ancient cultures that studied accuracy, the Mayas based their year on
astronomy. exactly 365 days, and did not account
for lost days. This means that every four
years their dates would be out of step with
Incan the seasons by a day. The Dresden Codex
Despite being an empire that only lasted is a Mayan ‘book’ concerned only with
a century, the Incans made very accurate astronomy. It is believed to have been
observations of the night sky. Astronomy written in the 11th or 12th century and is
played a key role in their culture as the oldest known book from the Americas.
agriculture and the timing of harvests and
planting relied heavily on the seasons. The
Incan year started when the Pleiades star
cluster rose in the sky. So strong was the
influence of astronomy to the Incan culture
that even Cuzco, their capital city, was laid
out to mimic the sky. On hills overlooking
Cuzco the Incans built a set of pillars that
allowed for incredibly accurate time keeping.
When the sun rose or set between the
pillars, certain crops were planted at specific
altitudes. The Incans even had observatories.
Their main observatory was called
Qorikancha, meaning ‘golden enclosure’.

Figure 6.22 The Sun Temple at Machu Picchu.

6.2 UNDERSTANDING THE SOLAR SYSTEM 231


Babylonian
Old Babylonian astronomy records can
be found on ancient clay tablets. The
Babylonians were the first to recognise that
astronomical events are periodic (occur at
a regular frequency) and were the first to
apply mathematics to their predictions. The
oldest surviving information we have on
Babylonian astronomy is a clay tablet dating
to the 7th century BC detailing the motion
of the planet Venus. One Babylonian
astronomer, Seleucus of Seleucia, suggested
that the Earth rotated on its own axis and
revolved around the sun. Unfortunately,
there is little surviving information about
how Seleucus came up with his model.
Chinese
Historians often consider the Chinese to
have made the most persistent and accurate
observations of celestial phenomena
before the Arabs. Records of astronomical
observations can be traced back to the
4th century BC. There is even evidence
DEEPER
U N D E R S TA N D I N G Changing
calendars
Calendars have
been used by many
groups of people
over thousands of
years as a system
for organising days.
They have been
and are still used
to keep track of the
availability of food in
different seasons, to
mark special social or
religious occasions, and
to organise the payment of
taxes. Most calendars have
been organised according to the
movement of the sun or the moon,
and we now acknowledge this to be an
effective way of tracking seasons.
232 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4
of collaboration between the Chinese
astronomers and Indian and Islamic
astronomers. Both the Chinese astronomers
and Arab astronomers observed and described
a supernova in 1054. Chinese astronomers
in the 4th century BC predicted solar eclipses
by suggesting the relative positions of the
moon and the sun, and this lead to the idea
in the 11th century AD that celestial bodies
were round.
Islamic
Most Islamic astronomy was developed
during the 8th to 15th century AD. During
this period, astronomers used influences from
Greek astronomy but made many changes
and corrections. A Muslim astronomer,
al-Farghani, used Greek astronomy ideas
but incorporated complex mathematics to
better calculate the circumference of the
Earth as well as more accurate movement
of the planets, the sun and the moon. Some
measuring instruments that were developed
and improved by Muslim astronomers were
used up to the modern period.
The Ancient Greeks were fascinated
by the night sky and devised one of the
earliest known calendars. This calendar
counted lunar cycles (new moon to new
moon), and the Ancient Greeks called
these months. They decided there were
12 lunar cycles in a cycle of seasons,
or one year. Unfortunately, this wasn’t
quite right and each year was 10.87 days
‘out’ from the year before it.
Nearly 5000 years before, the
Ancient Egyptians used the path of
the sun to organise their calendar,
particularly since sunlight and seasons
were so important to their farming
practices. They also acknowledged 12
months but added 5 days to celebrate
the birthdays of gods to ‘bulk up’ the
year, and they anticipated slightly later
seasons each year.
 Three thousand years later, in Rome,
a calendar similar to that of the Greeks
was in place. Romans were superstitious
so all the months except February had an
odd number of days. The Roman Catholic
Church was responsible for adding an
extra month each year, but they decided
how long and when it would occur, on the
basis of their religious needs. By 45 BC,
Roman emperor Julius Caesar decided he
needed to take control of the calendar. He
spread the extra days across the months
and introduced a ‘leap year’ every 4 years.
This is the calendar we use today, which is
known as the Gregorian calendar because
of a few minor changes made by Pope
Gregory XIII.
Figure 6.23 This Ancient
1 Draw a timeline to represent the 4 Research and find out: Egyptian day planner
information given in this section. shows on the right a
a why there are 7 days in a week series of lines, arches and
2 Why do you think the sun and the moon large circles, telling the
b the origins of the names of the day of the month.
were so commonly used to organise
calendars? months and days

3 What are the benefits of having c how each year is numbered, such as
a calendar? 2012 or 45 BC

QUESTIONS 6.2.1: ANCIENT CULTURES

Remember
1 Identify the name given to the study of how humans interacted with ancient
astronomy.
2 Identify the constellation by which the Incans started their year.
3 Explain why the Incans needed to measure seasons accurately.
4 Compare the Mayan calendar to our own calendar.

Apply
5 Suggest a reason why some astronomical information has been lost from ancient
civilisations.
6 Explain why collaboration between ancient cultures would have improved
astronomical understanding and observations.
7 Explain why research into ancient astronomy is beneficial to our understanding
of astronomy.

Research
8 Ancient cultures and civilisations have made a very big impact on current
understanding and appreciation of celestial bodies. Investigate some other
cultures that made important discoveries. Suggestions include Indian, Hebrew,
Greek and Egyptian.

6.2 UNDERSTANDING THE SOLAR SYSTEM 233

 INDIGENOUS ASTRONOMY
Australian Indigenous culture also examined
celestial bodies and tried to explain their
occurrence and significance. It is difficult
studying Australian Indigenous culture of the
past as there were many different groups and
each had their own explanation and stories.
There is also very little written information.
Constellations
Groups of stars in the sky are known as
constellations. You may be familiar with
constellations such as the Southern Cross
or Orion. The Australian Aboriginal culture
observed the night sky and found an emu in
the sky. Whilst most cultures use the bright
stars as main features in their constellations,
the Indigenous Australians used a dark
nebula, a cloud of dust and gas, as the main
feature of their constellation.
Figure 6.24 The Emu
constellation in the
southern sky. QUESTIONS 6.2.2: INDIGENOUS ASTRONOMY
Remember
1 Define the term ‘constellation’.
2 Recall what celestial body is the main feature of the Emu constellation.
Apply
3 Suggest a reason why so little information is known about Indigenous astronomy.
4 Explain why Indigenous Australians would have had to keep track of seasons.
5 Identify the benefits that keeping track of six seasons would have over the four we
currently do. (Hint: Examine the climate conditions in northern Australia to give you
an idea of why six seasons might be needed.)
234 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4
Myths
Other celestial bodies that had significance
in the Indigenous culture included the
Milky Way. According to the Yolngu people,
a group of Indigenous Australians who
live in north-eastern Arnhem Land in the
Northern Territory, when you pass away
you are taken by a mystical canoe to a
heaven-like place in the sky. The stars of the
Milky Way are interpreted as campfires and
shooting stars are the canoe being returned
back to the Earth.
The Warlpiri people, from the Northern
Territory, explained lunar eclipses as a
moon-man being pursued and threatened
by the sun-woman.
Calendars
It is not well known how accurately a year
was marked in the traditional Indigenous
cultures due to the verbal nature of their
language. Time and seasons were usually
marked based on the stars seen at particular
times of the year. Current research has
shown that Indigenous groups in northern
Australia tended to use a calendar with six
seasons. There are suggestions that some
stone arrangements and rock engravings
show lunar cycles and timing of the
solstices, however, as a lot of Indigenous
culture has been lost, the true nature of
these symbols is unknown.
 ACTIVITY 6.2.1: CONSTELLATION MYTHOLOGY

Your teacher will show you pictures of some constellations. What do you
think they look like? Name the constellations and create your own story
to explain why the constellations are shaped the way they are.

DEVELOPING A MODEL
The teachings of Aristotle and
The Earth at the centre Plato could not explain retrograde
The term geocentric (geo means Earth; motion (see next section). Ptolemy
centric means centre) is given to the model placed planets on separate epicycles—a
developed by astronomers that placed the sphere within a sphere, which would have
Earth in the centre of the solar system. accounted for the retrograde motion of
Largely developed by the Ancient Greeks, many planets.
the model was based on the observations If you ever visit a planetarium you will
that the stars, the moon and the sun all notice that the projections of a planetarium
seem to rotate around the Earth. Also, from are still built to reproduce the Ptolemaic
someone standing on the Earth, the Earth model, to give the impression that the night
does not seem to move. sky is viewed from a stationary Earth.
So authoritative were the Ancient Greeks
on science and philosophy that this view
was not challenged for 1500 years!
The original geocentric model of the
universe was developed around the 4th
century BC and was taught to Greeks by
Jupiter
Plato and Aristotle, two very influential
philosophers. Plato described the Earth
as a stationary sphere at the centre of the
universe with the planets and the sun
revolving in spherical orbits around it.
On the outer-most sphere it was thought
were fixed stars, and that all the spheres Venus
Moon
rotated at different speeds to account for the Mars
observation that planets move at different
Earth
speeds around the Earth.
Mercury
Epicycle
Greek astronomer Claudius Ptolemy in
the 2nd century AD wrote Almagest, a Sun
comprehensive and informative work
regarding astronomy. It gathered all Saturn
astronomical information from cultures
around the region such as the Babylonians
and the Ancient Greeks. This text was Figure 6.25 The Ancient Greeks proposed the
considered a reference text for almost a geocentric model of the Earth, which was undisputed
for 1500 years. Around the outer-most sphere were
thousand years and cemented the geocentric fixed stars. The planets on the model are all planets
model as the basis of the solar system. that can be seen with the naked eye.

6.2 UNDERSTANDING THE SOLAR SYSTEM 235

 Retrograde motion
The term retrograde motion means ‘a
backwards step’. It is used to describe the
Jupiter apparent motion of some planets against
the background of stars. When viewing a
planet such as Mars or Jupiter from the
Venus Earth, sometimes the planet seems to move
backwards in the night sky. This is due to
the difference in orbit speeds of the Earth
Moon
and the other planet (see Figure 6.27). The
Mars Ancient Greeks were the first to describe
retrograde motion. In fact, the word ‘planet’
Mercury Earth
comes from the Greek word for wanderer.

Sun Figure 6.26 The Ptolemaic model of the universe.

The order of the planets from the Earth remains the
Saturn
same as the original geocentric model proposed by
Aristotle and Plato, however, many planets have been
placed on epicycles, which can explain the retrograde
motion. The stars were still in a fixed position in the
outer sphere.

4 5

3 3
4

2 1

Figure 6.27 The diagram shows how retrograde motion occurs. The Earth (in blue) will pass another planet like
Mars over a certain time period during its orbit. Due to the distances between the orbits, as well as the location
of the two planets with respect to each other, Mars will seem to have moved backwards in the night sky.

236 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 ACTIVITY 6.2.2: MODELLING EPICYCLES

Working in a group of three students, demonstrate how an epicycle on the geocentric

model works to explain retrograde motion of the planets. Conduct this activity
outdoors to ensure there is enough space.
What you need: 5 m piece of string, 2.5 m piece of string
What to do:
1 Student (A) will represent the Earth and must stand in one place the entire time.
Ensure they are holding the 5 m piece of string.
2 Student B will represent the centre of the epicycle, while student C will represent
a planet. (See Figure 6.28.)

C
B 2.5m
A
5m

Planet

Earth

Figure 6.28

3 Student B should move slowly around student A. Student C should move around
student B somewhat faster.
4 Ensure that a constant rate of motion is maintained.
• What would the surrounding school buildings represent in this model?
• Compared with the school buildings, how does the planet seem to move to an
observer on the Earth?
• Does the speed of the planets change according to an observer on the Earth?
• How well does the use of epicycles explain the retrograde motion of the planets?

the positions of the planets was not very

The sun at the centre
The geocentric model of the solar system
was not seriously challenged until Nicolaus
Copernicus’s heliocentric model, which
was developed in the mid-1500s. The term
heliocentric means sun-centred (helios
means sun). While Copernicus was not the
first to suggest a heliocentric model, his
book De revolutionibus orbium coelestium
(translation: On the Revolutions of the
Celestial Spheres) was widely read and the
theory was very slowly accepted into society.
The main problems with Ptolemy’s
geocentric model were that predicting
accurate and, as time went on, the accuracy
of the predictions became worse. Copernicus
was also convinced that retrograde motion
of the planets could be explained more
simply than the use of epicycles for almost
every planet.
Copernicus’s model simplified Ptolemy’s
geocentric model by eliminating most (but
not all) of the epicycles of the planets.
Copernicus proposed that the retrograde
motion of the planets could easily be
explained if the Earth orbited the sun
along with other planets that also orbit the
sun. Copernicus also introduced the idea

6.2 UNDERSTANDING THE SOLAR SYSTEM 237

 that the distance between the Earth and Copernicus wasn’t fully correct though,
the sun is actually small compared to the and many more revisions have been made.
distance to the stars. He also proposed the Copernicus’s heliocentric model has planets
three different motions of the Earth: a daily orbiting in perfect circles around the sun.
rotation (which gives us days), an annual Later on, Johannes Kepler introduced the
revolution (which gives us a year) and an idea that orbits of the planets were elliptical.
annual tilting of the Earth’s axis (giving us Copernicus’s model had the benefit
the seasons). of allowing more accurate predictions
about the location of the planets to be
Saturn made. Further evidence to add weight to
Copernicus’s model was not found until
Jupiter later. Galileo was the first person to use a
telescope to observe celestial bodies, and in
Mars the 17th century he discovered that Jupiter
had moons. This added weight to the theory
Moon
Earth that not everything orbited the Earth.
Venus Galileo also observed sun spot activity,
which suggested that the sun rotated around
Mercury a fixed axis.
The change from the geocentric model
to the heliocentric model was very extreme.
Sun
When Copernicus first proposed the
heliocentric model it took two generations
of scientists before it was accepted more
widely.

Figure 6.29 The heliocentric model from Copernicus’s

De revolutionibus orbium coelestium. Sol is the Latin
word for sun.

ACTIVITY 6.2.3: MODELLING RETROGRADE MOTION

Working in a group of three students, demonstrate how retrograde motion can be

explained using a heliocentric model. Conduct this activity outdoors to ensure
there is enough space.
What you need: 6 m piece of string, 4 m piece of string
What to do:
1 Student A will represent the sun and
6m
should not move through this activity.
Planet
2 Student B (the Earth) holds a piece of 4m
string 4 m away from Student A.
3 Student C (Mars) holds a piece of string
6 m away from Student A. Earth
Sun
4 Students B and C take steps at the
same time, but Student C should take
smaller steps.
Figure 6.30

238 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 • Student B (the Earth) should describe the motion of Student C with respect to
them. Does the planet seem to reverse in direction?
• Which other planets will show retrograde motion from the Earth’s perspective?
• Compare this activity to Activity 6.2.2. Which explanation of retrograde motion
was easier?
• Do planets like Mercury or Venus show retrograde action? Design an additional
activity to illustrate this using the Earth’s orbit as 10 metres and Mercury’s as
4 metres. Mercury should take 2 steps for every 1 step taken by the Earth.

N U M E R AC Y
Calculating Once you have completed this table you BUILDER
astronomical distances may wish to construct a model of the solar
system with the distance between the
The distance that planets are away
planets to scale. For example, your model
from the sun changes depending on the
timing of the orbit, however, an average may use 1 cm = 1 AU.
can be calculated. The average distance
Average distances of planets from the sun
between the Earth and the sun is 150
million kilometres. This is also known as Millions of kilometres Astronomical
Planet
(millions of km) units (AU)
1 astronomical unit (AU). Astronomical
units are commonly used to measure Mercury 58 0.4
distances within the solar system.
Venus 108
Astronomical units can be calculated by
the following formula: Earth 150

Average distance Mars 228

Astronomical from the sun
= Jupiter 779
unit Average distance
between the Earth Saturn 1434
and the sun
Uranus 19.2
Use this calculation to complete the
Neptune 30.0
following table. Round to one decimal
place for AU values. The values for
Mercury have been completed for you
as an example.

ACTIVITY 6.2.4: HISTORICAL SCIENTIFIC MODELS OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM

Working in small groups, use the Internet to research some contributors to the
development of models of the solar system. Use the information you discover to
complete the following table.

Contributor Nationality/ Main idea or contribution Explanation

country of birth

Aristarchus (Hint: Look for the name of One of the first models with the
of Samos and a scientific model) sun at the centre of the solar
later Nicolaus system
Copernicus
Continued

6.2 UNDERSTANDING THE SOLAR SYSTEM 239

 Contributor Nationality/ Main idea or contribution Explanation
country of birth

Claudius (Hint: Look for the name of Model of the solar system with the
Ptolemy a scientific model) Earth at the centre and objects
revolving around the Earth (which
we now know is incorrect)

Galileo Galilei First to use the new (Hint: What did he discover with the
invention of the telescope telescope?)

(Hint: Contribution Saw and explained comets Realised that repeated sightings
was made in 1705 of a comet were the same object
by …) returning every 75–76 years to
orbit the sun

William Herschel (Hint: It is related to a planet) Discovered what he thought was a

new comet but turned out to be a
new planet

(Hint: Discovered Discovered the first asteroid Named Ceres, it was a small
in 1801 by …) ‘world’ between Mars and Jupiter;
thousands of similar discoveries
followed shortly after

(Hint: Discovered Discovered the planet (Hint: How was it discovered?)

in 1846 by …) Neptune

Gustav Kirchhoff (Hint: What technique did Proposed that the sun was
he use?) composed of the same elements
that existed on the Earth;
established the first link between
the Earth and space

(Hint: Discovered Discovered Pluto in 1930 (Hint: What happened in 2006?)

in 1930 by …)

QUESTIONS 6.2.3: DEVELOPING A MODEL

Remember
1 Identify the name given to the model of the solar system that has:
a The Earth at the centre.
b The sun at the centre.
2 Recall two key contributors to our understanding of the solar system and briefly
explain their contributions.
3 Recall the name given to the apparent backwards motion of the planets in the
night sky.
4 Recall the units typically used to measure distance within the solar system.

Apply
5 Suggest a problem with the geocentric model of the solar system.
6 Who do you think made the most important discovery about the solar system?
Justify your answer.
7 Draw a table and list the benefits and problems with Copernicus’s model of the
solar system.
8 Using Figure 6.29, identify the planets that Copernicus refers to in his model.
9 Compare our current model of the solar system with a model from the past.
Investigate the evidence that changed the old model to change.

240 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

UNDERSTANDING THE
SOLAR SYSTEM
Remember and understand
1 Explain some methods that ancient
Critical and creative thinking
12 With falls of civilisations there is
6.2
CHECKPOINT

civilisations used to keep track of the always a loss of culture, technology

seasons. [2 marks] and often knowledge. Imagine if one
2 Recall a myth that was used to explain ancient civilisation of your choosing
a celestial occurrence. survived. What would the world be like
[2 marks] now? What language are we likely to be
speaking? Justify your answers.
3 Retrograde motion is the name given to
[3 marks]
the apparent backward motion of some
planets. Explain how this was overcome 13 How would you make sure the
in the geocentric model. [1 mark] information you have learned will be
kept for future generations? What
4 Describe what causes retrograde
would be the best and safest way to
motion. [1 mark]
keep information? Analyse what you
5 What distance is an astronomical unit should do now to keep information
based upon? [1 mark] safe. [3 marks]
6 Identify the scientist whose work on the
Making connections
heliocentric model of the solar system
is most widely recognised. [1 mark] 14 Why did it take so long for
Copernicus’s heliocentric
Apply model to be accepted
7 Suggest a reason why scientific into general scientific
information would have been lost from society? What do
ancient civilisations. [1 mark] you think is a
controversial subject
8 A new planet beyond Neptune has been
in science now?
found. It is 6025 millions of kilometres
Examine arguments
away. Calculate the distance in
for and against
astronomical units. [2 marks]
the controversial
9 Draw a table to compare the subject and evaluate
differences between geocentric and the strength of the
heliocentric models. [4 marks] arguments.
[5 marks]
Analyse and evaluate
10 Analyse the validity of the geocentric
model proposed by Ptolemy. [2 marks]
11 Evaluate the benefits that a heliocentric
model would have had over a
geocentric model. [2 marks]

TOTAL MARKS
[ /30]

6.2 UNDERSTANDING THE SOLAR SYSTEM 241

 6.3 LEARNING ABOUT SPACE
Ancient astronomers believed that stars were unchanging and permanently
fixed to a heavenly sphere. With telescopes they tracked the movement
of the planets against these heavenly lights, using their positions to
calculate time and to navigate the oceans. Scientists today use powerful
telescopes, spectroscopes and satellites to learn much more about the
universe. Learning about space involves collaboration between scientists
from many different disciplines.

SENDING PROBES INTO SPACE

To find out more about the universe and
the Earth, scientists have launched robotic
spacecraft called space probes. The
first successful space probe, Luna 1, was
launched by the then Soviet Union in 1959.
In 2005, Huygens landed on Titan, one of
Saturn’s moons. Probes have been sent to
Mars in 2004, 2008 and 2012.
Milky Way mission
The Voyager 1 and 2 interstellar probes are
part of a mission to explore beyond our
solar system. Voyager 1 has completed close
fly-bys of Saturn and Jupiter. Voyager 2
has completed close fly-bys of Uranus and
Neptune. These planets are gas giants with
a massive atmosphere but no solid surface.
The Voyager spacecraft have been in flight
since 1977 and are now beyond Pluto,
escaping our solar system and heading
further into space. Voyager 1 is the farthest
human-made object from the Earth. The
Voyagers will travel the Milky Way eternally,
although we will only be able to collect data
from them until 2020. During the fly-bys
many interesting discoveries were made.
Active volcanoes are on one of Jupiter’s
moons, Saturn’s atmosphere is made up
almost entirely of hydrogen and helium,
and ten previously unseen moons were
discovered when flying past Uranus.
Mars mission
NASA is already planning a crewed mission
to Mars. But could humans live on Mars?
The Mars exploration rovers, Spirit and
Opportunity, were launched in 2003 and
landed on Mars in 2004 to find out more
about the ‘red planet’.
In 2008, the Phoenix lander touched
down on Mars on an ice sheet on the
surface of the planet. Operated from the
Earth, its instruments took photographs
of ice that was melting away. The lander’s
robotic arm (Figure 6.33) scooped up
soil samples. Analysis by the lander’s
instruments revealed traces of magnesium,
sodium, potassium and, importantly, water.

Figure 6.31 Three Voyager 2 photos of Saturn, taken through ultraviolet,

violet and green filters, were combined to make this image.

242 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

NASA scientists described this discovery as
a ‘huge step forward’.
The water was present as ice in the soil
and was identified as water vapour when
the soil sample was heated. The lander had
a very sophisticated mini-laboratory on
board that enabled scientists to make this
important discovery. By understanding the
history of water on Mars, scientists will be
able to work out whether there was ever
life on Mars, and learn about the climate
and geology of Mars to prepare for human
exploration there.
The Curiosity robotic rover, a $2.5 billion
probe, landed on Mars in 2012 and is
currently undertaking scientific studies of
the surface.

Figure 6.32 The Mars exploration rovers are being used to find Figure 6.33 The Phoenix Mars lander delivers a soil sample to
out how water has affected the red planet. a microscope.

L I T E R AC Y
The Space Race and the BUILDER
moon landing
The Space Race was the 1957–1976
competition to explore space between
what was then called the Soviet Union
and the United States. The Soviets
launched the first artificial satellite,
Sputnik, in October 1957. This was a blow
to American prestige and the United
States responded, under the leadership of
President Eisenhower, by forming NASA.
The Russians achieved another first by
putting a dog, Laika, into space aboard
Sputnik 2. Then followed a major triumph:
the first human, cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin,
orbited the Earth for 108 minutes in April
1961, putting the Russians further ahead
of the United States. The Americans played
catch-up until they lost commitment to
a crewed mission to the moon after a
change in the Russian leadership. Figure 6.34 Laika, the first dog in space.

6.3 LEARNING ABOUT SPACE 243

 President Kennedy and, after him, President Johnson, developed the Apollo program
to put a human on the moon. This program received widespread support from the
American people. The Russians didn’t make this aim a priority until later, although
they didn’t drop out of the race. However, several deaths and rocket failures eventually
resulted in the Russians’ plans for a crewed landing on the moon to be delayed and
then cancelled. The American program suffered similar failures until Americans Neil
Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin became the first people to set foot on the lunar surface on
21 July 1969. Television pictures sent back to the Earth amazed the world, and the lunar
landing became an iconic moment of the 20th century. Armstrong’s words have become
legendary: ‘That’s one small step for (a) man, one giant leap for mankind.’
The Space Race was unique because it was done for technology and prestige rather
than for territory. The United States decided not to claim ownership of the moon. Some
people believe in a moon landing conspiracy, in which the whole event was staged and
filmed on the Earth.

1 Which two nations were competing to

be first in space?
2 Why do you think a dog, Laika, was sent
into space before a human?
3 What was the name given to the
program by the Americans focusing on
landing a man on the moon? Research
what this name means and decide if
it is appropriate or not. Justify your
decision.
4 What do you think is meant by the
phrase ‘Space Race’?
5 Images of the moon landing were
received by Australian satellites, which
sent them around the world. Why do
you think Australian, not American,
satellites were involved?
6 Russians call their space explorers
‘cosmonauts’ while Americans called
Figure 6.35 Neil them ‘astronauts’. Examine the Latin
Armstrong set foot on the
moon in July 1969. origins of both words and determine
which one you think is a better term.

from the launch pad to maximum orbits of

Launching spacecraft
Rockets are used to launch shuttles and
space probes or satellites into orbit. NASA
retired its space shuttle vehicles in 2011
and replaced them with cargo resupply craft
for the International Space Station. A fully
fuelled space shuttle weighed 2000 tonnes
and could carry 30 tonnes of goods and
instruments. It consisted of the orbiter, two
solid-fuel rocket boosters and an external
fuel tank. To lift the massive space shuttle
about 600 kilometres above the Earth, the
space shuttle used the force generated from
the two solid-fuel rocket boosters and the
three main engines of the orbiter.
If you view video footage of a space shuttle
launch, you will notice that the orbiter’s
engines are always turned on first. However,
the orbiter’s engines are not powerful enough
to lift the space shuttle off the launch
pad. Once the orbiter’s engines are fully
operational, the solid-fuel rocket boosters

244 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

are ignited. The rocket boosters provided
thrust for approximately two minutes. Once
ignited, these giant skyrockets could not be
extinguished and were allowed to burn out.
This was the most dangerous part of the
mission because if something went wrong,
little could be done.
During this time, the rocket boosters,
together with the orbiter’s main engines,
propelled the space shuttle to speeds
of 4800 km/h. After the rockets were
discarded, the main engines accelerated the
space shuttle to over 27 000 km/h in just
six minutes.

EXPERIMENT 6.3.1: MAKING A POP ROCKET

Aim
To investigate the best conditions for the launch of a pop rocket.

Prediction
Read the aim of this experiment and predict the conditions that will be best for
launching your pop rocket.

Materials
• Small plastic canister (the type where the lid fits firmly inside the canister)
• Alka-Seltzer tablets
• Light cardboard (for building a nose cone and wings—optional)
Method
Read all steps before starting this experiment. Consider any risks and how you can Figure 6.36 The space
minimise or eliminate them. shuttles were launched
using two solid-fuel
1 Choose an outdoor location, away from buildings, people and other activities, rockets. The main engine
preferably with a flat, hard surface. of the orbiter then
provided acceleration.
2 Half fill the canister with water.
3 Drop an Alka-Seltzer tablet into the water and quickly and firmly push the lid into
place. This step needs to be performed rapidly and smoothly (without panic).
4 Invert the canister and place it on the ground so the lid is in contact with the
ground. Stand back and wait!
5 Observe the motion of the canister as it flies into the air.
6 Build a nose cone and a set of wings from the cardboard and add them to your
rocket to make it look more like a space shuttle (optional).
7 Vary the amount of water and the size of the Alka-Seltzer tablet used. Find the best
combination to produce the highest lift-off. Try reusing the tablets if they are not
used up each time.
8 Measure the height of lift-off with the different combinations. This is difficult and
you may have to invent a method of roughly measuring the height.

Results
Record your results in a table that lists the water and tablet combinations and your
observations about the launch. If you added the nose cone and wings, comment on
how they affected the rocket.

Discussion
1 How did you measure the height the canister reached?
2 Which combination of water and tablet produced the best launch?
3 What makes the canister move?
4 How is the propulsion of the rocket model different from that of a real rocket?

6.3 LEARNING ABOUT SPACE 245

 5 How is the model propulsion similar to the real thing?
6 If you made additions to the rocket, how can you explain their effect?

Conclusion
What do you know about the best conditions for launching a pop rocket? Did your
observations support your prediction? Write two or three sentences that answer the
aim and your prediction.

QUESTIONS 6.3.1: SENDING PROBES INTO SPACE

Remember
1 Define the term ‘spacecraft’ and identify some types of spacecraft mentioned
in the text.
2 Explain why rockets are needed to launch spacecraft.
3 Identify the nations involved in, and the ultimate aim of, the Space Race.
4 Identify the purpose of the Mars exploration rovers.

Apply
5 Explain what sort of information we are looking for when we launch probes
into space.
6 Explain why you think we send probes into space rather than humans.
7 Explain what sort of knowledge about the universe has been gained by launching
space probes.
8 Suggest a reason why we will no longer be able to collect information from the
Voyager space probes after 2020.
9 Identify the important substance found on Mars by the Phoenix lander. Suggest
a reason why the discovery of this substance on Mars is so important.
10 Use Figure 6.36 to draw a diagram of a space shuttle. Clearly label the rocket
boosters and the orbiter.

Research
11 Copy and complete the table below to summarise the different probes mentioned
in this chapter, their destinations and their purposes. One example has already
been completed for you. You may need to do additional research to complete the
information for each probe.
Probe name Destination Primary purpose

To collect information about Saturn

Voyager 1 Milky Way via Saturn and Jupiter
and Jupiter

Voyager 2

Luna 1

Huygens

Spirit

Opportunity

Phoenix

Curiosity

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 VIEWING SPACE FROM THE EARTH
It is impossible to send a space probe to
galaxies, stars or even gas clouds that are
millions of light years from the Earth, and
yet we know so much about these things.
A lot of information can be gathered about
the sun and distant stars by analysing the
light coming from them. Analysing this
light reveals information about distant
galaxies and stars that would otherwise
be impossible to get. Instruments such as
telescopes and spectroscopes are used to
view stars and galaxies.

Figure 6.37 An early

Telescopes example of a telescope
to view the stars.
Telescopes have been used since the 17th
century to view distant objects. The most
basic type of telescope used in astronomy is
the optical telescope. An optical telescope
collects more light than the human eye and
focuses it using lenses or mirrors. A distant
object viewed through an optical telescope
becomes brighter and magnified.
The largest ground-based optical
telescope in Australia is the Anglo-
Australian telescope at the Siding Spring
Observatory in New South Wales.
Figure 6.38 The Anglo-Australian telescope,
in New South Wales.

ACTIVITY 6.3.1: MAKING A RAINBOW

1 Use a triangular prism and a beam of light to create a rainbow.

• What does this tell you about light?
2 Find several shiny objects and investigate how they can affect the path of your
beam of light.
• How do you think this understanding might be useful?
• Do you think it was possible for early scientists to have investigated the
behaviour of light in this way?
• Which machines or devices do you know of that manipulate light to perform
their function?

6.3 LEARNING ABOUT SPACE 247

 Spectroscopes
Spectroscopes help scientists to analyse
light coming from or passing through
objects in the universe. This process is called
spectroscopy.
When we look at a star we see the light
travelling from it. Breaking up a star’s light
reveals what it is made of. For instance,
when we look at sunlight through a prism
we see the colours of the rainbow. This is
called the visible spectrum, where each
colour corresponds to a certain energy level.
The violet end of the spectrum has a higher
energy than the red end.
The sun gives off a variety of different
energies other than visible light. These
include radio waves, infrared radiation,
X-rays and gamma rays.
Together with visible light, this range of
energies is known as the electromagnetic
spectrum. The visible spectrum—the light
that we see—is only a small portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum. Energy from the
sun comes to us in waves that travel at
300 000 km/s. This is known as the
speed of light.
Emission spectra
Substances give off light of certain
colours when they become hot.
When this light is analysed through a
spectroscope we see that it is made up
of different coloured lines. This pattern
is called an emission spectrum and is
unique to each substance. The emission
spectra of substances can be used to
identify each substance, just like a
fingerprint can be used to identify people.
Most telescopes used by astronomers
are connected to spectroscopes. When
the telescope is pointed towards an
astronomical object it collects the light
that comes from that object. For instance,
when you look at light coming from a
distant star through a spectroscope, you
see a unique pattern of light containing
dark lines. The dark lines are caused by
the absorption of light by the elements
in the star. If the dark lines match the
emission spectrum of hydrogen (see
Figure 6.39b), then hydrogen is one of
the elements present in that star.

a b

Figure 6.39 The absorption

(a) and emission (b) spectra
of hydrogen have matching
patterns of dark and
coloured lines.
QUESTIONS 6.3.2: VIEWING SPACE FROM THE EARTH
Remember
1 Explain how a telescope helps us to view distant objects.
2 Define the term ‘spectroscopy’.
3 Identify some different types of energy that can be found on the electromagnetic
spectrum.
4 Identify the speed of light.
5 How do emission spectra from a star tell us what the star is made of?

