Module 5: Groups

Characteristics of Groups: Group According to Social Ties

1) The members interact with Primary group

each other over some period -is the basic universal human
of time. relationship. This is the kind of
Through communication they group where the members have
affect and influence one intimate, personal, “face-to-face”
another. relationship.
2) Each member identifies -It is usually characterized by bonds
with the group and is of tenderness, sympathy,
recognized as part of the mutuality of interest and a “we”
group by the other members. feeling.
3) Each member is entitled to -It is in the primary group where
certain privileges and at the members imbibe and internalize
same time is their own
expected to accept certain values, e.g., social, religious,
responsibilities and duties. political, economic and moral values.
4) There is specialization, or Examples: Family, Neighborhood,
role in their activities which is and peer group
carried out by
the members of the group. Secondary group
-is a group which the individual
Overview: comes in contact with later
I. Primary and Secondary Groups in life. It is characterized by
II. In-Groups and Out-groups impersonal, business-like,
III. Reference Groups contractual, formal, and
IV. Social Networks casual relationships.
-It is larger in size, of short duration,
and is physically
Types of Groups: and spatially distant with other
1. Groups according to Social Ties groups.
a. Primary Group -A secondary group is one you have
b. Secondary Group chosen to be
2. Groups according to Self- a part of. They are based on
Identification interests and activities.
a. In-Groups Examples: Employer-employee,
b. Out-Groups doctor-patient, vendor-client
3. Groups according to Purpose relationships, athletic team,
a. Task Group accountant office, etc.
b. Relationship Group
c. Influence Group Social Group According to Self-Identification:
4. Groups according to Social -It is a well-known principle in social
Organization psychology that people define
a. Gemeinschaft themselves in terms of social groupings and
b. Gesselschaft are quick to denigrate others
who don't fit into those groups. Others who
share our particular qualities
are our "in-group," and those who do not
are our "out-group."
In-Groups
-are social groups to which an
individual feels he or she belongs,
while an individual doesn't identify
with is the out-group.
-The In-Group is a group in which an
individual identifies himself and is
given
a sense of belongingness. It can be
as small as the family or as big as
the
nation. It is in this group that the
individual learns to use “my” and
“we”.
Out-Group
-The Out-Group is a group towards
which one has a feeling of
indifference,
strangeness, avoidance and dislike.
It refers to the members’ position in
reference to another group or to a
group where they do not belong.
Social Group: According to Purpose
1. Task Group is a group of persons
formed to accomplish jobs, tasks or
obligation. It is similar to a work
group, but operating within a larger
organizational context. A task group
is charged with the responsibility
for making a specific contribution to
the goals of the parent
organization.
2. Relationship Group is a group of
persons formed to fulfill the feeling of
companionship. It is similar to a
“barkada” or peer group.
3. Influence Group is a group of
persons formed to support a
particular
cause or ideology. Examples are
political parties or campaign groups.
CONCERT
ORGANIZERS – TWG
 LOGISTICS
 A,B,C
 PERMITS
 C,D, F
 ENVIRONMENTAL
 PR/MEDIA
 TICKETS
Social Group: According to Social Organization
1. Gemeinschaft is a social
system in which most
relationships are personal
or traditional and often both. It is
composed of many primary
groups. Its
structure is referred to as
“community.”
2. Gesellschaft is a society of
bargaining and contract.
Relationships are
individualistic, impersonal,
formal, contractual and realistic.
This is also
referred to as “society.”
Peer pressure: is a social pressure by
members of one's peer group to take a
certain action, adopt certain values, or
otherwise conform in order to be
accepted.
Reference group
Reference group is a group to which the
individual refers and with whom heidentifies
either consciously or unconsciously. It
serves as a model to which
the individual patterns his lifestyle. It can be
a primary group, status group,
or a professional association, etc. The as a reference group, even though
individual may or may not be a she does not yet belong to this
member of this group. group.
Example of this group: A group It is important to note that a majority of us
of doctors may serve as a rely on multiple reference
reference to an groups. So, Song Kang may not only look to
individual who wants to become his schoolmates to identify
a doctor. social norms, but also his favorite singers to
compare his body size to see if
A reference group is a group to which we
he is of normal weight.
compare ourselves. Reference
groups, such as college freshmen, serve as
a standard to which we measure
INFORMAL & FORMAL REFERENCE
our behaviors and attitudes. We use
GROUPS:
reference groups in order to guide our
Most reference groups are informal
behavior and attitudes and help us to
reference groups, which mean that
identify social norms.
they are based on the group members'
For example, suppose that Song shared interests and goals. Informal
Kang is an 18-year-old male who groups are not structured with a specific
transfers goal in mind. Group members
to a new school. Song Kang may interact on a very personal level.
pay attention to what his
Examples of informal reference
schoolmates
groups include: Families, a group of
wear, how they speak, where they
local
hang out, and how they behave.
mothers, peer groups.
Song
Formal reference groups have a
Kang then takes this information and
specific goal or mission. They also
uses it in order to modify his speech,
have a
determine what he wears to school,
specific structure and positions of
how he does his hair, which shows
authority.
to
Examples of formal
watch on television, etc.
referencegroups include:
A group that we have been a part of in the Labor unions, Greenpeace,
past or that we will be a part of PlanetSavers, etc.
in the future can serve as a reference
group.
