Unit 8 Final 1

UNIT – VIII
RESEARCH METHODS &

FIELD WORK IN ANTHROPOLOGY
IMPORTANCE OF FIELD-WORK IN
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ANTHROPOLOGY
B I
IM A
Anthropology is a field-science and field-work is an
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integral part of this discipline.
The researchers sometimes experience "culture
shock"
FIELD-WORK TRADITION IN ANTHROPOLOGY
• In 19th century, L. H. Morgan conducted the first
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anthropological field work in his study on Iroquois
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Indians.
B IN
• Anthropological expeditions began in America with the
IM A
work of Boas in Baffin Land and British Columbia
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where he studied the Kwakiutl Indians, the Eskimo, etc.
• Initiated in England by Haddon, who conducted
research in the Torres Straits region of the Pacific.
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• The most important field work was that of

Radcliffe Brown and Malinowski.
• Radcliffe Brown studied the Andaman
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Islanders from 1906 to 1908.
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• It was a first attempt by a social anthropologist
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to investigate sociological theories in.oarrgg
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primitive society PPddff44eexxaamm
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• Malinowski spent longest period in a single study of a

primitive people, the Trobriand Islanders of
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Melanesia between 1914 and 1918.
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• He was the first anthropologist to conduct hisN
IM A
research through the native language.
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• American anthropologists, who were mostly the

students of Franz Boas created a healthy trend of
field-work in anthropology. A.L. Kroeber,
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Ruth Benedict, Margaret Mead, etc.,
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• Indian anthropologists who did pioneering field-
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works among different tribal societies of India are
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D.N. Majumdar, N.K. Bose, PPddf4
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Ghurye,
Srinivas, S.C. Dube, L.P. Vidyarthi, B.N.
M.N.
Saraswati, M. Jha's ,etc.
Prerequisites of field work:

• Selection of venue
• Self Preparation
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• Establishment of rapport
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• Selection of informant who is intelligent , prompt in
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answering and experienced in the topic ing which the
ss. o
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investigator wants information.
• Data collection
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Significance:
• Can get closer to the emic view of the natives
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• Field work has made anthropology an empirical subject
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• It helped in formulating theories like structural
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functionalism, Functionalism, Culture and personality
theory etc.
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• Important anthropological approaches,
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relativism and holism emerged out of fieldwork.
Cultural
• It paved the path to applied and action anthropology.
APPROACHES IN ANTHROPOLOGICAL
FIELD-WORK
(i) Synchronic Approach: based on empirical

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field-work where from the first-hand data are
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collected.
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(ii) Dychronic Approach: This approach ss. o
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is
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materials.
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on the written documentsPPddfore
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f4 other indirect
(iii)Inductive and Deductive Approach

The inductive approach is very popular in
anthropological researches. The unit of research is
very small like a tribe, caste or village and
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conclusions are drawn on a bigger scale.
B IN
I A
In the deductive approach the unit of study in very
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big but the conclusions are drawn4 eexxat
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m very small
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level. This approach, however, is not very popular
in anthropological study.
(iv) Textual and Contextual Approach

The textual approach is based on the study of textual
references concerning work. For example, in the
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study of sacred complexes of Hindu Tirthas (places of
pilgrimage), the textual approach becomes an
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IM A
essential part of the research work. When Vidyarthi
studied the Sacred Complex of Hindu, ss. o
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(1961), he first, read several 4
f4e
myths and mahatms had been described and
exx
PPddfPuransaamm in which the
thereafter, he collected the field materials.
Similarly, in the study of the Sacred Complex of

Kasi (1979), the authors (Vidyarthi, Saraswati
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and Jha), consulted many Purans and other
historical documents, besides the empirical field-
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A B
work. The contextual approach is like a synchronic
approach which is based on empirical field-work.
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The contextual approach is applied
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f xxain
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the
collect first-hand data by applying the different
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field to
field methods.
(v) Etic and Emic Approach

Emic Approach: The emic approach is often
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called the 'insider approach.' Many researchers
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N
believe this is the best approach when studying
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previously unstudied, or newly discovered, people
groups.
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Etic Approach
Opposite of the emic approach, the etic approach to
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studying human culture employs existing theories
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B IN
and perspectives that originated from outside the
culture being studied. In other words, it uses
I A
preconceived notions and theories about culture in
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general in order to study specific
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cultures.
a
For this reason, it's often referred to as the 'outsider
approach.'
vi) Micro - Macro Approach

Local level is called micro- level
regional level is called meso-level
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national level is called macro-level.
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FIELD-METHODS IN ANTHROPOLOGY/ TOOLS