Research
6 What is the Square Kilometre Array? How does it work?

248 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 VIEWING THE UNIVERSE FROM SPACE
The Hubble Space are amazing to look at, but more
importantly the images are
Telescope able to give astronomers
The Earth’s atmosphere distorts and blocks deeper insight into
the radiation coming from planets and stars. how galaxies and the
The Hubble Space Telescope orbits the Earth universe were formed.
at 569 kilometres above the atmosphere, This helps us
giving scientists a ‘view’ of our universe far understand how our
beyond that of any ground-based telescope. own galaxy could
Electromagnetic radiation such as gamma act in the future.
rays, X-rays and ultraviolet radiation can be The Hubble
detected more clearly. Launched in 1990, it is Space Telescope
the world’s first space-based optical telescope. is available for
Mirrors direct light and other observations by
electromagnetic radiation collected by people throughout
the Hubble Space Telescope to specialised the international
scientific instruments. The telescope has astronomical community,
two main computers and several smaller and information and
computers. Data from the cameras and observations are available worldwide.
Figure 6.40 Dark matter
scientific instruments is transferred to a Many thousands of scientific articles have
cannot be photographed,
tracking and relay data satellite, and then so far been published based on findings. but it is represented in
transmitted to a ground station in the The Hubble Space Telescope will be blue in this Hubble Space
Telescope image of a
United States. The data is then sent to the maintained to operate until 2013. After galaxy cluster. This can be
Space Telescope Science Institute where it that, NASA plans to launch the James Webb used to help understand
the nature of dark energy.
is translated into scientifically meaningful Space Telescope, which will be able to reveal
information, such as wavelength and information about the birth of stars, solar
brightness. systems and galaxies.
Astronomers have been able to make
an enormous number of new observations
based on the images beamed back to the
Earth from the Hubble Space Telescope.
One of NASA’s main goals for the
Hubble Space Telescope was to measure the
rate of expansion of the universe and work
out its exact age. Astronomers have been
able to estimate the age of the universe more
accurately, at about 13–14 billion years.
Scientists once believed that black holes
were found only in certain areas of the
universe or in the middle of only a number
of galaxies. The Hubble Space Telescope has
helped astronomers determine that black
holes actually exist at the heart of every
active galaxy.
With the help of Hubble, scientists are
able to see galaxies, supernovas and other
phenomena billions of light years away. The
images taken by the Hubble Space Telescope Figure 6.41 The Hubble Space Telescope is in orbit around the Earth.

6.3 LEARNING ABOUT SPACE 249

 Satellites
Satellites have been launched to help us
learn more about the universe, including
the Earth. Geostationary satellites provide
continuous data and monitoring of systems
on the Earth. Geostationary satellites are
always in the same position relative to the
Earth (geo means Earth); they hover above a
position on the Earth’s surface in the plane
of the equator. Astronomical satellites are
used to observe distant planets, galaxies and
other outer space objects. Weather satellites
provide information about atmospheric
changes that can be used to predict severe
weather conditions, such as cyclones, flash
floods and hailstorms. Meteorologists use
satellite images to monitor daily weather
conditions and longer term climate changes.
Google Earth uses satellite images of aerial
views of the Earth’s landscape to allow us to
sightsee around the world.
The International Space
Station
The International Space Station (ISS) is a
research facility being assembled in space.
Assembly began in 1998. The ISS orbits the
Earth approximately 350 kilometres above
the Earth’s surface and can be seen from
the Earth with the naked eye. Travelling at
a speed of 27 700 km/h, it orbits the Earth
15.8 times a day.
The ISS is a project shared between space
agencies from the United States, Russia,
Japan, Canada and 11 European countries.
It has been continuously inhabited since the
first resident crew of three in 2000. Space
Shuttle orbiters from the United States, such
as Discovery, as well as the Russian Soyuz
and Progress spacecraft, service the ISS.
The ISS will eventually consist of
14 pressurised sections that include
laboratories, docking compartments and
living quarters. It is powered by the sun
using solar panels. Atmospheric pressure,
oxygen levels, water and wastes are all
controlled on board the ISS. Scientific
research is being undertaken in the
fields of biology, physics, astronomy and
meteorology. A long-term goal of the
research is to develop the technology for
humans to explore and colonise space and
the planets.

Figure 6.42 The path of hurricane Katrina, which hit

New Orleans in 2005, was tracked by satellite.

Figure 6.43 The International Space Station is being

assembled in space.

250 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 The ISS is the perfect place to take
photographs of the Earth. Scientists
from the Earth send the ISS crew specific
photograph requests, including times,
locations and background on the area of
interest. These photographs are invaluable to
researchers because they record changes over
time. These include changes in vegetation
and other types of land cover, changes in
water levels and changes in the Earth’s
atmosphere. During ISS Expedition 13, flight
engineer Jeff Williams told scientists on the
Earth about an erupting volcano that they
had never seen.

Figure 6.44 This photo of

ACTIVITY 6.3.2: AN ASTRONAUT’S MEAL the eruption of Cleveland
Volcano in the Aleutian
Islands, Alaska, was taken
Preparing an astronaut’s meal is more difficult than you might imagine. The absence from the International
of gravity means the type of food and packaging must be chosen carefully. The limited Space Station.
weight of food that may be taken on board is also a significant factor. Astronauts do not
have to carry water because it is a by-product of electricity generation.
You are going to prepare one meal for an astronaut. Think about how you will keep
food on the tray to prevent it from floating away.
• What types of food will you take on board? How will they be packaged?
• What types of liquid will you take on board? How will they be packaged?
• How will you heat the food and liquids?
• How will you serve the food and liquids?
Research how this is actually done in space. Have you considered all the problems
with eating and drinking in low or no gravity?

QUESTIONS 6.3.3: VIEWING THE UNIVERSE FROM SPACE

Remember
1 Identify some of the instruments carried on the Hubble Space Telescope.
2 Describe some of the data already analysed from information gathered by the
Hubble Space Telescope.
3 Describe what a geostationary satellite does.
4 Identify some of the uses of satellites beyond studying our solar system.
5 Identify the types of research performed on the ISS.

Apply
6 Explain the benefit of having an Internationalº Space Station.
7 Discuss why the Hubble Space Telescope was built. What new type of information
can it provide scientists that previous telescopes could not?

Research
8 Research how scientists from the following disciplines are involved in space
exploration: geology, robotics, biology, chemistry.

6.3 LEARNING ABOUT SPACE 251

 6.3
CHECKPOINT
LEARNING ABOUT SPACE
Remember and understand
1 Copy and complete:
a The process of analysing light
coming from objects in the universe
is called _______________. [1 mark]
b The _______________ spectra of
various elements can be matched
to the absorption spectrum of a star
to identify the elements in the star.
[1 mark]
c Telescopes collect light and focus it
using _______________. [1 mark]
2 Identify and list three ways in which
people learn about space. [3 marks]
3 Identify the difference between a space
probe and a rocket. [1 mark]
4 Explain how a rocket is launched.
[1 mark]
Apply
5 Explain why telescopes are often built
on the tops of mountains. [1 mark]
6 Identify the advantage of the Hubble
Space Telescope over ground-based
telescopes. [2 marks]
7 In your own words, explain why the
International Space Station is an
important tool for scientists. [2 marks]
8 How important is a telescope in each
of the following activities? Use a rating
scale from 1 to 10 (1 = unnecessary;
10 = essential). Write a sentence
explaining your choice for each.
a whale watching [1 mark]
b space exploration [1 mark]
c navigating the ocean [1 mark]
d military surveillance [1 mark]
Analyse and evaluate
9 Explain how telescopes help us to view
distant objects. [1 mark]
TOTAL MARKS 10 Evaluate the benefits of a geostationary
[ /35] satellite. [2 marks]
Research
11 Investigate some other telescopes
that view the universe from above the
Earth’s atmosphere. [2 marks]
12 The Mariner and other space probes
launched towards Mercury and Venus
carried large solar panels to supply
energy. The Voyager, Pioneer and Galileo
space probes did not have solar panels
or use solar energy. Explain why.
[1 mark]
13 Analyse why it is an advantage to
launch spacecraft near the equator.
[1 mark]
14 Analyse why the Voyager space probes
were used to examine the planets of
our solar system rather than using very
powerful telescopes. [1 mark]
Critical and creative thinking
15 Investigate some other space probes
that have explored the planets Mars
and Venus. Use the Internet to find
more information. What happened to
these probes? [3 marks]
16 Critically analyse why it took until 1959
for the first space probe to be launched.
What delayed this technology? [1 mark]
Making connections
17 View a space movie. What is its plot?
Create a poster or digital presentation
identifying those things in the movie
that are scientifically correct and those
that are not. [3 marks]
18 Do you think humans will discover
extraterrestrial life? Do you think
this life is more likely to be found in
our solar system or in another solar
system? Explain your answer. What
sorts of conditions would this life
require? [3 marks]

252 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

1 Fill in the gaps, using the words in the Word Bank below:

Scientific understanding is always changing. Models of the solar system were

6
continually modified depending on the observations made. We now know that:
• Day and night are caused by the ____________ of the Earth around its axis.
• ____________ are caused by the tilt of the Earth’s axis as it orbits around
the sun.
• Eclipses are the result of shadows of either the moon on Earth (____________)
or the Earth on the moon (____________).

Many different cultures have contributed knowledge and helped developed our
understanding of the model of the solar system. Cultures such as the ___________
and Chinese observed many astronomical occurrences such as ____________
and the planets. The ____________ of Ancient Greece helped establish the initial
ideas of how the solar system works. Though they were ____________, their ideas
allowed further work in the astronomy field.
CHAPTER
The main historical model of the solar system was______________, i.e. the Earth
was in the centre of the solar system and the planets and stars rotated around the REVIEW
Earth. This model did not explain why the planets seemed to move backwards in
a process called ____________. The way this was countered was the addition of
____________ into the main orbit. ____________, a Polish scientist, decided that
an easier way to explain this was if the __________ was at the centre of the solar
system, and that Earth and the planets orbited around it. This model was known as
the ____________ model.

Each new model of the solar system was based on new observations and
technologies available. Originally, the heliocentric model was validated through
the use of a ____________. Nowadays, scientists use a whole range of different
____________ to further our understanding of the solar system. These include:
• ____________ telescopes
• Space-based telescopes, such as the ____________ telescope
• Satellites and space ____________
• Manned missions, such as those to the _______________.

Copernicus Epicycles Geocentric Heliocentric

WORD BANK

Hubble Incorrect Land-based Lunar eclipse

Mayan Moon Philosophers Probes
Retrograde motion Rotation Seasons Solar eclipse
Sun Supernovas Technologies Telescope

Explain predictable phenomena by the relative

positions of the sun, Earth and moon
2 Recount what causes each of the following:
a day and night [1 mark]
b seasons [1 mark]
c a year [1 mark]

6 CHAPTER REVIEW 253

 CHAPTER 3 Draw a diagram showing the relative
6 REVIEW positions of the sun and the Earth to
identify day and night on the Earth.
[2 marks]
4 Describe the differences between
a lunar and solar eclipse in terms
of appearances from Earth and the
relative positions of the Earth, sun and
moon. (You might like to use diagrams.)
[2 marks]
5 Describe why the shape of the moon
appears to change throughout its
phases. [2 marks]
Describe the effect of the sun and
moon on tides (additional)
6 Explain how the moon affects the tides
on the Earth. [1 mark]
7 Describe the differences between
neap and spring tides in terms of their
appearance and the relative positions
of the Earth, sun and moon. (You might
like to use diagrams.) [2 marks]
Demonstrate how ideas from
different cultures have contributed
to understanding the solar system
8 Describe what our calendar today
is based on, and how it differs from
earlier versions. [2 marks]
9 If you lived in ancient times, would you
have followed a solar or lunar deity, or
both, or neither? Why? [2 marks]
10 Explain the significance of the celestial
bodies to ONE chosen civilisation or
culture that you have studied. [2 marks]
11 Identify reasons why keeping track
of seasons was important to ancient
civilisations. [2 marks]
12 Describe one major difference
between the ways in which
Indigenous Australians describe their
constellations compared to most other
cultures. [1 mark]
13 Some Indigenous groups of northern
Australian used a calendar with six
seasons. Research the names and
characteristics of these seasons.
[ /45]
[6 marks]
254 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4
Compare historical and modern
models of the solar system
14 Identify the names given to the two
main models of the solar system.
[2 marks]
15 One of the earliest models of the solar
system had the Earth at its centre and
everything else revolving around the
Earth.
a Explain why this model might have
been popular at the time. [2 marks]
b Suggest a likely reason for the
proposal of other models. [2 marks]
Describe how technology has
increased understanding of the
solar system
16 Identify three devices that allow us to
examine space in more detail than with
the naked eye. [3 marks]
17 The distant planets Uranus and
Neptune are huge distances from the
Earth, yet we know so much about
them. Explain how they have been
examined in detail when they are so far
away. [2 marks]
18 Explain why astronomers study the
light that comes from distant stars.
What instruments do they use?
[2 marks]
19 Compare the different features
of a telescope, microscope and
spectroscope. How are they similar?
How are they different? [3 marks]
Investigate the contribution of
different areas of science to space
exploration (additional)
20 Research how scientists from
different disciplines contribute to
space exploration. List at least three
disciplines and how they contribute.
[2 marks]
TOTAL MARKS
RESEARCH
CHAPTER
Choose one of the following topics on
which to conduct further research. A few
guiding questions have been provided
Galileo space probe
Investigate the path of the Galileo space
probe. To reach Jupiter more quickly
6 REVIEW
but you should add more questions to it used the gravitational field of some
investigate. Present your findings in a Key words
planets. How was this done?
format that best fits the information you astronomer
have found and understandings you have Mission to the moon astronomical unit
formed. Acknowledge the sources of your The huge Saturn rocket that took Apollo 11 axis
information in a bibliography. to the moon was an extremely powerful corona
system in its day. The rocket had three constellation
Search for extraterrestrial dark nebula
‘stages’ that each carried their own
intelligence electromagnetic
fuel and dropped off as the rocket went
Astronomers are involved in a Search higher into the sky. The rocket carried spectrum
for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI). the Lunar Lander, which was itself a very emission spectrum
Find out what instruments astronomers complicated piece of technology. Build a equinox
are using in this search. How will model of the Saturn rocket and explain the full moon
these instruments help them find role of each stage and how it performed. geostationary
extraterrestrial intelligence? What are they high tide
looking for exactly? Will it be in human The far side of the moon leap year
form? You can use your computer to The moon rotates at the same rate as the low tide
become a part of this search. Earth, so we never see the far side of the lunar eclipse
Log on to SETI at home from your obook moon from the Earth. So what is it like? Is neap tide
to be part of the search. What information it the same as the near side of the moon? new moon
have you been able to provide? The far side of the moon has been seen. orbit
Find out who saw it and how, what it’s like partial eclipse
in comparison to the side we know from phases of the moon
the Earth, and what future missions to the retrograde motion
moon might be tasked with. rocket
rotation
satellite
REFLECT

solar eclipse
Me My world
solar system
1 What new science laboratory skills 5 Why is it important to understand how space probe
have you learned in this chapter? the Earth fits into the solar system? spectroscope
2 What was the most surprising thing you 6 Do you think it is important for spectroscopy
found out about the solar system? governments to spend large amounts speed of light
3 Has your understanding of how the of money on space exploration? spring tide
Earth interacts with the moon and the synchronous rotation
sun changed? My future telescope
4 What were the most difficult aspects 7 In 100 years’ time, how do you think our total solar eclipse
of this topic? ‘space’ situation will have changed? visible spectrum
waning
waxing

6 CHAPTER REVIEW 255

 6
Space tourism
Have you ever imagined what it would be
like to venture into space? To look down at
the Earth from far above would be a truly
awesome sight. And it may well become
reality before too long.
Since 2000, several companies have
started up or expanded into the area of
space travel for fun. One of the best known
is Virgin Galactic, run by Richard Branson.
Passengers on Virgin’s SpaceShipTwo will
travel to a height of almost 110 kilometres
MAKING above the Earth for 2.5 hours, travelling at
CONNECTIONS
256 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4
three times the speed of sound—about
1 kilometre per second!
Another space company, SpaceX, gained
the contract of taking cargo and crew to
the International Space Station aboard their
Dragon spacecraft. A powerful rocket named
Falcon 9 launches the transport vehicle into
space where it is then guided to the ISS.
Several other space companies are mak-
ing plans to rival Virgin Galactic and may
offer different space experiences—even a
loop trip around the moon!
 Figure 6.45 Virgin’s
SpaceShipTwo can travel
to a height of almost
110 kilometres.

1 Would you be interested in going into

space? If so, what would you most want to
see? What would be your biggest fear?
2 Design a spacecraft for taking ordinary
people into space. What would it look
like? What facilities would it need to
have on board to keep everyone alive and
comfortable? How would the issue of food
be addressed? What other factors would
need to be considered before and during
the journey? If time permits, construct a
Figure 6.46 Richard Branson
model of your spacecraft and explain its is expanding his business
features to your class. into space tourism.

3 Imagine you are planning a space tourism

exhibition in Sydney of all the different
space tourism companies from around
the world. The exhibition will be open to
the public. Research whom you would
invite and what each company offers
to its passengers. Make a summary of
your findings. Include technical data and
images of the space vehicles as well as
costs and flight times.

Figure 6.47 SpaceX’s

Falcon 9 rocket.

6.1 LEARNING
6 MAKING CONNECTIONS
ABOUT SPACE 257
 7
THE EARTH’S
RESOURCES
People have always relied on the natural resources of the Earth—in the air, the water and the
ground. We now know that some natural resources are not endless and they need to be carefully
managed for use in the future. Other types of resources need to be developed to provide enough
energy for our needs. Careful choices based on scientific understanding need to be made when
considering a resource’s use or development.
 TYPES OF RESOURCES 7.1
Resources are the materials we use to produce energy and useful items. Resources can
be found in the ground, the air, the water and even in living organisms. As technology has
improved, collecting these resources has become easier, but there are lots of effects this
can have on the environment.
Students:
» Outline the features of metal ores and fossil fuels as non-renewable resources
» Describe the uses of resources extracted from the lithosphere
» Outline some choices involved in deciding to use scientific technology to obtain resources
» Debate the economic and environmental impacts of resource exploration (additional)

MANAGING RESOURCES 7.2

Not all resources are freely available. Non-renewable resources may run out unless we
use them carefully. Management of resources is very important.
Students:
» Classify renewable and non-renewable resources
» Investigate recycling and alternative sources as strategies to conserve and manage
non-renewable resources
» Discuss different views for the use and management of non-renewable resources
» Research how Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people’s knowledge is used
to manage resources
» Describe the uses of resources extracted from the biosphere and atmosphere

WATER AS A RESOURCE 7.3

Water is plentiful on the Earth, but drinking water is much more rare than you might think.
Water is a vital resource that needs to be very carefully managed.
Students:
» Identify water as a resource that cycles through the environment
» Explain the physical processes of the water cycle
» Demonstrate how knowledge of the water cycle has influenced water management
» Describe the uses of resources extracted from the hydrosphere

259

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 7.1 TYPES OF RESOURCES
We use a lot of energy—in our houses and to travel around, and in the
factories and businesses that provide goods and services. In Australia,
most of this energy comes from coal, oil and natural gas. But these are not
never-ending resources and burning them is contributing to the enhanced
greenhouse effect. Many areas of science now investigate alternatives
such as nuclear and solar energy.

FOSSIL FUELS
The Australian continent contains a
variety of energy resources. For a long
time we have relied on energy resources
such as coal, petrol (which comes from
oil) and gas for our energy needs. Coal,
oil and gas are called fossil fuels because
they are the fossilised remains of living
things that died millions of years ago.
Uranium, a metal ore, is also mined in
Australia but is used as an energy resource
in other countries.
Fossil fuels and uranium are mined
from the lithosphere, the rocky outer
crust of the Earth’s surface.

Figure 7.1 Locations of Australia’s energy resources.

260 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

Table 7.1 Use of Australia’s energy resources.

Percentage of total electricity

Resource Use
production 2008–2009 (%)

Coal (brown and black) Electricity generation 76.7

Gas Electricity generation 15.0

Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) Transport fuel 0

Uranium Exports 0

Crude oil Transport fuel 1.0

Wind Electricity generation 1.5

Solar, biogas, biomass Solar heating and electricity 1.2

generation

Hydro Electricity generation 4.7

Wave, tidal Demonstration projects only 0

Source: Data adapted from Energy in Australia 2011, Commonwealth Department of Resources, Figure 7.2 A piece of brown coal.
Energy and Tourism.

Coal
Most of Australia’s energy used to produce
electricity comes from coal. In New South
Wales, most electricity is generated by
power stations in the Hunter Valley, using
coal. Other large coal resources are found
in the Latrobe Valley in Victoria, and in
central and eastern Queensland. Coal is
mined in open cut mines if it is close to the
surface, or in underground mines. It is then
transported to power stations.

Natural gas
Many different gases exist in the Earth’s
crust that can be extracted for use as an
energy resource. Natural gas is a mixture
of hydrocarbons (chemicals made up of
hydrogen and carbon atoms), and mainly
contains the gases methane, ethane, butane
and propane. A source of natural gas is
called a gas field rather than a mine. The gas
is extracted and separated into its different
gases, then piped to cities and towns for
various uses in homes or burnt in power
stations to generate electricity.
Coal seam gas
Australia has rich deposits of methane gas
inside coal beds. This gas is called coal
seam gas (CSG) and is the purest form of
natural gas. The CSG industry in Australia
Figure 7.3 A power station in the Hunter Valley in New South Wales.
is relatively well established (as shown by the
red ‘c’ symbol on Figure 7.1) and currently
provides 90% of Queensland’s gas. It has
been estimated that Australia has enough
CSG to power a city of five million people for
1000 years!
Crude oil
Crude oil, also known as petroleum, is
a thick black liquid that is separated into
various products including petrol, diesel,
aviation fuel and kerosene. The largest
sources of petroleum (oil and gas combined)
in Australia are in Bass Strait and off the
north-western coast.

7.1 TYPES OF RESOURCES 261


Figure 7.4 Electric cars can be charged
using a normal household power point.
Water is returned
Storage tank to be boiled again
Steam travels Steam forces the
to the turbine turbine to spin
Steam has lost most of its energy,
Coal is burnt to boil the water some is condensed into water
Figure 7.6 A turbine assembly in a power station.
262 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4
In Australia, emissions from cars are
a major contributor to greenhouse gases.
Most car companies have designed one or
more LEVs (low-emissions vehicles). They
include hybrids and very efficient petrol and
diesel models. Cars with efficient engines
use very little fuel. Hybrids use a mix of
petrol and electricity.
In hybrid vehicles, the electric motor
works with the petrol engine to reduce fuel
consumption and emissions but it does not
eliminate them. Some cars are completely
electric.
New types of battery have made electric
vehicles a reality. Although these cars can
only run a certain distance before they need
to recharge, battery life is improving all
the time.
Steam
Cooling tower, where
cooling water is cooled
by evaporation
The generator spins.
This makes electricity
Electricity goes to
Cooling water condenses the steam back transformer, then it is
into water, so it can be boiled again distributed to houses
Figure 7.5 How a coal-fired power station works.
Figure 7.7 A generator in a power station.
How a power station Transmission lines
carry electricity
Distribution lines carry
electricity to homes
works long distances

Coal-fired power stations burn coal to

produce electricity. When coal is burnt, its
chemical energy is released as heat energy.
Carbon dioxide is also produced. The heat
is used to boil water to make steam. The Power station Transformer steps Neighbourhood Transformer on pole
generates electricity up voltage for transformer steps steps down voltage before
steam is used to make a turbine spin. transmission down voltage transmission to house
A turbine is a large wheel with angled
Figure 7.8 How electricity is transported and distributed.
sections called vanes, like a propeller.
The turbine is connected to a generator. A
generator converts the movement from the
turbine into electrical energy. A generator
causes an electric current to flow.
Gas-fired power stations work in a
similar way, burning gas to heat water and
make steam. Burning natural gas produces
much less greenhouse gas than burning coal.

Figure 7.9 Transmission lines carry the electricity

from the power station to your home.

ACTIVITY 7.1.1: ELECTRICITY USING A GENERATOR

What you need: model generator, light bulb on a stand, 2 connecting wires
1 Inspect the model generator and identify its components.
2 Spin the generator by turning the handle.
• What happens as it spins?
• Can you see that as the coil rotates it
cuts up and down in the space between
the magnets?
3 Connect a light bulb on a stand across the
contacts of the generator.
4 Turn the handle slowly.
• What happens to the light from the
light bulb?
Figure 7.10 A model generator.
• What does this suggest?
5 Turn the handle rapidly.
• What happens to the light from the light bulb now?
• What does this suggest?
• What energy conversion occurs in a generator?
• How is this generator different from a coal-fired power station?

7.1 TYPES OF RESOURCES 263

 EXPERIMENT 7.1.1: MODEL POWER STATION

Aim
To model the action of a power station.

Materials
• Square paper, 15 cm × 15 cm (cut from one A4 sheet)
• Ruler
• Pencil with eraser on the end
• Scissors
• Pin
• Bunsen burner
• Tripod
• Heatproof mat

WARNING
• Beaker (150 mL) > Wear safety glasses and a
• Aluminium foil, 10 cm × 10 cm lab coat.
• Large nail
Method part 1: The turbine
a
1 Mark the square paper as shown using a pencil and a ruler. Draw the circle in the
centre about the size of a 5-cent piece.
2 Cut along the lines but stop at the edges of the circle.
3 Fold all four corners in towards the centre, one at a time, and hold them in place.
4 Insert the pin through the four corners and into the tip of the pencil’s eraser.
5 Blow on the pinwheel to see if it spins. If not, pull the pin out slightly to create
room. The pinwheel will act like the turbine of a power station.

Method part 2: The boiler

1 Set up the Bunsen burner, tripod and heatproof mat.
Place the beaker on top.
2 Use the nail to punch a small hole in the centre of the
aluminium foil.
b 3 Place the aluminium foil over the top of the beaker and
fold it down the sides.
Figure 7.11 Mark diagonal
lines through the square 4 Light the Bunsen burner and heat the water until it boils.
paper and trace around a
5-cent coin in the centre
5 Steam should be coming out of the hole. Hold your
(a). Adjust the pin in the pinwheel over the hole and let the steam spin the
eraser to enable the ‘turbine’.
pinwheel to spin (b).
Results
Include photographs or diagrams of what occurred.
Figure 7.12 Experiment setup.
Discussion
1 Describe what happened to your pinwheel when it was placed in the steam flow.
2 What else would you need to add to make your ‘power station’ generate electricity?
3 What is the fuel in your power station?
4 Will your power station run out of fuel?
5 Evaluate how appropriate your model was in modelling a power station.

Conclusion
What do you know about the action of a power station?

264 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

07_ZHA_IS7_77549_SI.indd 264 1/09/2017 1:54 PM

QUESTIONS 7.1.1: FOSSIL FUELS

Remember
1 Define the term ‘fossil fuel’.
2 Give three examples of fossil fuels, including what they are used for.
3 In a power station, identify the function of the:
a boiler
b turbine
4 Explain how coal seam gas is different from other natural gas.
5 Identify the other name that crude oil is also known as.
6 Recall three products that are made from crude oil.

Apply
7 Use Figure 7.1 and Table 7.1 to identify:
a Australia’s third-largest electricity production resource in 2008–2009
b the energy resources found in the state of Western Australia or off the WA coast
c the major energy resource in New South Wales
d where Australia’s major deposits of coal are
8 Explain why you think companies are designing cars that are better for the
environment.
9 Suggest a reason why fossil fuels are only found in the lithosphere of the Earth.
10 Use Table 7.1 to determine the percentage of electricity produced in Australia from
fossil fuels.
11 Table 7.1 is displaying data from between 2008 and 2009. Investigate whether these
data have changed significantly in the last few years. Draw a column graph to
compare the two sets of data (2008–2009 in one colour, your new data in a different
colour). Remember to list your sources correctly.

7.1 TYPES OF RESOURCES 265

 URANIUM
If you are a fan of the television show The
Simpsons you will have heard a bit about
uranium. The Springfield nuclear plant uses
rods of uranium-235 that meet up with
Smilin’ Joe Fission. Joe gives them a dip
in the pool where their fission (splitting)
reactions release nuclear energy, which
converts to heat energy to boil water and
make steam to turn a turbine. Fuel rods
containing uranium-235 are the key
component of nuclear power stations.
Uranium is the most abundant
radioactive element on the Earth, and
Australia has the world’s largest supply of
this metal. Like fossil fuels, it is a non-
renewable resource and Australia’s supply
is expected to last 140 years if mined at
the rate it was in 2008. However, unlike
coal-fired power, generating nuclear
power produces hardly any carbon dioxide
emissions (which contribute to the
enhanced greenhouse effect) once the
power stations are built.
Many countries use nuclear power.
France uses uranium for about 80% of
its electricity production, the highest
percentage in the world. Almost all of the
uranium mined in Australia is exported to
countries that use nuclear power.
Energy from uranium
Nuclear fission occurs when uranium
atoms split in two and very large amounts of
energy are released. The discovery of fission
led to the development of nuclear weapons
and nuclear power.
The energy from the fission of uranium
heats water, turning it into steam.
The steam drives turbines, which drive
generators, just like in a conventional coal-
fired power station. However, nuclear power
can produce far more energy much faster
than coal-fired turbines. Nuclear power
produces much less greenhouse gas than
burning coal.

90

80

70

60
% of electrical production

50

40

30

20

10

0
Argentina
Armenia
Belgium
Brazil
Bulgaria
Canada
China
Czech Republic
Finland
France
Germany
Hungary
India
Iran
Japan
Mexico
Netherlands
Pakistan
Romania
Russia
Slovakia
Slovenia
South Africa
South Korea
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
Taiwan
Ukraine
United Kingdom
United States

Countries using nuclear power

Figure 7.13 The percentage
of electricity generated with
nuclear power per country.

266 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4


Risk and radiation
One of the products of nuclear fission is
radioactive waste. Countries that have
developed nuclear power need to manage
this waste. The waste needs to be stored or
disposed of to keep it secure and isolated
from people. Some people think that nuclear
waste cannot be safely stored and therefore
we should not use uranium as a way of
producing energy in Australia.
Too much exposure to radiation can be
harmful for humans. In 2011 the power
Figure 7.14 Tricastin nuclear power station in France.
Figure 7.15 Nuclear power remains controversial in Australia.
and cooling systems of a nuclear plant in
Fukushima, Japan, were damaged by an
earthquake and tsunami, allowing radiation
to leak into the atmosphere.
Radiation is dangerous to humans
and other organisms because it can cause
damage to cells, specifically to the DNA held
within cells. Damaged DNA can then result
in cancers and other illnesses. Radiation can
also damage the DNA in sperm and eggs,
which can result in genetic deformities and
illness in children.
Figure 7.16 The Fukushima nuclear reactor
after it was damaged in 2011.
7.1 TYPES OF RESOURCES 267
 DEEPER
U N D E R S TA N D I N G Uranium mining in Kakadu
Kakadu National Park in the Northern
Territory is on the World Heritage List for
its natural and cultural values. It supports
four river systems and a large number
of species found nowhere else on Earth.
Indigenous Australians have lived in and
around Kakadu for thousands of years.
Large deposits of uranium are located
within the park. This resource is mined
and sold to other countries for use in
nuclear power stations.
The uranium mine has been
controversial over the years because of
the impact on the environment, objections
from local communities and the risks of
uranium mining—supplying the nuclear
power industry and managing the
resultant waste.
The government and people of Australia
have not yet decided if nuclear power is
right for this country.
1 What uranium mines are located within
Kakadu?
2 What issues have these uranium
mines had?
3 What are the potential dangers of
uranium mining and nuclear power?
4 How is energy released from uranium
in a nuclear power station?
5 Research to find out:
• how uranium is extracted from the
lithosphere
• approximately how much energy
can be released from one tonne of
uranium compared with coal
• whether mining companies consult
or work with Indigenous people in
mining areas.

a b

Figure 7.17 (a) Ranger uranium mine in Kakadu National Park. (b) Uranium ore.

QUESTIONS 7.1.2: URANIUM

Remember
1 Identify where in Australia our uranium resources are found (see Figure 7.1).
2 Explain what happens in nuclear fission.
3 Identify the term used to mean ‘splitting an atom’.