REFERENCE GROUPS PERFORM
Example: A married man may still THREE BASIC FUNCTIONS:
look to his single friends as a
1. They serve a normative function
reference
by setting and enforcing standards
group, even though this is a group
of
that he no longer belongs to. In the
conduct and belief. “The significant
same
thing about a reference group is, in
token, a woman pregnant with her
fact, that its norms provide frames of
first child may use women with
reference which actually influence
children
 the attitude and behavior of a
person.” (T. Newcomb (1953)
2. They also perform a comparison
function by serving as a standard
against which people can measure
themselves and others.
3. They serve not only as sources of
current evaluation but also as
sources of aspiration and goal
attainment (as a means of
anticipatory
socialization). A person who
chooses to become a professor or a
lawyer
begins to identify with that group and
becomes socialized to have
certain goals and expectations.
Social Network:
A social network is a social structure
that exists between actors—
individuals or organizations. A social
network indicates the way that
people
and organizations are connected
through various social familiarities,
ranging
from casual acquaintance to close
familial bonds.
Social networks are composed of
nodes and ties. The person or
organization
participating in the network is called
Social Network Theory:
a node.
Ties are the various types of
connections between these nodes.
Ties are
assessed in terms of strength. Loose
connections, like mere
acquaintances,
are called weak ties. Strong ties, like
family bonds are called strong ties.
The study of social networks is
called either social network analysis
or
social network theory.
Research has indicated that social
networks operate on many levels—
from
familial to national—and play a
critical role in determining the ways
that
problems are solved, the way
organizations are run, and the
degree to
which individuals succeed in
achieving their goals
Social network theory argues that
individual traits and characteristics
usually presumed to have
significance actually matter far less
than an
individual's relationship and ties to
other actors in a network. Critics
argue
that this perspective diminishes the
power and agency of the individual.
Despite these criticisms, sociologists
study social networks because of
their
influence on individuals. Social
networks are seen as the basic tool
individuals use to connect to society.
Social Network Theory is the study
of how people, organizations or
groups
interact with others inside their
network. Understanding the theory is
easier
when you examine the individual
pieces starting with the largest
 element,
which is networks, and working
down to the smallest element, which
is the
actor.
Types of Social Networks:
1. Ego-centric networks are connected
with a single node or individual. For
example, you, the node, connected to all
your close friends.
2. Socio-centric networks are closed
networks by default. Two commonly
used examples of this type of network are
children in a classroom or
workers inside an organization.
3. In open-system networks, the boundary
lines are not clearly defined. A
few examples in this type of network are
America's elite class,
connections between corporations, or the
chain of influencers of a
particular decision. Due to the lack of
clearly-defined boundaries, this
type of network is considered the most
difficult to study.
Social Media
Most of the countries across the
world call media as the fourth pillar
of
democracy.
Many of the emotions of the
democratic nation are expressed
through
media. In today’s world this pillar is
supported by the social media to a
great
extent. For the general public that
may not be able to access the main
stream media as easily, social media
has become a means of expression
for
almost all issues existent in the
society today.
Social media in general includes all
the means of mass communication
that
are used by the public in general to
interact with the rest of the society.
Whether it be the more popular tools
of social media such as Twitter,
Instagram, Facebook, YouTube and
Google + or be it the private forums
which enable people with a common
concern to interact with each other,
social media is playing a great role
in integrating the world as we know
it.
Importance of Social Media:
The importance of social media can’t
be denied in the world where
everyone is interested in becoming
popular. Being a celebrity is no more
localized to a few people in movies,
sports or politics.
Social media has given birth to a
new category of celebrities called
the
social media celebrities. The
people with unique talent or
knowledge are
no more in need of a major break so
as to able to make the public listen
to
them. If you have the talent and
social media on your side, any talent
that is
worthwhile can easily find its worth.
Importance of Social Media: Social
Nature
Another manner in which social
media has greatly contributed in
making
 our world a better place is by
raising socially-important issues.
So whether
it is the breast cancer awareness
campaign on Instagram or the
YouTube
video of Alia Bhatt talking about girls’
safety gone viral.
The social media has started to talk
about the issues which were never
talked before. Through the social
media, the general public has
started to
talk about the issues that earlier
made them uncomfortable. In this
manner,
social media has helped the society
take a big step towards reality.
Importance of Social Media: Commercial
Aspect
The above mentioned roles are of a
more social nature. We now move
on to
talk about a more commercial
aspect of social media.
Since the social media has a huge
audience, it has made a very
popular
mode of advertisement and
marketing. More and more business
organizations are using social media
to connect with their target
customers
and serve them better. An example
of the same is the fact that most
major
business houses proudly host
Facebook and Twitter pages. Hence
we see
that social media has a major role to
play in changing the world we live in.
CULTURAL, SOCIAL, & POLITICAL
INSTITUTIONS
Module 6
I. KINSHIP, MARRIAGE, AND THE
HOUSEHOLD
II. POLITICAL & LEADERSHIP
STRUCTURES
III. ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS
IV. NON-STATE INSTITUTIONS
V. EDUCATION
VI. RELIGION AND BELIEF SYSTEMS
VII. HEALTH
KINSHIP, MARRIAGE, AND THE
HOUSEHOLD
KINSHIP
Kinship means relationships based on blood
or marriage. Every society defines
the nature of kinship interaction by
determining which kin are more socially
important than others, terms to classify kin
types, and expected forms of behavior
between them.
1. Fictive kinship – people who are
not related by blood or marriage
2. Consanguineal kin – kinship
based on bloodline
3. Affinal kin – kinship based on
marriage
Kinship can refer both to the patterns of
social relationships themselves, or it can
refer to the study of the patterns of social
relationships in one or more human
cultures.
Over its history, anthropology has
developed a number of related concepts
and
terms in the study of kinship, such as
descent, descent group, lineage, affinity,
and consanguinity.
