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CHAPTER 3
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT, BIRTH, AND THE NEWBORN BABY
CHAPTER-AT-A-GLANCE
The vast changes that occur during pregnancy are usually divided into three periods: (1) the germinal period, (2) the period of
the embryo, and (3) the period of the fetus. Various environmental agents, or teratogens, and other maternal factors, including
poor nutrition and emotional stress, can damage the developing organism. Early and sustained prenatal health care is vital to
ensure the health of mothers and babies.
The process of childbirth naturally divides into three stages: (1) dilation and effacement of the cervix, (2) delivery of the
baby, and (3) delivery of the placenta. Stress hormones produced during labor send blood to the brain and heart, prepare the
baby to breathe, and arouse the infant into alertness. The Apgar Scale is used to assess the infant’s physical condition quickly
after birth. In Western nations, birth alternatives include natural, or prepared, childbirth; delivery in a family-centered,
homelike birth center; or home birth. Preterm and low-birth-weight infants are at risk for many problems. Providing special
infant stimulation and training parents in caregiving skills can help these infants develop favorably.
Reflexes are the newborn baby’s most obvious organized patterns of behavior. Throughout the day and night, newborns
move in and out of five states of arousal but spend the greatest amount of time asleep. The stimulation of rapid-eye-movement
(REM) sleep is vital for growth of the central nervous system. Crying is the first way babies communicate that they need food,
comfort, or stimulation. The senses of touch, taste, smell, and hearing are well-developed at birth; vision is the least-developed
of the newborn’s senses.
After childbirth, all family members face challenges adapting to the new family unit. When the parents’ relationship is
positive and cooperative, social support is available, and families have sufficient income, the stress caused by the birth of a
baby remains manageable.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer the following:
3.1 List the three periods of prenatal development, and describe the major milestones of each. (pp. 61–66)
3.2 Cite factors that influence the impact of teratogens, and discuss evidence on the impact of known or suspected
teratogens. (pp. 66–71)
3.3 Describe the impact of additional maternal factors on prenatal development. (pp. 71–72, 73)
3.4 Why is early and regular health care vital during the prenatal period? (pp. 73–75)
3.5 Describe the three stages of childbirth, the baby’s adaptation to labor and delivery, and the newborn baby’s appearance.
(pp. 75–76)
3.6 Describe natural childbirth and home delivery, noting benefits and concerns associated with each. (pp. 77–78)
3.7 List common medical interventions during childbirth, circumstances that justify their use, and any dangers associated
with each. (pp. 78–79)
3.8 Describe risks associated with preterm birth and low birth weight, along with effective interventions. (pp. 79–81, 82)
3.9 Describe the newborn baby’s reflexes and states of arousal, noting sleep characteristics and ways to soothe a crying baby.
(pp. 81, 83–86)
3.10 Describe the newborn baby’s sensory capacities. (pp. 86–88)
3.11 Describe typical changes in the family after the birth of a new baby. (p. 88)
LECTURE OUTLINE
Average 112.383
Discussion of the Results.
In the first five determinations, the analytical operations were
conducted as nearly as possible alike, but the preparation of the
portions of cadmium chloride taken for analysis was varied very
much as will be seen by referring back to this part of this paper. The
results do not vary more than ±0.015 from their average. This is very
strong evidence of the purity of the chloride used for, if it contained
any impurity, we should have expected to vary the amount in the
different portions. After this, attention was paid especially to the
analytical process, for it was thought that there probably was some
serious error in the method, the result being higher than any that had
previously been obtained, if we exclude Dumas’ first series which he
himself did not accept. The conditions were varied in many ways to
see how much the result could be influenced, but under no
conditions were results as low as Huntington’s average (112.24)
obtained. A number of errors were found in the method during the
work, but they seem to neutralize each other to a great extent. The
more important ones will now be given. Nearly every filtrate including
the corresponding wash water was examined for chlorine after the
silver and cadmium had been precipitated by hydrogen sulphide.
The excess of hydrogen sulphide was expelled by boiling, after the
addition of some nitric acid. In two cases an inverted condenser was
used. On adding silver nitrate a precipitate was always obtained
showing the presence of chlorine. Care was always taken to filter off
sulphur formed by the oxidation of hydrogen sulphide, before adding
the silver nitrate. The precipitate was never very heavy, and was not
estimated quantitatively. It is evident that cadmium nitrate exerts a
solvent action on silver chloride. In some cases a very large excess
of silver nitrate was added but it did not change the results markedly.
Silver nitrate itself dissolved silver chloride to some extent. The
increase in insolubility, if any, on adding an excess of silver nitrate is
probably counterbalanced by the increased error due to occlusion of
nitrates in the silver chloride. Stas (Aronstein’s Trans. p. 156) says it
is impossible to contract silver chloride or bromide in a solution
containing salts without there being occlusion and that the precipitate
can only be freed from them by dividing up the contracted mass by
shaking with pure water. This was not done here owing to the
solubility of silver chloride in pure water, and the complications
introduced in the analytical part. The occlusion of nitrates by the
silver chloride would lower the atomic weight found. The silver
chloride obtained always darkened on heating and contained
cadmium, as was shown in the following manner: The lump of silver
chloride was attached to the negative pole of a cell and electrolyzed
in a bath containing dilute sulphuric acid. The resulting metal was
then dissolved in nitric acid and the silver precipitated by adding
hydrochloric acid. The filtrate was evaporated to expel the nitric acid
and the residue taken up with water and tested for cadmium with
hydrogen sulphide. An appreciable quantity was always found. This
method of examination does not show the occluded silver nitrate.
Another error which tends to lower the atomic weight found is due to
the platinum crucibles used for filtering. If a silver nitrate solution is
filtered through such a crucible there will be an increase in weight
due to silver being deposited. This takes place in acidified solutions
as well as in neutral ones. Washing with ammonia does not remove
the deposit, but strong nitric acid does, the washings giving a test for
silver. Whether the depositing of silver is due to the action of spongy
platinum in contact with the compact metal of the crucible or to some
impurity in the platinum sponge was not determined, but the former
seems by far the most probable. The increase in weight during the
time required for filtering a determination must have been quite small
however. The samples of cadmium chloride employed for
determinations XX and XXI were prepared by burning cadmium in a
current of chlorine. The glass tube used was attached somewhat and
the solution of the chloride was very slightly turbid in each case. The
turbidity was so slight however, that no very serious error could have
resulted from it, particularly as it was probably partly
counterbalanced by the formation of some potassium chloride. For
more accurate work, it should have been made and redistilled in a
porcelain tube. These two samples were tested for free chlorine with
potassium iodide and starch paste, but none was found. Some of the
specimens of chloride prepared by fusion in a current of hydrochloric
acid were found to be neutral, using tropaeolin as an indicator.
As nearly as can be judged, the above errors would probably
counterbalance each other to a great extent, and thus give a fairly
close approximation to the atomic weight of cadmium when the
average of all the determinations is taken. The value 112.383 thus
obtained can only be regarded as tentative.
The Bromide method.
Average 112.08
Average 111.87