Apply
4 Discuss how radiation can be harmful.
5 Explain why you think Australia has not used nuclear power yet.
6 Explain how a nuclear power station is different from a coal-fired power station.
How are they similar? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each?

268 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 OTHER RESOURCES FROM THE LITHOSPHERE
Most of the made objects we use every day processes. Compared to our human lives
are manufactured from materials that come the time scale of mineral formation is huge.
from the Earth. The process of extracting Our modern society needs the products of
useful minerals from the Earth is known as mining, but do we need them in such large
mining. Minerals are tiny grains or crystals amounts? Can we and should we cut down
that are the building blocks of rocks. Only on our mineral use in the future?
a few minerals, such as gold, are found
in a pure state. Mostly they are found in
a
combination with other substances and
need to be separated before they can be used.
Aluminium is not found as solid sheets
in the ground. It is part of the ore called
bauxite, which is made of aluminium,
oxygen and iron. Ores are materials that
contain a high proportion of a useful
mineral. The main products mined in
Australia are shown in Table 7.2. Australia b
is rich in ore deposits and many mines
have been in operation for a long time. You
learned about coal, Australia’s main energy
product, and the alternative energy source
uranium, earlier in this chapter. Uranium
is an ore wheras coal is a fossil fuel as it is
made up of a pure substance.
Minerals are non-renewable resources.
They have been formed slowly over many
thousands or millions of years by geological

Table 7.2 Products mined in Australia, 2008–2009.

Mined product Mass (thousands

of tonnes)
c
Black coal 414 000

Iron ore 353 800

Brown coal 73 000

Bauxite 64 418

Salt 11 202

Mineral sands (ilmenite, 2 802

rutile, zircon)

Zinc 1 411

Copper 889

Lead 596

Nickel 185

Uranium 10.3 Figure 7.18 (a) Bauxite ore is processed

to extract (b) aluminium, which is used
Gold 0.218
to make soft drink cans [c].

7.1 TYPES OF RESOURCES 269

 Mining affects the natural environment.
So does building towns, cities, farms, roads
and railway lines. These days, before any
mine is built, environmental studies are
undertaken to find out the environmental
impact of the mine. Strict controls on
pollution are in place for mines during the
a
mining process. The mining companies have
to deal with all the materials that have been
dug up and processed but are not required.
These wastes or tailings can be very
harmful to the environment. Afterwards,
mining companies are required to return
the mine site to a sustainable condition,
replacing vegetation and encouraging
animals to return.

b Figure 7.19 A mining site (a) before and

(b) during rehabilitation.

ACTIVITY 7.1.2: MUFFIN MINING

What you need: 2 homemade chocolate chip muffins (each with the same number of
chocolate chips—approximately 20), plastic plates, spoons
1 Imagine each muffin is an area of land that contains a valuable ore: chocolate.
2 Use spoons to ‘mine’ the chocolate from the first muffin in the open cut method,
taking layers off the top and collecting the chocolate as it appears.
3 ‘Mine’ the second muffin in the underground method, digging a single tunnel
straight down the middle and then tunnelling sideways to leave the top intact.
• Which method recovered the most ore?
• Which method was faster? Which was easier?
• Which method would allow the environment to be rehabilitated more easily?

ACTIVITY 7.1.3: MINING PROPOSAL

A government receives a proposal from a mining company to mine an ore that lies
under a national park. The proposed mine would create jobs for local people, bring
tourists to local businesses, and the mining company promises to rehabilitate the
area afterwards.
1 Working in small groups, brainstorm as many pros and cons to this proposal as you
can think of. Consider all the different groups of people that would be affected, as
well as local plants and animals.
2 Evaluate your lists and decide whether you would say ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to the proposal.
• What questions did you ask when trying to decide whether or not to mine?
• Put these questions in order from most to least important to you. Is your order
the same as other people in your group?
• Was your group’s decision the same as that of other groups in the class?

270 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 EXPERIMENT 7.1.2: OBTAINING A METAL FROM A MINERAL
(TEACHER DEMONSTRATION)

Aim
To obtain pure copper from the mineral copper sulfate.

Materials
• Power supply • Copper sulfate solution
• 2 electrical leads with alligator clips (1 M)
on one end • Safety glasses
• 2 carbon rods • Paper towel
• Beaker (250 mL)
Method
1 Plug the electrical leads into the DC terminals of the power supply. Figure 7.20 Copper sulfate.
2 Connect the top end of the carbon rods to the alligator clips on the end of the
electrical leads.
3 Fill the beaker with approximately 100 mL of the copper sulfate solution.
4 Place the carbon rods into the copper sulfate solution, being careful not to let them
touch each other.
5 Set the power supply knob to 6 V and turn on the power.
6 Observe the rods over the next 10 minutes.
7 After 10 minutes, turn the power supply off, remove the carbon rods and place
them on paper towel.

Results
Record your observations about the appearance of the rods and the copper sulfate
solution before and after the demonstration.

Discussion
1 Examine something else made of copper, such as an old 1- or 2-cent coin or
a copper water pipe. Does the coating on the rods look like pure copper?
2 Suggest where the copper coating comes from.
3 What do you think the electricity did in this demonstration?

Conclusion
How successful was this demonstration in obtaining pure copper from copper sulfate?

QUESTIONS 7.1.3: MINERALS

Remember
1 Recall the definition of a mineral.
2 Compare and contrast an ore and a mineral using named examples.
3 Define the term ‘tailing’.
4 Identify five items you use regularly that are made from a mineral.

Apply
5 Suggest reasons why a mining company might decide to mine a particular ore but
not another.
6 Explain why minerals are classified as non-renewable resources.

7.1 TYPES OF RESOURCES 271

 7.1
CHECKPOINT
TYPES OF RESOURCES
Remember and understand
1 Identify the most common fuel used for
energy production in Australia. [1 mark]
2 Identify three different uses of energy
we use in everyday life. [3 marks]
3 Define the term ‘non-renewable’.
[1 mark]
4 Explain what a generator is. [1 mark]
5 In a coal-fired power station, explain
what happens in the:
a cooling tower [1 mark]
b generator [1 mark]
c transformer [1 mark]
6 Explain what nuclear fission is and why
it is a major energy source in some
countries. [2 marks]
7 Explain why coal, oil and gas are
described as fossil fuels. [1 mark]
Apply
8 Discuss what advantages and
disadvantages electric vehicles have
over petrol-driven cars. [4 marks]
9 An earthquake in 2011 in Japan
damaged the cooling system in the
Fukushima nuclear power station.
Research how a nuclear power plant
works and explain the importance of
a cooling system. [2 marks]
10 Draw a table to examine the advantages
and disadvantages of nuclear power.
[4 marks]
TOTAL MARKS
[ /40]
272 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4
Analyse and evaluate
11 If coal is so widely used for generating
electricity, analyse why some people
are concerned about building new
coal-fired power stations. [2 marks]
12 Is a hybrid car a low-emissions vehicle
or a zero-emissions vehicle? Justify
your answer. [2 marks]
Ethical understanding
13 Evaluate the issues surrounding the
use of fossil fuels. [2 marks]
14 Describe the concerns some
environment groups have about coal
and nuclear power. What alternatives
do they support for Australia? [4 marks]
15 Do you think nuclear power will be used
in Australia in the future? Justify your
answer. [2 marks]
Critical and creative thinking
16 Passenger cars are responsible for
a significant amount of the Australian
population’s energy consumption.
Should people consider walking, cycling
or taking public transport to reduce
their energy consumption? What issues
might they consider? [3 marks]
Making connections
17 Extracting a resource from the
Earth involves many considerations and
can be controversial. Imagine that a
new mineral, ‘Unobtainium’, has been
discovered in your local area. Identify
what choices or decisions would
need to be made about the process of
extraction and mining. Who should be
involved in these decisions? What might
their concerns be? [3 marks]
MANAGING RESOURCES
We have all heard of the dinosaurs and about the vast forests that once
covered the Earth. Some trees and animals became fossil fuels, which we
know as coal, oil and gas, over millions of years. Fossil fuels are called
non-renewable resources because they are limited—once used they are
gone forever as they take too long to regenerate. How do we use energy
now so there is enough energy in the future? What renewable energy
7.2
resources are available to us? What technologies are being developed to
access these resources?

RENEWABLE OR NON-RENEWABLE?
When you learned how to light the gas in
a Bunsen burner you were using a non-
renewable resource. A non-renewable
resource is one that will not be replenished
within a lifetime. If you burnt 1 litre of gas
then there is 1 litre less of that gas in the
world. Many non-renewable resources, such
as fossil fuels, are continually being made but
on a time scale of hundreds of thousands or
even millions of years. This makes them non-
renewable in our lifetime. If we continue to
use a non-renewable resource, and it is not
recycled, then it will run out for humans.
Australia’s brown coal is estimated to
last for less than 500 years. By 2030, coal is
still expected to be our main energy resource Figure 7.21 Sunlight is a
renewable energy resource,
but with a shift to also using resources such Managing use which is collected with
as natural gas, coal seam gas, and possibly solar panels.
uranium, as well as renewable technologies
of resources
such as wind, solar and geothermal energies. We have lots of choices about what resources
Renewable resources are available in to use and how much of them we need
an almost unlimited amount, or they can to use. For every resource there are pros
be replaced within a lifetime. Solar energy is a (reasons for) and cons (reasons against)
renewable resource—an unlimited amount of for their collection and use. It is important
it is available while the sun shines in the sky. to understand where each resource comes
If the weather is cloudy then solar energy is from and how it is collected, refined and
not available, so there are disadvantages too. used. Waste products that may impact on
Other examples of renewable resources are the environment or the health of the people
timber and fish. Given the right conditions using it are also vital pieces of information to
they will be able to reproduce and grow to consider when making choices about which
replace what has been cut down or caught, resources to use. While renewable energy
if we don’t use them too fast. We need to resources are unlikely to run out, there are
consider the consequences of taking too still problems associated with collecting and
much too quickly. storing the energy they produce.

7.2 MANAGING RESOURCES 273

 Reduce, reuse, recycle Reusing resources is also very easy to
do, and often saves people money. In many
The three Rs (reduce, reuse, recycle) describe
countries around the world including across
the ways in which we can conserve and
Africa and South America, glass soft drink
manage non-renewable resources. ‘Reduce’
bottles are reused rather than recycled. It
refers to using less materials. ‘Reuse’ means
can be quite costly to melt the glass down
using something again rather than throwing
and recast the bottles, so instead they are
it out. ‘Recycle’ means changing a material
collected, thoroughly washed and sterilised
into another useable form.
before being refilled and sealed.
We can reduce the amount of any
Materials that can be recycled include
resource that we use through careful
plastic (made from crude oil), paper
consideration and use. The fewer resources
products (from trees) and aluminium
we use, the less need to be mined, refined
(extracted from the mineral bauxite).
and produced. Simple actions like turning
Recycling of aluminium, for example, is
off the lights when leaving a room, cutting
significantly cheaper, faster and better for
your shower short by a minute or putting
the environment than mining and refining
on a jumper before putting the heating on
bauxite.
are reducing the amount of electricity, water
In all cases, reducing, reusing and
and gas respectively. As individuals, every
recycling can save time and money as well as
small reduction in resource use we make
saving the amount of resources being used.
contributes to a nationwide significant
For each particular resource and product,
reduction. For example, you may think it
it is important to consider the costs and
difficult to save water. But if every person in
benefits of each method before deciding to
Australia saved just 1 litre of water per day
reduce, reuse or recycle.
(cutting your shower short by 30 seconds),
that adds up to 20 million litres of water
saved across the country every day!

QUESTIONS 7.2.1: RENEWABLE OR NON-RENEWABLE?

Remember
1 How long does a non-renewable resource last? Explain your answer.
2 How long does a renewable resource last? Explain your answer.
3 Compare the time scale for the formation of non-renewable resources with that of
the formation of renewable resources.
4 Explain the differences between the three methods of conserving resources:
reduce, reuse and recycle.

Apply
5 Choose ten items you use every day. Classify the materials used to make them as
renewable or non-renewable.
6 Explain why the time scale of a resource is an important issue.
7 Explain why it is more important to reduce, reuse and recycle non-renewable
resources than renewable resources.
8 Identify ways that you conserve non-renewable resources.
9 Different resources should be conserved in different ways depending on how they
are obtained. Suggest whether the following products should be reduced, reused or
recycled and justify your choice.
a Aluminium cans c Copper e Paper
b Drinking water d Plastic bottles

274 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ENERGY
Wind power
In a coal powered electricity generator,
burning coal produces steam to turn a Generator Gear box transmission
Blades
turbine. Wind can turn a turbine instead Brake
of steam, eliminating the burning step that
produces carbon dioxide. Wind is energy
gathered from the atmosphere. Hub
To generate a significant amount of
energy, many wind turbines are placed in
long rows in a wind farm. Wind farms must
be in locations that receive a lot of wind. The
stronger the winds, the faster the turbines
turn and the more energy is produced.
Wind is a natural, renewable resource
that doesn’t produce any excess greenhouse
gases. However, not everyone likes wind High speed shaft
farms. Some people don’t want to look at
rows and rows of wind turbines and say that Figure 7.22 The parts of a wind turbine.
they are noisy and pose a threat to birds
and bats.

Solar power
In Australia we are familiar with solar
power for things such as hot water, outdoor
lighting and school zone speed limit signs.
Solar energy is made when solar cells (or
solar panels) convert sunlight into electrical
energy. The cells were invented in the 1880s.
Once set up they have no carbon emissions
and no negative environmental impacts.
However, there are environmental impacts in
their construction, transport and disposal.
Figure 7.23 A wind farm in Australia.

a b c

Figure 7.24 Solar power has many uses (a–c). Which of these have you seen?

7.2 MANAGING RESOURCES 275

 Experimental solar power stations in the
past had curved mirrors to collect the sun’s
rays and focus them, much like a satellite
dish collects the message sent down from
a satellite. These days, solar power stations
use huge arrays of solar panels and are
used extensively in Germany and Spain to
generate millions of watts (megawatts or
MW) of electrical energy. Many such power
stations are planned or under construction
in the United States and in Australia.
Figure 7.25 A large-scale
solar farm.
ACTIVITY 7.2.1: USING CURVED MIRRORS

What you need: concave mirror, leaf from a tree, sunny day
WARNING

> Be aware of fire ban days and wind. Have a container of water ready to put out your
leaf if it catches alight.

1 Investigate how to use the reflection of sunlight to burn a hole in a leaf. Factors to
investigate include the angle of the mirror to the sun, the distance of the leaf from
the mirror, the thickness of the leaf and the cleanliness of the mirror surface.
2 Can you focus a tiny circle of light onto the same place on the leaf? The circle of light
is an image of the sun and the mirror concentrates the sun’s light onto this one place.
• How would mirrors have worked in old-fashioned solar power stations?
• Write up your activity as an appropriate experimental report.

EXPERIMENT 7.2.1: SOLAR CELLS

Aim
To investigate the amount of electricity produced by solar cells.

Hypothesis
Read the aim of this experiment and predict what you might observe. Use your
prediction to formulate a hypothesis to test for the experiment you are about to conduct.

Materials
• Small solar cells
• Electrical wires
• Voltmeter
Method
1 While inside, connect a solar cell to the voltmeter using the electrical wires.
2 Remaining inside, record the voltmeter reading.
3 Cover the solar cell with your hand and record the voltmeter reading.
4 Take the solar cell over to a window and record the voltmeter reading.
5 Take the solar cell outside, face it towards the sun and record the voltmeter
reading. If it is cloudy outside, take a reading and then repeat the measurement
when the clouds clear or on another day when it is sunny.
6 Cover the solar cell with a thin layer of dust and repeat the measurement.
7 Connect solar cells together in series (in a line) and record the voltmeter reading.

276 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

07_ZHA_IS7_77549_SI.indd 276 1/09/2017 2:03 PM

 Results Location Number of solar cells Voltmeter reading (V)
Copy and record your
Inside
results in a table like
the one shown. Inside, covered

Window

Outside, sunny

Outside, cloudy

Outside, dusty

Outside, multiple cells

Discussion
1 What are the best conditions for generating electricity from a solar cell?
2 Why do you think a house with a solar energy installation will have six, eight or more
solar cells on its roof?
3 Why should solar panels on a house roof be cleaned regularly?

Conclusion
What do you know about the amount of electricity produced by solar cells? Did your
observations support your hypothesis? Why or why not?

Hydro-electric power
Hydro-electric energy (hydro means water)
is produced by falling water that turns
turbines to produce electricity. It accounts
for about 19% of the world’s energy
production. Hydro-electric schemes need a
constant water supply and are often built in
high-altitude areas such as in the mountains.
The water supply is held in dams and then
released to cause fast-flowing water, which
turns the turbines efficiently. Hydro-electric
power in Australia meets about 4.5% of our
electricity needs. The main installations are
in Tasmania and in the Snowy Mountains in
New South Wales.

Figure 7.26 The Snowy

Mountains Hydro-Electric
Scheme.

7.2 MANAGING RESOURCES 277

 Tidal and wave power
Have you ever been to a surf beach and
experienced the ferocity of the waves?
Swimming at a surf beach can be quite
dangerous. It has been estimated that
wave energy alone could power the entire
Earth five times over! The only problem has
been working out how to do it. Wave energy
uses the energy of waves to drive air turbines
to produce electricity.
Tidal energy can be used to drive
turbines in the water to generate electricity.
The major drawback of tidal power is that
it only provides a relatively small amount
of electricity and has a negative impact on
the nearby natural environment. The largest
tidal power station in the world is in France.
Geothermal energy
Geothermal energy comes from heat
beneath the surface of the Earth. The
superheated liquid rock under the Earth’s
surface is called magma. This is known
as lava when it erupts from a volcano.
Magma heats the layers of rock above and
below it. This heat is geothermal energy and
some of it is released as steam. The steam
can be used to turn a turbine and generator,
creating electricity.
278 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4
Air turbine
Waves
Air is squeezed
in chamber
Figure 7.27 How wave power drives air turbines.
Because Australia is very geologically
stable (we have no active volcanoes on the
mainland of Australia), Australia’s only
geothermal power station is in the town
of Birdsville in western Queensland. The
power station has a bore (pipe) that goes
1230 metres into the ground and taps into
98°C water from the Great Artesian Basin.
This power station provides about a quarter
of Birdsville’s energy supply. After the
steam has been used to drive the turbine,
the cooled water becomes the town’s water
supply.
Australia has access to a technology
called hot dry rock geothermal energy that
could produce electricity to power parts
of Australia for many years. Australia has
the world’s best geology for this type of
energy. Proven reserves of hot dry rock
have been found in Central Australia,
and reserves in the Hunter Valley in New
South Wales are being tested. To extract
energy from hot dry rock, water is injected
through bore holes into hot granite rock
five kilometres underground. The steam
produced can be used to generate electricity.
This technology uses up none of the Earth’s
valuable resources because the steam can
be condensed back into liquid water and
injected again.
Figure 7.28 The underwater
turbines of a tidal power station.

Figure 7.29 Hot bore water is utilised at the geothermal
power plant in Birdsville, Queensland.
Green careers
With the importance of renewable energy becoming
widely known, more and more jobs in the ‘green’
sector are becoming available. There are many jobs
and industries to choose from.
ADRIAN MORPHETT, Senior emissions
auditor at Carbon Planet Australia
My typical day at work: I work with
businesses to help them understand their
environmental impacts and then come up
with ideas to reduce their emissions. I go
out to businesses and do energy audits,
where I look for energy and greenhouse
gas savings and then tell the business how
to make the changes.
Why I love my job: Hopefully it makes a
difference. This industry has to go well,
and be smart, effective and help other
businesses drive their emissions down if we
are to have a chance of making a difference.
Worst thing about my job: The worst-case
scenarios of climate change are frightening!
Skills, courses or training people need for
this job: You need a degree in something
like mechanical engineering. Good
research skills are essential, and a good
head for figures and data analysis skills
is important. Good people skills are
essential, too.
Why my work and Carbon Planet’s work
are important: We are working towards
reducing greenhouse gas emissions,
informing businesses about climate
change and what they can do about it.
General salary range for this type of job:
$75 000–110 000.
Electricity
Sediment
Steam
Cold water
produced
pumped in
Figure 7.30 How hot dry rock
Hot rock technology works.
DEEPER
U N D E R S TA N D I N G
MELISSA SUPANGAT, Environmental
engineer at Earth Systems
My typical day at work: I write proposals
on energy efficiency projects, usually
for developing countries, calculate
greenhouse gas emissions of specific
sites and research new ways to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions.
Why I love my job: I can help other
people and companies to cut down their
emissions by applying what I learned in
school.
Figure 7.31 Adrian Morphett
Worst thing about my job: Encountering
people who are still sceptical about
global warming or who are reluctant to
implement emissions reduction strategies
because they may affect the money the
organisation makes.
Skills, courses or training people need for
this job: You need to study something like
environmental science, environmental
engineering or other areas of engineering
(chemical, civil, mechanical, electronic and
electrical).
Why my work and Earth Systems’ work are
important: We work with other countries, Figure 7.32 Melissa Supangat
especially developing countries, that are
most in need of education about global
warming and ways to prevent it.
General salary range for this type of job:
$50 000–60 000 (for someone starting out).
7.2 MANAGING RESOURCES 279
 L I T E R AC Y
BU I L D E R Resource issues
Use the Internet to investigate an
environmental issue you feel passionate
about that has had an effect on the Earth’s
resources, such as pollution of waterways
or the effects of mining.
• What are the different sides to the topic?
• Why is your topic an issue?
• What is your opinion on the issue?
• How would you gather support for
‘your side’?
• Would you protest? If so, how?
• What are the dangers of protesting?
• What would you see as an acceptable
outcome?

ACTIVITY 7.2.2: DEPLETION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

Working in a small • a brief summary of the topic

a group, research and • what has caused the depletion of
prepare a report your chosen natural resource
about the depletion
(using up) of one of • the effects of the depletion of this
the Earth’s natural natural resource
resources. You will • short- and long-term solutions to
need to look at: this problem
• the role of public education in solving
b this problem
• what you could do about this problem.
Present your report to the class
as a speech and short multimedia
presentation. List your sources of
Figure 7.33 The Earth’s information.
natural resources include
(a) timber and (b) fish.

QUESTIONS 7.2.2: ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ENERGY

Remember
1 Identify two advantages of hydro-electric power over fossil fuels.
2 Identify what is required for a successful hydro-electric power station.
3 Coal-fired power stations in New South Wales run 24 hours a day, 7 days a week.
How reliable is wind power as a source of energy compared with coal? Explain
your answer.
4 Explain how solar energy can be used to generate electricity.

Apply
5 A large group of wind turbines in the same location is called a wind farm. Where
do you think is the most suitable location for a wind farm? Identify the important
features of your chosen location.
6 If the major hot dry rock resource is in Central Australia, explain the potential
disadvantages of this resource.
7 New Zealand produces a large amount of its energy from geothermal power.
Explain why this is so different to Australia. (Hint: Examine the number of active
volcanoes around New Zealand compared with Australia.)

280 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 SOIL AS A RESOURCE
Do you ever think about what is under your
feet? It is usually a floor of some kind, or
a concrete pavement or a road, but what is
under that? Soil!
Soil is one of our most valuable
resources. Lots of things come from our
soil, including us. If we could take out all
the water from our bodies, most of what
is left has come from the soil via foods we
have eaten. And where do we end up when
we die? Even if you are cremated, the carbon
dioxide gas released is taken up by plants,
which release it into the soil when they die.
Most people think of soil as dirt, but
good soil contains everything plants need to
stay alive and grow. Without plants, many
of our food sources would not exist. Pick up
some soil—you will be holding
your life in your hands.
of plants, animals and other organisms. This
is renewable because it can reform quite
quickly. Consider how long it takes for an
apple to rot away if left on the ground.
Soil for life
Good gardeners know what makes good
soil and they add different things to the soil
to improve it. They might add compost or
animal manure to the soil to improve its
organic content. They might add fertiliser,
wetting agents or chemicals to change the
soil structure. Gardeners also monitor the
tiny organisms that live in the soil. Many
help to maintain the quality of the soil for
plant growth, while others can be harmful.

Figure 7.34 Soil is

a valuable resource.

Figure 7.35 Crops do best in soils that are carefully maintained.

Ingredients of soil
Soils are complex mixtures of several
materials including sand, silt, clay and
humus (decomposed plants and animals),
as well as various minerals that plants need
for healthy growth. Soils are formed when
weather breaks down rocks over extremely
long periods of time. Sand, silt and clay are
all valuable natural resources because they
can be mixed for use in construction. The
minerals in soil are non-renewable because
they take so long to form. However, the
organic material within the soil that gives it Figure 7.36 Sand is one of the materials in Figure 7.37 Additives can
its nutrients comes from the decomposition concrete mix. be used to improve soil.

7.2 MANAGING RESOURCES 281


Figure 7.38
Figure 7.39 Add 3 teaspoons
of soil to the funnel.
282 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4
ACTIVITY 7.2.3: LOOKING AT SOIL
What you need: 4 small samples of beach sand, dry clay, good garden soil (from where
plants grow well), potting mix, Petri dish, white tile, hand lens or stereo dissecting
microscope
1 Grind each sample with a mortar and pestle and then spread each sample thinly
on a Petri dish.
2 Place one of the Petri dishes on top of the white tile and examine the sample with
a hand lens. Identify what you can see. Repeat this process for each sample.
3 Draw a labelled diagram of each soil type.
• Do all the particles have the same colour?
• Are they the same size?
• Are they clear and glossy or dull and grey?
• Are any of the particles rounded?
• Can you see any animal or plant remains?
ACTIVITY 7.2.4: WHAT’S IN SOIL?
What you need: small sample of good garden soil (from home or school), 100 mL
measuring cylinder
1 Place the soil in the measuring cylinder and add water (Figure 7.38).
2 Carefully shake the mixture.
3 Allow it to stand undisturbed for at least 48 hours or longer if needed. This will
allow the components of the soil to separate into layers.
• Did your soil separate into layers? Describe each layer.
• Did any of your soil components float? Which ones are these?
EXPERIMENT 7.2.2: HOW WELL DO SOILS HOLD WATER?
Many Australians are frustrated by soils that don’t let water soak in. How well a soil
holds water plays a big part in how well plants will grow in that soil. Water drains
easily through sandy soils, but sandy soils dry out easily. Heavy clay soils drain slowly,
and if the water cannot run off the clay becomes waterlogged and muddy.
Aim
To investigate the water-holding ability of four soil types.
Hypothesis
Before you begin, predict which soil will have the best water-holding ability. Explain
your prediction.
Materials
• 4 measuring cylinders (100 mL)
• 4 filter funnels
• 4 cotton balls
• 4 soil samples (beach sand, dry clay, good garden soil, potting mix)
• Stopwatch
 Method
Your teacher may ask you to set up one of the soils or, if there is enough equipment,
all four samples.

1 Press a cotton ball firmly into the V of each filter funnel.

2 Add 3 teaspoons of the soil sample to the funnel and press it down firmly.
3 Place the funnel in the top of the measuring cylinder and pour 20 mL of water into
the funnel.
4 Record the time taken for water to flow through each funnel and the volume of
water that drained through.

Results
Record your observations and measurements in a table.

Discussion
1 Which soil drained most quickly?
2 Which soil stopped the most water from flowing?
3 Which soil absorbed and held the water the best?
4 Why was there this difference in water-holding ability?
5 What qualities does a good soil need to have for plants to grow well in it?

Conclusion
Compare the water-holding ability of the four soil types. Did your observations support
your prediction? Why or why not?

has risen, bringing salt closer to the

Managing soils
Poor soil management in Australia has
produced large areas of land unable to hold
crops or to be used for grazing. European
settlers used the land in very different ways
to Indigenous Australians. They cleared the
forests and had large numbers of sheep and
cattle grazing the grasslands. Consequently,
water stored underground (the water table)
surface. Additionally, animal hooves
compacted much of the topsoil.
Land clearing and grazing have
caused significant erosion.
Thankfully, many farmers
now practise sustainable
agriculture, and landcare
groups help to manage
land degradation.

Figure 7.40 Many plants and

trees cannot survive in soils
that are high in salt.

Figure 7.41 Planting trees helps

to prevent further soil erosion.

7.2 MANAGING RESOURCES 283

 ACTIVITY 7.2.5: IMPROVE THE SCHOOL GARDEN

1 Examine your school gardens and make a note of where the plants may not be
growing very well. Find out what soil type is in these places and how it could be
improved.
• Predict what you might
need to improve this
soil.
• How will you get what
you need?
2 Implement your plan
and give the plants time
to benefit from your
improvements.

QUESTIONS 7.2.3: SOIL AS A RESOURCE

Remember
1 Identify the basic
components of soil.
2 Describe how soils are
formed.
3 Explain four things good
gardeners might do to
improve their soil.
4 Identify some problems
with the way early European
settlers were using the
land and what secondary
problems this caused.

Apply
5 Explain how your life would
be affected if there was no
soil.
6 Should a good soil drain
water quickly or slowly?
Explain your answer.

284 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 LIVING RESOURCES
Living resources are things that we need
or use that are or were alive. Living and
non-living resources are interconnected,
providing important resources for each
other. Fossil fuels were made from resources
that were living millions of years ago and
soils rely on many living resources to
maintain a vital balance of minerals.
Table 7.3 Some uses of living resources.
Resource Use
Plants Food, medicine, clothing, timber
for building
Animals Food, clothing, transport,
companionship
Bacteria Body function
Fungi Medicines, fermenting of food
and drink
Biofuels from plants
Some petrol stations in Australia offer a
greener type of petrol for cars called E10. This
contains 10% of a chemical called ethanol.
Most cars that run on regular unleaded fuel
can use E10 without any modifications to the
car. Worldwide, the use of ethanol-blended
petrol is increasing, with Brazil and the
United States being the largest users.
Proteins in Yellowstone bacteria explored
for biofuel inspiration
DOE/OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY, 15 FEBRUARY 2012
Studies of bacteria first found in Yellowstone’s hot
springs are furthering efforts at the Department
of Energy’s BioEnergy Science Center (BESC)
toward commercially viable ethanol production
from crops such as switchgrass.
The current production of ethanol relies on
the use of expensive enzymes that break down
complex plant materials to yield sugars that are
fermented into ethanol. One suggested cheaper
alternative is consolidated bioprocessing, a
streamlined process that uses microorganisms to
break down the resistant biomass.
‘Consolidated bioprocessing is like a one-
pot mix,’ said Oak Ridge National Laboratory’s
Richard Giannone … ‘You want to throw plant
material into a pot with the microorganism and
allow it to degrade the material and produce
ethanol at the same time.’
The ethanol used
in petrol is known as
a biofuel and is a form
of renewable energy. It
can be made from crops
such as sugar cane,
potato and corn. The
ethanol is distilled from
sugar cane through
fermentation. These
crops can be grown over
and over using the sun’s
energy and so the fuel is Figure 7.42 This pump contains
an ethanol-blend fuel.
considered renewable. Some companies
plan to increase the ethanol content up
to 85% (only 15% petrol) but only some
cars could use this at present. The plan is
to improve technology in order for E85
to be created from household waste.
There is debate about biofuel
efficiency and environmental benefits
compared with regular petrol. It is
controversial because the land cleared
to grow biofuel crops might otherwise
be used for local food crops, biodiversity
is lost when areas such as rainforest are
cleared for plantations, and a lot of water
is needed to grow the biofuel crops.
L I T E R AC Y
BUILDER
The BESC study focused on Caldicellulosiruptor
obsidiansis, a naturally occurring bacterium
discovered by BESC scientists in a Yellowstone
National Park hot spring. The microorganism,
which thrives at extremely high temperatures,
breaks down organic material such as sticks and
leaves in its natural environment, and scientists
hope to transfer this capability to biofuel
production tanks.
‘By comparing how C. obsidiansis reacted
to switchgrass, relative to pure cellulose, we
were able to pinpoint the specific proteins
and enzymes that are important to plant cell
wall deconstruction—a major roadblock to
the production of advanced biofuels,’
Giannone said.
7.2 MANAGING RESOURCES 285
 1 Use an atlas or the Internet to find the
location of Yellowstone National Park.
2 Find the meanings of the following
words:
a protein
b enzyme
c substrate
3 Identify the name of the bacterium
discovered at Yellowstone National Park.
4 Identify the benefits of using
microorganisms as a source of biofuels.
5 Summarise the key points of the article
using your own words.
Figure 7.43 One of the hot springs at Yellowstone National Park.

DEEPER
U N D E R S TA N D I N G Palm oil and peat bogs Palm oil is an ingredient in many of the
products we use every day. This oil is
obtained from pulping the fruit of the
oil palm tree. Products like chocolate,
a
chips, bread, biscuits, spreads, instant
noodles and shampoo can contain
palm oil.
Malaysia and Indonesia are the main
countries in Asia that produce palm oil,
and it is exported to many other countries,
including Australia. Negative impacts
of palm oil production include the loss
of habitats of endangered species, such
as the orangutan and Sumatran tiger,
and a big increase in greenhouse gas
emissions. Many rainforests in Indonesia
and Malaysia lie on top of peat bogs that
store great quantities of carbon, a source
of greenhouse gas. Some of this carbon
is released when the rainforests are cut
down and the bogs are drained to make
way for plantations.
b

Figure 7.44 An oil palm tree plantation

(a) and palm oil fruit (b).

