10th GRADE BIOLOGY WORKBOOK III

UNIT II: PRINCIPLES OF GENETICS

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 PRINCIPLES OF HEREDITY
Vocabulary

Domimant, recessive, homozygote, heterozygote, allele, pedigree, sex-linked heredity,

daltonism, hemophilia, multiple allelism, gene-chromosome theory, monohybrid, dihybrid,
punnet square, incomplete dominance, codominance, Down syndrome, mutation,variation,
recombination

A) MENDEL'S EXPERIMENTS:

The first scientific study of heredity was conducted by Gregor Mendel.

For eight years (1857- 65), Mendel investigated the inheritance of certain
traits in pea plants.
Pea plants were an excellent choice for the investigations that Mendel
wished to make.

• They were fairly easy to grow, and they mature quickly.

• Pea plants have several pairs of sharply contrasting traits such as
tallness or shortness, green or yellow pods, and smooth or
wrinkled seeds etc.
• Furthermore, the structure of the pea flower and its natural
method of pollination make it easy to use in controlled
experiments.

Mendel studied seven characteristics for pea plants.

Later studies have shown that pea plants

have seven pairs of chromosomes, and each
of these characteristics is on a different
chromosome.
This explains why Mendel’s results were not
affected by genetic recombination.

Mendel believed that traits are determined

by individual units called factors. Today these
units are called genes.

Mendel believed that each offspring

received a factor from each parent. He
guessed that each trait is determined by a
pair of genes.

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Homologous chromosomes bear the alleles for each character:

For a pair of homologous chromosomes, alleles of a gene reside at the same locus
- Homozygous individuals have the same allele on both homologues
- Heterozygous individuals have a different allele on each homologue

Mendel’s law of segregation describes the inheritance of a single character:

A. Monohybrid Cross :

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 Four Hypotheses established based on Mendel’s Experiment:

1. Genes are found in alternative versions called alleles; a genotype is the listing of alleles an
individual carries for a specific gene

2. For each characteristic, an organism inherits two alleles, one from each parent; the alleles
can be the same or different
– A homozygous genotype has identical alleles
– A heterozygous genotype has two different alleles

3. Mendel's Principle of Dominance: states that when an individual is hybrid for a certain
trait, only one of the two genes expresses itself. The gene that expresses itself is the
dominant gene, and the other whose expression is masked is the recessive gene.

4. Mendel's Principle of Segregation: The two genes that determine a particular trait will
separate when sex cells (gametes) form. Half of the gametes will receive one gene from each
pair; the other half will receive the other gene.

Mendel’s laws reflect the rules of probability:

The probability of a specific event is the number of ways that event can occur out of the
total possible outcomes.

* Rule of multiplication: Multiply the probabilities of events that must occur together
* Rule of addition: Add probabilities of events that can happen in alternate ways

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The law of independent assortment is revealed by tracking two characters at once:

B. Dihybrid Cross:

Eg: What is the probability of having yellow-wrinkled plants when a heterozygote yellow-
round plant and homozygote green-wrinkled plant is crossed?

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Mendel's Principle of Independent Assortment:

The inheritance of genes that control one trait is not affected by the inheritance of genes that
control a different trait. Genes control different traits independently of one another. (Note:
This is true for genes located on different chromosomes. Linked genes do not obey this
principle.)

Eg: Independent assortment of two genes in the Labrador retriever.

This figure shows the outcome of independent assortment of two genes in Labrador
retrievers.

Q: Predict the allele combinations that would be found in gametes from an individual with
the genotype BbNn?

Q: What offspring are produced if a dog that is heterozygous for both traits is mated to a
dog that is homozygous recessive for both traits?

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Geneticists use the testcross to determine unknown genotypes:

C. Test Cross: It is not possible to tell from appearance alone whether an individual showing a
dominant trait is pure for the trait or hybrid.

In a test- cross, the individual of unknown genotype is crossed with an individual showing
the contrasting recessive trait.

If the unknown genotype is pure (homozygous) for that trait, all the offspring of the cross
will show the dominant trait.

If the unknown genotype is hybrid (heterozygous), half of the offspring will show the
dominant trait and the other half will show the recessive trait.

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Pedigree Charts

A pedigree chart is a diagram that shows family relationships. This pedigree chart shows how
the trait of a white lock of hair has been inherited in a family. The allele that codes for a
white lock of hair is dominant.

Study the chart. Then, answer the questions below.

1. How many males shown in the chart have a white lock of hair?

2. The alleles of two of the people in the chart are provided. What are the alleles of their
three children?

Son without white lock:

Son with white lock:

Daughter with white lock:

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B) VARIATIONS ON MENDEL’S LAWS

Many genes follow the patterns outlined by Mendel's principles, but many do not.

1. INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE :

Incomplete dominance results in intermediate phenotypes

In some organisms, both alleles contribute to the phenotype of a heterozygous individual. This
is known as incomplete dominance, or blending inheritance.

– Neither allele is dominant over the other

– Expression of both alleles is observed as an intermediate phenotype in
the heterozygous individual

Eg: The inheritance of flower color in snapdragon plant does not follow the pattern of
dominance.

A cross between a plant with red flowers

and one with white flowers results in
offspring with pink flowers.

When two pink plants are crossed, a 1: 2:

1 ratio of red: pink: white flowered
offspring is produced in the F2
generation.

* The difference in color between the RR

and Rr genotypes is proposed to be a
dosage effect, where the presence of
one allele allows the production of half
as much pigment as the presence of two
alleles.

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Eg: Andalusian Fowl – has gene that determines feather color.

Black (BB) White (bb)

F1:

all Blue (Bb)

F1 X F1

F2 :

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 2. CO-DOMINANCE:

-Neither allele is dominant over the other

-Expression of both alleles is observed as a distinct phenotype in the heterozygous individual

Eg: A cross between pure red shorthorn cattle and pure white shorthorn cattle results in
heterozygous offspring with a roan coat. The coat consists of a mixture of red hair and white
hair. Capital letters with superscripts are often used to represent genotypes in co dominance.

White shorthorn cattle Red shorthorn cattle

F1:

Roan shorthorn cattle

F1 X F1

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Eg: MN Blood types in Human.

Phenotype Genotype Antigen ( in Red Blood Cells)

(Blood Group)
M LM LM M

N LN LN N

MN LM LN M and N

• In Northeast Kansas, there is a creature known as a wildcat. It comes in three colors.

Blue,red and purple. This trait is controlled by a single locus gene with incomplete
dominance. A homozygous dominant (BB) individual is blue, a homozygous recessive
(bb) individual is red, and a heterozygous individual (Bb) is purple. What would be the
genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring if a blue wild cat is crossed with a red
one?

• In some cattle, the genes are Brown hair (B) and white hair (b) are codominat. Cattle
with alleles for both Black and brown hair gives the cattle a reddish color and is
referred to as roan. (Bb)

For each of the following conditions, show the phenotype and genotype ratio of the
offspring.

a) A roan cow and a white bull b) A roan cow and a roan bull

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3. MULTIPLE ALLELES:

Many genes have more than two alleles in the population.

-A diploid individual can carry any two of these alleles
-The ABO blood group has three alleles, leading to four phenotypes: type A, type B, type AB,
and type O blood

The ABO blood group system involves the presence of certain antigens on the surface of the
red blood cells. There are two antigens involved, called A and B. In addition, the blood plasma
contains antibodies that react with the antigens the blood does not have.

Rh Factors: are another group of antigens found on the surface of red blood cells. A person
whose red blood cells contain one or more of the Rh factors, is said to be Rh (+), one whose
red blood cells do not contain Rh factors, is said to be Rh (-).

Phenotype Genotype
Homozygote Heterozygote
Rh(+)

Rh(-)

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Eg: The parents having the A Rh+ and Br Rh+ phenotypes have a baby ORh-.

Find the genotypes of parents.

Eg: Find the probability of having O Rh- child, if the mother is heterozygote B and Rh- and
the father is heterozygote A Rh+.

Eg: What is the probability of the father is being heterozygote B blood group, if the mother
is A blood group and their first child is O?

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Note: to calculate the types of genotypes in a population for a trait having multiple alleles, use
the formula: n (n+1)/2
Eg: Fur color in Himalayan rabbits controlled by 4 different genes.

Allele Phenotype

C Rabbit with fully colored coat

cch Rabbit with light grey coat

ch Himalayan rabbit: white with dark ear tips,

nose, paws, and tail
c Albino rabbit

Dark grey(wild) Chinchila Light grey Himalayan Albino

(CC, Ccch ,Cch, Cc) (cchcch) (cchch ,chc) (chch,chc) (cc)

Eg: If a trait is controlled four alleles A1,A2,A3,A4; calculate the number of possible
genotypes?

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C) Sex Determination and Chromosomes:

1) XX- X-Y system in mammals, fruit flies:

– XX = female; XY = male

2) ZZ- ZW Condition: Not all animals have the same system of sex chromosomes. In birds,
butterflies, moths, some of the fishes and reptiles and in tailed amphibians, the male has the
two identical sex chromosomes- ZZ (or XX), and the females have different sex chromosomes-
ZW (or XY). In this case, it is the eggs of the female that determines the sex of the offspring.