KINSHIP BY BLOOD
Descent: A group in which membership
depends on common descent from a
real or mythical ancestor.
A. Unileal Descent: a group in which
membership may rest either on
patrilineal descent (patrilineage) or on
matrilineal descent (matrilineage).
B. Cognatic Descent: refers to
descendants of an ancestor who enjoy
membership of a common descent
group by virtue of any combination
of male or female linkages.
KINSHIP BY MARRIAGE
 Marriage is an institution that admits
men and women to family life. It is a
formal prescription which defines the
rights, duties and privileges of husband
and wife with respect to each other, their
children, their relatives, and the society
as a whole.
-Religious POV: marriage is a sacrament
and is an inviolable bond which can only
be dissolved upon death of one of the
spouses.
-Legal POV: marriage is a contract entered
into by a man and a woman who vow to live
together as husband and wife for the
discharge of their duties to each other and
to the community.
FAMILY CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES (EO
209)
Article 1. Marriage is a special contract of
permanent union between a man and a
woman entered into in accordance with law
for the establishment of conjugal and family
life. It is the foundation of the family and an
inviolable social institution whose nature,
consequences, and incidents are governed
by law and not subject to stipulation, except
that marriage settlements may fix the
property relations during the marriage within
the limits provided by this Code.
MARRIAGE
 Marriage officially starts with the
ceremony known as wedding or in a
holy
matrimony.
 A marital relationship involves some
kind of contract, written or specified by
tradition, which defines the partners’
rights and obligations to each other, to
their children, and their relatives.
Sociologically, marriage is a partnership
between a man and a woman
formalized by either a religious or a civil
ceremony.
TYPES OF MARRIAGES:
1. Polygamy is the marriage of a man to
several women. Polygyny is a form of
marriage in which one man marries
more than one woman at a given time.
Polyandry is the marriage of one woman
with more than one man. It is less
common than polygyny.
2. Monogamy is a form of marriage in
which one man marries one woman. It is
the most common and acceptable form
of marriage. Serial monogamy happens
when an individual is allowed to marry
again after the death of the first spouse
or after divorce but they cannot have
more than one spouse at one and the
same time.
3. Group Marriage is a type of marriage of
two or more women with two or more
men. Here the husbands are common
husbands and wives are common wives.
Children are regarded as the children of
the entire group as a whole.

KINSHIP BY RITUAL
Ritual kinship in the form of godparenthood
played an important role in
strengthening and extending the ties of
kinship, as it did in much of Latin America.
Parents selected godparents for a child at
his or her baptism, confirmation, and
marriage.
Ideal co-parents: married couples.
VARIATION IN FAMILY PATTERNS
I. Based on Internal Organization
1. Conjugal family: a nuclear family of
adult partners and their children (by birth
or adoption) where the family
relationship is principally focused inward
and ties to extended kin are voluntary
and based on emotional bonds, rather
than strict duties and obligations. The
spouses and their children are
considered to be of prime importance
and other more distant relatives less
important. The marriage bond is
important and stressed.
2. Extended family: a family unit that
extends past the nuclear family to
include other relatives such as aunts,
uncles, and grandparents. It consists of
two or more nuclear families living
together.
II. Based on Origin
1. The Family of Orientation: It is a group
in which we are born and reared. It is
the family where everyone grows up
from.
2. The Family of Pro-creation: It is the
family we establish when we marry and
have children of our own.
III. Based on Descent
1. Patrilineal family is a group whose
members trace their relationships and
affiliations with relatives on the father
side.
2. Matrilineal family refers to a family
whose members trace their relationships
and affiliations with relatives on the
mother side.
3. Bilateral family refers to a family whose
Family members trace their
relationships and affiliations with
relatives on both parents.
IV. Based on Who Wields Power
1. Patriarchal is one in which family
authority is vested in the oldest male
member of the family, the patriarch or
the father.
2. Matriarchal is one in which Family
authority is exercised by the mother who
dominates the household.
3. Egalitarian family is one where both
husband and wife exercise equal
amount of authority and enjoy the same
rights and privileges.
V. Based on Residence
1. Patrilocal is a family where in the
newly-married couple lives with or near
the home of the groom’s parents.
2. Matrilocal is a family where in the
newly-married couple resides with or
near the home of the bride’s parents.
3. Bilocal is a family where in the newly-
weds choose to stay with either the
groom or the bride’s parents.
4. Neolocal is a family where in the couple
resides independently from either groom
or bride’s parent.
5. Avunculocal is a family where in the
couple is prescribed to reside with or
near the domicile of the maternal uncle
of the groom.
POLITICS OF KINSHIP
 Kinship politics is built based on the
classic political principle “blood is
thicker than water.”
 It asserts that power should be
distributed among family members. For
the sake of family security, power
should not be seized from those who
have kinship connections and must be
circulated only among those who are
tied by blood.
 The concept gave rise to political
dynasties – the rule of families in the
political arena.
 The concept is accepted by reference to
the fact that politics is often replete with
adversity, conflict, and betrayal, known
as the Brutus syndrome.
 Politicians seem to put more trust in
their own family members than others,
because they are unlikely to betray
them.
POLITICAL & LEADERSHIP
STRUCTURES
WHAT IS POLITICAL SCIENCE?
 Political Science is the systematic study
of the state and government. The word
“political” is derived from the Greek word
polis, meaning a city, or what today
would be the equivalent of a sovereign
state. The word “science” comes from
the Latin word scire, “to know.”
 Political science is a social science
discipline concerned with the study of
thestate, nation, government, and
politics and policies of government.