OF DATA COLLECTION:
(I) INTERVIEW METHOD

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B IN
This is a very simple anthropological method which is
IM A
applied by the researcher to collect data. However,
selection of the informant is very ss. o
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important. An
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f4eexxaamm
PP man, who is aware of
informant should be a reasonable
all the happenings taking place around him.
Rules of interview:
• Place of interview should be free from any kind of
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disturbance
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• Privacy must be maintained if the informant needs
A B
• Questions must be short, interesting and clear
• There should not be any language barrier between
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the interviewer and the informantexxaam
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f4 e mss. o
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• Threatening and tricky questions must be avoided
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• Investigator must show interest
• Investigator should have the control on the interview

process.
• Investigator should have expertise to note the
reactions of the informant
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• Investigator should talk and put questions in a
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friendly manner
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• Informants personality must be respectedss.and
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point must be respected PPddf4
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• Questions must be planned in the chronological order
• Questions must be planned topic wise
Interview can be
• Structured or non-structured
• Individual interview or group interview
• Formal or informal interview
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• Short term or prolonged interview
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I A
• Interview with schedule & Interview without
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schedule. 4 eexxaamm
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• Focused on a topic or general, etc.
Based on the nature of questions, interviews can be

• Census survey technique: Field work usually begins with
this technique. Investigator moves from door to door to get
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himself introduced to all the families. He collects the primary
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information. Schedule is essentially used for this purpose.
B
• Techniques for the documentary interview: Interview
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performed mainly for the documentation of real facts.
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• Descriptive or narrative technique: eexxInformant
a is needed to
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narrate certain facts about a social phenomenon based on his
experience. E.g.: Used in the case of collecting information
on religion.
Special interviews / interviews in depth:

a. Single interview in depth: Long duration, single
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sitting. E.g.: For understanding the opinions and attitudes
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of the subject. Whole personality of the subject is
disclosed in this technique. It is of two types
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IM A
b. Multiple interviews in depth: The informant
ss. o
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interviewed not only for a fairly
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longxxaamm
duration;
submit numerous interviews at different dates.
he has to
Memoir interview: A technique where in different sittings the

informant is allowed to exercise his memory to describe the
events which he experienced a long term back. (Memoir =
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historical account or biography written from personal knowledge)
IN
Panel interview: Almost similar to the memoir interview but
B
A
here a person or a group of people are interviewed instead of a
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single person by a panel of investigators.
Conclusion: An interview is thus,PPddf4
an
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oralammss.
type
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of questionnaire
in which the interviewee gives the needed information in a face to
face relationship.
(II) GENEALOGICAL TECHNIQUE:

GT method is a well-established procedure in
ethnography, the method owes its origin from the
book of British ethnographer W.H.R. Rivers, titled
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IN
Kinship and Social Organizations in 1911, in order to
B
identify all important links of kinship determined by
IM A
marriage and descent. This method was First used by
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W. H. R. Rivers in his Torres PPddf4
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Straitxxaam
one of the standard procedures in performing
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expedition. It is
ethnographic researches in social anthropology.
He popularised this method in his study on Todas. In

1910, he published a paper titled, Genealogical
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method in anthropological enquiry. It is one of theU
standard procedures in performing ethnographic
B IN
IM A
researches in social anthropology. L.H. Morgan was
another pioneering thinker who usedmthis ss. o
. or gg
approach,
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He used this method in his study
Indians.
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f4eexxaa m
PPdd of the Iroquois
It is briefly called as G.T. Method. In this method, the Pedigree of

the informant is traced. In this method, Ego is an important male or
female informant through whom the relation is traced in the
genealogical table method.
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B IN
GT method is Useful in gathering information relating
• Kinship terminology
• Rules of descent
IM A ss. o
. orrgg
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• Rules of marriage and residencePPdd
• Family structure
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• Succession of chieftainship etc.
Genealogy or Kindship plays a very important role in preindustrial

societies as their religion political and economic aspects are deeply
linked to kinship.
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• Economy is system oriented, entire kin group involved in same
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occupation.
B IN
• Chiefs’ position is an ascribed status which a person inherits by
IM A
virtue of belonging to a particular kin group.
• They follow primitive beliefs like Totemism, ss. o
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ancestor worship,
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which are strongly associatedPP d
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with Genealogy.
Therefore, one can get holistic insights into the social structure of
a preindustrial society by studying their genealogy or kinship.
(III) SAMPLING' METHOD

1. Simple Random Sample
Obtaining a genuine random sample is difficult. In random
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sampling the researcher is free to apply sampling selecting
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the informants from different groups
Advantage: The sample will be free from bias.
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IM A
Disadvantage: Difficult to obtain.
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”Freak" results can be obtained dthat
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the population. In addition, these freak results may be
representative of
difficult to spot. Increasing the sample size is the best way to

eradicate this problem.
2. Systematic Sample
With this method, items are chosen from the population
according to a fixed rule, e.g. every 10th house along a
street. This method should yield a more representative
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size is small).
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sample than the random sample (especially if the sample
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Advantage: It seeks to eliminate sources of bias like
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introduce bias. H
subconscious preference of researcher,
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Disadvantage: Can introduce bias where the pattern used