286 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

Indigenous resource
management
Approximately 20% of Australia is owned or
managed by Indigenous Australian groups.
Often working together with Australian
Government departments, Indigenous
groups manage the land, freshwater
and marine resources. The Australian
Government and Indigenous groups jointly
manage a number of large national parks
around Australia. Figure 7.45 Booderee
regularly assessed to see how successfully National Park.
Booderee National Park, on the south
coast of New South Wales, is owned and they are reaching those goals. The
managed by the Wreck Bay Aboriginal management plans are rewritten every seven
Community. In 1995, Parks Australia joined years and allow the traditional owners to
the Wreck Bay Aboriginal Community hunt, gather food and perform ceremonies
to help manage the park and its natural within the national park, while ensuring the
resources. There are three key objectives for native species, the land and the water are
the successful management of Booderee being protected and conserved.
National Park: Koori people have lived in and around
• to conserve the biodiversity and cultural the Booderee National Park for hundreds
heritage of the park of generations. Intimate knowledge of the
local plants and animals as both food and
• to provide for appreciation and quiet
medicines has been learned and passed
enjoyment of the park
down from generation to generation,
• to benefit members of the Wreck Bay
and still is today. It is this traditional
Aboriginal Community Council.
local knowledge that enables the park to
The Wreck Bay Aboriginal Community be properly and successfully managed,
and Parks Australia work together to develop benefiting the people of the Wreck Bay
management plans for the park and botanic Aboriginal Community and other locals
gardens at Booderee. These management as well as visitors that come to enjoy the
plans must outline clear goals and are national park and botanic gardens.

QUESTIONS 7.2.4: LIVING RESOURCES

Remember
1 Identify three examples of living resources.
2 Explain how fossil fuels could be considered a type of living resource.
3 Identify the groups involved in the management of the Booderee National Park.

Apply
4 Think about a typical day in your life.
a How do you rely on plants? b How do you rely on animals?
5 Describe how mining would affect the availability of living resources.
6 Suggest some resources that would be need to be managed in the Booderee
National Park.
7 Research how you can help reduce the negative impacts of producing palm oil.
8 Suggest a reason why the management plans of national parks would need to be
rewritten every seven years or so.

7.2 MANAGING RESOURCES 287

7.2CHECKPOINT
MANAGING RESOURCES
Remember and understand
1 Explain why it is important for mining
companies to revegetate the land
(replant trees) after mining operations
cease. [2 marks]
2 Define the term ‘geothermal energy’.
[1 mark]
3 Identify what soil is made of. [1 mark]
4 Identify some disadvantages of
harnessing tidal energy. [2 marks]
5 Explain the benefits of using wind
power over fossil fuels. [2 marks]
6 Identify two advantages of solar power
over fossil fuels. [2 marks]
Apply
7 The Australian Quarantine and
Inspection Service (AQIS) has made
Australia one of the hardest countries
to bring materials into. Their main
concerns are living resources and
products that contain living resources.
What reasons might they have for being
concerned? [2 marks]
Analyse and evaluate
8 Copy and cmplete the table below by
classifying each resource as renewable
or non-renewable, listing its main uses
and providing at least one advantage
and one disadvantage for each of the
listed resources. [10 marks]
9 Research into how Australia has
changed the way it produces energy.
Discuss whether a renewable energy
target in Australia of 20% by 2020 is
achievable. [3 marks]
10 Analyse what problems might arise if
lots of countries decided to use ethanol
to fuel cars. [2 marks]
11 Even with a government rebate, many
households find it still takes years
before an investment in solar power
pays off. Would you switch to solar?
Justify your reason. [2 marks]
Making connections
12 Write a letter to the Federal Minister
for Resources, Energy and Tourism,
suggesting changes you would like to
see in Australia. Outline the current
energy sources and the advantages and
disadvantages of all options, keeping
in mind aspects such as environmental
impact, Australia’s climate and resource
availability. You might like to prepare
a renewable energy plan for Australia
and explain how your plan will be more
sustainable than current energy uses.
Alternatively, you might prepare a
poster to advertise the benefits of the
most appropriate method of producing
electricity in Australia.
[6 marks]

Resource Renewable? Main uses Advantages (pros) Disadvantages (cons)

Fossil fuels (oil, gas, coal)

Uranium

Minerals

Wind

Solar

Hydroelectric

Tidal/wave

Geothermal

TOTAL MARKS Soil

[ /35] Biofuel

288 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

WATER AS A RESOURCE
One natural resource that sets the planet Earth apart from most other
planets is water. Only a certain amount of water exists on the Earth. This
essential natural resource is recycled again and again in the water cycle.
Understanding the water cycle has affected the way we store and manage
water in factories, on farms and in our homes. We have no shortage of
7.3
seawater on the Earth, but you might be surprised to learn how little fresh,
drinkable water exists.

WHY DO WE NEED WATER?

Australia is the one of the world’s driest
continents. We store more water than any
other country—more than 4 million litres
of water per person! Australia requires
such a large storage capacity to ensure a
reliable water supply during regular and
long periods of drought. Water is captured,
stored and treated, then distributed through
reticulation systems (pipes). It is used in
households, manufacturing, agriculture
and mining.
Large dams and reservoirs have been
built to collect and store water. Two of the
largest storage reservoirs in Australia are
the Warragamba Dam in Sydney (2 million
megalitres, which is equivalent to 2 million
million litres) and the Thomson Dam in
Victoria (1 million megalitres).
Figure 7.46 Warragamba Dam in New South Wales.

ACTIVITY 7.3.1: HOW DO WE USE WATER?

What you need: 2 packets of stick-on notes per group, pens

1 Form groups of four or five. In two minutes, write down every use of water you can
think of. Write each use on a separate stick-on note. (Hint: Don’t just think of water
that humans use; think about animals, the environment, business, farms, etc.)
2 When the time is up arrange the notes into common topics.
3 Display your group’s uses of water on a wall.
4 Check the displays created by other groups. Make a note of any uses your group did
not think of.
5 Count up the number of different uses of water that the whole class has described.

7.3 WATER AS A RESOURCE 289


Less water than you think
About two-thirds of the Earth’s surface is
covered with water, yet in Australia we have
very little fresh water. How can this be?
Of all the water on the Earth, 97.5%
is salt water—the remaining 2.5% is fresh
water. If salt water is drunk it will make
you very ill as it is too salty for the human
body to digest. By drinking it you would
become thirstier than before you drank.
Many sailors who made long journeys of
exploration on sailing ships suffered and died
from dehydration. The long distances across
oceans meant they often ran out of drinking
water. Although they could collect rainwater,
they did not have the technology to produce
fresh water from sea water.
Salt water (mostly in oceans) ~97.5%
Fresh water ~2.5%
Groundwater and soil moisture ~29%
Ice caps and glaciers ~70%
Lakes and rivers <1%
DEEPER
U N D E R S TA N D I N G El Niño and La Niña
You have probably heard of the El Niño
effect. Fishermen in Peru in South America
originally used this term to describe the
appearance, around Christmas, of a warm
ocean current off the South American
coast that brought heavy rain and floods.
Today, El Niño is used to describe the
extensive warming of the central and
eastern Pacific Ocean. Combined with
this ocean warming are changes in the
atmosphere that affect weather patterns
across much of the Pacific Basin, including
290 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4
Of the tiny percentage of fresh water in
the world, most of it is locked in ice caps
and glaciers or in the soil. This leaves about
0.007% of the Earth’s water that is suitable
for drinking.
Too little or too much
water
Droughts and floods in our country teach
us to value fresh water. Many Australian
cities and towns have had water restrictions
in place for several years. The water in
some dams has reached very low levels.
Although water consumption has reduced
in Australian households, farmers are still
anxious about having enough water for
Australia’s food production.
During prolonged drought, the soil can
become extremely compacted and unable to
absorb water. If sudden heavy rains follow
a drought, the water doesn’t soak into the
ground very well and instead runs off the
surface. If the rain is excessive and there is
nowhere for the water to drain, it turns into
a flood. When floods hit you would imagine
that all water worries would be over, but
floods can mean contaminated water. Water
in such large amounts can drown plants and
animals, cause landslides and extensive soil
erosion, and make the land unproductive for
long periods of time.
Figure 7.47 Only a very small percentage
of water on the Earth is fresh and unfrozen.
Australia. In Australia, El Niño events are
associated with an increased chance of
drier conditions.
El Niño events occur about every
4–7 years and usually last for about
12–18 months. They are a natural part
of the climate system and have been
affecting the Pacific Basin for thousands
of years.
Each El Niño event is unique in terms of
how much the ocean temperature warms
and how rainfall patterns alter. El Niño
events usually result in less rain across
 a b

Figure 7.48 Areas in Australia affected by (a) drought and (b) flood.

parts of eastern and northern Australia, especially in Queensland and Victoria.

particularly during winter, spring and early
summer. Where and when this happens
differs a lot from one event to another,
even with similar changes and patterns
in the Pacific Ocean. In 2002–2003, a
relatively weak El Niño event resulted in
severe drought.
More recently, in 2010–2011, La Niña
was responsible for widespread flooding,
During a La Niña event, the eastern
Pacific Ocean is much cooler than normal
and often brings widespread rain and
flooding to Australia. La Niña has a bigger
impact on Australian rainfall patterns
than El Niño. During La Niña phases,
temperatures tend to fluctuate more from
normal than they do during El Niño events.

STUDENT DESIGN TASK

Saving water
Many Australians are coming up with amazing and unusual ways to ‘drought-proof’
their gardens, farms, industries and offices, and others are inventing all sorts of
water-saving devices. You may have seen some of these inventions on television.
Perhaps you are even thinking about inventing such a water-saving device yourself.

Challenge
Brainstorm some ways that water is wasted around your home. From the brainstorming
ideas, choose one way that water is wasted and develop a water-saving device that you
could present on a television program such as New Inventors. Be creative!

Questioning and predicting

• Describe the job your invention will do.
• Explain how it will do its job.
Planning and conducting
Draw a labelled diagram of your invention, explaining how it would work. Are the
materials suitable for the purpose? Does it work? List some areas for improvement.

Processing, analysing and evaluating

• How effective is your invention?
• How much water will it save?
Communicating
• Present your idea to the class. (You could have a panel of judges.)
• Take notes as each class member presents their idea. Make sure you ask at least
one question during the presentations.
• Write down which invention is the most useful.

7.3 WATER AS A RESOURCE 291

 QUESTIONS 7.3.1: WHY DO WE NEED WATER?

Remember
1 Recall the percentage of fresh water available on the Earth for use.
2 Outline the steps taken from gathering water to distributing water to households.
3 Identify the purpose of a dam. Suggest a reason why Australia needs so many dams.
4 Explain why water is so important to farmers.
5 Recall the key differences between El Niño and La Niña conditions in Australia.

Apply
6 The different volumes of Type of water Volume analogy

the different types of Salt water 1 cup

(mostly in
water on the Earth can be oceans)
described using analogies.
Rewrite the table shown
here, matching the water
types with the appropriate Fresh water 1 bottle cap
analogy of volume.
7 Analyse whether people who
live in cities are affected
by floods and droughts in
farming areas. If so, how? Frozen water 1 drop
(ice caps and
8 If you use 200 litres of water glaciers)
in an 8-minute shower
(using a standard shower
head), calculate how much
water will you save by Groundwater 1 water bottle
and soil
having a 4-minute shower. moisture
9 Find out how many litres
per minute your shower
head uses. Measure the
time taken to fill a 5-litre Available 1 large rubbish bin
drinking water
bucket. (lakes, dams
Complete this sum using a and rivers)
calculator:
• Volume = 5 × 60 ÷ (no. of
seconds required to fill
the container) litres
• For example, if a 5-litre bucket takes 40 seconds to fill, then the flow rate of
your shower head is 7.5 litres per minute (5 × 60 ÷ 40 = 7.5).
• A water-saving shower head uses 12 litres per minute or less.
• Make sure you put the water on the garden after you fill the bucket!

Research
10 How are levels of El Niño and La Niña determined? (Hint: The abbreviation of this
process is SOI). Explain how this works.
11 What do the names ‘El Niño’ and ‘La Niña’ mean? Explain their relevance in terms
of the weather conditions they bring.

292 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 THE WATER CYCLE
Water, like many substances, can exist in
three states: solid, liquid and gas. However
water is unique in that all three states exist
naturally on the Earth. Solid water is ice or
snow. Liquid water can be found in streams
and oceans. Water as a gas is known as
water vapour.
Water on the Earth has always been
naturally recycled. Like many other
resources, there is only a certain amount
of water on the Earth. Even when water
evaporates and becomes a gas, it has not
stopped existing—it is just invisible to the
eye. It will come back in another form. This
process is called the water cycle.
In the water cycle, heat energy from the
sun evaporates water from lakes, rivers,
oceans and the land itself. Water vapour
is also lost from the leaves of plants in a
process called transpiration and from
animals through respiration. As the water
vapour rises, it is cooled by the air and
Precipitation as rain,
snow, hail, sleet
Water stored as ice
and snow
Rivers
Lakes
Forest
Ground run-off
Underground water
Figure 7.50 The water cycle.
will condense into tiny water droplets.
The water droplets rise in the atmosphere,
form clouds and combine to form larger a
droplets, which fall as rain, hail or snow
(the different forms of precipitation). In
this way, the same water that evaporated
is returned to the land (surface runoff),
flowing through rivers and finally returning
to the oceans. Some of the water may be
stored underground in aquifers. b
Understanding the water cycle has
changed the way we manage and conserve
water. Sewerage systems collect waste water
and treat it before discharging, usually
into the ocean. Some communities recycle
their waste water and use it to irrigate
crops, parks and gardens. Some states have
considered the option of recycling water for
drinking. Some industries recycle their waste c
water and some households collect and store
Figure 7.49 Solid (a),
rainwater in tanks. liquid (b) and gas (c)
states of water.
Clouds and water vapour
Water evaporates from oceans,
land, forests, farms, lakes,
rivers, swamps
Ocean
7.3 WATER AS A RESOURCE 293
 From salty to fresh
Despite the vast quantity of water on
the planet, very little of it is suitable
Water is lost for drinking. We need to be careful to
by transpiration conserve drinking water, even though
it is a renewable resource, because fresh
drinking water is not always available.
So, even though salt water is not suitable
for drinking, the idea of changing salty
water into fresh water in dry countries like
Australia is very appealing.
One way to do this is by distillation.
In this separation process, heat is used
to evaporate the water from the salt. The
steam is collected and condensed into pure
liquid water.
Distillation has been used for many
Water travels to years in desalination plants to produce
stem and leaves Roots soak up water fresh water from sea water, particularly
in some Middle East countries. However,
it is very expensive and uses a lot of
energy. With improved technology, some
Australian state governments are building
or planning to build desalination plants to
increase the fresh water supply. New South
Wales already has a working desalination
Figure 7.51 Transpiration in a plant. plant in Kurnell, just south of Sydney.

Figure 7.52 The Perth desalination plant was built in 2006. It is located at Kwinana and supplies
nearly 17% of Perth’s drinking water.

294 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

EXPERIMENT 7.3.1: MINI WATER CYCLE

Aim
To design and create a model of the water cycle.

Materials
• Large, clear plastic bowl
• Plastic wrap
• Small weight
• Smaller container, such as the bottom half of a yoghurt pot
• Water
• Large elastic band or string and tape
Method
1 Place the small container in the middle of the large, clear bowl.
2 Fill the bowl with a little water, being careful not to fill the small container inside.
3 Cover the bowl with plastic wrap and fix the plastic to the rim of the bowl using
either a rubber band or a tight piece of string.
4 Put a small weight on top of the plastic wrap in the centre.
5 You have now created a portable water cycle. Place your water cycle next to a window
in direct sunlight.
6 Compare the effects of placing your mini water cycle model in hot direct sunlight
and in the shade.
7 Record your observations.

Results
Record the time taken for water to appear on the plastic wrap for the different
positions of the model. Record your observations too.

Discussion
1 Describe the movement of the water as it continues to collect on the plastic wrap.
2 Can any of the water escape from your mini water cycle model? How does this
compare to the Earth’s water cycle?
3 Give reasons why your model is or is not an accurate representation of the Earth’s
water cycle.
4 Describe any modifications that you could make to improve the design of your water
cycle model.

Conclusion
Write a statement that addresses the aim and explains the key features of the
water cycle.

7.3 WATER AS A RESOURCE 295

 DEEPER
U N D E R S TA N D I N G The Murray–Darling Basin
The Murray–Darling Basin is the
catchment area for the Murray and Darling
rivers and their 23 tributaries. Rain falling
on land in the basin flows into these two
rivers and the smaller rivers or streams
connected to them. The basin includes
three-quarters of New South Wales and
half of Victoria. It has an area of more than
1 million square kilometres, which is 14%
of Australia’s land area.
Average annual rainfall in the basin
is equivalent to 1000 times the volume
of Sydney Harbour. However, 94% of
this rainfall evaporates and 2% drains
into the ground, which leaves only 4%
as runoff that flows into the rivers. The
rainfall runoff varies
considerably: large
areas of the basin
have small runoff
and smaller areas
have large runoff.
The basin’s
wetlands are
extensive
and perform
Figure 7.53 The
Murray–Darling Basin.
essential environmental functions, which
maintain the health of the river systems.
More than 2 million people live in the
area of the basin, which includes many
large towns as well as Canberra, the
nation’s capital. Many more people, such
as those in Adelaide, live outside the basin
but depend on its water resources. Many
Aboriginal nations live in the basin and
practise a rich cultural heritage based on
the Murray–Darling river systems.
The basin includes a very high
percentage of Australia’s irrigated
agricultural land. Large water storages
have been built along the rivers.
The Murray–Darling Basin generates
almost 40% of the national income derived
from agricultural production. It produces
more than a third of Australia’s food,
including:
• more than half of Australian cereals
grown for grain (including 100% of rice)
• 95% of oranges
• over 50% of apples
• support of almost 30% of the nation’s
cattle herd, 45% of sheep, and over 60%
of pigs.
Because of the many demands on the
resources of the Murray–Darling Basin,
management of the basin’s water has
always been a controversial topic and will
remain so into the future.

QUESTIONS 7.3.2: THE WATER CYCLE

Remember
1 Identify what percentage of the Earth’s water is salty.
2 Construct a simple flow chart of nature’s water cycle.

Apply
3 Suggest reasons why Australian cities would be planning to build desalination
plants.
4 True or false? The same water you drank today could have been drunk by a dinosaur
millions of years ago. Explain your answer.
5 Evaluate why desalination plants are mainly found in the Middle East.
6 Explain how scientific knowledge of the water cycle helps us to manage fresh
drinking water.

296 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

WATER AS A RESOURCE
Remember and understand
1 Identify what percentage of the Earth’s
water resources is fresh. [1 mark]
2 Recall the names of the cycles of
climate that affect Australia’s rainfall.
Making connections
11 In Australia, rainfall alone is often not
enough for agricultural needs. Farmers
need to use irrigation from dams,
rivers, springs and bores. Water needs
7.3
CHECKPOINT

[2 marks] depend on the type of crop or livestock,

3 Explain the importance of water to life
on the Earth. [2 marks]
4 Recall the names and locations of two
of the Australia’s largest dams.
[2 marks]
and on location. There is considerable
debate about how water for agriculture
may best be used and regulated in
Australia. Explain some recent issues
and developments related to water
management in your area. [3 marks]

Apply 12 Research how the knowledge of

Indigenous Australians is being used in
5 Copy Figure 7.54 and label with
the Murray–Darling Basin. [4 marks]
appropriate labels of the water cycle.
[5 marks]
6 Using Figure 7.47, calculate the
percentage of all the water resources
on Earth that is make up by drinking
water (assume the water in the lakes
and rivers is drinking water). [2 marks]
7 Suggest two ways you can save water in
your everyday life, and two ways water
could be saved by industry. [4 marks]

Analyse and evaluate

8 Working in a small group, analyse
the advantages and disadvantages of
desalination plants. Make a poster that
lists the advantages and disadvantages.
Figure 7.54
[5 marks]
9 Suggest at least 2 reasons why having
too much water would be a problem.
[2 marks]

Ethical understanding
10 Your neighbour waters their garden
whenever they like for as long as they
like. Are certain times of day better
than others? Are there restrictions in
your area about when you can water
gardens? How do water restrictions
help manage water usage? [3 marks]

TOTAL MARKS
Figure 7.55 Drought in the Murray–Darling Basin.
[ /35]

7.3 WATER AS A RESOURCE 297

 1 Fill in the gaps, using the words in the Word Bank below:

7
____________ are materials that we use for energy and for other products.
____________ resources are those that are easily and quickly replenished, like
sunlight for solar power or wind for wind turbines. ____________ resources have a
finite amount that is not easily replaced. ____________ like coal and natural gas, and
____________ like iron and uranium are non-renewable resources.

Different renewable energy resources are available from all parts of the Earth.
Geothermal energy is sourced from the ____________, ____________ from
the biosphere, ____________ from the atmosphere and hydropower from the
____________.

Reduce, reuse and ____________ is a common management strategy to conserve

the non-renewable resources we have left. Improving technology combined with the
traditional ____________ and Torres Strait Islander peoples’ knowledge also enables
us to improve our collection, use and management of all resources.

CHAPTER Water, particularly ____________, is a critical resource that is naturally cycled through

REVIEW the environment. Knowledge of the ____________ has improved the conservation and
management of water.
WORD BANK

Aboriginal Biofuels Drinking water Fossil fuels

Hydrosphere Lithosphere Minerals Non-renewable
Recycle Renewable Resources Water cycle
Wind power

Outline the features of metal ores 4 Identify at least one resource that is
and fossil fuels obtained from each of the biosphere,
atmosphere, lithosphere and
2 Identify how we use the following hydrosphere. [4 marks]
resources:
a coal [1 mark] Outline some choices involved in
b crude oil [1 mark] deciding to obtain resources
c natural gas [1 mark] 5 Imagine you work for a mineral
d iron ore [1 mark] exploration company. You are working
e uranium [1 mark] in outback New South Wales and
discover a new mineral deposit.
Describe the uses of resources Examine what factors you would
extracted from the biosphere, consider in determining whether or not
atmosphere, lithosphere and to mine this new mineral. [2 marks]
hydrosphere
Classify renewable and
3 Humans obtain many resources from non-renewable resources
living things.
6 Compare and contrast a renewable
a Identify as many of these resources resource with a non-renewable
as you can. [2 marks] resource, using named examples.
b Explain what we use these [2 marks]
resources for. [2 marks] 7 Identify if the five resources in question
2 are renewable or non-renewable.
Give reasons for your answer. [5 marks]

298 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

8 Are food crops are renewable or
non-renewable? Justify your answer.
[2 marks]
Investigate recycling and
alternative sources as strategies
to conserve non-renewable
resources
9 Examine how biofuel is different to
regular petrol. [1 mark]
10 Identify the main advantages of
recycling. Justify your answer. [2 marks]
11 Critically analyse which renewable
energy sources will increase in
popularity over the next 20 years. Give
reasons why you have chosen each one.
[3 marks]
Discuss different views for the
use and management of non-
renewable resources
12 Identify what sorts of products are
made from palm oil. Explain why their
production is controversial. [2 marks]
Debate the economic and
environmental impact of resource
exploration (additional)
13 Identify a major non-renewable
resource found in Australia. Give
reasons for and against the continued
use of this resource. [2 marks]
Research how Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander people’s
knowledge is used to manage
resources
14 Explain how Indigenous practices
such as sustainable hunting and plant
cultivation are more beneficial to the
environment than early European
settlers’ practices. [2 marks]
15 Identify the benefits of using Indigenous
understanding of the environment
to help achieve sustainable resource
management. [1 mark]
Identify water as a resource that CHAPTER
cycles through the environment
16 Identify the places where fresh water
7 REVIEW
can be found on the Earth. [1 mark]
17 Recall the percentage of fresh water
available for use on the Earth. [1 mark]
Explain the physical processes of
the water cycle
18 The water cycle hasn’t always
existed in the way it does today.
Identify three changes made
by humans to the ‘natural’ water
cycle and analyse the problems
associated with these changes.
[2 marks]
19 The water cycle involves several
physical processes including
evaporation and melting.
a Explain which parts of the
water cycle these
two processes are
involved in. [2 marks]
b Explain what other
processes are involved
and where they occur in the
water cycle. [2 marks]
20 Imagine you are a water molecule.
Where are you today (for example, the
ocean, air, inside the human body, a
dam, a river, falling as rain)? Create
a short story that either explains how
you got to where you are or where you
might go in the future. Try to include as
many different positions in the water
cycle as possible. [3 marks]
Demonstrate how knowledge of
the water cycle has influenced
water management
21 Identify reasons why the availability of
drinking water needs to be monitored,
especially in Australia. [2 marks]
22 Suggest reasons why the management
of water may cause problems to
farmers and industry. [2 marks]
TOTAL MARKS
[ /52]
7 CHAPTER REVIEW 299
 RESEARCH
CHAPTER
7 REVIEW Choose one of the following topics
to research. Some questions have
been included to get you started. An
water resource. How is the knowledge
influencing decision-making? What are
the benefits of this? Does this occur in
important part of your report must other countries?
KEYWORDS be to include references to the ‘big
picture’, thinking about how your topic
Clean coal
coal What is ‘clean’ coal? Find out about this
relates to the entire planet. Create
coal seam gas technology, why it is being developed,
a bibliography of your sources of
emissions what the costs might be and how it
information.
energy resource applies to Australia.
ethanol A simple pencil
evaporate Examine a normal wooden pencil and
Carbon tax
fossil fuel determine all of its component parts, What are carbon emissions? Why
generator including the lettering on the side. do some governments make people
geothermal energy You may even want to dismantle the and businesses pay for their carbon
greenhouse gas pencil and isolate each part. Next, emissions? How does a carbon tax
hydroelectric energy think of all the steps needed to make work? Do you think it’s a good idea?
lithosphere the pencil. What are the components
living resources Water-saving devices
made of? Where would all of the
magma Make a list of the different categories
components have come from? What
mineral of water-saving devices currently
resources are needed to make the
non-renewable available. If you could choose only three
components? What resources are
nuclear fission devices to install at your house, which
needed to assemble and finish the
nuclear power three would you choose and why?
pencil in the factory? Present your
ore Choose your three devices from the list
research in a creative way.
petroleum and write a short description of each.
power station Indigenous knowledge Include an image for each one. Indicate
precipitation Research how Aboriginal and Torres how it helps to save water. What things
renewable Strait Islander knowledge is being does your family do to save water
respiration used in the management of a land or around your house?
soil
solar power
tailing
REFLECT

tidal energy Me My future

transpiration 1 What was the most surprising thing 6 How is the human population
turbine you have learned about the Earth’s affecting the supply of resources?
uranium resources? 7 How might our lives change in
vane
2 How do your actions affect the supply the future?
water cycle
of the Earth’s resources? 8 How might manufacturing and
wave energy
wind farm 3 Do you have a different appreciation energy-related jobs change in
of where your belongings come from? the future?

My world
4 Why is it important for people to
learn about resources?
5 Why are non-renewable resources
a big issue?

300 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4


The Earth’s resources
Although many people are aware of their
impact on natural resources, most of us
take them for granted. It’s not until certain
resources are in short supply that we think
about where they come from. Many people
are more interested in why the price has
increased rather than any impact on the
environment.
Your local area might contain many
useful resources. There may be sources
of energy, materials such as metals, or
resources such as soil, forests or oceans.
You rely on them every day and in all the
things you do.
1 Examine your local area. This might
be within 10 kilometres of your home,
or further if necessary—you or your
teacher will choose your distance.
List all the natural resources you can
locate. Identify what each is used for.
Present your findings on a large map in
the classroom where every student can
contribute their research.
2 Focus on one resource from your list
that really interests you. Develop a case
7
study for that resource. A case study
should include details of:
• the history of the resource
• how it is extracted or used
• what humans use it for
• the impact on the environment of
developing that resource
• issues that affect that resource,
now and into the future.
Tips to help you get started MAKING
You probably know a lot about your local CONNECTIONS
natural resources already. These resources
are usually associated with the types of jobs
that exist in your area.
Petroleum, natural gas, coal, uranium,
wind energy or geothermal resources might
be located nearby. There might be iron,
copper, aluminium, lead, zinc, gold or silver
mines. Rich soils for agriculture, plantation
forests for timber or fish from the sea might
be found in your region. Consider other
resources too, such as sand and gravel,
limestone for cement, gems, gypsum or
fertiliser production.
7 MAKING CONNECTIONS 301
8
FORCES
Forces are essential to our understanding of the world. Without forces, nothing would change—
stationary things would stay still and moving things would keep moving, never changing direction,
never slowing down and never stopping. Without forces, the Earth would not revolve around the
sun—it would break apart and head out into space. No work would get done, no new inventions
would be created, no plants would grow and no animals, including us, would exist.
 TYPES OF FORCES 8.1
Forces come in all different types and sizes. It is the relationship and interaction between
the forces that determine what happens. Unbalanced forces can cause objects to move,
accelerate (speed up) or slow down. Although these forces are very useful at times, some
forces need to be decreased; for example, forces applied during a car crash. Friction is
another force that may be detrimental or beneficial, depending on the context.
Students:
» Identify changes that take place when particular forces are acting
» Predict the effect of unbalanced forces
» Describe some technological developments that have contributed to reducing the
impact of forces in everyday life
» Analyse common situations where friction acts as a slowing-down force that produces heat
» Investigate factors that influence frictional forces

GRAVITY AS A FORCE 8.2

Gravity is a force that affects everything on the Earth, but where can it be found? Gravity acts
as a field, in a similar way to magnetic forces and electrostatic forces. The Earth’s gravity is
an unbalanced force that causes objects to fall.
Students:
» Use the term ‘field’ in describing forces acting at a distance
» Identify that the Earth’s gravity pulls objects towards the centre of the Earth
» Describe situations where gravity acts as an unbalanced force
» Distinguish between the terms ‘mass’ and ‘weight’

MAGNETISM AND
ELECTROSTATIC FORCES 8.3
Magnetism and electrostatics are two other forces that impact our daily lives. We often
manipulate magnetism in the technology that we use, such as headphones and speakers.
Electrostatics can be easily felt when ‘zapping’ an object.
Students:
» Identify ways in which objects acquire electrostatic charge
» Describe the interaction of charged objects
» Investigate electrostatic forces in everyday life
» Describe the interaction of magnetic poles
» Investigate the uses of magnets and electromagnets

303
 8.1 TYPES OF FORCES
The word ‘force’ has many meanings in everyday conversation. In science,
a force is a physical action. It is a push or pull acting upon an object as
a result of its interaction with another object. Sometimes the effects of
forces are easy to see, such as the force of Harry Kewell’s foot kicking a
soccer ball. Other forces are invisible and harder to recognise, such as the
force that causes dust particles to stick to a television screen.

IDENTIFYING FORCES
One way to look for a force is to look for
movement and change. Nothing changes
motion entirely by itself. For something
to change its motion it must be pushed or
pulled. We have a lot of different ways of
saying ‘push’ (such as ‘shove’, ‘press’ and
‘touch’) and ‘pull’ (such as ‘tug’, ‘heave’
and ‘drag’). They all refer to the same action
of pushing or pulling. These pushes and
pulls are forces.
Forces act on everything around us all
the time. Usually more than one
force is acting on any object at one time,
but often we are unaware of them.
Many forces are acting on your body
right now that you probably aren’t aware
of. For example, the chair you might be
sitting on is pushing up on you, but you
are also pushing downwards onto the
chair. Because these forces are acting in
an upwards and downwards direction on
you are in balance (equally strong), they
‘cancel’ out each other’s effect and so you
remain still.

Figure 8.1 Movement: The golf

club pushes the ball. The club
exerts a force on the ball, causing
it to begin to move. If you miss,
there is no force on the ball from
the club and the ball stays still.
Figure 8.2 Speeding up: The air consists of tiny invisible particles that rapidly move about.
When there is a wind, the particles mostly move in the direction of the wind. When they hit
objects in their path, the air particles push the objects. Yachts have a very large area of sail
so that as many air particles as possible are able to hit the sails and give them a push.

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Figure 8.3 Slowing down or stopping: The air particles Figure 8.4 Changing direction: The tennis racquet pushes the ball in a different direction.
hitting and pushing on the huge area of parachute slow
down the Soyuz capsule so that astronauts can land
safely. This force is called air resistance.

An object that has forces acting on it may:

• begin to move
• speed up
• slow down or stop moving
Figure 8.5 Changing shape:
• change its direction of motion The hands push the plasticine
into a different shape.
• change shape
When you stop pushing, the
• remain still. plasticine no longer changes.

Figure 8.6 Remaining still:

The gravitational force pulling
down on the pot plant and the
weight of air above it are in
balance with the force of the
ground pushing up on the pot.