Aristotledefined it as the study of the
state. It deals extensively with the theory
andpractice of politics, and the analysis
of political systems, political behavior,
andpolitical culture.
WHAT IS A POLITICAL ORGANIZATION?
 A political organization is any entity that
is involved in the political process.
Political organization includes political
institution, political parties, and political
groups, e.g. advocacy groups, interest
groups, etc.
 Political Organization is the existence of
groups for the purposes of controlling
people’s behavior and maintaining
social order or the distribution of power
within a group.
Societies differ in their political
organization based on three key
dimensions:
1) Extent to which political institutions are
distinct from other aspects of the social
structure.
2) Extent to which authority is concentrated
into specific political roles.
3) Level of political integration.
FOUR MAIN TYPES OF POLITICAL
ORGANIZATION
1.Band
2.Tribes
3.Chiefdom
4.State
BAND
 Band is a basic social unit found in
many foraging societies. It is
characterized by being kinship-based
and having no permanent political
structure. It has flexible membership.
Most bands number between 20 and 50
people. It may make up larger group
that congregates from time to time.
 Conflicts within bands are minimal and power. In fact, many chiefdoms practice
are solved informally. redistribution, in which goods are
 Bands are integrated by kinship and accumulated by one central person or
marriage and not by politics. power, who then decides how to
There are no political allegiances. allocate them among the people.
Political life is embedded within the
wider social structure. Leadership roles
in band societies are informal. STATE
All members are equal, with leaders
having authority or influence  A State is a community of persons more
based on respect, but not coercive or less numerous, permanently
power. Leadership often changes. occupying a definite portion of territory,
having a government of their own to
TRIBES which the great body of inhabitants’
render obedience, and enjoying freedom
 Tribes comprise several bands or
from external control.
lineage groups. They share a similar
 The four elements of the State are
language and lifestyle. They occupy a
people, territory, government and
distinct territory. They are often
sovereignty. A government is an
connected through clan structure, where
institution by which people makes and
people claim descent from a common
carries out laws to enable them to live in
ancestor.
a state of rule and order, or that which
 Tribes are more formal than a band.
are imposed upon by powerful men for
Kinship is still the primary basis for
the people to obey.
membership. They comprise 100 to
 A state, officially speaking, is a
several thousands of people. Tribes are
centralized political unit that governs a
associated with horticulture and
large population, with a hierarchy of
pastoralism.
differing political positions and the
 Tribes have more formal leadership than
power to enforce its decisions. It
band. Qualifications include hard
includes a bureaucratic structure.
worker, generous, and good social
Leaders possess coercive power. Thus,
skills.
a state is the most formal and complex
form of political
organization.
CHIEFDOM

 Chiefdom is a political unit headed by a

chief, who holds power over more than
one community group. With more than
TYPES OF POLITICAL AUTHORITY
one community involved, chiefdoms are
usually more densely populated. Also, AUTHORITY: refers to the power or
as the name chief implies, chiefdoms right to give commands, enforce
are not egalitarian but instead have obedience, take action, or make final
social rank, with the chief and his family decisions; jurisdiction.
holding power.
1. Legal Authority
 Since chiefs are usually chosen by
heredity, this usually gives his family 2. TraditionalAuthority
and their inner circle the reigns to
 3. CharismaticAuthority
LEGAL AUTHORITY
 Legal authority is based on a system
of rules that is applied
administratively and judicially in
accordance with known principles.
The persons who administer those
rules are appointed or elected by
legal procedures.
 Superiors are also subject to rules
that limit their powers, separate their
private lives from official duties and
require written documentation.
TRADITIONAL AUTHORITY
 Traditional authority is based on a
system in which authority is
legitimate because it "has always
existed". People in power usually
enjoy it because they have inherited
it.
 Officials consist either of personal
retainers (in a patrimonial regime) or
of personal loyal allies, such as
vassals or tributary lords (in a feudal
regime). Their prerogatives are
usually similar to those of the ruler
above them, just reduced in scale,
and they too are often selected
based on inheritance.
CHARISMATIC AUTHORITY
 Charismatic authority is based on the
charisma of the leader, who shows that
he
possesses the right to lead by virtue of
magical powers, prophecies, heroism,
etc.His followers respect his right to lead
because of his unique qualities (his
charisma),not because of any tradition
or legal rules.
 Officials consist of those who have
shown personal devotion to the ruler,
and of
those who possess their own charisma.
ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS
ECONOMIC ORGANIZATION
 Economic organization is defined as
the act of coordinating the other
factors of
production – land, labor and capital.
Organization is performed by the
entrepreneur
described as the “captain of
industry.”
ASPECTS OF THE ECONOMIC SYSTEM
1) Property is best understood as a
socially acknowledge right rather
than as a
material object. It involves the right
of ownership which differs from a
simplepossession over goods or
commodities.
2) Economic Exchange is the process
by which individuals and
organizations giveeach other
valuable goods and services in
return for different goods and
services.
3) Division of Labor refers to the
distribution of work in reference to
age, gender,
skill or qualification. In an economic
organization, tasks are specialized
and
there is interdependence among
various statuses and roles.
 4) Economic Socialization is the
process by which people learn the
values and
behavior needed to fill positions in
the economic community.
5) Price refers to the monetary value of
goods and services. It is determined
by
the interplay of supply and demand.
6) Law of Supply and Demand states
that when demand is greater than
supply,
the price increases; and when
supply is greater than demand, price
decreases.