Sex-linked traits affect female birds to a greater extent than males. A female would need to
inherit only one copy of a Z-linked recessive allele to show a specific trait, while a male
would need to inherit two copies. Bird populations can become endangered if the numbers
of females decline due to harmful Z-linked traits.

3) XX- XO Condition: is present in some insects. The Y chromosome has been lost.

4) Haploid- Diploid Condition: is present in honeybees and closely related species.

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D) Sex Linked Inheritance:

Sex-linked genes exhibit a unique pattern of inheritance

A number of sex- linked traits are known in humans. Some genes for traits in humans are
linked to the X chromosomes, causing these traits to appear more often in males than females.

Females called carriers often have the gene for the trait but do not show the trait. Because a
female contains two X chromosomes, a recessive gene on one chromosome can be masked
by a dominant gene for the same trait on the other chromosome. Because a male does not
contain a homologous X chromosome, a recessive gene on the male's single X chromosome
can cause the trait to show.

A few genes are linked to Y chromosome and have no counterparts on the X. These Y genes
encode traits that are found only in males and that appear in all sons of fathers having the
trait.

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Eg: Eye color in Drosophila

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Sex-linked disorders affect mostly males:
▪ Males express X-linked disorders such as the following when recessive alleles
are present in one copy
– Hemophilia
– Colorblindness
– Duchenne muscular dystrophy

Eg: Colorblindness is due to the X-linked recessive allele r, while the X-linked dominant allele
R leads to full color vision.
Predict the ratio of offspring phenotypes for each of the following:

a) Colorblind female x male with full color vision:

b) Female heterozygous for colorblindness  colorblind male:

c) Female homozygous for full color vision  colorblind male:

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Eg: Hemophilia in the royal family of Russia (half-filled symbols represent heterozygous
carriers).

The Y-chromosome is small and does not contain many genes, therefore few traits are Y-
linked, and Y-linked diseases are rare. Because the only humans which have a Y chromosome
are males, the genes are simply passed from father to son, with no interchromosomal
genetic recombination.

Sex- Influenced Traits: The expression of some autosomal genes may be sex- dependent. One
example of such a sex-influenced trait is a form of baldness in which a single copy of the allele
results in a baldhead for a man, whereas a woman will lose her hair only if she is homozygous
for the allele. Usually, it is the different hormonal condition of males and females that dictate
which sex- influenced genes will be expressed and how effectively they will be.

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E) ALTERATIONS OF CHROMOSOME NUMBER

* Non- disjunction of Human Chromosomes

Non- disjunction may involve either autosomes or sex chromosomes.

It may take place in either the first or the second division in meiosis.

It can result in gametes with one more (n+1) or one less (n-1) chromosomes than normal.

When a zygote has an extra chromosome, the condition is called trisomy.

When a zygote is missing a chromosome, the condition is called monosomy.

23 + X 21+X

22 +X

22+ Y

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Down's Syndrome: The homologous chromosome pairs in humans are numbered 1 through
22. Sometimes an extra chromosome occurs on the 21st pair because of nondisjunction
(Mongolism= Trisomy- 21).

Persons with this genetic disorder

have several traits in common:
short in height;
round, full faced;
enlarged tongue;
and noticeable eye folds; mentally
retarded.

The risk of having a child with this

disorder increases with the age of
the mother.

Non- disjunction may also occur in sex chromosomes.

22 + XX 22+0

22 +X

Super female Turner female

22+ Y

Klinefelter male

• XYY condition: results from the non-disjunction of Y-chromosomes during second

meiotic division. These are tall and aggressive males. Show below average mental
ability. Some have named this condition as "super males".

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Super Females: Some shows normal phenotype and fertile but many of them are mentally
retarded and sterile.

Turner's Syndrome: Usually sterile; have short stature; mentally retarded.

Klinefelter's Syndrome: Quite tall; always sterile; show feminine contours; mentally retarded.
Klinefelter's Syndrome is also associated with males having more than one additional sex
chromosome (XXXY; XXXXY; XXXXXY).

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REFERENCES:

1. Reece, Jane, et al. Campbell Biology, Concepts & Connections. 8th ed., Pearson, 2012.

2. Miller,Levine et al. Biology All- In- One Study Guide, Prentice Hall, 2010

3. Bostancı Burcu, 10.Sınıf Biyoloji Ders Anlatım Rehberi, Test Okul,2019

4. Ahmet BAGATIR, Berrin Berat YÜCELER, Necati ATALAY, Hülya TOKGÖZ, Uğur Gürel
YILMAZ, 10.Sınıf Biyoloji Ders Kitabı, MEB Yayınları,2019

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