Figure 8.7 What forces

are at work here?
ACTIVITY 8.1.1: FORCES AT WORK

How many examples of movement can you think of? Brainstorm ideas with a partner.
Does movement always involve an object travelling a distance? Is there a minimum
distance? Think of sports you know about, transport vehicles and everyday objects
such as toys and rubber bands. In 15 minutes, list as many types of movement as you
can and then share your observations and thoughts with the rest of the class. All of
your examples are situations in which forces are at work.

8.1 TYPES OF FORCES 305

 Measuring a force
One way to ‘see’ a force at work is to
measure it. In the laboratory, force can be
measured using a device called a spring
balance. Compare the stiffness of the
spring in different types of balance. Stiff
springs can measure a larger force than
stretchy springs, but stretchy springs can
measure very small differences in forces. At
home, push forces can be measured with
some bathroom scales or kitchen scales.
Pull forces can be roughly measured using a
rubber band.
The unit used to measure forces is called
the Newton. Its symbol is N. This unit is
named after Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727),
who first described forces. Scientists around
the world have agreed to this standard
measurement so they can communicate
with each other and know they are talking
about the same scale. The weight force of
100 grams is about 1 Newton. So, if you
hold a mass of 100 grams in your hand, you
will feel a force of approximately 1 Newton
pushing on your hand.

EXPERIMENT 8.1.1: MEASURING FORCE

Aim
To measure a variety of forces in common situations.

Materials
• Rubber band

WARNING
• Thin strip of timber (or a ruler) > Wear safety glasses: if the
rubber band breaks it could
• Mass carrier and masses cause an eye injury.
• Pen
Method
A rubber band can measure the sizes of forces in a similar way to a spring balance.
Figure 8.8 Spring But before it can do this it must be calibrated. This means matching the stretch of the
balances are used to rubber band to the number of Newtons pulling on it.
measure force.
1 Calibrate the rubber band on the strip of timber as shown in Figure 8.9.

Rubber
0 0 0 band
2
About
30 cm
4 Metal top
of mass
carrier

Figure 8.9 Calibrating the force measurer.

2 Mark the distance that the rubber band is stretched on the timber when the mass
carrier holds a 100 g mass.
3 Repeat for masses of 200 g, 300 g, 400 g and so on, marking the timber each time.
Remember: The weight force of 100 g equals about 1 Newton of force.
4 Use your force measurer to measure the size of the force needed to:
a open the door to the room
b drag a chair across the floor
c close a drawer in the laboratory

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08_ZHA_IS7_77549_SI.indd 306 1/09/2017 2:46 PM

 d move your pencil case
e pull up your sock
f do three other movements of your choice.

Figure 8.10 Measuring the force needed Figure 8.11 Measuring the force needed
to push a door. to close a drawer.

Results
Include a neat, labelled and accurate diagram of the rubber band force measurer, and
set out your measurements in a table.
Plot a graph of your results for the calibrations.
On your graph, plot the length of the rubber bands you have measured to determine
the force used.
Discussion
Write a sentence for each of the measurements you made, as well as several sentences
comparing the measurements.

Conclusion
What have you learned about a variety of forces in common situations? Write a sentence
to address the aim.

QUESTIONS 8.1.1: IDENTIFYING FORCES

Remember
1 Think back to the start of the day.
a Describe how you got to school, from the time you got up to the time you arrived.
Use the word ‘force’ as many times as you can.
b Did someone ‘force’ you to get out of bed? Did you have to force the bathroom
door open? Do you think that these two uses of the word are the same? Explain.
2 Explain which use of the word ‘force’ we are concerned with in science.
3 Can you see a force always, never or sometimes? Explain.
4 Many measuring instruments have to be calibrated. Outline what this means. Give
an example.

Apply
5 Order these forces from biggest to smallest:
a truck hitting a pole
b rocket being launched
c typing one letter on a computer keyboard
d kicking a soccer ball
e pushing a car along the street
6 A student was using the force measurer in Experiment 8.1.1 when the rubber band
broke. Can a different rubber band be used with the same scale? Explain your
answer.

8.1 TYPES OF FORCES 307

 CHARACTERISTICS OF FORCES
Forces have certain characteristics that have
been recorded by scientists over many years
after observation and experimentation.
Scientists’ understanding of these
characteristics change over time as new
discoveries are made. Forces are studied by
scientists called physicists. In the future,
physicists will continue to expand their
knowledge of forces.
Figure 8.12 The object
exerting the force is the
A force always involves
agent (the foot). The object
experiencing the force is
two objects
the receiver (the ball).
A force is not simply a push or pull—it is a
push or a pull resulting from an interaction
between two different objects (or people, or
plants, or anything at all). One object exerts
the force and the other object experiences
the force. The object exerting the force is
called the agent. The object experiencing
the force is called the receiver. These
objects come in pairs.
For example, when a tennis racquet hits
a tennis ball, the agent is the person and
the racquet. The receiver is the ball. The
ball could not start to move, be stopped
from moving or change its direction unless
another object exerts a force on it. When
the ball is hit into the air, it can only reach
so high before it starts to fall down towards
the Earth. In this case, the agent exerting
the force is the Earth. The Earth has mass
and therefore exerts a gravitational force
on the ball that pulls it towards the centre
of the Earth. The ball also has mass and
exerts a gravitational force on the Earth, but
because the Earth has such an enormous
mass compared with that of a ball, its
movement towards the ball cannot be
detected.

ACTIVITY 8.1.2: IDENTIFYING AGENTS AND RECEIVERS

What you need: sheet of paper or spreadsheet program

Figure 8.13 A tennis
ball cannot throw or roll
itself. It needs an agent
to exert a force on it. But
even while it is still on the
ground, agents outside
itself are exerting forces
on it. What are they?
1 Copy Table 8.1 and add to it, identifying the agent and receiver for some forces that
you are familiar with. Number the effects of the force as:
1 – begins to move
2 – speeds up
3 – slows down or stops moving
4 – changes the direction of motion
5 – changes shape
6 – remains still.
Two examples have been done for you. Try to think of eight more.

Table 8.1 Examples of force agents and receivers.

Action Agent (object Receiver (object Effect(s) of the Numbers for the
exerting the force) experiencing the force on the effect of the force
force) receiver
Kicking a football Foot Football Ball moves 1&2
Figure 8.14 Contact force:
the agent and receiver are Standing still Feet Floor No effect 6
touching each other.

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A force may act ‘on a
contact’ or ‘at a distance’
Some forces make objects move because
of a direct push or pull by another object.
The objects have to touch each other or
be in contact. These are called contact
forces. Hitting a fly with a flyswatter or
hitting a hockey ball with a hockey stick
are two examples of contact forces. You can
probably think of many more.
b
Some forces cause movement without
contact or touching. These are called non-
contact forces and act from a distance. An
example is a mass hanging from a length
of string. There is a contact force between
the string and the mass but no contact
force between the mass and the Earth—only
gravity acting at a distance. Gravity can
exert a force without touching anything.
Gravity is exerting a force on us all the time.
The Earth’s gravity pulls us to the centre of
the Earth, it holds the moon in its orbit,
and the moon’s gravity causes tides on the
Earth. Magnetic forces and electrostatic Figure 8.15 Non-contact
forces act without touching the receiver. forces: (a) the Earth has
a gravitational pull on the
moon at a great distance;
(b) the moon’s gravity causes
Forces can be balanced tides on the Earth.

There are many forces around us but most

of them do not cause movement because the
forces are balanced. If the forces of the two
people in Figure 8.16 balance each other,
there is no movement. They are pushing
or pulling with equal and opposite forces.
Balanced forces are very important. Two
tug-of-war teams will be balanced if they
pull with the same force but in opposite
directions.
Consider the forces acting on the barbell
Figure 8.16 Forces can balance each other.
in Figure 8.17. The barbell stays up in the
air at a particular height because the forces
is stronger than the downwards force.
acting on it are in balance. The weightlifter
That is, the forces must be out of balance
is exerting an upwards pushing force on it
(unbalanced) for the barbell to be lifted.
that is equal in strength to the downwards
The upwards and downwards forces must
force acting on it. This downwards force is
be balanced to hold the barbell steady.
the gravitational force of the Earth acting
If the weightlifter cannot maintain this
on the barbell. To raise the barbell, the
upwards force, the downwards force
weightlifter must exert a stronger force Figure 8.17 A weightlifter
unbalances the upwards force and the applies a force to lift a
on the barbell so that the upwards force
barbell will fall. barbell.

8.1 TYPES OF FORCES 309

 ACTIVITY 8.1.3: TUG OF WAR

What you need: long rope with a ribbon tied around the centre, grassed area

WARNING
> This task can be dangerous! Make sure you follow all of your teacher’s
instructions. Do not wrap the rope around your hands or any part of your body.

1 Lay the rope out on the grass in a straight line. One person needs to stand in the
middle and act as the referee.
2 Mark a centre line on the ground under the ribbon.
3 An equal number of people need to stand on either side of the ribbon, holding on to
the rope.
4 When the referee calls ‘go’, both teams should begin pulling on the rope.
5 The winning team is the one that pulls the other team about 1 metre over the
centre line.
• Did both teams create a balanced force? For how long?
• How did they do this?
• Did the winning team have any special tactics? Explain them in terms of forces.

Figure 8.18 When forces are unbalanced, there will be a change in motion, with the greatest force ‘winning’.
In a game of tug of war, if one team pulls with a force of 2900 N to the left and the other team pulls with a force
of 3000 N to the right, the net force is 100 N to the right. The team on the right will win the game because both
teams will move that way. Unbalanced forces lead to a movement in the direction of the greater force.

Forces can be added together

If you tried to lift a heavy object like a piano, you would not succeed because the upwards
force you would exert on the piano would be too weak. But if several strong people were
to exert an upwards force on the piano, they could lift it. This is because their combined
upward forces would be stronger than the downwards force on the piano. The net force is
the force that results when all the forces acting on an object are combined. If the people are
able to raise the piano, the net force on the piano is upwards.
If an object is stationary (not moving) or moving at a steady speed in the same
direction, the net force acting on that object is zero. If an object starts to move, speeds
up, slows down or stops, or changes shape or direction, the forces must be unbalanced
so a net force must be acting on it.

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EXPERIMENT 8.1.2: HOW HARD CAN YOU PUSH?

Aim
To find out how many Newtons of force you can produce by pushing.

Materials
• Bathroom scales
• Wall
Method
1 Stand facing a solid wall.
2 Hold the scales flat against the wall or get a partner to help you hold the scales,
as shown in Figure 8.19, and push as hard as you can into the scales.

Results
Include the reading on the bathroom scales here. You might like to put this reading in
a table, taking the measurement several times and calculating an average. The table
could also include your conversion to Newtons. One kilogram on the scales equals
10 Newtons.

Discussion
1 When you push against the wall, how many Newtons of force do you produce?
2 What forces are involved when you push against the wall?
3 How hard does the wall push back?
4 How does the wall push back?
5 Suggest what would happen if you push harder than the wall can push back.

Variations to the method

• Try this experiment with two people pushing against the scales. Is the total force
equal to the force of each person?
• Where is the best position to place the scales: waist height, shoulder height,
another height?
• Can you push harder with your shoes on or off?
• Can you push harder with one or two hands?
• Put the scales on the floor and step on to them. If you stand on one leg only, does
the scale reading halve? Why or why not?
Conclusion
What did you discover about the force you can produce by pushing? Write a sentence
to address the aim.

Figure 8.19 How hard can you push?

8.1 TYPES OF FORCES 311

 STUDENT DESIGN TASK

Ball whacker
Challenge
Design some equipment that uses a block of wood to hit a tennis ball using only the
force of gravity. A wooden block from home or the woodwork room is ideal. Are there
any ethical or safety guidelines you need to consider?

Questioning and predicting

• How will you create a contact force between the wooden block and the ball?
• How will you make the wooden block swing?
• How far do you want the ball to move?
Planning and conducting Clamp
Figure 8.20 shows one way
to set this up. You must use
only the force of gravity—you String
Retort stand
cannot push the wooden block. and boss head
Outline how you will ensure the
experiment is safe and ethical. Wooden block

Processing, analysing and Figure 8.20 A possible setup for the equipment.
evaluating
1 During the challenge, what changes did you have to make to move the ball further?
2 What was the most successful feature of your ball whacker? What was the least
successful?
3 Is a heavy block better than a light one?
4 Is there any practical use for a ‘whacker’ like this?
5 If you were doing this experiment again, how would you modify your device? Explain.

Communicating
Present the various stages of your investigation in a formal experimental report.

DEEPER
U N D E R S TA N D I N G Protection from forces
Have you heard the expression ‘speed
kills’? In a car accident, if you aren’t
wearing a seat belt, your body is thrown
about the car and parts of it collide with
the relatively hard interior. The force of
those collisions is very high if you stop
moving in a very short distance. How fast
you stop, rather than how fast you are
moving, is what causes the damage.
Have you ever tried to catch a fast-
travelling cricket ball or softball? It can
hurt! But if you use ‘soft hands’ (a sporting
term for moving your hands slightly in the
ball’s direction of travel), it won’t hurt as
Figure 8.21 This motorcycle helmet has been
much. It’s a bit like the big soft crash mats
cut apart to show the thick layer of white foam
you land on after doing a high jump or pole padding that cushions the head and protects it
vault. This cushioning effect minimises the during an accident.

312 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

forces of a collision and make things safer.
This scientific principle is used in helmet
and airbag design.
Helmets
Safety and crash helmets are designed
to cushion the head from collisions with
other objects. Their hard outer surface
prevents penetration and the soft inner
layer cushions the head and spreads the
impact force over the whole surface.
Airbags
One of the best safety features of modern
cars is the airbag. In a high-impact crash,
airbags rapidly fill with gas and cushion
the occupants of the car. The impact of
a body part causes the bag to deflate
while the impact lasts, greatly reducing
the forces involved in a collision. Once
they have been used, airbags need to be
replaced.
Safety belts
The most common safety item is the seat
belt in a car. The belt does not provide
cushioning like a helmet or airbag.
Instead the seat belt attaches the person
to the car so that when the car stops, the
person stops too. Without a seat belt in a
car, during an accident a person can be
flung around violently, and sometimes
ejected from the car, and collide with other
objects. A Volvo engineer invented the
three-point seatbelt more than 50 years
ago, which has been estimated to have
saved the lives of over 1 million people
worldwide since then. That’s a pretty
amazing statistic! See if you can find online
video footage of the original seatbelt
experiment that was performed by Volvo
using eggs (try Volvo Trucks).

SCIENCE
Drawing force diagrams Use a ruler to draw straight lines. SKILLS
How will the size of your arrows
An important skill to learn in science
compare if the van:
is how to draw force diagrams. Force
diagrams, or models, drawn on paper or a doesn’t move? Friction
on-screen, show contact and non-contact b moves forward slowly?
real-world forces. Force diagrams identify c moves forward quickly?
the agent and the receiver of the force,
and show the direction and strength of the
Gravity
force by using arrows. A short arrow shows
a weak force and a long arrow shows a
strong force. An arrow is used to represent Figure 8.22 A force diagram showing the
each different force. (Remember: More balanced forces acting on a stationary car.
than one force is usually operating at any
given time.)
Note that:
• the direction of the arrow shows the
direction of the force
• the length of the arrow indicates the
relative strength of the force
• arrows are labelled to show the agent
of the force and the receiver.
Your turn
Using Figure 8.22 as a guide, draw the car
shown and add arrows to show the forces
acting on the car, from the people pushing
it forwards and from the road on the tyres.
Draw your diagram with a sharp pencil.

8.1 TYPES OF FORCES 313

 QUESTIONS 8.1.2: CHARACTERISTICS OF FORCES

Remember
1 Describe what a contact force is. List three examples.
2 Identify some examples of forces:
a cancelling each other out
b adding together
3 Identify the safety equipment you use every day to reduce the impact of forces
in your life.

Apply
4 Recall the difference between contact and non-contact forces.
5 Define the following terms:
a agent
b receiver
6 Identify the agent and the receiver for these actions:
a pushing down the lever on a toaster
b opening a bottle of soft drink
c throwing a basketball to a friend
d the tide ‘going out’ towards the moon
7 Explain why a brick wall doesn’t fall over when you push against it. Why can
a bulldozer push it over?
8 Explain why weightlifters get tired when they hold heavy masses in the air.
9 Sally can push with 150 N and Marilla with 200 N.
a If they pushed in the same direction, calculate what force they can push
with together.
b Calculate the net force if they push in opposite directions.
(Hint: Draw a force diagram to help with this question)
10 Examine the force diagram in Figure 8.22. There are no measurements on the force
arrows. Describe how you can still determine the net force on the car.
11 Draw force diagrams for all of the forces you identified in Table 8.1. For each diagram:
a mark the direction of the force with an arrow
b label each diagram with an agent and receiver

Research
12 Research the following simple machines: levers, pulleys, gears and inclined planes.
Find out how they reduce the force needed to perform a task and where they are
used in everyday life.
13 Research the woomera spear thrower, which was used in traditional Aboriginal
societies for hunting. Analyse how it increased the force with which a spear was
thrown.
14 Research the history of the pendulum in timekeeping.

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 FRICTION
If you make something move on the Earth,
it eventually slows down and stops. Rolling
a ball, riding a bicycle and swimming in
the pool are all examples. Unless you keep
on pushing or pedalling or swimming, you
will stop.
Every time something moves on the
Earth, a force is also acting against it. This
force is called friction. It is a contact
force. Friction slows everything that is
moving. The more friction, the more
quickly the movement slows, and the
moving object may even stop.
Friction happens because objects rub
together. A rolling ball is rubbing against
the ground. A moving bicycle is pushing
through the air and against the road, and
the wheels are rubbing against the axles.
When you are swimming, you are pushing
against water. The water slows you down.
With less friction, you could ride further
and swim faster with less effort. A simple
way to experience friction is to rub your
hands together as fast as you can. You can
feel the friction and you can definitely feel
the heat it generates. All friction forces
generate heat because the energy that was
causing the movement is converted into
heat as the object slows down and stops.
Without friction, your feet would just
slip over the ground. This is because as
you walk, friction acts in the opposite
direction to help you push yourself
forward. Without friction, it would be
like trying to walk on ice. Your pen works
using friction. When you write, you drag
the pen over a piece of paper. Friction
between the ball-point of the pen and the
paper causes the ink to flow out. Without
friction, your pen would run over the page
without leaving a mark. Without friction,
we could not ride a bike or drive a car—we
couldn’t even swallow!
Figure 8.23 Wet roads mean
Friction is very useful but it can also less friction on car tyres.
be a problem. As friction causes heat to be
produced, the friction in a car’s engine can
often cause it to overheat. When meteorites
enter the Earth’s atmosphere, the friction
between the Earth’s atmosphere and the
meteorite itself is so strong that it will
‘burn’ the meteorite. Where friction is
detrimental, there are ways that it can be
reduced. One way of reducing detrimental
friction is by using rollers or balls. The
rollers and balls reduce friction because
they roll over the surface with only a small
area of contact, rather than being dragged
Figure 8.24 A bearing.
along the surface. Tiny metal balls are often The metal balls allow the
used as bearings. Hovercraft and air pucks two metal circles to move
past each other with very
have low friction because they use a layer
little friction.
of air to glide over a surface. There is
no contact between the surfaces
and almost no friction.
The same idea is used in
magnetic levitation
(Maglev) trains,
where the trains and
carriages are held
above the tracks by
strong magnetic
forces. This allows
the trains to travel
at a much faster
speed as they have less
friction to overcome.
8.1 TYPES OF FORCES 315
 Oil and grease can also be used to reduce
friction. This is known as lubrication. If a
kitchen drawer sticks, you can use candle
wax or soap as a lubricant. Lubricants work
by coating a surface with an oily or waxy
substance, which makes them slippery.
Putting oil on bicycle chains and grease on
wheel axles makes the wheels spin more
easily, with less friction.
y over the car
o ws smoothl
Air fl
Figure 8.25 Oil is added to a
car engine to reduce friction
between engine parts.
Air resistance, or drag, is the friction
between a moving object and the air it is
moving through. Air resistance limits the
speed of an object in the air. Air resistance
is necessary for parachutes but it is a
problem for cars and trucks. Streamlining
(making the surface smooth and rounded)
helps overcome air resistance.
Fish and sharks have a streamlined
shape. This allows them to move
through water with the least amount
of friction. Animals that do not need
to swim fast, such as sea horses, are
not as streamlined.

Figure 8.26 Streamlining reduces friction.

ACTIVITY 8.1.4: LOSING YOUR GRIP

What you need: 1 teaspoon of baby oil

Rub the baby oil all over your hands and then try to do different tasks. After the
activity, you will need to wash everything you touch with warm, soapy water, so think
carefully about what you will touch.
• Does the oil make these tasks easier or harder?
• What force is acting between your hands and the objects they touch?
• What happens when you rub your hands vigorously together?
• What does this tell you about this force?

DEEPER
U N D E R S TA N D I N G
Figure 8.27 Cyclists use
slipstreaming so they have
more energy for the ride.
Slipstreaming
and pack riding
Cycling in a pack can appear to be quite
daunting, but the benefits are endless.
Slipstreaming is a technique used by pack
cyclists to make sure that everyone in the
pack stays ‘fresh’.
A slipstream is basically a current of
air created by movement such as that of a
cyclist. The force created by this current
of air can be used by another cyclist riding
close behind. When you cycle in somebody
else’s slipstream you use about 30% less
energy than the person at the front. This
means you can ride 30% faster or 30%
further, or ride the same distance and be
30% fresher.
To get the full benefit of slipstreaming,
you need to be close enough to have the
airflow broken by the cyclist in front. When
a cyclist pushes through the wind, the wind
has to go somewhere—to the sides and
over the rider—before it continues along
its original course. An empty space is left
behind the cyclist where there is less air.
To fill this space, the wind curves around
behind the cyclist, creating a partial vacuum
directly behind them. You need to get your
body into the ‘shape’ of the rider in front
and your wheel should, ideally, be no more
than 30 centimetres away from the wheel
in front. Any more than this and you end up
working as hard as the person in front.

316 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

EXPERIMENT 8.1.3: REDUCING FRICTION

Aim
To investigate how friction may be reduced.

Hypothesis
Make a prediction about the best way to reduce friction.
Push
Materials this
• Force measurer (see Experiment 8.1.1) way Textbook
• Thick textbook
• Wooden rollers (round pencils)
• Book Figure 8.28 Measuring
• Sand the friction of a textbook. Force
measurer
Method
1 Use your force measurer to measure the friction of your textbook being dragged
along the table. (Hint: Drag it at constant speed.)
2 Place a smaller book on top of the textbook and measure the friction.
3 Place rollers under the book and measure the friction.
4 Place sand under the book and measure the friction.

Results
Record your results in a table.

Object Force needed to make it move (N)

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average

Textbook

Textbook with a second book on it

Textbook with rollers under it

Textbook with sand under it

Discussion
1 What was the best way to reduce friction?
2 Would five rollers be better than two for reducing friction?
3 Would ten rollers be better than five for reducing friction?
4 Would bigger or smaller rollers be better for reducing friction?
5 What are some problems with using rollers?
6 Identify a practical example of rollers being used to reduce friction.
7 Explain why square rollers will not work to reduce friction.
8 Would fine sand or coarse (large-grained) sand be better to increase friction?
Explain your answer.
9 Identify a practical example of sand being used to increase friction.
10 What are some problems with using sand for this purpose?

Conclusion
Outline what you know about reducing friction.
• Explain how the size and number of rollers affect the reduction of friction.
• Identify the least useful method.
• Was your prediction correct? Why or why not?
• Write a sentence to address the aim.

8.1 TYPES OF FORCES 317

 QUESTIONS 8.1.3: FRICTION

Remember
1 Rewrite the following statements by selecting the correct word from each pair.
a Friction is a contact/non-contact force.
b Friction is a speeding up/slowing down force.
c Lubrication increases/decreases friction between two surfaces.
d The friction between an object and the air it moves through is called air
resistance/slipstreaming.
2 Identify at least three examples of friction that you have encountered today.
3 Explain why friction generates heat.
4 Explain why a penguin is streamlined but a sea anemone is not.
5 Suggest reasons why surfers wax their surfboards.
6 Recall at least three methods of reducing friction.

Apply
7 Is friction always useful? Identify three examples where friction is useful and
three examples where friction is a problem. In each of your examples, explain how
friction works to benefit the situation or how it is detrimental to the situation.
8 In a world without friction, explain what would happen if you tried to:
a go down a slide in a playground
b play tenpin bowling
c tie your shoelaces
9 Discuss how speed and friction are related.
10 Over which surface would an object move the fastest: sand, wood or metal coated
in oil? Assume you use the same pushing force in each case.
11 Describe what it would be like to live on a planet without friction. Write a very short
story or use a series of pictures in your description.

Research
12 The wings of aircraft are designed based on the shape of bird wings. Research the
basic shape of an airfoil (wing) and describe how air resistance across the wing
provides lift. Draw a labelled diagram of the airfoil and the path the air takes above
and below it. Clearly indicate which surface experiences the greatest air resistance.
Draw a force diagram of the airfoil and use arrow to indicate the relative strength
and direction of air resistance to show the net force of lift.

318 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

TYPES OF FORCES
Remember and understand
1 Copy and complete:
a A force is a ________________
or a ________________ between
________________ objects. [1 mark]
b To measure a force you can use a
________________ balance. [1 mark]
c The unit used to measure forces is
called the ________________. Its
symbol is ________________. The
weight ________________ of 100 g is
about ________________ Newtons.
[1 mark]
d An object exerting a force is called
the ________________. The object
experiencing the force is called the
________________. [1 mark]
2 Outline the six things that an object
experiencing a force might do.
[3 marks]
3 Which of the following involve forces
and which do not? Explain.
a opening a window [1 mark]
b turning a screw with a screwdriver
[1 mark]
c smelling food cooking [1 mark]
d moulding clay [1 mark]
e standing on a diving board [1 mark]
f watching a candle burn [1 mark]
4 Explain why the tread in the tyres of a
bike wears down over time. Explain this
in terms of force. [2 marks]
5 A hovercraft moves across water on
a cushion of air. Identify the benefit
8.1
CHECKPOINT
of this. [1 mark]
Apply
6 Calculate how many Newtons would
give a reading on your bathroom scales
of 60 kg. [1 mark]
7 A box is too heavy to lift by yourself.
Explain, using the term unbalanced
forces, why you and a friend can lift it
together. [1 mark]
8 Explain the following in terms of
friction:
a Gymnasts put chalk on their hands.
[1 mark]
b People driving cars on ice or snow
put chains on their tyres. [1 mark]
c A car uses more petrol when it has
a load on the roof. [1 mark]
d It is hard to run on ice. [1 mark]
9 Figure 8.29 shows speed skaters.
Identify two examples in the photo of
the speed skaters using friction and
two examples of reducing friction.
[2 marks]
Figure 8.29
8.1 TYPES OF FORCES 319
 Analyse and evaluate
10 Think about how far a toy car and a
marble would roll along a flat bench.
Evaluate which has the least friction.
Which rolls the furthest? Analyse the
connection between rolling and friction.
[4 marks]
11 Figure 8.30 shows a motocross rider.
Identify which forces are acting when
the rider is:
a stationary on the ground [1 mark]
b moving across the ground at
a constant speed [1 mark]
c gliding through the air [1 mark]

Critical and creative thinking

12 Suppose Matilda fills her car with
petrol and drives 100 km along a
freeway. She then leaves the freeway
and travels 100 km along country
roads, one of which is very rough. How
would the amounts of petrol consumed
by the car on the different parts of the
trip differ? Explain your answer using
your knowledge of forces and friction.
[4 marks]
Figure 8.30
Making connections
13 Figure 8.31 shows a toy car with a mass a Calculate how many Newtons of
of 100 g connected to a string with a force a mass of 200 g exerts on the
200 g mass attached to the other end. toy car. [1 mark]
b Identify where the force acting
Force pulling car across table on the 200 g mass comes from.
Pulley [1 mark]
c Calculate the strength of the net
force exerted on the car by the
string. (Assume the friction is zero.)
[1 mark]
Force pulling d Is this force acting on the toy car
mass downwards
a contact force or a non-contact
force? Explain. [2 marks]
Figure 8.31

TOTAL MARKS
[ /40]

320 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

GRAVITY AS A FORCE
As a young student in 1665, Isaac Newton observed an apple fall from a
tree onto the ground. ‘Why did it fall?’ he wondered. There was nothing
to see that could push it or pull it. He realised that there must be a force
that pulled it towards the Earth. This is how he first had the idea of gravity.
We cannot see gravity, but it is real. We feel the effects of gravity every
8.2
day. Gravity causes a field, or a force field, around the Earth. We call it
a gravitational field.

GRAVITATIONAL FIELDS
A gravitational field is an area around
an object that attracts anything that has
mass. People, cars, mountains, even the
moon, feel a force when they are in the
gravitational field of the Earth. Gravitational
fields only attract, they never repel. Usually,
the closer you are to the centre of the
gravitation field, the stronger the force.
When you jump up in the air, the
gravity of the Earth brings you back to the
surface of the Earth. The gravitational field
is actually trying to pull you to the centre of
the planet, but the friction with the ground
stops you from sinking all the way through.
If you were on the moon and jumped
upwards, the gravity of the moon would
pull you back to the surface of the moon.
You can jump higher on the moon than on
the Earth because the moon has less gravity
than the Earth.
For an object to leave the Earth, it
has to overcome the pull of the Earth’s
gravitational field. If you could throw a
ball fast enough, it could leave the Earth
and go into space. The speed at which
you would have to throw the ball is called
the escape velocity. For the Earth, the
escape velocity is nearly 41 000 kilometres
per hour.
To study what happens under conditions
without very much gravity—that is, under
microgravity—you need to work in a satellite
orbiting the Earth. Astronauts working in
orbiting space stations are studying how
things function without much gravity.
They have germinated seeds, grown crystals,
and studied bones and blood. Some of
these experiments have been devised by
school students.

ACTIVITY 8.2.1: GRAVITY IN ACTION

Throw a tennis ball up in the air and catch it again.

1 What happens to the tennis ball:
a on the way up?
b at the top?
c on the way down?
2 Does gravity act on the ball the whole time?
3 What is the effect of gravity on the
tennis ball?
4 Do any other forces act on the ball after it leaves
your hand?

8.2 GRAVITY AS A FORCE 321

 Mass and weight
The greater the mass of an object, the
stronger the gravitational force pulling on
it. Mass is a measure of how much matter
Mass = 1 kg an object contains. In Australia, we measure
Weight = 9.8 N mass based on the unit of the kilogram.
Earth Weight is a measure of the force an
object pushes down on the ground due to
gravity. It is a force, and so it is measured
in Newtons. Weight is calculated by
multiplying the mass of an object with the
Mass = 1 kg
Weight = 1.6 N force of gravity it is experiencing.
Moon The mass of an object doesn’t change,
no matter where in the universe it is.
If a block has a mass of 1 kilogram on
the Earth, it has 1 kilogram of mass
everywhere. However, it may have a weight
Mass = 1 kg
of 9.8 Newtons on Earth but on a large
Weight = 24.8 N
Jupiter planet such as Jupiter, its weight would
be 24.8 Newtons because weight changes
Figure 8.32 The mass of according to gravity. On the moon, it would
a brick doesn’t change but
its weight is determined weigh about 1.6 Newtons because the moon
by gravity. is small and has less gravitational pull.
Force of gravity pulls
moon towards Earth
Figure 8.33 The moon is held in its orbit by the gravitational field of the Earth.
322 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4
Effect of gravity
Gravity is a force that attracts objects to
one another. It keeps the planets orbiting
the sun, keeps the moon orbiting the Earth,
holds an atmosphere of gases and stops you
drifting into space. While every mass has a
gravitational field, the force of gravity is not
the same on every object. The greater the
mass (amount of material) of an object, the
stronger the force of gravity acting on it.
The sun has such a large mass that its
powerful gravity attracts all other objects
in the solar system to orbit around it.
The different masses of each planet mean
they each have a different pull of gravity.
Mercury, the smallest planet in our solar
system, has just 38% of the gravity of the
Earth. Its weak gravity can only hold a very
thin atmosphere, which cannot sustain life.
Jupiter, the largest of all the planets, has
254% of the gravity of the Earth, enough
to crush any spacecraft that approaches
its surface. Gravity, like other forces, is
measured in Newtons.
Moon’s orbit
Straight-line path moon would
take if Earth were not there

Calculate weights in the
solar system
The effects of gravity are affected by the
mass of the objects involved. Gravity on
the Earth is determined by the mass of the
Earth. How this gravity affects objects on
the Earth is determined by their mass.
You can work out your weight if you
lived in other parts of the solar system.
Note that the Earth has a gravity value
of 9.8, which is often rounded up to 10.
To calculate weight (in Newtons) you will
need to multiply mass (the reading on
bathroom scales) by the gravity value for
the various solar system objects.
weight = mass x gravity
N U M E R AC Y
Your turn BUILDER
1 Copy Table 8.2. Using the Earth’s
gravity value, calculate and record the
weight of a 65 kg value person on the
Earth (in the first row).
2 Complete the table for the other solar
system objects.
3 Imagine holding the Olympic Games
on the different astronomical bodies
listed in the table. Based on your
calculations, do you think the gravity
value for each body would affect the
results of the events? For example,
would diving or high jump be affected?
What about other events?
4 How would gravity affect your lifestyle
on Mercury compared with Jupiter?
What everyday tasks would be easier
or harder? Explain.