TYPES OF ECONOMIC ORGANIZATIONS
1) Sole proprietorship
2) Partnership
3) Corporation
4) Cooperatives
SOLE PROPRIETORSHIP
 Sole proprietorship is known as a
“one-man business.” It is an
economic
organization in which the proprietor
solely manages the business and
undertakes the risks of the business.
The proprietor owns capital and
performs all the functions of an
entrepreneur.
PARTNERSHIP
 Partnership is a type of economic
organization where business is
carried on by two or more men
called partners. It is a business
arrangement in which two or more
individuals share the capital, profits
and liabilities of a business venture.
CORPORATION
 A corporation is a legal entity that is
separate and distinct from its
owners.
Corporations enjoy most of the rights
and responsibilities that an individual
possesses; that is, a corporation has
the right to enter into contracts, loan
and borrow money, sue and be
sued, hire employees, own assets
and pay taxes. It is often referred to
as a "legal person“.
 A corporation is created when it is
incorporated by a group of
shareholders who have ownership of
the corporation, represented by their
holding of common stock, in order to
pursue a common objective.
COOPERATIVE
 Cooperative is a business
organization which is established for
the purpose of providing services on
a non-profit basis to its shareholders
or members who own and control it.
The nature and functions of
cooperatives differ considerably—
such as purchasing cooperatives,
consumer cooperatives, and
marketing cooperatives.
TYPES OF COOPERATIVES IN THE PH
1) Credit Cooperative is one that
promotes and undertakes savings and
lending services among its members. It
generates a common pool of funds in
order to provide financial assistance and
other related financial services to its
members for productive and provident
purposes
2) Consumer’s Cooperative is one the
primary purpose of which is to procure
and distribute commodities to members
and non-members
3) Producer’s Cooperative is one that
undertakes a joint production
whetheragricultural or industrial
4) Marketing Cooperative is one which
engages in the supply of production
inputs to members and markets their
product
5) Service Cooperative – is one which
engages in medical and dental care,
hospitalization, transportation,
insurance, housing, labor, electric, light
and
power, communication, professional and
other services
6) Multipurpose Cooperative – is one
which combines two (2) or more of
thebusiness activities of these different
types of cooperatives.
FUNCTIONS OF ECONOMIC
INSTITUTIONS
I. The economic organization provides
physical subsistence for the society
II. The economy generates and
incorporates social changes for the
continuity of society
III. The economy maintains balance with
the other social systems and among its
social subsistence in the production,
distribution and consumption of
economic goods and services.
IV. Economic institutions indicate the
nature of social stratification in the
society. It also shows class mobility in
relation to status differentials.
NON-STATE INSTITUTIONS
 Non-state institutions or actors
include organizations and individuals
that are not affiliated with, directed
by, or funded through the
government.
BANKS
 Bank is a financial institution which
deals with deposits and advances
and other related services. It
receives money from those who
want to save in the form of deposits
and it lends money to those who
need it.
Three main functions:
1) Banks are where people can
safely deposit their savings, which
banks then pay interest on. If there
were no banks, people would have
to store and protect
their savings themselves, which
would involve major risks.
2) Banks are largely responsible for
the payments system. Electronic
payments
are becoming more important as
people use less cash. This means
that banks
3) are processing more card
payments, transfers, direct debits,
etc. every day.
Banks issue loans to both people
and companies. Without banks, it
would be very hard for people to
buy a home or start a business, or
for companies to
make investments, for example:
CORPORATION
  A corporation is a company or group
of people authorized to act as a
single entity and recognized as such
in law. Early incorporated entities
were established by charter. Most
jurisdictions now allow the creation
of new corporations through
registration.
 Corporations come in many different
types but are usually divided by the
law of the jurisdiction where they are
chartered into two kinds: by whether
or not they can issue stock or by
whether or not they are for profit.
COOPERATIVE
 Cooperative is a firm owned,
controlled, and operated by a group
of users for their own benefit. Each
member contributes equity capital,
and shares in the control of the firm
on the basis of one-member, one-
vote.
 A cooperative is an autonomous
association of persons united
voluntarily to meet their common
economic, social, and cultural needs
and aspirations through a jointly-
owned and democratically-controlled
enterprise.
TRADE UNION
 A trade union is an organization
made up of members (a
membership-based
organization) and its membership
must be made up mainly of workers.
 One of a trade union's main aims is
to protect and advance the interests
of its members in the workplace.
 Most trade unions are independent
of any employer. However, trade
unions try to develop close working
relationships with employers. This
can sometimes take the form of a
partnership agreement between the
employer and the trade union which
identifies their common interests and
objectives.
TRANSNATIONAL ADVOCACY GROUPS
 Advocates and advocacy groups
represent a wide range of categories
and support several issues as listed
on worldadvocacy.com. The
Advocacy Institute, a US-based
global organization, for example, is
dedicated to strengthening the
capacity of political, social, and
economic justice advocates to
influence and change public policy.
 The phenomenon of globalization
draws a special attention to
advocacy beyond countries’ borders.
Transnational advocacy networks
are more likely to emerge around
issues where external influence is
necessary to ease the
communication between internal
groups and their own government.
Groups of advocates willing to
further their mission also tend to
promote networks and to meet with
their internal counterparts to
exchange ideas.
DEVELOPMENT AGENCIES
 Every state and many local
governments have economic
development agencies dedicated to
assisting new and established
businesses start, grow and succeed.
Services provided by these agencies
typically include:
 1) Startup advice, training and
resources
2) Financial assistance with loans,
grants and tax-exempt bonds
3) Business location and site selection
assistance d. Employee recruitment
and training assistance
NGO
 A non-governmental organization
(NGO) is a not-for-profit organization
that is
independent from states and
international governmental
organizations.