for the samples coincides with a pattern in the population.
3. Stratified Sampling
• The population is broken down into categories
• A random sample is taken of each category.
• The proportions of the sample sizes are the same as
the proportion of each category to the whole.
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Advantage:
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sampling.
I A
• Yields more accurate results than simple random
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• Can show different tendencies
(e.g. men and women)
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PPdd within each category
Disadvantage : Nothing major, hence it's used a lot
4. Quota Sampling
• The population is broken down into different categories.
• However, the size of the sample of each category does
not reflect the population in that category.
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Advantage: This can be used where an unrepresentative
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sample is desirable (e.g. you might want to interview more
children than adults for a survey onacomputer ss. o
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where it would be too difficult
sample.
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PPdd to undertake a stratified
Disadvantage: Not a genuine random sample.
5. Cluster Sampling
• Used when populations can be broken down into many different
categories, or clusters.
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• Rather than taking a sample from each cluster, a random
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selection of clusters is chosen to represent the whole.
• Within each cluster, a random sample is taken.
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random sample
I A
Advantages: Less expensive and time consuming than a fully
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Disadvantages: Not a genuine random sample
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Likely to yield a biased result (especially if only a few clusters
are sampled)
6. Multi-stage Sampling
• Multi-stage sampling represents a more
complicated form of cluster sampling.
• Larger clusters are further subdivided into smaller,
more targeted groupings for the purposes of
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surveying.
B IN
IM A
• Despite its name, multi-stage sampling can in fact
be easier to implement and can create ss. o
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more
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single sampling technique.
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representative sample of the Ppopulation
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than a
(IV) CASE STUDY METHOD:

• Case study refers to intensive, comprehensive and
detailed study of a social unit.
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• It aims at obtaining complete and detailed account
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of a social phenomenon or a social unit, which
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an event.
I A
may be a person, family, community, institution or
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• Case is a social unit with aPPddeviantxaamm
behaviour. The
unit can be a person, family, social institution or an
entire society.
• It helps to understand the personal as well as the

hidden dimensions of human life.
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• Case history may be obtained by interview, Schedule,
questionnaire, participant observation etc.
IND
A B
• Information may be collected from various sources
like life histories, personal documents, letters,
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Biographies etc.
H PPddf4
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• This method is extensively used in psychology,
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Economics, Sociology, Anthropology and political

science.
History:
Frederic Le Play first introduced the case-study method
into social science in 1829. Herbert Spencer was the first
to use this method in ethnographic studies.
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Types of case study:
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IM A
Arend Lijphart, and Harry Eckstein identified five
types of case study research designs a(depending
ss. o
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H
research objectives), Alexander
Bennett added a sixth category.
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PPddGeorge and Andrew
ØAtheoretical case studies: The goal is to describe a case very well,

but not to contribute to a theory.
ØInterpretative case studies: The goal is to use established theories
to explain a specific case.
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ØHypothesis-generating (or heuristic) case studies: The goal is to
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inductively identify new variables, hypotheses, causal mechanisms
and causal paths.
B
IM A
ØTheory testing case studies: The goal is to assess the validity and
ss. o
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scope of existing theories. x aa m
ØPlausibility probes: The goal is to f4
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PPddassess the plausibility of new
theories.
ØBuilding block studies: The goal is to identify common patterns
across cases.
Advantages:
• It provides in-depth analysis of a social unit.
• It helps to collect details regarding diverse habits,
traits and qualities of a social unit
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Disadvantages:
B IN
IM A
• Faulty selection of a case
• Difficult to draw generalizations. mss.o.orrgg
H
• Time consuming and costly. PPddf4
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• Investigators bias might distort the quality of the case
study.
Steps include:
• Selection of a case
• Determining the phenomena under study
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• Formulate a hypothesis
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I A
• Collection of data using appropriate methods
M
• Analyzing the data. ss. o
. orrgg
H PPdd
• Arriving at conclusions.
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(V) OBSERVATION METHOD

• One of the most important and extensively used method
in social research
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• The researcher can conduct observation in the field by
Ø Establishing good rapport
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Ø paying attention to every minute detail of life and
IM A
situations in life,
ss. o
. orrgg
H
Ø recording what you see exactly
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asmmu see
interpreting or attributing any of your meaning to it),
it (without
Observation can be classified in to Structured
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observation, where the members and the phenomena to
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be observed are clearly defined. & Non structured
B
observation where the observation is open ended.
A
HIM P
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. orrgg
One more way of classifying observation is in to

controlled and uncontrolled observation.
1. Controlled observation: Observation in artificially
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N
created atmosphere. For example, a sample or a group of
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people kept in an artificial setting and observing their
I A
behavior and reactions to certain situations.
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many factors. H
Merit: This ensures that the researcher
PPdd 4
ff4eexxaammhas
Demerit: Observations can be different from reality.