Table 8.2 A person’s weight in the solar system.

Solar system object Gravity value Person’s mass (kg) Person’s weight (N)

Earth 9.8 65.0

Mercury 3.7 65.0

Venus 8.9 65.0

Mars 3.7 65.0

Jupiter 23.1 65.0

Saturn 9.0 65.0

Uranus 8.7 65.0

Neptune 11.0 65.0

Pluto 0.6 65.0

Sun 273.0 65.0

Moon 1.6 65.0

8.2 GRAVITY AS A FORCE 323


Buoyancy and gravity
If you drop two objects into a bucket of
water, what happens? You might be able to
use your knowledge of gravity to predict
that both objects will fall to the bottom
of the bucket because the force of
gravity is pulling them towards the
centre of the Earth. But what would
you predict if you knew that the two
objects were a rock and a ping pong
a related to the differences in densities of the
Figure 8.34 A hot air
balloon is buoyant
because hot air is less
dense than cool air (a).
Helium is less dense than
air so these balloons are b force of gravity is greater and, in the other, the
also buoyant (b).
ball? Based on your own life experiences,
you would know that the rock will fall to
the bottom of the bucket and the ping pong
ball will rise to the surface. Your first answer
wasn’t entirely wrong—gravity is still pulling
both objects towards the centre of the Earth.
There is another force at work on both
objects: the upward push of water on an
object. This is called a buoyancy force.
Have you ever tried to lift someone up in a
swimming pool? They appear to become very
light and easy to lift. This isn’t because their
mass has magically changed, it’s because the
force of buoyancy is helping you lift them.
Buoyancy acts in liquids and in gases, and is
two objects. It is the force that keeps helium
balloons in the air—helium is less dense than
air and so it rises. So why does the rock sink
and the ping pong ball float? In one case, the
force of buoyancy is greater. Which is which?

QUESTIONS 8.2.1: GRAVITATIONAL FIELDS

Remember
1 Identify who first described gravity.
2 Define the following terms
a ‘gravitation field’
b ‘gravity’
c ‘escape velocity’
3 Explain buoyancy. In which direction does it work?
4 Explain why objects fall straight down towards the Earth’s surface and not slightly
to one side or sideways.

Apply
5 Using an example, explain the difference between mass and weight.
6 When you throw a ball into the air:
a what force(s) are acting on the ball while it is in motion?
b are the force(s) balanced or unbalanced?
c what do the force(s) cause the ball to do?
7 Explain the link between buoyance and density.
8 Use your completed Table 8.2 to determine whether the following statements are
true or false. Correct and rewrite the false statements.
a The person will have a greater weight on Neptune than on Earth.
b The force of gravity is stronger on Venus than on Earth.
c The person will be able to jump higher on Saturn than on Earth.
d The person has a greater mass on the sun than on Earth

324 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

Gravity as a force
Remember and understand
1 Define ‘escape velocity’. [1 mark]
2 Explain how microgravity is different
to gravity. [1 mark]
3 What is a gravitational field? Explain
how the gravitational field of the sun
affects the planets. [1 mark]
4 Your mass at a given time remains
the same, regardless of gravity. Your
weight, however, changes as a result of
gravity. Explain:
a why the mass of any object isn’t
changed by gravity [1 mark]
b why the weight of an object
sometimes changes [1 mark]
5 Explain why you can lift a large adult in
water but not on dry land. [1 mark]
6 Outline how buoyancy is different from
gravity. [2 marks]
Apply
7 Car engines can often overheat
because of friction between the moving
parts. How would you prevent heat
build-up from the friction? Justify your
answer. [2 marks]
8 Imagine life on the moon. Write a
paragraph describing how your days
would be different if you lived on the
moon. Discuss which actions would be
easier. Describe which actions would
be harder or impossible. [3 marks]
Analyse and evaluate
9 When skydivers step out of an aeroplane
they begin to fall towards the Earth.
a Identify what causes this. [1 mark]
b Analyse the forces acting on the
skydivers when the parachutes
open. [1 mark]
10 An adult male elephant has a mass of
7000 kilograms. Predict the mass of the
elephant if it were:
a in your bedroom [1 mark]
b on top of Mt Everest [1 mark]
c on the moon [1 mark]
d swimming in the ocean [1 mark]
8.2
Checkpoint
Critical and creative thinking
11 You are slightly shorter at the end of
the day than when you wake up in the
morning. In a small group, design an
experiment to test this hypothesis.
Conduct the test over a series of days.
Compile your results and compare
your group results to other groups in
the class. As a group, come up with
a conclusion for this experiment that
draws on your knowledge of gravity.
a Was your experiment successful?
[1 mark]
b Did your group work well together?
[1 mark]
c How would you change your
experiment next time? [2 marks]
d Evaluate your own contribution to
this experiment and give yourself
a score out of 5 (5 being ‘excellent’,
1 being ‘needs improvement’) for
group cooperation, listening to
other members of the group, being
reliable and doing your homework.
[1 mark]
12 What do you think might be some of the
difficulties faced by astronauts living
on a space station with microgravity?
Suggest some ways to overcome these
difficulties. [2 marks]
Making connections
13 Write a creative short story or a diary
entry called ‘A day without gravity’.
You might begin by listing the main
activities in your day, then considering
how they are affected by gravity.
Incorporate as many examples into
TOTAL MARKS
your story as possible. [4 marks]
[ /30]
8.2 Gravity as a force 325
 8.3 MAGNETISM AND
ELECTROSTATIC FORCES
Magnets are great fun to play with—they push (repel) and pull (attract)
each other and attract pieces of iron. We say that they are magnetic.
Magnets keep your refrigerator door tightly closed. Different types of
magnets are used in phones, electric motors, computers, car engines
and even some types of switches. The forces involved in electrostatics are
due to charged particles. As a child, you might have slid down a slide at
a playground and felt a ‘zap’ of electricity. This shock was due to static
electricity or electrostatics. When electric charge builds up, it can form a
spark, which we can feel, see and hear. The best example of a spark of this
type is lightning.

MAGNETIC MATERIALS
Magnets have many different shapes, sizes
and uses. We use some of them almost
every day. The vinyl magnets on fridge doors
and the magnetic strips on plastic swipe
cards are mixed or coated with magnetic
iron powder when they are made. Magnets
can be attached to doors and windows as
part of an alarm switch. When the door or
window is moved, the magnetism weakens.
This ‘trips’ the switch and an alarm sounds.
Magnets contain ferromagnetic
materials such as iron. Some magnets are
made of an alloy (a mixture of metals)
that is mostly iron. The bar magnets used
in schools are made of a magnetic alloy
called alnico, which is made of iron mixed
with aluminium, nickel and cobalt. These
magnets vary in strength and can lose their
magnetism over time, especially if they
are dropped.
The group of magnetic materials called
ferrites contain iron, oxygen and other
elements. These materials are light. Ferrites
are used in computer hard disk drives and
musical instrument amplifiers. Magnetism
is the main way that information is stored
in computers and other systems.
Some magnets are made from metals
known as rare earth metals. These are much
stronger than alnico and ferrite magnets,
and do not lose their magnetism. These
magnets retain their magnetism—they
are permanent magnets. They are made
from elements such as neodymium and
samarium. They are small and used in stereo
speakers and electric motors of cordless
tools. Larger applications include wind
turbine generators, electric car drive motors
and maglev trains. Their disadvantage is
that they are brittle and need to be coated
for protection.
A magnet is said to have two magnetic
poles: north and south. One end of a bar
magnet is labelled ‘N’ for north and the
other end ‘S’ for south. If you hang a bar
magnet horizontally by a piece of string, the
north end will swing to point to magnetic
north. This is how a compass works.

Figure 8.35 Magnets must be stored properly so that they

retain their magnetism for a long time. The keeper on a magnet
completes a path for the magnetic field, which preserves it.

326 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 ACTIVITY 8.3.1: MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC CHALLENGE

How much do you know about magnetism and static electricity?ty?

ome
In this activity you will be challenged to investigate some
interesting phenomena.

Magnetic challenge
Try to arrange a pair of bar magnets to achieve
‘magnetic levitation’. Figure 8.36 gives you a hint.

Electric challenge
Figure 8.36
Fig
Rub a glass rod with a piece of cloth and hold the rod next to
(but not touching) a thin stream of water from the tap. What happens? Can you get
the rod to repel the water? Can you explain what is happening in both situations?

Electromagnets
The magnets we have considered so far have
one large disadvantage—you cannot turn
them off. An electromagnet is a type of
magnet that can be turned on and off. It is
made of a coil of wire wrapped around an
iron rod. When electricity flows through
the wire it magnetises the iron to produce
a magnetic field.
Superconducting magnets are large and
expensive. They are used mainly in research
laboratories and hospitals. In hospitals,
superconducting magnets can be used to
detect changes in the body’s soft tissues.
A person’s body is placed in a magnetic field
and then scanned by radio waves to build
up a computerised map. This technique
is called magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI). MRI scans can show things that are
too small to detect in any other way. Rare
earth magnets are now starting to be used
in MRI equipment. Figure 8.37 A person having an MRI scan.

EXPERIMENT 8.3.1: INVESTIGATING MAGNETS

Aim
To test a variety of materials for magnetism and to investigate the properties of magnets.

Materials
• Range of magnetic and non-magnetic • Retort stand
objects, e.g. nails, pen, coin, electrical • Boss head and clamp
wire, plastic, tin can, aluminium drink • Paperclip
can, retort stand, gauze mat, furniture • String (or float magnet on
• Pair of bar magnets a large piece of cork)

8.3 MAGNETISM AND ELECTROSTATIC FORCES 327

 Part 1
Method
Test each of the objects to see if they are magnetic.
Paperclip
Results
Record your results in a table.

Part 2
Magnet
Method
Set up the experiment as shown in Figure 8.38 and place each of the objects you used
Slide materials in part 1 (where possible) between the magnet and the paperclip.
into this space
between the Results
magnet and Record your results in a table.
the paperclip
Discussion
Figure 8.38 Part 2
experimental setup. 1 Do you notice any similarities in the materials you found to be magnetic (part 1)
with those that magnetism goes through (part 2)?
2 Explain what you think the term ‘magnetic shield’ means. Did any substance
act as a magnetic shield?

Part 3
When you have a magnet and a piece of iron, the magnet attracts (pulls closer) the iron.
It never repels (pushes away) the iron. What happens when you have two magnets?

Method
Push two magnets end-on near each other. Try the like (same) poles together, and
then the unlike (different) poles. Now bring the end of one magnet to the middle of
another. Do you always get an attraction?

Results
Describe your results using the words ‘like’, ‘unlike’, ‘repel’, ‘attract’.

Part 4
Magnet hanging
from string Method
Set up your equipment as shown in Figure 8.39 and observe the magnet’s behaviour.

or
Magnet on piece of wood or
cork floating in plastic container
Results
Record your results in your notebook.
Discussion
1 Why do magnets have ends called north and south? (Remember the north end
has ‘N’ stamped on it and the south end usually has no markings.)
2 Research how the two ends of the magnets were named.

Conclusion
Write a paragraph summarising what you have learned in this experiment. Examine
Figure 8.39 Part 4 which substances were most magnetic. Discuss the main properties of magnets
experimental setup. you observed.

328 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 EXPERIMENT 8.3.2: MAKING AN ELECTROMAGNET

Aim
To make an electromagnet. Iron nail

Materials
• Iron nail (at least 75 mm long)
• Coil of plastic-coated or insulated copper wire
• Sticky tape
• Wire strippers Hold this Ends
down of wire
• Pins, paperclips or small nails with tape
• Battery (C cell, 1.5 V)
WARNING

> Wire strippers, nails and pins

are sharp – handle with care.
Coils
of wire
Method
Figure 8.40 Experimental setup.
1 Leave about 10 cm of one end of the wire free
and wrap the rest of the wire around the iron
nail in a tight coil. Stop winding when about 10 cm of wire remains and also leave
this section free. Secure the wire coil with electrical tape (Figure 8.40).
2 Strip the ends of the wire and attach them to the ends of the battery with tape.
3 Test the strength of your electromagnet with iron pins or paperclips.
4 Repeat the experiment with more coils in the wire.

Discussion
1 How can the magnetism of your electromagnet be made to switch on and off?
2 How does the number of turns of wire around the nail affect the strength of
the magnet?

Conclusion
What are the essential requirements for making an electromagnet?

Figure 8.41 Electromagnets are very

useful in scrap-metal yards.

8.3 MAGNETISM AND ELECTROSTATIC FORCES 329

08_ZHA_IS7_77549_SI.indd 329 1/09/2017 2:50 PM

 QUESTIONS 8.3.1: MAGNETIC MATERIALS

Remember
1 Identify some uses of magnets and magnetism.
2 Are magnetic forces contact or non-contact forces? Explain your answer.
3 Explain what an alloy is.
4 Outline what the letters MRI stand for. What sort of people would use an MRI?
5 Explain why one part of a magnet is called a north pole.
6 Examine Figure 8.35. Identify the ‘keeper’ and explain its purpose.

Apply
7 Describe what happens when the following poles of two magnets are pushed
close together.
a N and S
b N and N
c S and S
d S and N
8 True or false? Rewrite the false statements to make them true.
a An alloy is a mixture of iron and another metal.
b Magnets attract iron.
c Magnets can lose their magnetism over time.
d Magnets have two magnetic poles.
e The abbreviation for north on a magnet is ‘Nth’.
f Magnets are always hard and inflexible.
9 Describe the advantages an electromagnet has over a permanent magnet and
account for its uses.

Analyse
10 Copy and complete the following table to compare the three main types of magnets.

Rare earth metal

Ferrite magnets Alnico magnets
magnets

Main elements in the materials

Relative strength of magnetic force

Permanence of magnetic force

Critical and creative thinking

11 Explain how you could make a magnet stick onto a thin wooden cupboard door
without tape or glue.
12 Using what you learned in Experiment 8.3.1, design a game that could be played
by two people using magnets. Construct a diagram of the game and explain how
a good knowledge of magnetism could help you trick the other player.

330 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 THE EARTH—A GIANT MAGNET
We are all pulled down by gravity—in
the Earth’s gravitational field. There is
also a magnetic field around the Earth,
sometimes called geomagnetism. This
magnetic field extends far into space
beyond the atmosphere, where it is called
the magnetosphere. The magnetosphere
interacts with the flow of charged particles
from the sun and deflects them so they do
not hit the Earth. This interaction produces
displays of light in the sky called auroras.
In the southern hemisphere these are called
the aurora australis, and in the northern
hemisphere they are called the aurora borealis.
The auroras are mostly seen in the night sky
near the Arctic and Antarctic regions.
A lot of other planets and stars have a
magnetic field. Accurate measurements of
magnetism are made with a magnetometer.
Magnetometers on space probes have
measured the strength of the magnetic fields
of planets and their moons. Our moon
does not have a magnetic field now, but a
study of rocks brought back from the moon
showed that it once did.
Figure 8.42 An artist’s impression of the invisible magnetic field that surrounds
and protects the Earth.

A compass needle is a weak magnet.

Compass needles line up with the Earth’s
magnetic field. The part of the compass
needle marked ‘N’ points to the north
magnetic pole of the Earth. The Chinese in
300 BC used the first compasses. They were
made of a piece of the mineral magnetite
hanging from a string. Compasses were
essential for navigation before global
positioning systems (GPS) were available.
They are still used in navigation and by
bushwalkers because they are simple, small
and easy to carry.

Figure 8.43 Compass needles align with

the magnetic field of a strong magnet.
Warning: Never leave a compass near a
magnet for long or you may destroy the
magnetism of the compass.

8.3 MAGNETISM AND ELECTROSTATIC FORCES 331

 DEEPER
U N D E R S TA N D I N G Would the real north pole
please stand up?
The North Pole, also known as the
geographic North Pole or true North Pole,
is the northernmost point of the Earth.
The Earth’s axis—the line around which
the Earth rotates—connects the North and
South Poles. If you tunnelled through the
Earth from the North Pole in a straight
line, you would come out the other side at
the South Pole.
The geographic North Pole of the Earth
is not the same as the magnetic north
pole. They are both in the Arctic Circle
but are hundreds of kilometres apart. The
magnetic north pole isn’t a fixed point—it
wanders according to the magnetic field
of the Earth and has done so for hundreds
of thousands of years. This movement is
caused by the Earth’s magnetic field.
The magnetic south pole does not
always line up with the magnetic north
pole. The magnetic north and south poles
have flipped every now and then. The last
flip happened 780 000 years ago. These
flips are produced by electric currents
inside the Earth and are eventually
reversed. The flip takes a few thousand
years to complete. During this time,
a magnetic north or south pole can
appear anywhere!

a b

Figure 8.44 The magnetic

north and south poles
(a) between reversals and QUESTIONS 8.3.2: THE EARTH—A GIANT MAGNET
(b) during a reversal.
Remember
1 Identify when and by whom compasses were used.
2 Define the term ‘geomagnetism’.
3 Outline what the aurora australis is. Explain how it forms.

Apply
4 Suggest how scientists can study the shape of the magnetic field around the Earth.
5 Explain how a compass works.

Research
6 How do scientists study geomagnetism from millions of years ago?
What other sort of information can they determine?

332 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 MAPPING MAGNETIC FIELDS
Around every magnet, whether it is the This lets us see what a magnetic field looks
Earth or something smaller, is an invisible like. We can draw this pattern and make
region where pieces of iron are attracted. a map of the magnetic field.
Other magnets are attracted or repelled. This If a magnet drops and breaks into two
invisible region is called a magnetic field. pieces it forms two magnets. If your teacher
Our senses cannot detect magnetic fields has a broken magnet, see if you can find
but these fields are real. Measurements of the shape of its magnetic field.
magnetism are important in prospecting
(searching) for minerals. Aircraft with a
magnetometers attached fly over an area in a
grid pattern. The resulting map of magnetism
helps locate minerals in the ground.
If you put iron filings and iron powder
near a strong magnet, they become
temporary magnets. They line up like tiny Figure 8.45 When a magnet is broken
compass needles around the strong magnet. it forms two magnets.

EXPERIMENT 8.3.3: MAGNETIC PATTERNS

Aim
To map the patterns of different magnetic fields. Sprinkle iron filings
onto paper
Materials
• Bar magnets Sheet of paper
• Plastic wrap
• Sheet of paper b
• Iron filings in sprinkler jar
• Other types of magnets, e.g. horseshoe
magnet, vinyl fridge magnet, button magnet, Magnet wrapped
in plastic wrap
electromagnet
Method Figure 8.46 Mapping a magnetic field.

1 Wrap the magnet in plastic wrap.

1 N S N S
2 Place the magnet on the bench, cover it with a
sheet of paper and sprinkle iron filings over the 2 N S S N
paper. Tap the paper so that the iron filings can
3 N S
move and line up in the magnetic field (Figure
8.46). The pattern is the shape of the magnetic
N S
field around the magnet.
S N N
3 In your notebook, draw the magnetic field shown
by the pattern of iron filings. (You can also record 4 5
the magnetic field by taking a digital photograph
and producing a printout.) N S S
S N c
4 Place the magnets in different locations, as
shown in Figure 8.47. End of magnet when Figure 8.48 Magnetic
5 Draw a map of the magnetic field in each case. standing upright fields: (a) around a single
bar magnet; (b) between
6 Map the fields around other types of magnets. Figure 8.47 Positioning the magnets. two attracting bar
magnets; (c) between two
repelling magnets.

8.3 MAGNETISM AND ELECTROSTATIC FORCES 333

 Discussion
Research the expected results for some of the shapes of magnets you have used.
Compare the expected results with your results. Is this what you saw?
You wrapped the magnets you used in plastic wrap. Suggest why you were asked
to do so.
Conclusion
Write a conclusion for this experiment that summarises what you have learned.
Explain whether magnet shape affects magnetic patterns.

Extension
The ends of a magnet are the north pole and south pole, and are called pole faces.
These ends are never painted. Conduct an experiment to find out why. Start by
predicting why they are never painted. Then you will need a bar magnet, a spring
balance and an iron bolt, or an iron keeper with a hook on it (Figure 8.49).
Measure the force needed to pull the iron
bolt free of the magnet. Place a sheet Bar magnet held in clamp
of paper (representing a layer of paint) Clamp on retort stand
between the magnet and the bolt, and Iron with loop attached
repeat. Repeat with more sheets of paper String
to represent thicker layers of paint. Were
your predictions correct? Explain your Mass carrier with
masses
findings in a report.
Figure 8.49

QUESTIONS 8.3.3: MAPPING MAGNETIC FIELDS

Remember
1 Explain what a magnetic field is.
2 Explain how a magnetic field can be ‘seen’.
3 Describe the procedure you would use to map the field around a nail that has been
magnetised using electricity.

Apply
4 By looking at the magnetic fields made by different magnets, can you decide which
magnet is stronger? Propose a rule to use.
5 Draw a diagram to show the shape of the magnetic field when two magnets are:
a attracting
b repelling
6 Are magnetic fields two-dimensional or three-dimensional? Justify your answer.
7 Draw the magnetic field around a broken magnet:
a that has been re-joined
b where the two pieces are 10 cm apart
c where the two pieces are 1 cm apart
8 Without doing any further research, think about how information might have been
stored on the magnetic tape that was used for audio or video cassettes.
a Propose how this storage might have worked.
b Outline how this information might have been erased over time.
c Suggest some reasons why CD and DVD technology was such a revolution for
people wanting to store information for a long period of time.

334 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 ELECTROSTATIC CHARGES
Have you ever made your hair stand on
end by rubbing a balloon against it? This
is static electricity in action. Matter is
made of atoms, and it is electrically neutral
when the number of positive charges is
balanced by the same amount of negative
charges. When certain materials are rubbed
together, negative charges (electrons)
may move between them. This leaves an
excess of negative charge on one material
and an equal amount of positive charge
on the other. Only the negatively charged
electrons can move between objects because
they are so small and light and are found
around the outside of the atoms. Positive
protons are embedded in the nucleus of the
atom, right in the middle, and are too big
to rub off the atom. However, an object
that has lost some electrons will become
positively charged because it will have more
positive protons than negative electrons. The
object that collects the extra electrons will
become negatively charged.
Static electricity is an example of
electric charge on the surface of an object.
Electric charge can be positive or negative.
Static electricity has its name because the
charges remain on the surface of an object
until they either move off to the ground or are
neutralised by a spark or discharge. A static
charge only remains when at least one of the
surfaces is an electrical insulator. Insulators
don’t allow the electric charge to flow.
Negatively charged
balloon (after rubbing)
Figure 8.51 A negatively charged balloon can attract a neutral object such as paper
by causing its charges to separate.
Moving electric charges are called
current electricity. This type of electricity
moves in wires in electric circuits such as
light and power circuits at home and
at school.
How do charged objects
behave?
Charged objects behave in a similar way to
magnets. For magnets, like poles repel and
unlike poles attract. In the same way, like
charges repel and unlike charges attract.
Figure 8.50 Static electricity
So two negatively charged objects will repel is generated by certain
materials rubbing together,
each other, as will two positively charged
such as clothing on a
objects. A positively charged object and a plastic slide.
negatively charged object will attract.
A charged object brought close to a
neutral object will also attract. This is
caused by the separation of charges within
the neutral object. If a balloon rubbed on
your jumper is negatively charged, when it
touches a piece of paper the negative charges
in the paper are repelled and the positive
charges are attracted. The charges closest
to the surfaces of the materials have the
greater force and the two objects experience
attraction. This attraction between a charged
object and a neutral object is usually weaker
than between opposite charges.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Charges in paper separate.
Positive charges move
Small square towards balloon
of paper
8.3 MAGNETISM AND ELECTROSTATIC FORCES 335
 ACTIVITY 8.3.2: VAN DE GRAAFF GENERATOR

What you will need: Van de Graaff generator Upper

The Van de Graaff generator is an electrostatic roller
machine with a moving belt that builds up very Electrode produces
high voltages on a hollow metal sphere. It was charge due to applied
invented in 1929 by American physicist Robert voltage
+ ++ + ++ ++
Van de Graaff. As the belt moves inside the +++ ++
+ +
machine, a constant charge travels via the belt Spherical + +
to the sphere, which stores the charge until metal cover ++ +
+
+ +
it discharges. The result can be spectacular. ++ ++ + ++ ++
Your teacher will demonstrate this machine
+
+
to you and show you some of the effects it can +
Rubber belt +
produce. Try to explain those effects in terms of +
+
electrostatic charge and an electrostatic field. +
+
+
+

Lower
roller Grounded electrode
Figure 8.53 How a Van de Graaff
generator works. collects charge

Figure 8.52 Using a Van de

Graaff generator can give
spectacular results!
EXPERIMENT 8.3.4: INVESTIGATING CHARGE BEHAVIOUR

This experiment works best in dry conditions. If the weather is humid, the charges will
be quickly neutralised by moisture in the air.

Aim
To demonstrate attraction and repulsion between unlike and like charges.

Materials
Roll of sticky tape (cellulose type)

Method
1 Peel off a length of tape and bring it towards a metal object such as a chair or
desk frame.
2 Peel off two lengths of tape and bring them close to each other.
3 Attach two lengths of tape together along their length. Blow along their entire length
to neutralise the charge. Quickly pull them apart and bring them close to each other.

Results
Record your observations for each part of the experiment and draw diagrams to
show what happened. When was attraction demonstrated? When was repulsion
demonstrated? Can you explain why?

Discussion
1 Try to explain your observations for each part of the experiment.
2 What did you observe about the distance between the charged objects? ‘The closer
the distance between two charged objects, the …’.

Conclusion
Write a conclusion for this experiment based on your aim and your observations.

336 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 ELECTROSTATICS AROUND US
Static electricity is commonly used in
photocopying, air filters, automotive paints,
paint sprayers and printers. These devices
use the attraction between a positively
charged object and a negatively charged
object. In photocopying or inkjet printing,
the positively charged ink is attracted to
areas of negative charge on the paper to
form the required pattern.
Static electricity can sometimes be more
of a hindrance than a help. It can cause some
light objects to ‘stick’ to other objects. This
is known as static cling. An antistatic spray
can be used to add a conducting layer to
some affected surfaces and ensure any excess
charge is more evenly distributed. Dryer
sheets and fabric softeners are used in clothes
dryers and washing machines to prevent and
remove static cling from clothing.
Static discharge
When static electricity is discharged, a spark
can sometimes be seen. This is because the
excess charge is neutralised by flowing into
the ground. If you receive an electric shock—
for example, by touching an electric fence—
Figure 8.55 Sydney has some spectacular and powerful thunderstorms.
the discharge stimulates your nerves when it
flows through your body.
Lightning is the best natural example
of a static discharge. The charge separation
that causes lightning is thought to be due
to contact between ice particles within
storm clouds. During the discharge, the
surrounding air is superheated, causing the
bright flash of the lightning. The lightning
is a much larger version of the sparks we
see in other situations involving static
discharge. The sound of the thunder is
caused by the shock wave created as the
superheated air expands, like an explosive.
Volcanic eruptions and dust storms
can create electrical phenomena such
as Saint Elmo’s fire (named after the
patron saint of sailors). Saint Elmo’s
fire is a bright violet or blue glow that
appears like fire from tall, pointed
structures such as lightning rods, masts,
spires and chimneys. The pointed object
has an electric field around it (similar to a
magnetic field caused by magnets) due to
the presence of charged particles in the air. Figure 8.54 An antistatic
This produces a faint glow, which is most cloth is a good way to
remove dust attracted to
easily seen at night. a television screen.
8.3 MAGNETISM AND ELECTROSTATIC FORCES 337
 QUESTIONS 8.3.4: ELECTROSTATIC CHARGES

Remember
1 Compare and contrast current electricity and static electricity.
2 Outline how static electricity can be easily created in the science laboratory.
3 Identify the process to be followed to create static electricity.
4 Draw a set of diagrams showing the rules for attraction and repulsion of charged
and neutral objects.
5 Identify three uses of static electricity.
6 Have you ever felt an electric shock? This is also due to static electricity. Explain
how this is formed and identify some likely materials that may cause static
electricity.

Apply
7 Examine whether the creation of static electricity is actually ‘creating’ something
or using something that already exists.
8 Apply your knowledge of an electrical insulator to explain what its opposite,
a conductor, does.
9 Explain why conductors aren’t used to store static electricity.
10 Suggest what conductors might be used for.
11 Describe how the attraction or repulsion force is affected by the distance between
two charged objects.
12 In Activity 8.3.1 you were challenged to get a charged rod to repel a thin stream of
water. Apply your knowledge to explain why this was possible.
13 In Figure 8.52 the girl’s hair is standing on end. Explain what is causing this to
happen. Use a labelled diagram in your explanation.
14 Explain why static cling is a problem with clothing.
15 Explain how lightning is formed. In your answer, explain what thunder is.
16 Plastic often has a lot of static. Some computer components cannot be exposed
to static as the process may damage the sensitive equipment. Antistatic bags are
usually used to store these components. The antistatic bags are made up of plastic
and another material. Suggest some materials that can be used.

Research
17 Identify the names given to the positive and negative particles found in the atom.
Where are they located in the atom?

338 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

MAGNETISM AND
ELECTROSTATIC FORCES
Remember and understand
1 Match each word with its meaning:
[5 marks]
6 Using the pattern of iron filings shown
in Figure 8.56, label the magnet poles
as north or south. [1 mark]
8.3
CHECKPOINT

material that does not Analyse and evaluate

magnetosphere allow electric charge
to flow 7 Does the north pole of a magnet point N

magnetism around the towards the Earth’s true North Pole or

electric charge
Earth the magnetic north pole? Explain why.
magnetic field of the [2 marks]
insulator
Earth
8 An MRI machine uses electromagnets
glow around tall, sharp to create images inside the human
Van de Graaff
objects exposed to
generator body to look for diseases and other
electric charge

machine that generates

problems.
Saint Elmo’s fire and stores electric
charge a Explain why a person with pins,
plates or pacemakers inside their
magnetism in and Figure 8.56
geomagnetism body cannot have an MRI scan.
around an iron object
[1 mark]
stationary charge on
neutral object
the surface of an object b Research how an MRI scanner
equal amount of works and report back to the class
ferromagnetism positive and negative
charge
with three interesting facts about
the machine. [3 marks]
magnetism caused by
static electricity
the flow of electricity 9 Identify some safety precautions that
two types: positive and involve the prevention of shocks from
electromagnetism
negative a Van de Graaff generator. [1 mark]

2 Explain the differences between an iron Critical and creative thinking

magnet, an electromagnet and a rare
earth magnet. [1 mark]
3 Outline the difference between
electrical charging and electrical
discharging. [1 mark]
Apply
4 Identify three objects that commonly
acquire an electrostatic charge. Explain
how they received it. [3 marks]
5 Explain the rules of attraction and
repulsion of charged and neutral
objects, as if to someone who has never
heard of the idea. Include a description
of the shape of the magnetic fields.
Propose what might happen in Figure
8.57 if the three charged objects were
free to move. [3 marks]
10 Using your knowledge of magnetism,
construct plans for an alarm system
that could be used on your bedroom
door to alert you when someone is
entering. Outline where you would put
the magnets. How would they work?
Present your design to a group of four.
Comment on each other’s designs
and decide one way in which each
design could be made better. Nominate
a winning design from your group. Figure 8.57
[2 marks]
Making connections
11 Think about your daily experiences.
Is friction or magnetism a more
powerful force? Explain your answer TOTAL MARKS
using evidence. [2 marks] [ /25]

8.3 MAGNETISM AND ELECTROSTATIC FORCES 339

 8
1 Fill in the gaps using the words in the Word Bank below:

A ____________ is an action that causes an effect on objects. Most forces come in the
form of either a ____________ or a pull. Most objects experience more than one force
acting on them at any one time, but it is only when the forces are ____________ (when
one is stronger than another) that we see the effect.

____________ is a common ____________ force that acts between any objects

that are touching. Friction is a slowing down or stopping force that often converts
____________ energy into ____________ energy as it acts on objects.