 They are usually funded by
donations but some avoid formal
funding altogether and are run
primarily by volunteers.
 NGOs are highly diverse groups of
organizations engaged in a wide
range of
activities, and take different forms in
different parts of the world. Some
may have charitable status, while
others may be registered for tax
exemption based on recognition of
social purposes. Others may be
fronts for political, religious, or other
interests.
ROLES OF NGO
 Development and Operation of
Infrastructure: Community-based
organizations (CBOs) and
cooperatives can acquire, subdivide
and develop land, construct housing,
provide infrastructure and operate
and maintain infrastructure such as
wells or public toilets and solid waste
collection services.
They can also develop building
material supply centers and other
community-based economic
enterprises. In many cases, they will
need technical assistance or advice
from governmental agencies or
higher-level NGOs.
 Supporting Innovation,
Demonstration and Pilot Projects:
NGO have the
advantage of selecting particular
places for innovative projects and
specify in
advance the length of time which
they will be supporting the project -
overcoming some of the
shortcomings that governments face
in this respect. NGOs can also be
pilots for larger government projects
by virtue of their ability to act more
quickly than the government
bureaucracy.
 Facilitating Communication:
NGOs use interpersonal methods of
communication, and study the right
entry points whereby they gain the
trust of
the community they seek to benefit.
They would also have a good idea of
the
feasibility of the projects they take
up. The significance of this role to
the
government is that NGOs can
communicate to the policy-making
levels of
government, information about the
lives, capabilities, attitudes and
cultural
characteristics of people at the local
level.
 Technical Assistance and
Training: Training institutions and
NGOs can develop a technical
assistance and training capacity and
use this to assist both CBOs and
governments.
 Research, Monitoring and
Evaluation: Innovative activities
 need to be carefully documented
and shared - effective participatory
monitoring would permit the sharing
of results with the people
themselves as well as with the
project staff.
 Advocacy for and with the Poor:
In some cases, NGOs become
spokespersons or ombudsmen for
the poor and attempt to influence
government policies and programs
on their behalf. This may be done
through a variety of means ranging
from demonstration and pilot
projects to participation in public
forums and the formulation of
government policy and plans, to
publicizing research results and
case studies of the poor. Thus
NGOs play roles from advocates for
the poor to implementers of
government programs; from
agitators and critics to partners and
advisors; from sponsors of pilot
projects to mediators.
EDUCATION
 Education is the process of facilitating
learning, or the acquisition of
knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and
habits.
 The methodology of teaching is called
pedagogy.
1) Formal Education is imparted by direct
instruction. A formal educatiopan
program is the process of training and
developing people in knowledge,
skills,mind, and character in a structured
and certified program.
2) Informal Education comes about
indirectly; the learner often is unaware
thathe is having a learning experience.
Informal education is a spontaneous
process of helping people to learn. It
works through conversation and
dialogue, and the exploration and
enlargement of experience.
AIMS OF EDUCATION
1) Individual Aim
2) Social Aim
3) Vocational Aim
4) Intellectual Aim
5) Cultural Aim
6) Moral Aim
7) Good Citizenship
INDIVIDUAL AIM
 Development as an individual
 Moral or Spiritual Development
 Cultural Development
 Harmonious Development
 Promote Positive PhysicalDevelopment
 Development of a right personality
 Development of Good Citizenship
 Development of Good Leadership
 Emotional & Mental Development
 Character Building
SOCIAL AIM
 Through education the individual child
should be provided with
the require assistance to become a
useful and well-adjusted
member of the society, irrespective of
the socioeconomic status.
VOCATIONAL AIM
 Education should prepare the child to
earn his livelihood so that
he can lead a productive life in the
society
INTELLECTUAL AIM
 Development of intelligence through
education will enable the
child to lead an independent life with
confidence.
CULTURAL AIM
 By undergoing education child becomes
cultured & civilized.
Cultural development is through
development of aesthetic
sense & respect for others’ culture.
MORAL AIM
 Moral values like honesty, loyalty,
tolerance, justice, self-control
& sincerity promote the social efficiency
of an individual
GOOD CITIZENSHIP
 Education enable the children to grow
as productive citizens by
following the social & moral standards
set by the society
FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION
1) Development of inborn
potentialities:Education helps the child
to develop the inborn potentialities of
child providing scope to develop.
2) Modifying behavior: Education helps
to modify the past behavior through
learning and through different agencies
of education.
3) All-around development: Education
aims at the well-rounded development
of the learner-physical, mental, social,
emotional, and spiritual.
4) Preparing for the future: After
completion of education the child can
earn its livelihood getting proper
education, which has productivity. The
education
should be imparted according to the
own interest of the child.
5) Developing personality: The whole
personality of the child is developed
physically, intellectually, morally,
socially, aesthetically and spiritually. He
is
recognized in the society.
6) Helping for adjustability:Man differs
from a beast. Man has reasoning and
thinking power. Man tries his best to
adjust to his own environment through
education.
FUNCTIONS TOWARDS THE SOCIETY
 Social change and control: helps us to
keep up with the development of
science and technology.
 Reconstruction of experiences: helps
the individual to reconstruct the
experience and adjust with the
environment. Education is a life-long
process.
 Development of social and moral
value: teaches the moral value and
social value like co-operation, tolerance,
sympathy, we feeling, love/ affection,
respect
towards elders, helping the poor and the
needy persons.
 Providing opportunity or equality: in
terms of opportunities and privileges in
all
aspects of society.
FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION TOWARDS
THE NATION
 Inculcation of civic and social
responsibility: helps to make rising
generation to understand its rights and
 duties as citizens of a democratic structure, and a codification of rules and
country. practices.
