Corpuscular Theory of Light (1704)

Quanta: Particles, Waves, ● Isaac Newton proposed that light consists of

and Wave-Particles a stream of small particles, because it
z travels in straight lines at great speeds
z is reflected from mirrors in a predictable way

Newton observed that the reflection of

light from a mirror resembles the rebound
of a steel ball from a steel plate
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Wave Theory of Light (1802) Particles

● Young and Fresnel showed that light is a ● Position x

wave, because it
z undergoes diffraction and interference ● Mass m
(Young’s double-slit experiment)

● Momentum p = mv

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Waves Waves versus Particles

● Wavelength λ ● A particle is localised in space, and has

discrete physical properties such as mass
● Amplitude A ● A wave is inherently spread out over many
wave-lengths in space, and could have
amplitudes in a continuous range
● Frequency f
z number of cycles per second ● Waves superpose and pass through each
(Hertz) other, while particles collide and bounce off
f=c/λ each other.

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1
 Blackbody radiation depends on
Blackbody Radiation
temperature
● A blackbody is an object which totally
absorbs all radiation that falls on it
● Any hot body radiates light over the wide
spectrum of frequencies. (examples: light
bulbs, stars.)
● Blackbody radiation is the specific pattern Plot of intensity of the blackbody
radiation versus frequency for
emitted by a heated blackbody. various temperatures
Plot of intensity of the
blackbody radiation versus
wavelength for various
temperatures
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Ultraviolet Catastrophe Planck’s Quantum Postulate (1900)

● A blackbody can only emit radiation in discrete

packets or quanta, i.e., in multiples of the
minimum energy: E = hf, where h is a constant
and f is the frequency of the radiation

Classical wave theory of light predicts a graph that

deviates from experimental data, especially at short Max Planck (1858-1947) is generally
regarded as the father of quantum theory
wavelengths – the ultraviolet catastrophe.
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Planck’s Quantum Postulate (1900) Planck’s Constant

● Experimentally determined to be

h = 6.63 x 10-34 Joule sec

(Joule = kg m2 / sec2)

● A new constant of nature, which turns out to

be of fundamental importance in the new
‘quantum theory’
Result: A radiation law in extremely good
agreement with experiment
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2
Photoelectric effect: Photoelectric effect experiment
What is it?
Light falling on a
metallic surface can

eject electrons from

the surface.

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Photoelectric response to blue Photoelectric response to red

light light

When blue light is shone on the emitter plate, But for red light, no current flows in the circuit
a current flows in the circuit
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Wave theory of light conflicts

Experimental Observations
● Only light with a frequency greater than a
certain threshold will produce a current.
● Current begins almost instantaneously, even
for light of very low intensity.
● Current is proportional to the intensity of the
incident light.
with detailed PE observations
● The energy of waves depends only on
intensity and not frequency. Therefore, the
color of light used should not affect the
results of the photoelectric effect.
● This implies that a current should be
produced when say, high-intensity red light
is used – but experiments show it is not.

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3
Einstein’s Explanation Everyday Evidence for Photons
(1905)

● Red light is used in photographic darkrooms

● Light consists of particles,
now known as photons.
● A photon hitting the emitter
plate will eject an electron
if it has enough energy
● Each photon has energy:
E = hf
(same as Planck’s formula)
because it is not energetic enough to break
Albert Einstein won a Nobel Prize for
his work on the photoelectric effect
and not his theory of relativity!
the halogen-silver bond in black and white
films.
● Ultraviolet light causes sunburn but visible
light does not because UV photons are
more energetic.
● Our eyes detect color because photons of
different energies trigger different chemical
reactions in retina cells
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In summary... Just a minute.

● Planck: Blackbody radiation demonstrates ● If a “light wave” can behave like a particle,
that matter emits light in discrete packets. can a particle of matter behave like a wave?
● Einstein: Photoelectric effect demonstrates
that matter absorbs light in discrete packets.
● Light may propagate as a wave, but it
behaves as a particle when it interacts with
matter (absorption and emission).

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Double-Slit Experiment Double-Slit Experiment

illustrates the wave nature of light with a machine gun!

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4
 Double-Slit Experiment Interference Pattern of Electrons
with electron gun

● Determines the

? probability of an
electron arriving at
acertain spot on the
screen

● After many
electrons, Electron interference pattern after
(a) 8 electrons, (b) 270 electrons,
resembles the inter- (c) 2000 electrons, and (d) 6000 e
ference pattern of
light
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Double-Slit Experiment Summary

with electron gun
Electrons behave like waves!
de Broglie wavelength = h / mv
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● Waves and particles exhibit very different
behaviour.
● Yet, light sometimes behaves like particles
z spectrum of blackbody radiation,
photoelectric effect, other everyday
examples
● And electrons sometimes behave like waves
z interference pattern of electrons
● In quantum theory, the distinction between
waves and particles is blurred. 28