____________ is another force that is acting on all objects all the time and
____________ objects towards the centre of the Earth. Gravity is a ____________ force
because it acts on objects that are not touching, like the planets in the solar system.
____________ and magnetic fields are other common non-contact forces.
WORD BANK

contact gravity pulls

CHAPTER
electrostatic heat
REVIEW force kinetic
push

friction non-contact unbalanced

Identify changes that take place Predict the effect of unbalanced

when different forces are acting
2 Describe the difference between
a contact and a non-contact force.
Give an example of each. [2 marks]
3 All forces can be simply described as
either a push or a pull. Categorise the
following forces as either a push or
a pull and justify your classification.
a friction [1 mark]
b gravity [1 mark]
c electrostatic fields [1 mark]
d magnetic fields [1 mark]
forces
4 Identify the correct terms from the
word pairs in the following statements:
a Like poles attract/repel and unlike
poles attract/repel. [1 mark]
b Friction is a contact/non-contact
force that helps/hinders motion and
produces heat/sparks. [1 mark]
c Like charges attract/repel and unlike
charges attract/repel. [1 mark]
5 Identify three changes that may take
place when an unbalanced force acts
on an object. [3 marks]
6 A car is travelling along a level road
at a constant speed of 60 kilometres
per hour.
a Does this mean there are no forces
acting on the car? Explain your
answer. [1 mark]
b If an unbalanced forward force
acts on the car, describe what will
happen to the car’s motion. [1 mark]

340 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

Describe some technological
developments that have reduced
the impact of forces in everyday
life
7 Describe how a safety helmet protects
a motorcyclist’s head in a crash.
[1 mark]
8 Explain how friction affects cars that
are driving on icy roads. Suggest some
precautions that drivers should take.
[2 marks]
Use the term ‘field’ in describing CHAPTER
forces acting at a distance
15 Define the term ‘field’ as applied to
8 REVIEW
gravitational, magnetic or electrostatic
forces. [1 mark]
16 Outline some key similarities and
differences between the forces of
magnetism, electrostatics and gravity.
[3 marks]
17 Classify the following devices or events
as electrostatic, magnetic or both:

Analyse common situations where a compass [1 mark]

friction acts as a slowing down b lightning [1 mark]
force that produces heat c electromagnet [1 mark]
9 A car engine consists of many moving d Saint Elmo’s fire [1 mark]
parts, made from metal, which rub e MRI machine [1 mark]
against each other.
f Van de Graaff generator [1 mark]
a Explain why adding oil to a car
engine allows it to work more Identify that the Earth’s gravity
efficiently. [1 mark] pulls objects towards its centre
b Identify another machine that 18 Define the term ‘escape velocity’.
requires oil or grease. [1 mark] [1 mark]
10 In which of the following examples does 19 Figure 8.58 shows the Leaning Tower
friction act as a detrimental force? of Pisa. In which direction is gravity
[2 marks] acting on the tower? [1 mark]
a moving a heavy bookcase full of
books
b ice-skating blades cutting the
surface of the ice
c large ‘knobs’ on tires to allow cars
to travel in muddy conditions
d opposing motion when cars are
driving
11 In each of the examples listed above,
explain how friction is detrimental or
beneficial in the situation. [4 marks]

Investigate factors that influence

frictional forces
12 Identify three examples of objects that
are streamlined to reduce air friction.
[3 marks]
13 Explain why streamlining reduces air
friction. [1 mark]
14 Identify at least three examples of
ways to increase friction. For each
case, explain why friction should be
increased in the situation. [3 marks] Figure 8.58 The Leaning Tower of Pisa.

8 CHAPTER REVIEW 341

 CHAPTER
8 REVIEW
Describe situations where gravity
acts as an unbalanced force
20 Identify three everyday situations where
gravity acts as an unbalanced force.
[3 marks]
Distinguish between the terms
‘mass’ and ‘weight’
21 Identify the difference between mass
and weight, giving examples. [2 marks]
22 ‘Mass and weight have the opposite
meaning.’ Evaluate if this statement
is true or false. If true, give evidence.
If false, rewrite the statement to make
it true. [2 marks]
23 Recall how to calculate weight.
[1 mark]
Identify ways in which objects
acquire electrostatic charge
24 Explain how to charge a glass rod.
[1 mark]
25 Compare and contrast a conductor and
an insulator, giving examples of both.
[3 marks]
26 Identify at least 2 everyday situations
in which objects are charged by
electrostatics. [2 marks]
Describe the interaction of
charged objects
27 Identify whether the following will
result in attraction or repulsion:
a two like charges are brought
together [1 mark]
b a positive charge is brought close to
a negative charge [1 mark]
c a positively charged item is brought
TOTAL MARKS
close to a neutrally charged item
[ /75]
[1 mark]
342 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4
Investigate electrostatic forces
in everyday life
28 Explain how lightning forms. [1 mark]
29 Aside from thunderstorms,
identify two other situations where
electrostatics forces can be observed.
[2 marks]
30 Are electrostatic forces beneficial
or detrimental? Justify your answer.
[2 marks]
Describe the interaction of
magnetic poles
31 Look back at Figure 8.36 showing
magnetic levitation.
a Evaluate what force(s) are acting on
the left magnet. [1 mark]
b Evaluate what force(s) are acting on
the right magnet. [1 mark]
c Compare the size of the magnetic
repulsion force with the force of
gravity acting on the right magnet.
[1 mark]
d Draw the magnetic field surrounding
two bar magnets with the same
poles facing each other. [2 marks]
Investigate the uses of magnets
and electromagnets
32 Identify two devices that use an
electromagnet and explain how they
work. [2 marks]
33 Identify two devices that use ordinary
magnets and explain how the magnets
are used. [2 marks]
RESEARCH
CHAPTER
Choose one of the following topics
for a research project. A few guiding
questions have been provided but you
Measuring the size of force
What size force is exerted by the following:
rocket engines, car engines, aeroplane
8 REVIEW
should add more questions that you wish engines? How is the size of these forces
to investigate. Present your report in a measured? KEY WORDS
format of your own choosing, but one
agent
component of your report must include Black holes
air resistance
a demonstration of force. What are black holes really like? What
aurora
happens to the gravity inside a black
Bearings balanced forces
hole? Could black holes lead to another
Find out about the different types buoyancy
universe?
of bearing and how they work to contact forces
reduce friction. Explain your research Compasses and navigation current electricity
using diagrams, images or simple drag
Compasses can tell you the direction
demonstrations. Where are bearings electric charge
you are going or the direction an object
used? How have they been improved? electromagnet
is from you. How does a compass work?
What other devices reduce friction in escape velocity
When navigating with charts, sailors have
modern machines? force
to take magnetic variation and deviation
force diagram
into account. What is magnetic variation?
Forces inside our bodies friction
What is magnetic deviation? How do
Forces are needed to keep cells together, geomagnetism
these affect the course a boat takes?
to pump blood around our bodies and to gravitational field
How does swinging a compass correct for
move our muscles. Find out about the gravity
magnetic deviation?
different forces in our bodies and how insulator
they work. lubrication
magnetic field
magnetic poles
REFLECT

magnetic resonance
Me My world imaging (MRI)
1 What new science laboratory skills have 5 Why is it important to understand how magnetometer
you learned in this chapter? forces work? magnetosphere
2 What was the most surprising thing you 6 How do forces help people every day? mass
found out about force? net force
3 What were the most difficult aspects of My future Newton (N)
this topic? 7 How much do forces affect your life? non-contact force
4 Has your understanding of forces physicist
8 What forces will you encounter
improved? receiver
more often as you get older?
spring balance
static cling
static electricity
Van de Graaff
generator
weight

8 CHAPTER REVIEW 343

8
Magnets in our daily lives
Have you ever wondered how the strips on
swipe cards work or how metal detectors
at the airport can tell if we have anything
metal on our bodies? Electric motors
contain magnets and are used to change
electrical energy into movement energy,
such as in fans, hair dryers and washing
machines.
Cars, computers, video recorders,
DVD players, microwave ovens, power
tools and even robots used in space have
electric motors. In the future, magnets may
transport us above the ground in levitating
vehicles. Some scientists even imagine huge
electromagnetic elevators that will one day
transport materials into space.

MAKING
CONNECTIONS

gne ts in daily life and

Choose one application of ma
research it, including:
• what it is
• where it is
help your explanations)
• how it works (use diagrams to
• benefits (if any) for people
rmation used.
• a bibliography of sites or info

Examples to consider include:

• swipe card
• loudspeaker (such as MP3
player earphones)
• electric motor
• microphone
• electric bell
• hearing aid
• magnetic levitation
(maglev) train
• magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) equipment
• wind turbine or other
electrical generator
• airport security.

344 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

Questioning and predicting
Choose your device to investigate. Make a
list of questions to research. Make sure to
include some big questions as well as simple
questions (see chapter 1).
Processing and analysing data
and information
Rephrase, summarise and interpret the
information you have found. Make sure that
you have answered each of the questions

Planning investigations you listed above.

Decide where you are going to get your

information. Remember that the Internet
Communicating
Decide how to present your information;
is not the only source of information.
a poster, a presentation, an informative
It can often be quicker and easier to talk
pamphlet … Make sure to use appropriate
to an expert!
language for your presentation. Who is your

Conducting investigation target audience?

Start your research. Remember to make

a list of all your sources to include in
your bibliography. Even images need to be
referenced. Don’t forget to write the full
website down for Internet sources; a search
engine address is not a reference for your
information!

Figure 8.59 Magnets are used in lots of different

ways in our daily lives..

8 MAKING CONNECTIONS 345

 GLOSSARY
A BIODIVERSITY
BOILING
variety of all life on the Earth
the point at which a liquid changes
ADAPTATIONS physical or behavioural
state into a gas due to heat energy
characteristics that make an organism
BOTANIST scientist who studies plants
particularly suited to its environment
BRANCHED KEY method of identifying a species
AGENT object exerting the force; paired with a
using questions that lead to further questions
receiver
and eventually to the name of the species
AIM purpose of an experiment
BUNSEN BURNER equipment used to heat
AIR PRESSURE the force of air particles hitting
things in the laboratory
a surface
BUOYANCY upward force of a liquid on an
AIR RESISTANCE friction between a moving
object
object and the air it is moving through; also
known as drag
AMOEBA unicellular organism belonging to
C
CANCER group of diseases that result from
Kingdom Protista
uncontrolled cell division
APOPTOSIS programmed cell death
CARCINOGEN cancer-causing substance
APPARATUS items of equipment used in an
CELL (in biology) the building block of living
experiment or investigation
things
ARCHAEA a classification domain that
CELL MEMBRANE barrier around a cell that
contains extremophile and ancient bacteria
controls the entry and exit of things into and
ASTRONOMER scientist who studies planets,
out of a cell
stars and all the other objects in the universe
CELL THEORY main idea about the importance
ASTRONOMICAL UNIT (AU) a unit of distance
of cells and their role in living things
used to measure distances between objects
CELLULAR RESPIRATION a cellular process
within the solar system
that occurs in mitochondria within cells and
ATOM smallest particle of matter that
involves a number of chemical reactions that
cannot be created, destroyed or broken down
release the chemical energy stored in glucose
(indivisible)
CELL WALL distinguishing feature that plant
AURORA band of coloured light that appears
cells have and that animal cells do not
in the night sky over the magnetic North
CELSIUS temperature scale, and unit of
and South poles due to charged particles
measurement of temperature
interacting with the Earth’s magnetic field
CENTRIFUGING separation technique used to
AUTOTROPH organism that makes its own
separate light particles from heavy particles by
food, e.g. plants
rapidly spinning a mixture in a container
AXIS imaginary line running through the
CHLOROPLAST an organelle found in plant
centre of an object (e.g. Earth)
cells that transforms solar energy into

B chemical energy
CHORDATA phylum containing organisms
BACTERIA unicellular organism belonging to
that have a spinal chord at some stage of
Kingdom Monera
development
BALANCED FORCES two forces equal in size and
CHROMATOGRAM dried paper showing the
opposite in direction
result of a chromatography separation
BINARY FISSION a simple form of cellular
CHROMATOGRAPHY separation technique used
reproduction where a single cell divides
to separate substances according to their rates
into two identical cells, common form of
of movement along a surface, e.g. coloured
unicellular reproduction
dyes in pen ink
BINOMIAL NAME double name in the Linnaean
CLASSIFICATION system of grouping or
classification system to name organisms; the
organising
first name is the genus, the second name is the
COAL black or brown mineral substance
species

346 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

formed from the remains of plants that grew
in ancient swamps
D
DARK NEBULA a cloud of dust and gas in space
COAL SEAM GAS natural gas, mostly methane,
that is so dense that it doesn’t allow much
that is found within seams of coal
light to pass through, appearing as a shadow
COLLOID type of mixture that always looks
against the other stars
cloudy because clumps of insoluble particles
DEAD was once living, e.g. a dried flower
remain suspended throughout it—they don’t
DECANTATION separation technique used to
settle as sediment
separate a sediment from a liquid by carefully
COMPOUND substance made up of two or more
pouring the liquid away
different types of atoms bonded together, e.g.
DENSITY mass of a certain volume of a
water
substance
COMPRESSIBILITY ability of a substance to
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA) chemical
be compressed (squashed); gases can be
that contains the instructions for every
compressed but solids and liquids cannot
job performed by the cell; passed from one
COMPRESSIONAL STRENGTH the amount of
generation to the next
pressure a substance can withstand before
DEPENDENT VARIABLE the condition within an
breaking
experiment that is expected to change and is
CONCENTRATED describing a solution with a
measured as the results
large amount of solute
DERMIS a layer of skin below the surface layer,
CONCENTRATION amount of a solute present in
that supports and strengthens the skin
a solution
DICHOTOMOUS KEY diagram used in
CONCLUSION statement that ‘answers’ the
classification; each ‘arm’ of the key contains
aim of an experiment; should be clear and
two choices
reasoned and relate very closely to the aim
DIFFUSION spontaneous spreading out of a
CONDENSATION change of state from a gas to a
substance through a liquid or gas, e.g. the
liquid; occurs when a gas cools down
diffusion of perfume in air
CONDUCTOR a substance that can easily
DILUTED describing a solution with a small
transfer heat or electricity
amount of solute
CONSTELLATION an arrangement of stars that
DISCUSSION summary of findings, analysis of
have been grouped together and named
the design of an experiment; it includes any
CONTACT FORCES forces occurring when two
problems encountered and suggestions for
objects are touching each other
improvement
CONTRACT an overall reduction in size of an
DISSOLVE change from a solid to part of a
object as the individual particles move closer
solution when placed into a solvent
together
DISTILLATION separation technique that uses
CONTROLLED VARIABLE factor kept constant
evaporation and condensation to separate a
during an experiment
solid and the solvent in which it has dissolved,
CONTROLS variables within an experiment
e.g. to get pure water from salt water
that should be kept the same for all groups and
DNA chemical that makes up genes (the
treatments
instructions for all life)
CORONA lines of light that surround the sun
DRAG friction between a moving object and
or moon during an eclipse
the air it is moving through; also known as air
CRYSTALLISATION separation technique used
resistance
in conjunction with evaporation to remove a
dissolved solid from a liquid; after the liquid
has been evaporated, the solid remains, often
E
ECTOTHERM organism with a body temperature
in the form of small crystals
that changes with the environment
CURRENT ELECTRICITY the continual flow of
ELECTRIC CHARGE an overall imbalance of
electrons around a circuit
protons and electrons that results in a positive
CYTOPLASM the contents of a cell, consisting
or negative charge on an object
mainly of ‘jelly-like’ fluid, organelles and many
ELECTROMAGNET a magnet that is controlled
dissolved nutrients and waste products
by the flow of electricity
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM complete range
of electromagnetic waves including radio

GLOSSARY 347
 waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light,
ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays
ELECTRONS negatively charged sub-atomic
particles found in shells surrounding the
nucleus of an atom
ELECTROSTATICS study of electric charges and
static electricity
ELEMENT pure substance made up of only one
type of atom, e.g. oxygen, carbon
EMISSION SPECTRUM pattern of wavelengths
that appear as coloured lines in a spectroscope;
unique to each element
EMISSIONS given off as a product of a
process on Earth, e.g. burning coal or petrol,
that contributes to the greenhouse effect;
usually used in the context of greenhouse gas
emissions
EMULSIFIER substance that can be added to an
emulsion to keep the liquids completely mixed
EMULSION stable mixture of two or more
liquids, e.g. milk
ENDOSKELETON internal skeleton
ENDOTHERM organism with a constant body
temperature
ENERGY RESOURCE substance or method used
for generating energy, e.g. coal, petrol, gas,
wind, solar, hydroelectric
EPIDERMIS the outer visible layer of skin
EQUINOX when the sun is directly over the
equator and the length of day and night is the
same
EQUIPMENT items used in the laboratory to
conduct experiments
ERROR unavoidable and random inconsistency
in measurement
ESCAPE VELOCITY minimum speed an
object must have so that it can escape the
gravitational field of the Earth without falling
back
ETHANOL fuel distilled from sugar cane
that can be blended with petrol to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions; also known as ethyl
alcohol
EUKARYOTE a type of organism whose cells
contain membrane bound organelles an a
distinct nucleus
EVAPORATION separation technique used to
separate dissolved solids from water; also, a
change in state from liquid to gas
EXOSKELETON external skeleton
EXPAND the overall increase in size of an
object due to its particles spreading out
EXPERIMENT investigation used to solve a
problem or find an answer to a question
EXPERIMENTAL VARIABLE factor changed
348 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4
intentionally during an experiment
EYEPIECE lens where eye is placed when using
a microscope
F
FAIR TEST controlled experiment
FILTER PAPER paper sieve with tiny holes
that are too small to see; solutions can flow
through but most solid particles will not
FILTRATE substance that passes through a
filter
FILTRATION separation technique used to
separate different-sized particles in a mixture
using a sieve or filter
FLOCCULANT chemical that can be added to
a mixture to make suspended particles clump
together
FLOTATION separation technique in which
a substance will float to the top of a liquid
because the substance is less dense
FORCE push or pull that, if unbalanced, can
cause a change in an object’s motion
FORCE DIAGRAM diagram that identifies the
agent and the receiver and shows the strength
and direction of the forces involved by using
arrows
FOSSIL FUEL fuel formed from the fossilised
remains of plants that lived hundreds of
millions of years ago, e.g. coal, oil, natural gas
FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION separation
technique used to separate complex mixtures,
e.g. crude oil, by repeated heating, boiling and
condensing
FREEZING the point at which a liquid turns
into a solid due to the removal of heat energy
FRICTION force that acts to oppose the motion
between two surfaces as they move over each
other
G
GENERATOR machine that converts movement
energy (usually from a turbine) into electrical
energy
GENUS group of closely related species
GEOMAGNETISM the magnetic field that
surrounds the Earth
GEOSTATIONARY when an object moves at
a speed equivalent to the rotation of the
Earth, so that it appears not to move from its
position in the sky
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY heat energy from
beneath the surface of the Earth; the heat
can produce steam that turns a turbine and
generates electricity
GRAVITATIONAL FIELD region near a particular
mass where a gravitational force is experienced
GRAVITY force of attraction that objects have
on one another due to their masses
H
HARDNESS ability of a substance to scratch
another substance
HETEROTROPH organism that relies on other
living things for food, e.g. an animal
HIGH TIDE when the ocean level is at its
highest point at a particular place on Earth
HYPOTHESIS initial theory or belief
I MAGNETIC POLES the north and south ends of
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE the condition of the
experiment that is deliberately changed by
the experimenter to cause a change in the
dependent variable
INFERENCE likely explanation of an
observation
INSOLUBLE does not dissolve
INSULATOR a substance that does not allow
heat or electricity to pass through it
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM the ‘covering’ body
system that is made up of the skin and glands
within the skin
INVERTEBRATE organism with an exoskeleton
(external skeleton) or no skeleton at all
K MATTER anything that has mass and volume
KEY visual tool used to identify organisms
KINETIC ENERGY energy of movement; any
moving object has kinetic energy
KINGDOM the highest rank that scientists
classify living things into; the most commonly
used system of classification uses five
kingdoms: Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Monera,
Protista
L METRES the standard unit of measuring
LATENT HEAT the heat energy that is absorbed
by a substance used to change state without
causing a change in temperature
LATTICE three-dimensional arrangement of
particles in a regular pattern
LITHOSPHERE the crust and upper mantle of
the Earth
LIVING describing something that shows the
characteristics of living organisms
LIVING RESOURCE describing something we
need or use that is or was alive, e.g. plant or
animal
LOW TIDE when the ocean level is at its lowest
point at a particular place on Earth
LUBRICATION decreasing friction by applying
a substance between the surfaces, e.g. oil or
grease
LUNAR ECLIPSE when the moon passes into
the shadow of the Earth; can be total or partial
M
MAGMA molten rock found within or below
the crust
MAGNETIC able to be magnetised or attracted
by a magnet
MAGNETIC FIELD the three-dimensional space
around an object that experiences a magnetic
force
a magnet
MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING (MRI) a medical
imaging technique that passes strong magnetic
fields through the body to detect tiny changes
in tissue
MAGNETOMETER device that measure the
strength of magnetic fields
MAGNETOSPHERE the magnetic field that
extends out past the surface of the Earth and
into space and deflects charged solar particles
MARSUPIAL a type of mammal that gives birth
to underdeveloped live young, which develop
further in a pouch
MASS quantity of matter in an object; SI unit
is the kilogram
MELTING the point at which a solid changes
state into a liquid due to the increase of heat
energy
MENISCUS phenomenon that occurs when
water is put into a glass container and is
‘pulled up’ where it touches the glass; volume
should always be measured from the bottom of
the meniscus
METHOD list of how to do an experiment
length
METRIC SYSTEM system of measurement
MICROBE another name for a microorganism,
one that cannot be seen without the use of a
microscope
MICROBIOLOGIST scientist who studies micro-
organisms in kingdoms Monera and Protista
MICROMETRE one millionth of a metre (μm)
MICROORGANISM a living thing that is too
small to see without a microscope
MICROSCOPE scientific instrument used to
magnify the size of an object
MINERAL tiny grain or crystal that is the
building block of rocks
MITOCHONDRION powerhouse organelle of
GLOSSARY 349
 a cell; the site of energy production; (plural
mitochondria)
MIXTURE something made up of two or more
pure substances mixed together
MONOTREME a type of mammal that lays
leathery-shelled eggs
MULTICELLULAR describing an organism that
has more than one cell
MUTAGEN substance that may damage a cell’s
DNA
MYCOLOGIST scientist who studies fungi
N dermis that help hold it together with the
NEAP TIDE occurs during the moon’s quarter
phases when the sun and moon are at right
angles to the Earth, causing the gravitational
forces to partly cancel each other out and
therefore produce small tides
NET FORCE effect of all forces acting on an
object
NEUTRONS uncharged, sub-atomic particles
that are found in the nucleus of atoms
NEW MOON a phase of the lunar cycle where
the moon appears as almost completely dark
NEWTON (N) unit used to measure force
NON-CONTACT FORCE force that operates
between two objects when they are not
touching each other, e.g. gravitational force
NON-LIVING describing something that does
not interact with the environment, e.g. a
computer
NON-RENEWABLE describing a resource that is
limited; once used, it is gone forever, e.g. coal,
oil, natural gas
NON-VASCULAR a classification for plants that
do not possess xylem or phloem
NUCLEAR FISSION the splitting of large atoms
into smaller particles
NUCLEAR POWER conversion of nuclear fuel
(usually uranium) into electricity by the
process of fission; produces heat to make
steam and turn a turbine to generate electricity
NUCLEUS (in biology) control centre of a cell
that contains all the genetic material (DNA)
for that cell
O called a placenta
OBJECTIVE LENS lens in the column of a
compound light microscope
OBSERVATION use of all of your senses to
notice things around you
ORBIT to revolve around; planets in our solar
system orbit the sun
ORDER a level of Linnaean classification,
350 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4
more specific than Class, but less specific than
Family
ORE material that contains a high proportion
of a useful mineral
ORGAN group of tissues that work together,
e.g. liver, heart, eyes, brain
ORGANELLE smaller part of a cell, each one
having a different function
ORGANISM living thing
P
PAPILLAE finger-like projections within the
epidermis
PARALLAX ERROR a reading error caused by the
angle of the eye in relation to the object being
measured
PARTIAL ECLIPSE eclipse where only part of
the object is covered
PARTICLE building block of matter with mass
and volume, usually represented as dots; this
is a very general term and may refer to atoms,
molecules or sub-atomic particles
PARTICLE MODEL OF MATTER theory that all
matter is made up of very tiny particles
PETROLEUM crude oil, a type of fossil fuel
from which petrol, diesel and kerosene are
produced
PHASES OF THE MOON changes in the
appearance of the shape of the moon
PHILOSOPHER ‘lover of knowledge’
PHLOEM vascular tissue in plants that carries
glucose and other nutrients around the plant
PHYLUM a level of Linnaean classification that
is less specific than kingdom, but more specific
than all other levels
PHYSICAL PROPERTY how a substance looks
(e.g. size, mass, texture, shape) and how it
behaves around other substances (e.g. soluble,
magnetic)
PHYSICIST a scientist that specifically
researches and investigates forces, motion and
energy
PLACENTAL a type of mammal that gives birth
to relatively well-developed young after they
have grown in a womb, supported by an organ
PLANKTON tiny sea organisms eaten in their
millions by whales and other marine mammals
PLASMA state of matter that occurs
when gases are heated to extremely high
temperatures, e.g. inside stars
POWER STATION structure where electrical
energy is generated from a fuel, e.g. coal-fired
power station, nuclear power station
PRECIPITATION a change of state to a lower
energy, usually in the form of rain, snow or
hail
PROKARYOTE a type of organism whose cells
do not contain membrane-bound organelle or
a true nucleus
PROTON a positively charged sub-atomic
particle found in the nucleus of an atom
PSEUDOSCIENCE work not based on research
or evidence, e.g. astrology
PURE SUBSTANCE substance that is not
combined with anything else
Q humus and minerals that overlays the Earth’s
QUALITATIVE descriptive, using words; not
based on measurement or other data
QUANTITATIVE number, such as a
measurement
R SOLAR SYSTEM enormous system that the
RECEIVER object experiencing the force; paired
with an agent
RELIABLE results of an experiment that can be
repeated
RENEWABLE describing a resource that
is made naturally and is available in an
almost unlimited amount, e.g. wind, solar,
hydroelectric
RESIDUE substance left behind in a sieve or
filter
RESPIRATION breakdown of glucose and
oxygen into water, carbon dioxide and energy;
usually occurs in the mitochondria of a cell
RESULTS measurements and observations
taken in an experiment; they are best
presented in a table
RETROGRADE MOTION the apparent backwards
motion of planets compared to the stars due to
differences in the speed of orbits of Earth and
other planet
ROCKET propulsion device that involves the
reaction of gases produced by a fast-burning
fuel; usually self-contained and can operate
without an atmosphere; used to launch
spacecraft, satellites and space probes into
orbit
ROTATION the turning of a planet or moon on
its axis
S resulting in a stronger gravitational pull and
SATELLITE small body that orbits a larger one;
can be natural, e.g. our moon, or artificial, e.g.
weather satellites
SATURATED describing a solution that
can dissolve no more of a solute at a given
temperature
SCIENTIFIC DIAGRAM clear, side view, labelled
diagram of experimental set-up, done using a
sharp pencil
SCIENTIST person who makes asking questions
and finding answers their career
SEDIMENT layer of insoluble particles, either at
the top or bottom of a suspension
SEDIMENTATION separation technique in which
the sediment settles to the bottom and can be
separated from the mixture
SOIL complex mixture of sand, silt, clay,
surface
SOLAR ECLIPSE when the moon passes
between the Earth and the sun
SOLAR POWER the sun’s rays when used to
heat water or generate electricity
Earth belongs to; the sun is the centre of
the solar system and is surrounded by eight
planets, several dwarf planets (e.g. Pluto) and
many moons and asteroids
SOLIDIFICATION the change of state from a
liquid to a solid
SOLUBLE dissolves very easily in water
SOLUTE dissolves in a liquid (solvent)
SOLUTION liquid made up of a solvent with a
solute dissolved in it
SOLVENT any liquid that dissolves another
substance or substances
SPACE PROBE robotic spacecraft used to
explore the solar system and deep space
SPECIES group of organisms that look similar
to each other, can breed and produce fertile
young
SPECTROSCOPE instrument used in astronomy
to study the make-up of light
SPECTROSCOPY study of spectra (see visible
spectrum and electromagnetic spectrum)
SPEED OF LIGHT speed that visible light and
other electromagnetic waves travel at, equal to
300 000 km/s in a vacuum
SPRING BALANCE device consisting of a spring
and a scale, used to measure forces in the
laboratory
SPRING TIDE occurs when the sun, moon and
Earth are aligned during a full or new moon,
therefore very high and low tides
STAIN substance such as iodine, used to make
cells more visible under a microscope
STATIC CLING the attraction between two
GLOSSARY 351
 objects due to a difference in overall static
charge
STATIC ELECTRICITY an overall imbalance of
charge that remains on the surface of an object
STATES OF MATTER the forms that matter is
found in: solid, liquid, gas and, more rarely,
plasma
STRENGTH the ability of a substance to
withstand force without breaking
SUBCUTANEOUS a fatty layer of tissue beneath
the skin
SUSPENSION cloudy liquid that contains
insoluble particles
SYNCHRONOUS ROTATION when the time
taken for a celestial body to complete on one
rotation is the same as the time taken to
complete the orbit of another body
T the moon appears to be getting smaller,
TAILINGS waste material from the mining
process
TAXONOMIST scientist who classifies living
things into groups
TELESCOPE optical instrument used to view
distant objects
TENSILE STRENGTH the ability of a substance
to resist a pulling force without breaking
TIDAL ENERGY energy of the tides, used to
drive a turbine and generate electricity
TISSUE group of cells that do a similar task
TITLE the clear name giving to an experiment
to inform the reader of its intent
TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE solar eclipse where the
moon totally covers the sun
TRANSPIRATION process by which plants take
up water from the soil through their roots and
up into their leaves
TURBINE large wheel with angled sections
similar to a fan’s blades; steam, water, gas or
air can push on the blades to spin the turbine
results of an experiment
VASCULAR a classification for plants that
possess xylem and/or phloem
VERTEBRATE organism with an endoskeleton
(internal skeleton)
VISIBLE SPECTRUM section of the
electromagnetic spectrum that is visible to the
human eye (see electromagnetic spectrum)
W
WANING the phase of the lunar cycle where
the moon appears to be getting bigger,
approaching a full moon
WATER CYCLE cycle of constant evaporation
and precipitation that occurs in nature
WAVE ENERGY energy of waves, used to drive a
turbine and generate electricity
WAXING the phase of the lunar cycle where
approaching a new moon
WEIGHT force of gravity acting on an object
WET MOUNT slide prepared for viewing with
a microscope that has a drop of water placed
beneath the cover slip
WIND FARM collection of wind turbines in one
location
X
XYLEM vascular tissue in plants that carries
water and some dissolved nutrients around the
plant
Z
ZOOLOGIST a specialist scientist who
researches animals

U
UNICELLULAR describing an organism that
consists of only one cell, e.g. bacteria
UNIT standard measurement quantity, e.g.
metre, kilogram
URANIUM radioactive metal used in the
nuclear industry as a fuel in nuclear reactors

V
VAN DE GRAFF GENERATOR a device that creates
and builds up static electricity
VAPORISATION change of state from a liquid to
a gas; same as evaporation
VARIABLE something that can affect the