 Training for leadership: The
leadership quality of the individual is
developed FEATURES OF INSTITUTIONALIZED
when he participates in all spheres of RELIGION
social, political, religious and
educational activities. 1. Beliefs
 National integration: We are living in 2. Symbols
one country having diversities in respect 3. Rituals
of color of skin, economic status, dialect, 4. Magic and supernatural Events
food preferences, and mode of dressing, 5. Hierarchy
habits and physical environment. 6. Propitation
 Total national development: helps for BELIEFS
bringing about total national
development by developing all sectors Religious beliefs are expressed in the form
i.e. social, economic, cultural, spiritual, of doctrines, articles
moral, educational, etc. of faith and the like. Examples: a. Christian
believes in the
authority of the Holy Bible b. Mormons
based their beliefs in the
RELIGION AND BELIEF SYSTEMS
Book of Mormon c. Muslims adheres to the
RELIGION teachings of the
Koran.
 Religion is a set of beliefs concerning
the cause, nature, and purpose of the
universe, especially when considered as
SYMBOLS
the creation of a superhuman
agency or agencies, usually involving  The principal function of religious
devotional and ritual observances, symbols is to emphasize the
and often containing a moral code character and meaning of supernatural
governing the conduct of human affairs. forces and mysteries.
 Religion is a specific fundamental set of  Examples:
beliefs and practices generally a. Cross is to the Christians
agreed upon by a number of persons or b. Crescent Moon is to the Muslims
sects.
INSTITUTIONALIZED RELIGION
RITUALS
 Institutionalized religion is a social
institution in which belief  Ritualistic beliefs are prescribed for
systems and rituals are systematically believers. These included the
arranged and formally offering of human and non-human
established. sacrifices, feasts, dances,
 Organized religion is typically processionals, chanting, and birth or
characterized by an official death rites. Also include
doctrine (or dogma), a hierarchical or prayer, song and meditation.
bureaucratic leadership

MAGIC AND SUPERNATURAL EVENTS
 The employment of magic is performed
and the supernatural
occurrences employed in certain
aspects or circumstances. To
apply it, rituals are performed. This is a
form of contact to the
forces beyond human understanding to
draw favorable
responses from followers.
HIERARCHY
 Many religions are characterized by
hierarchical arrangement of
personnel. For example, Roman
Catholic clergymen perform
administrative duties within the church
and its leader is the
Pope, the traditional successor of
Apostle Peter.
PROPITATION
 The ritual is intimately connected with
the idea of propitiation
which refers to the behavior deemed
pleasing to the deity or
gods. It is both positive and negative.
WORLD RELIGIONS AND THEIR
BELIEFS
1. Animism
2. Hinduism
3. Buddhism
4. Islam
5. Christianity
6. Monotheism
7. Polytheism
ANIMISM AND ITS BELIEFS
 The belief that all things have a spirit or
soul, including animals,
plants, rivers, mountains, stars, the
moon, and the sun
 Each being is considered a spirit that
can offer help or harm to
humans. As such, spirits must either be
worshiped or appeased.
Animists offer sacrifices, prayers,
dances, or other forms of
devotions to these spirits in hopes of
blessing upon areas of life
(crops, health, fertility, etc.) or for
protection from harm.
HINDUISM AND ITS BELIEFS
 Most Hindus worship one Being of
ultimate oneness (Brahman) through
infinite representations of gods and
goddesses. The other deities in its
godhead are Vishnu, the Preserver, and
Shiva, the Destroyer. These various
manifestations of gods and goddesses
become incarnate within idols, temples,
gurus, rivers,
animals, etc.
 Hindus believe their position in this
present life was determined by their
actions in a previous life. Hinduism
therefore provides a possible
explanation for suffering and evil in this
life.
 Hindus believe in the doctrines of
samsara (the continuous cycle of life,
death, and reincarnation) and
karma(the universal law of cause and
effect).
BUDDHISM AND ITS BELIEFS
 Buddhists do not worship any gods or
God.
 Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama) not
divine or a god. He is the enlightened
one
(reached nirvana).
 Buddhists are also striving to attain
spiritual enlightenment and, with it,
freedom from the continuous cycle of life
and death.
 Most Buddhists believe a person has
countless rebirths, which inevitably
include suffering.
 The goal Buddhist is to purify one's
heart and to let go of all yearnings
toward
sensual desires and the attachment to
oneself.
 In his life on Earth, Jesus did not
identify himself as a prophet
pointing to God or as a teacher of
enlightenment. Rather, Jesus
claimed to be God in human form. He
performed miracles,
forgave people of their sin and said that
anyone who believed in
him would have eternal life.
 The two most significant events in the
life of Christ are the
sacrifice of his crucifixion and his
resurrection, which is the core
of the Christian faith.

ISLAM AND ITS BELIEFS

MONOTHEISM VS POLYTHEISM
 Muslims believe there is the one
CRITERIA MONOTHE POLYTHEI
almighty God, named Allah, who is
ISM SM
infinitely superior to and transcendent
DEFINITION Belief in a Belief of
from humankind. Allah is viewed as singular multiple
the creator of the universe and the God deities,
source of all good and all evil. The gods and
Prophet Muhammad is the Messenger goddesses
of God. RELIGIONS Christianity Zoroastrian
 Though a Muslim honors several , Judaism, ism,
prophets, Muhammad is considered the Islam Hinduism,
last prophet and his words and lifestyle Jainism,
are that person's authority. Buddhism,
 At death -- based on one's faithfulness Shinto,
Taoism
to these duties -- a Muslim hopes to
COMMAND The One There are
enter Paradise. If not, they will be
MENT True God numerous
eternally punished in hell. CONCERNIN Alone is to deities,
G WORSHIP be each
worshipped worthy of
CHRISTIANITY AND ITS BELIEFS . worship.