control over
2. Uncontrolled observation: It is made in the natural

environment without being influenced by the outside control or
external factors.
a. Nonparticipant observation method
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IN
When one does not participate in the ceremony or ritual
B
activities, but collects the data by observing from a distance, this
I A
is called non-participant method.
M ss. o
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H
E.g., Philippe Burgois in New York City x aamin
m the slums of the
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busiest city. Sometimes when it is not possible to operate it in a
completely nonparticipant mode, it becomes quasi participant.
Advantages:
• Objectivity and neutrality can be maintained because
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of the detachment with the activities of the group.
IN
• This removes the effect of the researcher on the
B
Disadvantages:
I A
behaviour of the members of the society.
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H f
• Getting closer to the emic Pview
be difficult.
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f4eexxaamm
Pdd of the members may
b. Participant observation method: When the researcher

actively participates in the activities of the group under
study, it is called as participant method.
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B IN
• Total participant observation: In extreme level of
participant observation , the researcher may also conceal
his identity
IM A ss. o
. orrgg
H
• Quasi participant observation:
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Inmmsituations
one’s role is confined to that of a researcher and it is
when
openly declared that he is a researcher.
Participant observation is the most important of the uncontrolled

observation therefore sometimes the observation is called the
participant observation.
Advantages:
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• One can obtain true and extensive information,
• Can observe the natural behavior of the group
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IM A
• Gain greater insights of the phenomenon.
s
s. o
. orrgg
H
• Gives grater insights into the context
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of a particular
• One can get closer to the emic view of the natives.
• Understanding sensitive information such as family life and
behavior.
sexual behavior is possible.
Limitations:
• Researcher is not from the cultural vacuum; He is not free from
the influence of his own culture on the observations he is
making.
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• It is a time taking process.
B IN
• Researcher will be in a cultural shock for the first few days.
IM A
• All phenomena are not subject to observation.
• Collecting historical data is not possible.mss.o . orrgg
H
From this method came the mostPP ddf4
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commoneexxaa m
form of
anthropological research called Participatory active research
PARTICIPATORY RURAL APPRAISAL (PRA) &

PARTICIPATORY ACTION RESEARCH (PAR):
Participatory rural appraisal (PRA):

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is an approach used by non-governmental
B IN
A
organizations (NGOs) and other agencies involved
HIM
in international development. The approachoraims
xxaammss. . o g
r g to
ddff44ee of rural people in
incorporate the knowledge andPPopinions
the planning and management of development projects
and programmes.
Robert Chambers and Gordon Convey developed the technique

of Rapid rural appraisal for involving the participation of local
people to design better and more suitable developmental schemes.
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PRA is the most effective form of RRA.
Steps in PRA technique:
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B
• Introducing PRA approach to the locals.
I A
• Surveying and sampling.
M
• Understanding group dynamics, e.g. through rrole
ss. o
. o g
r g reversals,
H
feedback sessions. PPddff44eexxaamm
• Discussions, semi-structured interviews with focus groups.
• Making sure that people are not excluded from participation.
• Designing revenue management plan and implementing.
Since the early 21st century, some practitioners have replaced PRA
with the standardized model of participatory action
research (PAR).
Participatory action research (PAR):
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IN
• PAR is more of an approach than a method of inquiry.
B
• Participatory action research is a form of action research in which
IM A
professional social researchers operate as full collaborators with
ss. o
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H a mm
members of organizations in studying e xand
x a transforming those
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organizations. It is an ongoing organizational learning process, a
research approach that emphasizes co-learning, participation
and organizational transformation. (Greenwood et al, 1993).
Key components of PAR / Significance of PAR

A focus on change – commitment to participate with people to
improve and understand the world by changing it.
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Context-specific – it is generally targeted around the needs of a
particular group.
B IN
Emphasis on collaboration – researchers and participants working
I A
together to examine a problematic situation or action to change it
M ss. o
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H m
for the better. x aa m
f4
f4ee x
PPdd of research, action and
A cyclical process – an iterative cycle
reflection. (Kindon et al, 2006)
Knowledge is generated through participants’ collective efforts

and actions.
liberatory – PAR seeks to ‘liberate’ participants to have a
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greater awareness of their situation in order to take action,
Success is some personal or collective change.
Demerits:
B IN
IM A
Involving the most primitive people or the people living in
ss. o
. orrgg
H
remote places may be ignored or not
P
P ddf xaamm
f44eexpossible.
Experiential ethnography: (5c, 2020)
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Experiential ethnography is doing ethnographic research by the
IN
experiencing the culture being studied. Thus experiential
B
ethnographers follow the method of participant observation
IM A
which may, sometimes take the form of participant action
ss. o
. orrgg
H eexxaamm
research. (Elaborate on participant observation and PAR)
P
P ddff44
(VI) SURVEY METHOD: Includes Schedules and

questionnaires.
(VII) QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD

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I
• Questionnaires an important research method which is
B N
A
applied in the collection of data in the field.
H M
• questionnaire are used for the collection of personal
I PPddf4
f
references, social attitudes, beliefs,4eexxaammss
opinions,
. o
. orrgg
behaviour
patterns, group practices and habits and such other
information.
• The increasing use of questionnaire is probably due