352 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

Index
A C
Aboriginal trackers 11
accurate measurement 39
adaptations 60, 61, 62
agents 308
aims 40
air pressure 155
air resistance 316
airbags 313
algae 76
alloys 326
amoebas 76, 122
Amphibia class 83
amphibians 83
anatomy 125
Animalia kingdom 74
animals 60, 74, 75, 78, 111
annelids 86
Anthophytes 89
apoptosis 118
apparatus 17
Archaea kingdom 91
archaeoastronomy 231
Archimedes 152
Aristotle 53, 235
arthropods 85
astronauts 223–224
astronomers 10, 223, 249
astronomical distances 239
astronomical satellites 250
astronomical units (AU) 239
astronomy 231–232, 234
atomic structure 142
atoms 142
auroras 331
autotrophs 56, 75
Aves class 83
axes 218–219
B vertebrates 81–83
Babylonian astronomy 232
bacteria 54, 76, 98
balanced forces 309
balances 36
beakers 18
big questions 7
binary fission 118
binomial names 67
biodiversity 55
biofuels 285–286
birds 83
black smokers 98
body system 123
boiling 165
boiling point 155
Booderee National Park 287
botanists 52, 75, 98
branched keys 70
breathing 116
Bryophytes 89
Bunsen burners 18, 24–25
buoyancy 324
burns 25
cooling 159–166, 160
Copernicus, Nicolaus 237–238
calendars 232–233, 234 corona 227
calibration 39 cosmologists 12
cancer 118 crucible tongs 18
carcinogens 118 crude oil 261
cars 262 crystallisation 203
causes and effects 29 curiosity 4–5
cell division 118 current electricity 335
cell membranes 109, 110 cycling 316
cell theory 102 cytoplasm 109, 110
cell walls 74, 75, 76, 110, 111
cells 54, 74, 75, 76, 102
components 109–110 D
death 118 Dalton, John 142
measuring 114 dams 289
preparing for microscopy dark nebula 234
105 darkness 98
types of 121, 123 day 218–219
cellular respiration 116 dead things 58
Celsius (C) 32, 36 decantation 193
centimetres (cm) 36, 38 decomposition 281
centrifuging 195–196 deep-sea communities 98
charged objects 335 Democritus 142
Chinese astronomy 232 density 148–149, 193
chloroplasts 110, 111 dependent variables 29
Chordata phylum 78, 83 dermis 127
chromatography 209 desalination 185, 294
cilia 122 diagrams
circular keys 69 force 313
circulatory system 123, 124 scientific 17, 19
classes 66–67, 81, 83 specimen 111
classification dichotomous keys 70, 85
early 52–53 diffusion 145, 160
identification keys 69–70 digestive system 123, 124
invertebrates 85–86 dilute 183
of living things 56–57, discussion 40
66–67 dissolve 180
plants 88–89 distance 36, 37, 239
Three-Domain system 91 distillation 206–207, 285, 294
clay 281
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) 74,
75, 76, 91, 109, 110, 111, 116
DNA replication 118
climate change 6
dolphins 12
cnidarians 86
domains 91
coal 261, 273
drag 316
coal seam gas (CSG) 261
droughts 290–291
colloids 181, 182
compass 331
compound light microscopes 103
compounds 178
E
Earth 218–220, 222, 235, 321,
compressibility 138
331–332
compressional strength 154
echidnas 60, 82
concentrated 183
echinoderms 86
concentrations 183
eclipses 227, 228
conclusions 40
ectotherms 81, 83
condensation 165, 206, 293
El Niño 290–291
conductivity 163
electric charge 335
conical flasks 18
electric shocks 337
Coniferphytes 89
electricity 263
constellations 234
electromagnetic spectrum 248
contact forces 309
electromagnets 327
contraction 159
electron microscopes 104
controlled variables 29
electrons 142
controls 29
electrostatic charges 335
INDEX 353
 electrostatics 198, 337
elements 178 G kilometres (km) 36, 38
kinetic energy 145, 160
emission spectrum 248 Galileo Galilei 223, 238 kinetic theory of matter 145,
emissions 262 gas fields 261 160, 164–166
emulsifiers 182 gases 57, 138, 143, 145, 160, 165 kingdoms 66–67, 74–76, 91
emulsions 182 gauze mats 18
genera 66–67
Encyclopedia of Life (EOL) 58
endoskeletons 78 generators 263 L
geneticists 10 La Niña 290–291
endotherms 81
geocentric 235 laboratory coats 19
energy resources 260, 261,
geologists 98 laboratory safety 22–23
275–278
geomagnetism 331–332 latent heat 166
environmental scientists 10
geostationary satellites 250 Latin 68
epicycle 235
geothermal energy 278–279 lattices 148
epidermis 127
glands 128 leap years 220
equinox 219
glasses 19 length 36, 37, 38
equipment 17–19, 40, 312–313
global warming 6 light 248
erosion 281
gloves 19 light microscopes 103
errors 39
grams (g) 36 lighting a Bunsen burner 25
escape velocity 321
gravitational fields 321 lightning 337
ethanol 285
gravity 195–196, 225, 309, 321, Linnaean Classification Hierarchy
eukaryotes 76
322, 324 66–67, 91
evaporating dishes 18
green careers 278 Linnaeus, Carolus 53, 66
evaporation 165, 203, 293
greenhouse gas 262 liquids 138, 143, 145, 160, 165,
excretory system 123
growth 56 166
exoskeletons 78
lithosphere 260
expansion 159
experimental variables 29 H resources from 269–270
litres (L) 36
experiments 29–30 hardness 154 living resources 285–286
extremophiles 98 heat capacity 163 living things 56–57, 58, 66–67
eyepieces 103 heat conductivity 163 see also organisms
heating 159–166, 160, 203–207 low tides 225
F heliocentric model of universe
238
lubrication 316
fair tests 30 lunar cycles 232
families 66–67 helmets 313 lunar eclipses 227
ferns 88 herbs 88 lungs 83
ferrites 326 heterotrophs 56
high tides 225
filter funnels 18
filter paper 196 Hindenburg disaster 175 M
Hooke, Robert 102 magma 278
filtrates 196
hot dry rock technology 278–279 magnetic fields, mapping 333
filtration 196–197
hours (h) 36 magnetic forces 315
fire 61
Hubble Space Telescope 249 magnetic materials 326–327
fire-breathing 11
human body systems 123–124 magnetic poles 326
fire in laboratory 25
humus 281 magnetic resonance imaging
first aid 25
hydro-electric power 277 (MRI) 327
fish 83, 123
hypothesis 14, 29, 40 magnetic separation 192
Flannery, Tim 6
magnetism 326
flocculants 193
floods 290–291 I magnetometer 331
magnets 326, 344–345
flotation 193 Icarus 174 magnification 104
fog 166 ice 164, 293 Mammalia class 81
food mixtures 189 identification keys 69–70 mammals 81
force diagrams 313 Incan astronomy 231 marine biologists 10
forces 304 independent variables 29 Mars mission 242–243
characteristics of 308–310 Indigenous astronomy 234 marsupials 81
identifying 304–305 Indigenous resource management mass 36, 37, 148, 195–196, 322
measuring 306 287 materials 40
protection from 312–313 inference 32 mats, gauze 18
fossil fuels 260–263, 285–286 insoluble 180 matter 138
fossils 62 insulators 163, 335 heating 159–166
fractional distillation 207 integumentary system 124, 126 models of 144
freezing 166 International Space Station (ISS) particle model of 142
fresh water 290, 294 244, 250–251 physical properties 148–166
friction 315–316 invertebrates 78, 85–86 states of 138, 141
frogs 60, 83 investigation 29–30 Mayan astronomy 231
frozen 166 Islamic astronomy 232 measurements 32, 35, 37, 39,
fuels 190, 260–263, 285–286
114, 156
full moon 222
fungi 75 K units of 32, 35–36, 114,
Kepler, Johannes 238 239, 306
Fungi kingdom 75
keys for identification 69–70 measuring cylinders 18, 36
kilograms (kg) 36 melting 164

354 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

melting point 155
meniscus 36 O R
meteorologists 10, 250 objective lens 103 radiation 267
methods 40 observations 32 radioactive waste 267
metres (m) 32, 36, 38 oceanographers 98 receivers 308
metric system 35 oil glands 128 recording measurements 37
microbiologists 76, 102 oil spills 194–195 recycle 192, 274
micrometres (μm) 114 Oliver, Clare 126 reduce 274
microorganisms 75, 109, 110 optical telescopes 247 reliable results 30
microscopes 54, 102, 103, 104, orbits 218 renewable resources 273–274
105 orders 66–67 reports, scientific 40
millilitres (mL) 36 ore 269 reproduction 56
millimetres (mm) 36 organelles 109, 111, 114, 116 reptiles 83
Milky Way mission 242 organisms 54, 56–57, 74–76, Reptilia class 83
minerals 98, 269 121, 124 reservoirs 289
mines 261 organs 123, 124 residue 196
mining 268, 270 resources
minutes (min) 36 P living 285–286
managing 273–287
mistakes 39 pack riding 316
mitochondria 110, 116 non-renewable 269, 273–
palaeontologists 10
mitosis 118 274
palm oil 286
mixtures 178, 178–185, 189–198 renewable 273–274
papillae 127
mnemonics 56 types of 260–269
parallax errors 39
models 134–135 respiration 116, 293
partial eclipses 227
molluscs 85 respiratory system 123, 124
particle model of matter 142,
Monera kingdom 76 results 40
160
monkeys 11–12 retort stands 18
particle pressure 155
monotremes 81 retrograde motion 235, 236
particles 138, 143, 145
Montgolfier brothers 174 reuse 274
peat bogs 286
moon 222, 223–224, 243–244 ribosomes 110
petroleum 261
moonlight 222 rockets 244–245
pharmacologists 10
Morphett, Adrian 279 rotation 218–219
pharmacy mixtures 189
mosses 88 phases of the moon 222, 223
movement 56 philosophers 4 S
movement energy 145 phloem 89 safety belts 313
MR N GREWW 56–57 phyla 66–67, 78 safety clothing 19, 312–313
multicellular organisms 74, 75, physical properties 148, 154– safety glasses 19
109, 118, 121, 122 155, 191 safety in the laboratory 22–23
Murray–Darling Basin 296 physicists 308 safety rules 22–23
muscular system 124 Pisces class 83 safety symbols 22
mutagens 118 placental mammals 81 salt water 290, 294
mycologists 75 planets 236 sand 281
plankton 76 satellites 250
N Plantae kingdom 75
plants 61, 75, 88–89, 111
saturated 183
scalds 25
names 67, 68
nanotechnologists 10 plasma 141 scales 36
nanotechnology 12 Plato 235 scanning electron microscopes
natural gas 261 platyhelminthes 86 (SEM) 104
neap tides 225 poriferans 85 Schleiden, Matthias 102
nematodes 86 power stations 261, 262–263, Schwann, Theodor 102
nervous system 124 276 scientific diagrams 17, 19
net force 310 precipitation 293 scientific equipment 17–19
neutrons 142 predictions 14 scientific names 68
new moon 222 pressure 98, 155 scientific notation 156
Newtons (N) 306, 322 prokaryotes 76 scientific reports 40
night 218–219 Protista kingdom 76 scientists 9–10, 48–49
non-contact forces 309 protists 122 seasons 219–220
non-living things 58 protons 142 seconds (s) 36
non-renewable resources 269, pseudoscience 13 sediment 181
273–274 Pteridophytes 89 sedimentation 193
non-vascular plants 89 Ptolemaic model of universe 235, separation 191
North Pole 332 237 magnetic 192
notation 156 Ptolemy, Claudius 235 of mixtures 189–198
nuclear fusion 266 pure substances 178 of solutions 203–209
nuclear power 266 shoes 19
nucleus 74, 75, 76, 110 Q shrubs 88
silt 281
nutrition 56 qualitative observations 32
similes 119
quantitative observations 32
simple questions 7
questions 4–5, 7, 9–10, 11–12,
skeletal system 123, 124
14
skeletons 78, 83

INDEX 355
 skin 125, 127–128
slipstreaming 316
thermometers 18
Thinkers’ Keys 63 Y
soil 281, 283 Three-Domain system of classifi- years 220
solar cells 275 cation 91
solar eclipses 227 tidal energy 278 Z
solar power 275–276 tides 225, 226 zoologists 52, 74
solar system 218, 231–239, 235, time 36, 37
323 tissues 123, 124
solarium 126 titles 40
solidification 166 tongs, crucible 18
solids 138, 143, 145, 160, 164 tonnes (t) 36
soluble 180 transmission electron micro-
solutes 180, 203 scopes (TEM) 104
solutions 180, 183 transpiration 293
separation of 203–209 trees 88
solvents 180, 203 tripod stands 18
sorting 192 tug-of-war 309
South Pole 332 turbines 263, 275, 277
space, from Earth 247–248
space probes 242–245
Space Race 243–244
U
unicellular organisms 75, 76,
space tourism 256–257
109, 118, 121, 122
spacecraft, launching 244–245
units of measurement 32, 35–36,
spatulas 18
114, 239, 306
species 66–67
universe 12, 235–238, 249–251
specimen diagrams 111
uranium 260, 266–268
spectroscopes 248
urinary system 124
spectroscopy 248
spectrum 248
speed of light 248 V
spring balances 306 vacuoles 110, 111
spring tides 225 Van de Graaff generators 336
squids 78 van Leeuwenhoek, Antonie 54,
stains 105 102
states of matter 138, 141 vanes 263
changing 164–166 vaporisation 165
static cling 337 variables 29–30
static discharge 337 vascular plants 89
static electricity 335, 337 vertebrates 78, 81–83
steam 166 vines 88
steam distillation 206 visible spectrum 248
stereo microscopes 103 volume 36, 37, 38
stimuli 57
stirring rods 18
stopwatches 36 W
strength 154 waning 222
subcutaneous fat layer 128 waste products 273
substances wastes 57, 122–123, 192
cooling 159–166 watch glasses 18
density of 149 water 57, 148, 164–166, 184,
heating 159–166, 203–207 215, 289–290, 293
physical properties 154–155 water cycle 293–294
pure 178 water recycling 185, 293
separating similar 209 water vapour 166, 293
sun 237–238, 248 wave energy 278
Supangat, Melissa 279 waxing 222
suspensions 181 weather satellites 250
sweat glands 128 weight 322, 323
symbols 22 wet mounts 106
synchronous rotation 222 wind farms 275
wind power 275
Wollemi pine 62
T wonder 4–5
tailings 270 worms 86, 99
taxonomists 74, 76 writing in third person 40
telescopes 238, 247, 248, 249
temperature 36, 37, 98
tensile strength 154 X
test tube holders 18 xylem 89
test tube racks 18
test tubes 18

356 OXFORD INSIGHT SCIENCE 7 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The research and development of Insight Science series was a process that involved many people. We would like to
acknowledge them here:
Kristin Alford, Erin Bruns, Francesca Calati, Debbie Calder, Sally Cash, Amanda Clarke, Craig Cleeland, Leanne Compton,
Gillian Coyle, Emma Craven, Ellaine Downie, Karen Drought, Teresa Eva, Anita Giddings, Christina Hart, Rosemary
Koina, Greg Laidler, Karen Marangio, Daniela Nardelli, Rebecca Paton, Geoff Quinton, Peter Razos, Pam Robertson,
Duncan Sadler, Maggy Saldais, Lynda Schulz, Nola Shoring, Helen Silvester, Jonathan Smith, Angela Stubbs, Craig Tilley,
Mary Vail, Richard Walding, David Wilson.
Students and staff at: Koonung Secondary College, Rosehill Secondary College and Wantirna Secondary College for
participating in location photography.
The author and the publisher wish to thank the following copyright holders for reproduction of their material.
Getty/Mark Hamblin, Front cover; Corbis/Wim van Egmond/Visuals Unlimited, Back cover. Corbis/Wim van Egmond/
Visuals Unlimited, p. v; Getty/Mark Hamblin, p. iv; istockphoto/Stud-Annika, p. ix (frog); Shutterstock/Janelle Lugge,
p. iii/Korshenuk, p. viii/marilyn barbone, p. x top left. Chapter 1: AAP/Wildlight, 1.5; Alamy/Ian Shipley IND, 1.16
(Bunsen burner)/Masa Ushioda, Table 1.1 (whale image)/premaphotos, 1.2/Rob Crandall, Table 1.2 (geneticist); ANT/
Michael Tyler, 1.13; Bill Thomas, 1.16 (evaporating dish, gauze mat, stirring rod, test tube holder, tripod stand, watch
glass); BIMP, 1.33; Corbis/Yan Arthurs-Bertrand, 1.27; Fairfax/Penny Stephens, Activity 1.1.2 (judge); Getty/Christopher
Bissell, Activity 1.1.2 (gardener)/DEA / G. DAGLI ORTI, 1.31/Deshalyan Chowdhury, 1.34(a)/GIPhotostock, Measuring and
Recording Mass/Mark Carwardine, 1.10/Marty Melville, Activity 1.1.2 (prime minister)/MARTYN F CHILLMAID/SPL, 1.16
(crucible tongs)/Nick Dolding, Measuring and Recording Mass/Oxford Scientific, 1.4/Science Photo Library, 1.16 (lab.
spatula); Istockphoto/Pamela Burley, Measuring and Recording Time/Ronald Bloom, Measuring and Recording
Temperature/gerenme, 1.28; Newspix/Alan Pryke, 1.2 (astronomer)/Cameron Richardson, 1.34(b)/David Sproule, 1.2
(Palaeontologist)/Jim Trifyllis, 1.2 (Environmental scientist)/JIM TRIFYLLIS, 1.3/Luke Marsden, Table 1.2 (marine biologist)/
Michael Potter, Table 1.2 (meteorologist); Science Photo Library/Alex Bartel, 1.24/Chris Priest & Mark Clark, 1.11/Dr P
Marazzi, 1.25/Mark Garlick, 1.8/Victor Habbick Visions, 1.9/VOLKER STEGER, Table 1.2 (nanotechnologist); Shutterstock,
Chapter Opener, left/Alex Jackson, 1.1 (iron)/Ben Bryant, 1.30/c.byatt-norman, p. 48/D.R.3D, 1.16 (test tube rack)/Eric
Isselee, 1.7, p. 45/Evgheni Manciu, 1.6/ggw1962, p. 27/Horiyan, 1.16 (test tubes)/inxti, p. 20 top/Jan Kaliciak, 1.16 (filter
funnel & retort stand)/JCJ photography, 1.14/Katrina Leigh, p. 15/Kurhan, Activity 1.1.2 (plumber)/Laboko, Chapter
Opener, right/pjcross, 1.1 (sky)/PRILL, 1.16 (measuring cylinder), 1.35(a)/Sashkin, Activity 1.3.3 (skateboard)/Shebeko, 1.1
(carpet)/sheff, p. 43/SmileStudio, p. 20 bottom/Stepanov Yury, p. 34/Swapan Photography, 1.35(b)/Szasz-Fabian llka Erika,
1.16 (conical flask)/Taratorki, 1.1 (foot)/wacpan, 1.16 (thermometer)/wavebreakmedia, 1.16 (beaker). Chapter 2: Alamy/
Bill Bachman, 2.22/Clint Farlinger, Classifying plants (Pteridophytes)/David Fleetham, 2.48a/Fabian Gonzales, 2.50/Jaime
Plaza, Classifying plants (Coniferophytes)/JTB Photo, 2.37b/Mary Evans Picture Library, 2.25/Photosindia.com, 2.51/Robert
Picket, 2.48b/The Natural History Museum, 2.55; Auscape/Fred Bavendam, Classifying Invertebrates (Echinoderms)/D.
Parer & E. Parer-Cook, 2.14/Denis Bringard, Classifying Invertebrates (Arthropods)/Dr David Wachenfeld, Classifying
Invertebrates (Poriferans)/Jean-Marc La Roque, 2.18/Jean-Paul Ferrero, 2.40 (Placental Mammals)/Reg Morrison, Classifying
Invertebrates (Annelids)/Steven David Miller, 2.43 (Marsupials); Corbis/Clay Perry, Classifying plants (Anthophytes)/Fred
Bavendam/Minden Pictures, 2.2(b)/Hal Horwitz, Classifying plants (Bryopytes)/Joe McDonald, 2.46(a)/Michele Constantini,
2.17/Raymond Gehman, 2.52/Stephan Dalton, 2.10/WIN-Images, Chapter opener; Getty/Abbey Michael, Classifying
Invertebrates (Platyhelminthes))/annick vanderschelden photography, 2.65(b/)ASPL/Eye of Science, Classifying
Invertebrates (Nematode)/Best View Stock, 2.47a/Brian J. Skerry, 2.41/Christian Ziegler, 2.8/Claver Carroll, 2.19/Ed
Reschke, 2.39(a), /Eye of Science, 2.39(c), 2.53/F Stuart Westmorland, 2.7/fuse, 2.36e/Jason Edwards, 2.47b/Kim Westerskov,
2.15/Kimberly Hosey, 2.36d/Kjell B. Sandved, 2.37c/M ABBEY PHOTO, 2.40b/Manoj Shah, 2.21, 2.13/Martin Harvey, 2.65a/
Mike Parry, 2.36b/Nigel Dennis, 2.36c/Patrik Giardino, 2.12/Phil Devries, 2.36a/Philip Quirk, 2.37a/Photo Researchers,
2.39b/Roland Birke, 2.40c/Science Source, 2.40a/SPL, 2.57/TED MEAD, 2.16, 2.46b, 2.29.3/Tom McHugh, 2.29.2/Tui De Roy,
2.4/Winfried Wisniewski, 2.9; Ian Shaw, 2.2a; Istockphoto/metbach, 2.5/Sir Eagle, Classifying Invertebrates
(Cnidarians)/Jan Rysavy, p. 58/Roman Kobzarev , Classifying Invertebrates (molluscs)/small_frog, p. 92 top/Studio-Annika,
p. 92 bottom/Thomas Vogel, p. 59; Michael McKelvey & Dr Peggy Rismiller of Pelican Lagoon Research & Wildlife
Centre, Kangaroo Island, South Australia, 2.43 (Monotremes); Science Photo Library/CNRI, 2.3a/David Scharf, 2.3b/
Power and Syrad, 2.23; Shutterstock/aida ricciadiello, Question 2.3.2 (lobster)/Alex Staroseltsev, p. 51 bottom/alexdrim,
Question 2.3.2 (sea star)/Allocricetulus, Question 2.3.2 (bee)/Andre Nantel, 2.38(a)/Andresr, 2.28/Cosmin Manci, 2 p. 51 top/
covenant, 2.29.1/Czintos Odon, 2.38c/dcwcreations, Question 2.3.2 (anemone)/Eric Isselee, 2.29.5/Eric Isselee, Question
2.3.2 (cow)/Eric Isselee, Question 2.3.2 (galah)/fivespots, Question 2.3.2 (lizard)/Grauvision, 2.38b/holbox, 2.56(b), 2.29.3/
Hugh Lansdown, 2.44/Janprchal, 2.56(e)/jaytee, 2.56(d)/Joao Virissimo, 2.37(d)/Jolant Wojcicka, Question 2.3.2 (sea sponge)/
Maks Narodenko, 2.27/Nejron Photo, 2.11/Pal Teravagimov, 2.6/Peter Waters, Question 2.3.2 (spider)/picturepartners,
Question 2.3.2 (stingray)/pio3, Question 2.3.2 (snail)/Potapov Alexander, 2.56(c)/R. Gina Santa Maria, 2.56a/schankz,
Question 2.3.2 (worm)/Sergii Figurnyi, Question 2.3.2 (praying mantis)/Zeljko Radojko, 2.37(e). Chapter 3: Alamy/David
J. Green, 3.3(a); Bill Thomas, 3.37, 3.38; Corbis/Bettmann, 3.1/Bettmann, 3.1/Carolina Biological/Visuals Unlimited,
3.3(b)/Don Hammond/Design Pics, 3.30(b)/Dr George Wilder, 3.8/Heritage Images, 3.2; Getty/BIOPHOTO ASSOCIATES,

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 357

10_ZHA_IS7_77549_SI.indd 357 1/09/2017 3:04 PM

 3.12(b), 3.6(b)/Don W. Fawcett, 3.19(a)/Dr Jeremy Burgess, 3.4b/KHALED DESOUKI/Stringer, 3.29 (mummy)/M I WALKER,
3.14(a)/Science PR, 3.24(b)/STEVE GSCHMEISSNER, 3.33(c)/Visuals Unlimited, Chapter opener/Visuals Unlimited, Chapter
opener, Hans Hillewaert, 3.12(d); istockphoto/Alexander Kozachok, 3.18 (sperm)/ Sebastian Kaulitzki, 3.18 (white blood
cell)/matt porteous, 3.30(a)/robyvannucci, 3.29 (jar); Science Photo Library/Claus Lunau, 3.7(a)/David Mccarthy, 3.7(b), L/
Dr Gopal Murti, 3.22, 3.33(b)/Dr Keith Wheeler, 3.12(c)/Eric Grave, 3.33(a)/Eye of Science, 3.36, 3.24a/Martin Oeggerli, 3.18
(ovum)/NIBSC, 3.12(a)/Power and Syred, 3.14(b)/Russell Knightley, p. 101/Sinclair Stammers, 3.6(a)/Steve Gschmeissner,
3.18 (hair), 3.18 (cheek), 3.32; Shutterstock, p. 132 bottom/ DTKUTOO, p. 133/Martan , 3.18 (red blood cell)/Rido, p. 116/
chaoss, Fast Facts: Human Skin image/Jezper, p. 132 top/Michael Gabryelski, p. 115/michaeljung, 3.3(b)/Pan Xunbin,
3.15(b). Chapter 4: Alamy/INTERFOTO, 4.50/Khoroshunova Olga Underwater, 4.26/Steve Hamblin, 4.22/The Art Archive,
4.49; Corbis/Heritage Images, 4.20/Bettmann, 4.8/Bettmann, 4.51/Dr Gladden Willis/Visuals Unlimited, Table 4.2 (hair)/
Roderick Chen, 4.27(a); Fairfax/Joe Armao, 4.29; Getty/Atw Photography, 4.2/Image Source, 4.10 centre/Lemage, 4.7/
Norman Hollands, 4.27b/Scientifica, 4.40/Shannon Fagan, 4.46/Steven Kazlowski, 4.1/Tom Uhlman, 4.28/UpperCut Images,
4.10 right; istockphoto/fstop123, 4.5 top/Kryczka, 4.21/tshortell, 4.6/Virusowy, Table 4.2 (blood cell)/vm, 4.41; Science
Photo Library/Martyn F. Chillmaid, 4.34/Dr Tim Evans, Table 4.2 (sucrose); Shutterstock, 4.42, pp. 144, 145, 146, 158,
164, 173, p. 171, Chapter opener/3divan, 4.16/Aptyp_koK, Student Design Task: Galileo’s thermometer image/Dudarev
Mikhail, 4.23/GVictoria, p. 172/Jiri Hera, Table 4.2 (beans)/Jorge Salcedo, 4.39/MarcelClemens, p. 170/Paolo Airenti, Table
4.2 (needle)/Quayside, 4.17/Rob Marmion, 4.10 left/Robyn Mackenzie, 4.37/Sebastian Kaulitzki, Table 4.2 (bacterium)/
Sebastian Kaulitzki, Table 4.2 (virus)/vaclav Volrab, 4.14/ynse, Table 4.1 (haemoglobin molecule). Chapter 5: Alamy/Artic
Images, 5.19/Don Hammond, 5.9/Lisa Barber, 5.34/Martin Dott, 5.23/Robert Johns, 5.20/Stephanel/SAGAPHOTO.COM, 5.32/
Marmaduke St John, 5.21; Corbis/Maximillan Stock, 5.15; Fairfax/Robert Rough, 5.47; Getty/Dag Sundberg, 5.16/Julia
Christie, 5.5/Martin M. Rotker, 5.29; iStockphoto/AlasdairJames, p. 209/DenGuy, 5.10(a); Mauritius Images, 5.31; News
Ltd/Newspix, 5.10(b)/Lawrence Pinder, 5.46; Rose Cuddy, 5.48; Science Photo Library/Jim Edds, 5.24/US Coast Guard,
5.26, 5.25; Shutterstock, 5.5 bottom, 5.35, 5.37, pp. 189, 197/africanstuff, 5 chapter 5 opener /Alena Brozova, 5.1/
Alexander Raths, p. 210/blackpixel, 5.4/dedek, p. 198/Horatiu Bota, 5.2 (solid)/ibooo7, 5.3/jabiru, 5.30/jordache, 5.17/
Kekyalyaynen, p. 211/Kitch Bain, 5.2 (liquid)/Kuma, 5.2 (gel)/Ljupco Smokovski, p. 199/Miguel Pinheiro, p. 206/Roman
Sigaev, 5.18/Valentyn Volkov, 5.7/Wade H. Massie, 5.22/You Touch Pix of EuToch, 5.33/Yuri Samsonov, p. 200. Chapter 6:
Alamy/John Sylvester, 6.14(a), 6.14(b)/Speshilov Sergey, 6.18; Corbis/Alaska Stock, 6.3/Myron Jay Dorf, 6.7; Getty/
Fotosearch, 6.19/Fred Espenak/SPL, 6.15/Matheisl, 6.4/Photo Researchers, 6.39(a), 6.39(b)/Scott Andrews, 6.36/SPL, 6.2;
istockphoto/ava09, 6.1/the Power of forever photography, 6.23; NASA, 6.31, 6.32, 6.33, 6.35, 6.40, 6.43, 6.44; Newspix/
File Photo, 6.11; NOAA, 6.42; Picture Media/Reuters, 6.46; Roger Groom, 6.24; Shutterstock/Anton Balazh, p. 218,
Chapter opener (earth)/Chris Howey, p. 226/Enka Parmur, p. 235 top/Fribus Ekaterina, p. 254/Galushiko Sergey, 6.8/Kelsey
Green, 6.22/MarcelClemens, p. 253/siraphat, Chapter opener (spaceman)/Stephen Girimont, p. 252/Svetlana
Privezentseva, p. 221 right/Vadim Petrakov, p. 232; Spaceport America, p. 256; Spacex/Roger Gibertsom, 6.47; Science
Photo Library/Detlev Van Ravenswaay, 6.41/Dr Fred Espenak, 6.17/Dr Seth Shostak, 6.12/Ria Novosti, 6.34/Royal
Astronomical Society, 6.37/Royal Observatory Edinburgh, 6.38/Sheila Terry, 6.10; Virgin Galactic, 6.45. Chapter 7: AAP/
Snowy Hydro, 7.26/Wildlight, 7.41/Willem Vandon Bosch, 7.29; Adrian Morphett, 7.31; Alamy/Bill Bachman, 7.33(b)/
Holger Bureisterm, 7.42 top/Peter Bowater, 7.17(a)/Rob Walls, 7.24(b)/Young Wolff Photography, 7.37; Bill Thomas, 7.10;
Corbis/James L Amos, 7.18(b); Fairfax/Wolter Peeters, 7.48(b)/Jessica Shapiro, 7.48(a)/Neil Newitt, 7.55; Getty/Alex Craig,
7.23/Cameron Booth, 7.43/Claver Carroll, 7.40/Digital Globe, 7.16/Dorling Kindersley, 7.22/Eco Images, 7.19(a)/Eco Images,
7.19(b)/Joel Arem, 7.18(a)/Kent Foster, 7.44(a)/Larry Landoff, 7.24(a)/Matt Cardy, 7.15/Peter Harrison, 7.3, 7.46/SPL, 7.14/
Stefano Scata, 7.33(a); Istockphoto/Anthony Mayaff, 7.24(c)/Kativ, 7.21/MichaelUtech , 7.9; Mauritius Images, 7.49(a);
Melissa Supangat, 7.32; MTC Ltd, 7.28; Shutterstock, 7.36, 7.45/Alexander Raths , Question 7.2.3/Ase, p. 301/
boonchob chuaynum, 7.44(b)/cglandmark, p. 291 bottom/DeepGreen, Activity 7.2.5 garden image/Deyan Georgiev, p. 272/
dutourdumonde, 7.49(b)/Ekkachai, 7.44 (seeds on tree)/Horiyan, Question 7.3.1 (bin)/Ingrid Balabanova, 7.4/Kletr, 7.17(b)/
koya979, 7.18 (c)/Marfot, Question 7.3.1 (cap)/marilyn barbone, p. 299/monticello, Question 7.3.1 (bottle)/mopic, 7.42
bottom/Nixx Photography, Question 7.3.1 (drop)/Nneirda, 7.20/olmarmar, Chapter opener (oil)/Rick Lord, 7.49(c)/Sergiy
Telesh, p. 265/somchaij, Chapter opener (bulb)/Tomislav Stajduhar, 7.34/violetkaipa, Question 7.3.1 (cup)/Zelijko Radojko,
7.35; Science Photo Library/David Nunuk, 7.25/Jean-Claude Revy, 7.2/Monty Rakusen, 7.6/US Department of Energy, 7.7;
Western Australian Water Corporation, 7.52. Chapter 8: Alamy/David Crausby, 8.5/Radius Images, p. 313/Science
photos, 8.8; Corbis, 8.7/Andy Aitchison, 8.58/Don Johnston, 8.23/Moodboard, 8.2/Moodboard, 8.4/Pete Stone, 8.18/Sergei
Linetsky, 8.3; Getty/AFP/Marty Melville, 8.12/Buck Forester, p. 338 top/Cameron Spencer, 8.14/Chad Riley, 8.30/Charles
Thatcher, 8.37/David King, 8.35 top/DM Farrall, 8.1/Julian Finney, 8.27/Mark Dadswell, 8.17/Martin Shields, 8.43/PONTUS
LUNDAHL/Staff, 8.29/Willian Andrew, 8.34(b); istockphoto/Burt Sadowski, 8.6/Dan Wood, 8.15(a)/Maciej Laska, 8.54/
Sarun Laowong, 8.13; Reuters/Dominic Ebenbichler, 8.21; Shutterstock/aleks.k, 8.34(a)/artiomp, p. 334 bottom/Best3d,
p. 342/bogdan ionescu, 8.50/Catalin Petolea, p. 314 top/Charlie Hutton, p. 340/Computer Earth, p. 323/dvande, 8.41 right/
Elnur, p. 318 bottom/ESTUDI M6, 8.59 (using mp3)/Gwoeii, p. 325/Joe Belanger, 8.25/joingate, p. 330/Mihai Simonia, p. 338
bottom/Olga Miltsova, Chapter opener 8/Petr Salinger , p. 343/Ramona Helm, 8.24/Rubberball, Activity 8.2.1/Ruslan
Kerimov, p. 344/Semisatch, 8.55/ssuaphotos, p. 318 top/Vladimir Sazonov, p. 314 bottom; Science Photo Library/
Cordelia Molley, 8.48/G.GLATZMAIER, LOS ALAMOS NATIONAL LABORATORY/P.ROBERTS, UCLA, 8.44, 8.44/Jeremy Walker,
8.41 left/Martin Bond, 8.59 (train)/PETER MENZEL, 8.52/VICTOR HABBICK VISIONS, 8.42.
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