 Christians believe in a loving God who

has revealed himself and PRINCIPLE OF SEPARATION OF
can be known in a personal way, in this CHURCH AND THE STATE
life.
 The principle simply means that the
Church is not to interfere in purely
political matters or temporal aspects of
man’s life and the State, in purely
matters of religion and morals, which
are the exclusive concerns of the
other.
 The State shall have no official religion.
The State cannot set up a church,
whether or not supported with funds; nor
aid one religion, aid all religions,
or prefer one religion over another.
Every person is free to profess belief or
disbelief in any religion.
 Meaning of “establishment of religion
clause.” Every religious minister is
free to practice his calling; and the State
cannot punish a person for
entertaining or professing religious
beliefs or disbeliefs. In the Preamble –
The command that Church and State be
separate is not to be interpreted to
mean hostility to religion.
ARTICLE II, SECTION 6, 1987 CONSTI
SECTION 6. The Separation of church and
State are inviolable.
 The government shall not favor any
religion, support them with public funds,
or even stablish or set up a church.
 The church should not be involved in
political issues or matters.
ESTABLISHMENT OF RELIGION CAUSE
 The state shall not have official religion.
 The state cannot set up a church
 Everyone has the freedom to profess
their belied or disbelief in any religion
HEALTH
 Most people would define health as “the
absence of disease.”
 The World Health Organization (WHO)
defines health as “a state of complete
physical, mental and social well-being
and not merely the absence of disease
or infirmity.”
BASIC CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR
MAINTAINING GOOD HEALTH
 Proper diet. For keeping good health,
we should take a balanced diet
containing required amount of essential
nutrients like proteins, vitamins, etc.
 Personal and domestic hygiene
 Clean food, water and air
 Relaxation
 Avoid bad habits or vices
 Regular physical exercise and walk is
also necessary to keep the body fit and
remain healthy.
 Have regular sleep. Sleep helps
restore your body’s energy, repair
muscle tissue and triggers the
release of hormones that effect
growth and appetite.
MEDICAL PLURALISM
 Medical pluralism is the adoption of
more than one medical system, or the
simultaneous integration of both
orthodox medicines with complementary
and
alternative medicine.
 Culture-specific syndromes and
illnesses (e.g., “bughat,””usog,” “buyag”)
 In medicine and medical anthropology, a
culture-bound syndrome, culture
specific syndrome or folk illness is a
combination of psychiatric and somatic
symptoms that are considered to be a
recognizable disease only within a
specific society or culture.
 ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE
EXAMPLES
 "Bughat"(Ilonggo term) or
"Binat"(Tagalog version) is the term
used to refer to
the ailments(headache, chills, body
pains, malaise, dizziness, muscle
weakness, and in some it is blindness) a
mother experiences after giving birth or
after having suffered abortion or
miscarriage is she did not follow certain
rituals after childbirth.
 Usog/Buyag is a Filipino superstition
that attributes an illness to the greeting
of a stranger. It is believed that young
children are susceptible to usog.
 Filipino parents worry when they catch a
stranger expressing fondness for their
child or even just looking fondly at their
child. If the stranger senses this, the
stranger will sometimes say Pwera
usog... (“excluding usog“) meaning
he/she understands that the parents are
worried of usog. If parents get really
anxious, they will ask the stranger to
lawayan ang bata (place saliva on the
child) para hindi mausog (in order not
to be victim
of usog)
FOLK MEDICINE
 Folk medicine is a phenomenon in
which physical illness appear to be
cured by means other than those of
drugs, surgery, manipulations,
recognized
psychological methods or common
sense; a prerequisite of healing is
belief in the healers’ powers, or
belief that the sufferer will recover,
or belief that God wills recovery from
the particular ailment.
 Alternative medicine consists of a
wide range of health care practices,
products, and therapies. The shared
feature is a claim to heal that is not
based on the scientific method.
 Alternative medicine practices may
be classified by their cultural origins
or by the types of beliefs upon which
they are based.
 Different cultures may have their
own unique traditional or belief
based practices developed recently
or over thousands of years, and
specific practices or entire systems
of practices.
HEALTH AS A HUMAN RIGHT
 The human right to health means
that everyone has the right to the
highest
attainable standard of physical and
mental health, which includes
access to all medical services,
sanitation, adequate food, decent
housing, healthy working conditions,
and a clean environment.
 The human right tohealth means
that everyone has the right to the
highest
attainable standard of physical
and mental health, which includes
access to all medical services,
sanitation, adequate food, decent
housing, healthy working conditions,
and a clean environment.
MODULE 7: SOCIAL AND
POLITICAL STRATIFICATION
A. SOCIAL DESIREABLES
(WEALTH, POWER, PRESTIGE)
Social Stratification (Inequalities)
- defined as the arrangement of any
social group or society into a
hierarchy of positions that are
unequal with regard to power,
property, social evaluation and/or
psychic. A particular form of social
inequality.
- Stratisfication is a process of
interactionor diffentation whereby
some people come to rank higher
than others.

Components of Social Stratification

1. Social Class: level or category
where persons have more or less
the same social-economic privileges
in society.
2. Social Status: position of an
individual or group within a social
structure.
3.Social Role: behavior expected of
a person who occupies a particular
status.
Basis of social stratification