to increased emphasis by social scientists on
quantitative measurements of uniformly
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accumulated data.
• Questionnaires are distributed among the
B IN
respondents
IM A ss. o
. orrgg
H
• Contain a large number ofPquestions
Pddf4
f4eexxaamm pertaining to
the age, sex, name, caste and tribe, family
members, economic status, etc., of the informant.
• Questionnaire is applied in the study of literate

societies, especially in the study of impact of
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industrialization, urbanisation, etc., and it is filled up
by the informant personally by him /herself.
B IN
IM A
• Questionnaires are beneficial as supplementary and
extending devices in observations, in s . o
. orrgg
interviews,
s and
H d
d f4
f4eexxaamm
in evaluating personal PPbehaviour and social
situations.
• They also aid in standardizing and objectifying

observations and interviews and finally they are
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useful devices for isolating one element at a times
D
N
and thus intensifying observation of it.
B I
IM A ss. o
. orrgg
H P
P ddf4
f4eexxaamm
Types of questions in a questionnaire are

Ø Factual (What is your educational status?),
Ø Opinion Questions (Most of the teachers do not
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opinion?)
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understand the feelings of the students. What is your
I A
Ø Open ended questions
M ss. o
. orrgg
H mm
Ø Closed ended questions( respondent
4 eexxaa is asked to select a
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response from the options provided)
ØContingency questions ( Questions that are needed

to be answered when the respondent provides a
particular answer to a previous question E.g.:
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I
Have you attended a tribal marriage? If yes how
many times.
B N
IM A
The questionnaire can be structured, non structured,
ss. o
. orrgg
H
mixed, pictorial, etc. PPddf4
f4eexxaamm
VIII. SCHEDULE METHOD:

• If the researcher fills the inquiry form in front of
the respondent, it can be called a schedule.
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• Applicable to illiterate societies.
B IN
• It provides an opportunity to establish a rapport
with the group.
IM A ss. o
. orrgg
H
• Researches have a chancePto
Pddf4
f4 e
e x aa
explain
x mm
of certain unclear items and the purpose clearly.
the meaning
• Types of schedules :
ØObservation schedules: schedules used during
PAR
ØDocument Schedules: To make auto biographies
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or official records
B IN
IM A
ØRating schedules: Used to measure attitudes.
ØEvaluation studies: To get information ss. o
. orrgg about
H P
P
some institutions or agencies.
Interview schedules
d
d f4
f4eexxaamm
(IX) VISUAL ANTHROPOLOGY AND EXPEREMENTAL

ETHNOGRAPHY:
U
Development in the science and technology led to different
D
N
types of audio and video recording of the folk songs, dances
B I
and other details of folklore and life-styles of the people under
IM A
study. The scientific development has given rise to this method,
which is now known as Visual anthropology, ss. o
. rrg
which
o g in recent
H f4
f4eexxaamm
PPdd ethnography.
years even paved path to experimental
(X) SECONDARY SOURCES OF INFORMATION /

CONTENTS ANALYSIS METHOD.
Secondary sources of information comes under Dichromic
been collected and analysed by someone else.

DU
approach, where the researcher refers to the data which has already
Types of secondary sources:

B IN
IM A
Published sources: E.g., Reports, Government publications,
Historical documents, books and newspapers..orrgg
ss. o
H xxaamm
PPddff44ee research reports or
Unpublished: E.g., Letters, Unpublished
biographies.
Contents analysis method was developed and applied for

the first time during the Second World War when the first
DU
lady anthropologist of the world, Ruth Benedict was
asked by the American authorities to study the Japanese
B IN
from a distance. Thus, she studied the Japanese settled in
I A
U.S.A. through the contents published in the newspaper
M ss. o
. orrgg
H eexxaamm
and arranged those contents in a 4meaningful way.
P
P ddff4
Her important book—Chrysanthemum And The

Sword (1946) is based on the content analysis
U
method. This method is, thus, helpful in studying the
D
N
patterns of behaviour of the people from a distance
B I
and where there is no possibility of conducting the
I A
field-work and collecting the first hand-information.
M ss. o
. orrgg
H P
P ddf4
f4eexxaamm
(XI) LIFE HISTORY

According to Payne & Payne (2004),
"Life histories are records of individuals’ personal experiences and
DU
the connections between them and past social events, these
IN
accounts may not be established facts but, social constructions
B
A
requiring further investigation and re-interpretation."
HIM
The method was first used when interviewing indigenous peoples
of the Americas and specifically Native
PPddf4
f4eexxaammss
American. o
. orrggleaders who
were asked by an interviewer to describe their lives with an insight
as to what it was like to be that particular person.
The landmark of the life history method was developed in the

1920s and most significantly embodied in The Polish Peasant in
U
Europe and America by W.I Thomas and Florian Znaniecki.
Key elements:
IND
Researcher who listens, thinks and asks probing questions.
A
Informant: Person who reveal the information B
HIM
Tools / methods used: Interviews, Informationrgfrom
xxaammss. o
. o
ee papers, news
PPddff44legal
data, letters, diaries, school records,
clippings etc.
r g historical
Mode of administration: Miller outlines three approaches.

Narrative: Emphasis is on active construction of life stories
DU
through the interplay between interviewer and interviewee.
IN
Realist (Inductive): Begins with a hypothesis and through a
B
number of interviews trying to produce the facts that can be
I A
incorporated into the hypothesis.
M ss. o
. orrgg
H
Neopositivist: Emphasis is on validating x aampre-existing
m theory
PPddf4
f4ee x
against reality by asking the questions that guide it.
Advantages:
• Open ended, less directive.
U
• Can approach social and economic life of informant.
D
N
• Gives detailed description of acts, events relationships,
circumstances in particular life.
B I
Disadvantages:
IM
• Time consuming. A ss. o
. orrgg
H PPdd
• Difficult to make generalisations. f4
f4eexxaamm
• Depends on researchers’ personal skills and perceptions of the
interviewee.
(XII) ORAL HISTORY METHOD

Oral history is a method of conducting historical research through
U
recorded interviews between a narrator with personal experience
D
IN
of historically significant events and a well-informed interviewer,
with the goal of adding to the historical record.
B
IM A
Because it is a primary source, an oral history is not intended to
present a final, verified, or "objective" narrativess. o
. orr
ofgg events, or a
H
comprehensive history. PPddf4
f4eexxaamm
It is a spoken account, reflects personal opinion offered by the

narrator, and as such it is subjective. Oral histories may be used
DU
together with other primary sources as well as secondary
IN
sources to gain understanding and insight into history.
Methodology:
B
IM A
Oral historians ask open ended questions and try to interview a
ss. o
. orrgg
H a mm
wide range of people in order to receive e xxdifferent
a perspectives
PPddf4
f
and then find common points of agreement.
4 e
Advantages:
• Reveals facts that do not enter public or written records,
especially stories of tragedy. E.g., Personal experiences of the
U
survivors of Nazi genocide, World wars, Nuclear bombings
D
etc.
B IN
• It is the only way to collect data regarding past events and
IM A
traditions of primitive, preliterate societies.
• Helps in preserving indigenous knowledge ss. o
. orr
andgg culture.
H d
d f4
f4eexxaamm
PP from the viewpoints of the
• Helps in recoding historical events
people from all socioeconomic groups.
Disadvantages:
U
The information collected is subjective and needs
D
information.
B IN
verification and comparison with other sources of
IM A ss. o
. orrgg
H P
P ddf4
f4eexxaamm
DISTINCTION BETWEEN TECHNIQUE,

METHOD AND METHODOLOGY:
DU
TECHNIQUES: Technique means a systematic
B IN
A
procedure, formula, or a routine by which a task is
HIM
accomplished. (Or) Instruments used .to
xxaammsso
. orgather
r
PPddff44ee Photographic
information (Video, Tape recording,
gg the
technique etc) Can also be called as tools.
METHOD:
Method is defined as a habitual, logical, or
prescribed practice or systematic process of
DU
N
achieving certain end results with accuracy and
B
efficiency, usually in a preordained sequence ofI
I A
steps. However, when the method is systematic and
M ss. o
. orrgg
H
based upon logic, it is sometimes
P
P 4
ddff4eexxaamm
referred
scientific method which comes even closer to
technique.
to as a
A scientific method is systematic, replicable, Searches for

causes, Results are provisional ie, open to question and
U
subject to modification with new knowledge, it is objective.
D
method.
B IN
Eg: interview method or observation method or G.T.
IM A ss. o
. orrgg
H P
P ddf4
f4eexxaamm
METHODOLOGY: Overall plan that forms a coherent relation

among the methods (or) the entire syllabus of the research
activities including the application of the research techniques.
• Research methodology is a way to systematically solve a
research problem
DU
IN
• It may be understood as a science of studying how the research
B
A
is done scientifically
HIM
• In research methodology we study the various steps that are
generally adopted by the researcher
along with the logic behind them.
PPddf4
f4eexxa
inammss. o
. orrgg
his research program
Standard 6 step research methodology:

1.Program planning
DU
2.Survey development
3.Data collection
B IN
4.Data analysis
IM A ss. o
. orrgg
H m
5.Reporting e xxaa m
6.Consultation and reviewPPdd
f4
f4 e
Comparison between research method and

methodology:
• Research methods are the methods by which we
DU
conduct research in to a subject or a topic, While the
B IN
research methodology explains what research methods
I A
to be used and the logical order of the application of
M
those research methods. ss. o
. orrgg
H
• Research methods aims at findingf4
f4eexxaamm
PPdd solutions to the
research problems while research methodology aims at
employment of correct procedures to find out the
solution.
D. ANALYSIS INTERPRETATION AND PRESENTATION OF

THE DATA:
Data analysis is a systematic, logical & objective description of the
U
research data collected through different tools of data collection. It
D
the following steps.
B IN
is the task which determines the validity of the research. It involves
IM A
• Classification or establishment of the categories for data
• Application of categories to raw data through ss. o
. orrgg
coding
H
• The tabulation of data
• Statistical analysis of the data
PPddf4
f4eexxaamm
• Inference about casual relations among variables.
Analysis is of following types:

• Quantitative: Quantitative analysis inquires into the questions
U
like where, when and what and depends on hard data procedure
IND
like surveys, Polls, census etc. E.g. What percentage of people
agree with a given statement, How many people in a country
A
speak the native language etc.
B
HIM
• Qualitative analysis: Qualitative analysis inquires
questions like How and why. It d
PPisdff4
an
4 e
e xxaammss
in-depth. o
. orrgg into the
analysis of why
people do what they do in the aspects of culture. It often crosses
disciplinary boundaries; this procedure usually requires a smaller
sample group.
• Descriptive analysis: Analysis of different variables and the

relation between “variables and the phenomenon they
influence”. Depending on number of variables that influence, the
DU
phenomena can be Multi variate or univariate. The relation
IN
between variables and the phenomena can be correlational or
casusal.
B
IM A
• Inferential analysis: Concerned with various tests of
ss. o
. orrgg
arrived at. H
significance for testing the hypothesis
P
P d
d f4
f4eexxaa
tomm
validate the conclusions
• Ethnographic analysis: Spradley describes four types of

ethnographic analysis that build up on each other.
• Domain analysis: Spradley defines a domain as the “symbolic

category that includes other categories”. Domain analysis is “a
search for the larger units of cultural knowledge (domains)”.
U
• Taxonomic Analysis: Taxon is set of domains organized on a
D
B IN
single semantic relationship. Taxonomic Analysis is a search
for the way in which cultural domains are organized in to
taxons.
IM A
• Componential analysis: It is a systematic ss. o
. orrg
searchg for the
H
attributes or features of cultural
from others and give them meaning.
f4
f4eexxaamm
PPddsymbols that distinguish them
• Theme analysis: Theme is a postulate or position,

declared or implied which is tacitly approved and
promoted in a society. It's an organizing principle, such
DU
as Men are superior to Women. Analysis of the implied
IN
theme in the society is the purpose of analysis.
B
I A
Interpretation: Interpretation refers to the task of drawing
M ss. o
. orrgg
H
inferences from the collected data after
xaamm analysis.
in-depth
P
P d
d f4
f4ee x
Purpose of interpretation: According to C. William
U
Emory, interpretation helps us in finding relationships within
IND
collected data and linking the results of one study with the
B
other and arriving at hypotheses or theories for future use.
IM A
• Researcher can understand the abstract principle that
works beneath his findings and therefore can
ss. o
. orrgg link his
H
findings with those of otherPPstudies
abstract principle.
a mm
ddff44eexxahaving the same
It is the core of the research for the simple reason that the
usefulness and utility of the research findings depends on it. The
U
task of interpretation is not an easy job, wrong interpretation
leads to inaccurate conclusions.
IND
A B
Presentation: Presentation of the research data collected,
HIM
analysed and subsequently interpreted. It is the last
research. Interpretations are reflected
P
P a m
m s
s. o
. orrgg
xa final report.
ddff44ineexthe
step in the
Report writing involves following steps.

• Logical explanation of the subject matter
• Preparation of the final outline
DU
• Preparation of rough draft
B IN
IM A
• Rewriting and polishing
• Preparation of final bibliography orrgg
ss. . o
H
• Preparation of the indexPPddff44ee
• Writing the final draft
xxaamm
Report must contain the following points in order to communicate

the necessary information to fellow scientists / officials / public.
• Statement of the problem with which the study is concerned.
• The research procedure i.e.,
DU
IN
• The study design including the selection of venue and the
nature of the sample.
B
I A
• The techniques of data collection, analysis and interpretation.
M ss. o
. orrgg
H m
• The results of major findings. x aa m
f4
f4ee x
PPdd results for theory and practice.
• The implications of the research
Types of reports:
DU
Technical reports ( Emphasises technical details) and
IN
Popular reports (Emphasises readability and attractiveness).
B
IM A
A good report is readable, free from technical or grammatical
ss. o
. orrgg
H
errors, and shows originality.
P
P ddff4 4eexxaamm
Q. How have interpretation and presentation of data changed

from classical to contemporary writings in anthropological
texts? (2020, 15M)
DU
IN
Interpretation and presentation in classical theories of 19th century
B
and early 20th century like classical evolutionism, diffusionism,
IM A
Functionalism, Structural functionalism , Cultural materialism,
ss. o
. orrgg
H
followed positivist (or) Scientific approach
PPddf4
f4eexxaamm
with the
of accuracy in conclusions, making sweeping generalisations.
assumption
Contemporary theories like Cognitive theory, Symbolic

interpretive theories and especially postmodernism followed non
positivist trend where the thinkers, theories or texts does not
DU
claim accuracy but emphasise only on subjective interpretations.
IN
They believe that scientific methods are not appropriate in the
B
A
study of social phenomena. This shift in the trend / approach is
HIM
quite evident from the statement of Clifford Geertz, that “man is
PPddf4
f4eex
an animal suspended in webs of significancexaammss. o
.
heorrgg
himself has
culture is those webs and it’s analysis should therefore not be an
spun.
experimental science in search of law but an interpretive one in

search of meaning"- “The interpretation of culture” (1973).
8. Research methods in anthropology:

(a) Fieldwork tradition in anthropology
DU
N
(b)Distinction between technique, method and methodology
B I
(c)Tools of data collection: observation, interview, schedules,
IM A
questionnaire, Case study, genealogy, life-history, oral history,
secondary sources of information, participatory ss. o
. rrgg
methods.
o
H PPddf4
f4eex
(d) Analysis, interpretation and presentationxaammof data.
1. Evaluate participant observation in producing

anthropological knowledge.(2019,20M).
2. How is case study method helpful in understanding a social
DU
phenomenon? Explain with a suitable example. ( 2018, 20M )
IN
3. Define ethnography and present a brief history of
ethnographic studies. (2018, 20M )
B
IM A
4. Elucidate the basic characteristics of Anthropological
ss. o
. orrgg
H m
fieldwork methods.(2017,15M) xxaa m
5. Questionnaire ( 2017,10M ) PPdd
f4
f4ee
6. Describe the evolution of Fieldwork tradition in
Anthropology. (2016,15M)
7. Explain the difference between emic and etic, and how does the
difference derive from the study of language? (2015,10m)
8. Genealogical method (2014,10m)
9. Field work tradition in Anthropology (2014,2011,10M)
DU
IN
10. Discuss the relevance of case study method of data collection
(2013,20m)
B
IM A
11. What are the tools of data collection? Discuss the advantages
and limitations of participant observationaas s
as. o
. orrgg
technique of data
H
collection(2012,20m) PPddf4
f4eexx amm

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UNIT – VIII

RESEARCH METHODS &

• The most important field work was that of

• Malinowski spent longest period in a single study of a

• American anthropologists, who were mostly the

Saraswati, M. Jha's ,etc.

Prerequisites of field work:

• It paved the path to applied and action anthropology.

(i) Synchronic Approach: based on empirical

(iii)Inductive and Deductive Approach

(iv) Textual and Contextual Approach

thereafter, he collected the field materials.

Similarly, in the study of the Sacred Complex of

(v) Etic and Emic Approach

vi) Micro - Macro Approach

FIELD-METHODS IN ANTHROPOLOGY/ TOOLS

(I) INTERVIEW METHOD

• Investigator should have the control on the interview

Based on the nature of questions, interviews can be

Special interviews / interviews in depth:

Memoir interview: A technique where in different sittings the

(II) GENEALOGICAL TECHNIQUE:

ethnographic researches in social anthropology.

He popularised this method in his study on Todas. In

It is briefly called as G.T. Method. In this method, the Pedigree of

• Succession of chieftainship etc.

Genealogy or Kindship plays a very important role in preindustrial

(III) SAMPLING' METHOD

difficult to spot. Increasing the sample size is the best way to

Disadvantage: Can introduce bias where the pattern used

Disadvantage : Nothing major, hence it's used a lot

(IV) CASE STUDY METHOD:

• It helps to understand the personal as well as the

Economics, Sociology, Anthropology and political

ØAtheoretical case studies: The goal is to describe a case very well,

(V) OBSERVATION METHOD

Observation can be classified in to Structured

One more way of classifying observation is in to

Demerit: Observations can be different from reality.

2. Uncontrolled observation: It is made in the natural

b. Participant observation method: When the researcher

openly declared that he is a researcher.

Participant observation is the most important of the uncontrolled

sexual behavior is possible.

PARTICIPATORY RURAL APPRAISAL (PRA) &

Participatory rural appraisal (PRA):

Robert Chambers and Gordon Convey developed the technique

Key components of PAR / Significance of PAR

Knowledge is generated through participants’ collective efforts

Experiential ethnography: (5c, 2020)

(VI) SURVEY METHOD: Includes Schedules and

(VII) QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD

• The increasing use of questionnaire is probably due

• Questionnaire is applied in the study of literate

• They also aid in standardizing and objectifying

Types of questions in a questionnaire are

ØContingency questions ( Questions that are needed

VIII. SCHEDULE METHOD:

(IX) VISUAL ANTHROPOLOGY AND EXPEREMENTAL

(X) SECONDARY SOURCES OF INFORMATION /

been collected and analysed by someone else.

Types of secondary sources: